5

Analytical Contents

0. Preface ...... 9

1. History of recognition of the Altaic languages ...... 15 1.1. History of descriptive and comparative research of the Turkic languages . . . . .15 1.1.1. Beginning of description of the Turkic languages ...... 15 1.1.2. The beginning of Turkic comparative studies ...... 21 1.1.3. Old Turkic language and script – discovery and development of research . . .22 1.1.4. Turkic etymological dictionaries ...... 23 1.1.5. Turkic comparative grammars ...... 24 1.1.6. Syntheses of grammatical descriptions of the Turkic languages ...... 25 1.2. History of descriptive and comparative research of the Mongolic languages ...... 28 1.2.0. Bibliographic survey of Mongolic linguistics ...... 28 1.2.1. Beginning of description of the Mongolic languages ...... 28 1.2.2. Standard Mongolic grammars and dictionaries ...... 31 1.2.3. Mongolic comparative and etymological dictionaries ...... 32 1.2.4. Mongolic comparative grammars and grammatical syntheses ...... 32 1.3. History of descriptive and comparative research of the Tungusic languages . . . .33 1.3.0. Bibliographic survey of the Tungusic linguistics ...... 33 1.3.1. Beginning of description of the Tungusic languages ...... 34 1.3.2. Standard descriptions of the Tungusic languages...... 35 1.3.3. Tungusic comparative grammars and dictionaries...... 35 1.4. History of descriptive and comparative research of the Korean language . . . . . 35 1.4.1. First descriptions of Korean lexicon and grammar ...... 35 1.4.2. Korean-Japanese comparisons ...... 36 1.4.3. Korean within Altaic ...... 36 1.5. History of descriptive and comparative research of the Japonic languages . . . . .37 1.5.1. First Japanese lexicons ...... 37 1.5.2. Early European and American lexicons and grammars of Japanese . . . . . 38 1.5.3. Description of Ryukyuan ...... 38 1.5.4. Historical phonology and internal reconstruction of Japanese ...... 39 1.5.5. Relic Japonic traces in the Korean Peninsula ...... 39 1.5.6. Japanese-Korean comparisons ...... 39 1.5.7. Japanese within Altaic ...... 40 1.6. Formulation of the Altaic hypothesis ...... 41 1.6.0. Bibliographic survey of Altaic linguistics ...... 41 1.6.1. Early period – 17–19th century ...... 41 6

1.6.2. First classic generations – optimists ...... 43 1.6.3. First classic generation – skeptics ...... 46 1.6.4. Second optimistic generation ...... 48 1.6.5. Second skeptic generation ...... 48 1.6.6. First realistic generation ...... 51 1.6.7. Second realistic generation ...... 52 1.6.8. Third generation – realistic optimists ...... 53

2. Distribution and demography of the living languages ...... 55 2.1. Turkic languages – survey ...... 55 2.2. Mongolic languages – survey ...... 68 2.3. Tungusic languages – survey ...... 72 2.4. Korean language – survey ...... 77 2.5. Japonic languages – survey ...... 78

3. Models of classification of the Altaic languages ...... 80 3.1. Classification of the Turkic languages ...... 80 3.2. Classification of the Mongolic languages ...... 91 3.3. Classifications of the Tungusic languages ...... 106 3.4./5. Koreanic & Japonic classification ...... 117 3.6. Altaic classification ...... 120

4. Etymological analyses of the main ethnonyms or choronyms ...... 124 4.1. Ethnonym Türk ...... 124 4.1.1. Primary sources ...... 124 4.1.2. Etymology ...... 133 4.2. Ethnonym Mongol ...... 139 4.2.1. Primary sources ...... 139 4.2.2. Etymology ...... 142 4.3. Ethnonym Tungus ...... 146 4.3.1. Early attestation ...... 146 4.3.2. Etymology ...... 146 4.4.1. Choronym Korea ...... 148 4.4.2. Choronym Joseon ...... 149 4.5.1. Choronym Japan ...... 151 4.5.2. Ethnonym Wo ...... 152

5. Sketch of the comparative phonetics of the Altaic family ...... 156 5.1. Survey of the Turkic comparative phonetics ...... 156 7

5.2. Survey of the Mongolic comparative phonetics ...... 161 5.3. Survey of the Tungusic comparative phonetics ...... 165 5.3.1. Correspondences among consonants in the Tungusic languages ...... 165 5.3.2. Corespondences among the consonant clusters in the Tungusic languages . .167 5.3.3. Correspondences among vowels in the Tungusic languages ...... 168 5.4. Comparison between the Altaic branches ...... 169 5.4.1. System of Gombocz, Ramstedt and Poppe ...... 169 5.4.2. System of Illič-Svityč and Cincius ...... 171 5.4.3. System of Starostin and his followers ...... 173 5.4.4. System of Robbeets ...... 180

6. Nominal case system in the Altaic languages ...... 182 6.1. Nominal case system in the Turkic languages ...... 182 6.1.1. Nominal case system in the Bulgar-Čuvaš languages ...... 182 6.1.2. Nominal case system in the Oghuz languages ...... 182 6.1.3. Nominal case system in the Kypčak languages ...... 183 6.1.4. Nominal case system in the Karluk languages ...... 183 6.1.5. Nominal case system in the South Siberian Turkic languages ...... 184 6.1.6. Nominal case system in the North Siberian Turkic languages ...... 184 6.1.7. Nominal case system of the reconstructed Turkic protolanguage . . . . . 185 6.2. Nominal case system in the Mongolic languages ...... 185 6.3. Nominal case system in the Tungusic languages ...... 187 6.4. Nominal case system in Late Middle Korean ...... 187 6.5. Nominal case system of Old Japanese ...... 188 6.6. Altaic protolanguage system of nominal cases ...... 188

7. Altaic pronominal system ...... 189 7.1. Personal pronouns in the Altaic languages ...... 189 7.1.1. Personal pronouns of the Turkic languages ...... 189 7.1.2. Personal pronouns of the Mongolic languages ...... 197 7.1.3. Personal pronouns of the Tungusic languages ...... 200 7.1.4. Personal pronouns in Korean ...... 203 7.1.5. Personal pronouns in Old Japanese and Ryukyu dialects (without the number distinction) ...... 204 7.1.6. Altaic protolanguage system of personal pronouns ...... 205 7.1.7. Survey of partial microsystems of the Indo-European personal pronouns . . 207 7.2. Probably inherited Altaic demonstrative pronouns ...... 209 7.3. Altaic interrogative pronouns ...... 210 8

8. Altaic Numerals in etymological perspective ...... 215 8.0. Methodological approach ...... 215 8.1. Turkic Numerals ...... 216 8.1.1. Survey of forms of the Turkic numerals ...... 216 8.1.2. Sources of the Turkic numerals ...... 220 8.1.3. Comparative-etymological analysis of the Turkic numerals ...... 220 8.2. Mongolic numerals ...... 232 8.2.1. Survey of forms of the Mongolic numerals ...... 232 8.2.2. Sources of the Mongolic numerals ...... 233 8.2.3. Comparative-etymological analysis of the Mongolic numerals ...... 234 8.2.4. Comments on the Mongolic numerals ...... 244 8.3. Tungusic numerals ...... 245 8.3.1. Survey of forms of the Tungusic numerals ...... 245 8.3.2. Sources of the Tungusic numerals ...... 247 8.3.3. Comparative-etymological analysis of the Tungusic numerals ...... 248 8.3.4. Comments on the Tungusic numerals ...... 257 8.4. Koreanic numerals ...... 259 8.4.1. Survey of forms of the Koreanic numerals ...... 259 8.4.2. Sources of the Koreanic numerals ...... 260 8.4.3. Comparative-etymological analysis of the Koreanic numerals ...... 260 8.4.4. Comments on the Koreanic numerals ...... 269 8.5. Japonic numerals ...... 270 8.5.1. Survey of forms of the Japonic numerals ...... 270 8.5.2. Sources of the Japonic numerals ...... 271 8.5.3. Comparative-etymological analysis of the Japonic numerals ...... 271 8.6. Cardinal numerals in the Altaic daughter protolanguages and their probable cognates ...... 279 8.6.1. Cardinal numerals “1” – “10” and “100” ...... 279 8.6.2. Decads in five Altaic branches ...... 281 8.7. Systems of cardinal numerals in ‘Palaeo-Siberian’ languages ...... 282 8.8. Conclusion on the Altaic numerals ...... 283 8.8.1. Survey of Cushitic numerals ...... 284

9. Abbreviations and Used symbols ...... 286

10. Bibliography ...... 287