Space Technology Joseph A. Angelo, Jr. GREENWOOD PRESS SPACE TECHNOLOGY Sourcebooks in Modern Technology Space Technology Joseph A. Angelo, Jr. GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Connecticut • London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Angelo, Joseph A. Space technology / Joseph A. Angelo, Jr. p. cm.—(Sourcebooks in modern technology) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1–57356–335–8 (alk. paper) 1. Astronautics. 2. Space sciences. 3. Outer space—Exploration. I. Title. II. Series. TL790.A54 2003 629.4—dc21 2002075310 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2003 by Joseph A. Angelo, Jr. All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2002075310 ISBN: 1–57356–335–8 First published in 2003 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48–1984). 10987654321 To my beloved daughter, Jennifer April Angelo (1975–1993), whose unfortunately brief, but very special, presence here on Earth continues to inspire me that a higher destiny awaits us all among the stars. Contents Preface ix Chapter 1. History of Space Technology and Exploration 1 Chapter 2. Chronology of Space Technology and Exploration 35 Chapter 3. Profiles of Space Technology Pioneers, Visionaries, and Advocates 55 Chapter 4. How Space Technology Works 93 Chapter 5. Impact 185 Chapter 6. Issues 227 Chapter 7. The Future of Space Technology 267 Chapter 8. Glossary of Terms Used in Space Technology 295 Chapter 9. Associations 339 Chapter 10. Demonstration Sites 353 Chapter 11. Sources of Information 369 Index 379 Preface The arrival of space technology in the middle of the twentieth century changed the course of human history. Modern military rockets with their nuclear warheads redefined the nature of strategic warfare. Because there would be no victors under a strategy of mutual assured destruction, the avoidance of global nuclear war became the prime national security ob- jective for both the United States and the former Soviet Union during the Cold War. However, stimulated by the politics of that same period, pow- erful space launch vehicles, initially derived from military rockets, allowed us to escape from the relentless pull of our home planet’s gravity—an un- compromising, embracing force within which all previous human history occurred. Through space technology, smart robot exploring machines vis- ited all the major planets in our solar system (except tiny, frigid Pluto), making these distant celestial objects almost as familiar as the surface of our own Moon. Then, as part of history’s greatest exploration adventure, space technology enabled human beings to walk for the first time on an- other world. For many, the Apollo lunar landing missions conducted be- tween 1969 and 1972 by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) represent humanity’s most magnificent techni- cal accomplishment. Through space technology, orbiting instruments and human eyes began to observe the universe directly, rising above the blurring influence of Earth’s protective atmosphere and discovering its long-hidden immensity, variety, beauty, and dramatically violent processes. Today, the almost daily x PREFACE discoveries made by sophisticated orbiting astronomical observatories re- mind us that the universe is not only a strange place, but a much stranger place than anyone dares to imagine. Such sometimes startling, but always exciting, fresh insights about the physical universe also challenge us to re- visit age-old philosophical questions about our cosmic origins and our ul- timate destiny among the stars. Closer to home, space technology helped fan the flames of the infor- mation revolution, especially through the arrival of the communications satellite and its important contribution in the creation of a global elec- tronic village. The magnificent long-distance views of Earth captured from space during NASA’s Apollo Project inspired millions of people to a heightened level of environmental awareness. Weather satellites trans- formed the practice of meteorological forecasting and severe-weather warn- ing. Today, an armada of sophisticated Earth-observing satellites provides scientists, strategic planners, and government decision makers with a unique opportunity to study our home planet as an integrated, complex, dynamic system. Space technology is directly responsible for the rise of an exciting new multidisciplinary field called earth system science. Unob- structed by physical or political boundaries, the current family of modern Earth-observing spacecraft is creating a transparent globe. People from all around the world can now access information-rich, high-resolution satel- lite data in their efforts to achieve environmental security and to plan for responsible, sustainable development. Space technology uniquely provides those very special scientific tools and research opportunities needed to discover whether life (including pos- sibly intelligent life) exists elsewhere beyond Earth and is perhaps even a common phase of cosmic evolution. Over billions of years, matter and en- ergy progressed through a long series of alterations following the ancient big-bang explosion allowing galaxies, stars, and planets to slowly emerge. Encouraged by space-exploration discoveries, we boldly ask: “Is Earth the only place where conscious intelligence emerged in this vast universe?” The German space visionary Hermann Oberth (1894–1989) provided us with a glimpse of the true long-range significance of space technology when he gave the following reason for pursuing space travel: “To make available for life every place where life is possible. To make inhabitable all worlds as yet uninhabitable, and all life purposeful.” Within this perspective, space technology offers human beings the universe as both a destination and a destiny. This book is part of a special series of comprehensive reference volumes that deal with the scientific principles, technical applications, and socie- tal impacts of modern technologies. The present volume serves as your ini- PREFACE xi tial, one-stop guide to the very exciting field of space technology. The con- tents are carefully chosen to meet the information needs of high-school students, lower-level college students, and members of the general public who want to understand the nature of space technology, the basic scien- tific principles upon which it is based, how space technology has influ- enced history, and how it is now impacting society. This book serves as both a comprehensive, stand-alone introduction to space technology and an excellent starting point and companion for more detailed personal in- vestigations. Specialized technical books and highly focused electronic (In- ternet) resources often fail to place an important scientific event, technical discovery, or applications breakthrough within its societal significance. This volume overcomes such serious omissions and makes it easy for you to understand and appreciate the significance and societal consequences of major space-technology developments and the historic circumstances that brought them about. As a well-indexed, comprehensive information resource designed for independent scholarship, this book will also make your electronic (Internet) searches for additional information more mean- ingful and efficient. I wish to thank the public information specialists at NASA Headquar- ters, the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), the NASA John- son Space Center (JSC), the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), U.S. Space Command Headquarters, U.S. Air Force Headquarters, and the Washington, D.C., Regional Office of the European Space Agency (ESA) who generously provided much of the special material used in developing this volume. The high-quality support of the staff at the Evans Library of Florida Tech is also most gratefully acknowledged, as well as the patient and sustained encouragement from my editors within the Greenwood Pub- lishing Group, who envisioned this series and its important role in relat- ing science, technology, and society. Finally, without the unwavering support of my wife, Joan, the contents of this book would still be scattered around our home in myriad chaotic clumps. Chapter 1 History of Space Technology and Exploration THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY On July 20, 1969, an American astronaut, Neil Armstrong, became the first human being to walk on another world. He (and eventually eleven other American astronauts) accomplished this amazing feat while participating in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA’s) Apollo Project. As Armstrong descended from the last step of the lunar excursion module’s ladder and made contact with the Moon’s surface, he spoke these famous words: “That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.” Minutes later, astronaut Edwin (Buzz) Aldrin joined Armstrong on the lunar surface. While they explored the Moon and collected rock and soil specimens, their companion (astronaut Michael Collins) orbited overhead in the Apollo command module. Back home on Earth, more than 500 mil- lion people around the world watched this event through live television broadcasts. Many people now regard