Assistant Vice President For Academic Affairs Message from Nancy M. Giardina Nancy M. Giardina, Ed.D. Assistant Vice President For Academic Affairs Director Arnie Smith-Alexander Associate Director e are proud to present the ninth volume of the Grand Valley State University Dolli Lutes WMcNair Scholars Journal. It is the culmination of intensive research conducted by our student scholars and their faculty mentors through our Ronald Project Manager E. McNair Post-baccalaureate Achievement Program. Dolli Lutes Editor The Ronald E. McNair Scholars Program, now in its 11th year here at Grand Valley Nancy J. Crittenden State University, provides an opportunity for students and faculty to apply much Cover Design of what is learned within the classroom by engaging, outside the classroom, in Grand Valley State University Communications research activities in a particular area of scholarly interest. These research activities provide a journey through the challenges and affirmations of scholarly work and Journal Printing better prepare students for graduate study and the pursuit of a doctoral degree. Grandville Printing Photography Thank you to the faculty mentors who have worked so closely with our McNair John Corriveau/cover Scholars to propel their research skills towards the next level of educational Bernadine Carey-Tucker challenges. Graphic Design and Production Cindy Hoekstra Congratulations to the fifteen McNair Scholars whose research is presented here. Your journey and the challenges you have met during this scholarly activity speak Grand Valley State University to your talents and persistence in pursuing both your educational and life goals. Faculty Mentors and Research Editors Thank you for sharing your talents with the university community and continuing Corey Anton, Ph.D. the spirit of this program. Associate Professor of Communications Gwenden Dueker, Ph.D. Finally, thank you to all the people behind the scenes that work to sustain this Assistant Professor of Psychology program and produce this journal. Your work is valued as well. James Houston, Ph.D. Professor of Criminal Justice George Lundskow, Ph.D. Nancy M. Giardina, Ed.D. Associate Professor of Sociology Dennis Malaret, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Sociology Toni Perrine, Ph.D. Professor of Communications Assistant Vice President of Academic Affairs Andrea Rotzien, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Psychology Stephanie Schaertel, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Chemistry James Smither, Ph.D. Professor of History Eric Snyder, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Biology Anton Tolman, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Psychology Tony Travis, Ph.D. Professor of History Steve Tripp, Ph.D. Professor of History Judy Whipps, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Philosophy Laurie Witucki, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Chemistry Before You Can Make A Dream Come True, You Must First Have One. —Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D.

onald Erwin McNair was born October 21, 1950, in Lake City, South Carolina, R to Carl and Pearl McNair. He attended North Carolina A&T State University where he graduated Magna Cum Laude with a B.S. degree in physics in 1971. McNair then enrolled in the prestigious Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1976, at the age of 26, he earned his Ph.D. in physics. McNair soon became a recognized expert in laser physics while working as a staff physicist with Hughes Research Laboratory. He was selected by NASA for the space shuttle program in 1978 and was a mission specialist aboard the 1984 flight of the USS Challenger space shuttle. After his death in the USS Challenger space shuttle accident in January 1986, members of Congress provided funding for the Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement Program. The goal is to encourage low-income, first generation students, as well as students who are traditionally under-represented in graduate schools, to expand their opportunities by pursuing graduate studies.

Ronald E. McNair Post-baccalaureate Achievement Program

The Purpose Program Services Funding The McNair Scholars Program is The McNair Scholars are matched with The Ronald E. McNair Post- designed to prepare highly talented faculty research mentors. They receive baccalaureate Achievement Program is undergraduates to pursue doctoral academic counseling, mentoring, a TRiO Program funded through the degrees and to increase the number of advising, and GRE preparation. In United States Department of Education individuals (from the target groups) on addition to the above services, the and Grand Valley State University. college and university faculties. McNair Scholars have opportunities to attend research seminars, conduct Who are McNair Scholars? research, and present their finding orally The McNair Scholars are highly or written via poster presentations. In talented undergraduate students who the first semester of their senior year, are from families with no previous the scholars receive assistance with the college graduate, low-income graduate school application process. background or groups under- represented at the graduate level for doctoral studies. The program accepts students from all disciplines.

2 Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. Table of Contents

Lyndsey Adams When psychopaths go to college: Psychopathic traits and college adjustment ...... 5 Faculty Mentor: Anton Tolman, Ph.D.

Henry Averhart Misuse of myth: Conscious adherence or authoritative control mechanism ...... 13 Faculty Mentor: Corey Anton, Ph.D.

Kelli Brockschmidt The New Guinea Campaign: A New Perspective Through the Use of Oral Histories ...... 25 Faculty Mentor: James Smither, Ph.D.

Shanel M. Bryant Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and ethnicity: A literature review ...... 35 Faculty Mentor: Andrea L. Rotzien, Ph.D.

Jessica Cruz Second language acquisition programs: An assessment of the bilingual education debate ...... 45 Faculty Mentor: Dennis Malaret, Ph.D.

Jerry Fluellen Infrared Laser-based Method for Measuring Isotope Ratios ...... 53 Faculty Mentor: Stephanie Schaertel, Ph.D.

Jennifer Goven From the Delta to Chicago: Muddy Waters’ Downhome Blues and the Shaping of African-American Urban Identity in Post World War II Chicago ...... 63 Faculty Mentor: Anthony Travis, Ph.D.

Jonathan Howard Between Religion and Honor: Charles Colcock Jones and a Discussion of Antebellum Southern Values ...... 71 Faculty Mentor: Steve Tripp, Ph.D. 2005 McNair Scholars

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 3 Table of Contents

Rachael Jacques Resistance to U.S. economic hegemony in Latin America: Hugo Chávez and Venezuela ...... 81 Faculty Mentor: George Lundskow, Ph.D.

Derrick Kroodsma Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis: Analysis and Identification of Protein Kinase Substrates ...... 93 Faculty Mentor: Laurie A. Witucki, Ph.D.

Jacquelin Robinson The relationship between parole and recidivism in the criminal justice system ...... 103 Faculty Mentor: James Houston, Ph.D.

Andria Salas Diel summer movement patterns of fish in Sickle Creek, Manistee County, Michigan ...... 109 Faculty Mentor: Eric Snyder, Ph.D.

Sally Sayles Education for Democracy: Discovering Civic Engagement ...... 121 Faculty Mentor: Judy Whipps, Ph.D.

Katherine L. Schwartzkopf The effects of infant age on parental vocalizations about object categories in a play-type setting ...... 133 Faculty Mentor: Gwenden Dueker, Ph.D.

Kerri VanderHoff Fast Times at Ridgemont High and Porky’s: Gender perspective in the teen comedy ...... 145 Faculty Mentor: Toni Perrine, Ph.D.

About the TRiO Programs ...... 154 2005 McNair Scholars

4 Table of Contents VOLUME 9, 2005 When psychopaths go to college: Psychopathic traits and college adjustment

Abstract A significant body of literature exists Estimated as less than 1% of the general regarding the antisocial behavior of population, psychopaths are responsible criminal offenders. This research has for significant amounts of violence. clearly demonstrated a connection However, few studies have explored between the personality construct of psychopathic personality characteristics psychopathy and antisocial behavior and in non-incarcerated populations, aggression (e.g. Hare, 2003). However, or “hidden” psychopaths. Using the relatively little research has explored the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI), interpersonal and affective characteristics this study evaluated correlations between of psychopathic personality in non- psychopathic traits and indicators of incarcerated populations. Hare notes college maladjustment. We hypothesize that psychopathy is not synonymous that “hidden” college psychopaths are with criminality and that many more interpersonally maladjusted than psychopaths may avoid detection by peers, equally successful intellectually, the criminal justice system, becoming and less impulsive than their incarcerated unethical professionals, corrupt public counterparts. Understanding the differences officials, and persons engaging in and similarities between incarcerated and “shady” business dealings. Hare also hidden psychopaths may lead to improved notes that systematic research on non- Lyndsey L. Adams recognition and possibly early intervention criminal psychopathic populations McNair Scholar with these social predators. is needed. Likewise, Babiak (1995) believes that the tendency toward unethical behavior is not very different between criminal psychopaths and “sub-criminal” or non-adjudicated psychopaths. In his case study, it was noted that a “hidden” psychopath expresses more of the inherent personality characteristics associated with psychopathy and expresses less of the antisocial behavior and deviant lifestyle characteristics. Cleckley (1976) referred to these individuals as “white collar” psychopaths and stated that he believed these individuals were able to better maintain an outward appearance of normality than their criminal counterparts. Thus, it is not unreasonable to postulate the existence of “hidden” psychopaths at college; in fact, the college environment is also known to harbor some individuals who commit crimes, including sexual assault (Abbey & McAuslan, 2004). We prefer the term Anton Tolman, Ph.D. “hidden” psychopaths because of its Faculty Mentor broader applicability to the earlier term “white collar” psychopath, which refers primarily to work settings. Preliminary research has suggested that some

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 5 subtypes of psychopaths may actually the Factor 1 Interpersonal/Affective to by these persons, and evaluate appear to be successful in some settings characteristics of psychopathy and less the factor structure of the PPI as a and contexts (e.g. Babiak, 1995; Hare, strongly to Factor 2 Social Deviance, validation attempt for this instrument. 1993). Unfortunately, identifying such making it more useful with non- In so doing, we hope to advance the “hidden” psychopaths may be difficult correctional participants (Edens, state of knowledge of these “hidden” to do. Poythress, & Watkins, 2001; Benning, psychopaths and their impact on society. The most widely used, scientifically Patrick, Hicks, Blonigen, & Krueger, validated measure of psychopathy 2003). With further validation, this Method has been the Hare Psychopathy scale might improve our ability Participants Checklist – Revised ([PCL-R]; Hare, to understand the similarities and Participants were 136 females 2003). Hare contends that factor differences between the personalities of and 131 males recruited from the analyses of this scale suggest that the “hidden” psychopaths and their more Department of Psychology Human construct is “underpinned” by two overt cousins, improve our ability to Subjects Pool at Grand Valley State correlated factors: Factor 1 measuring assess characteristics of psychopathy in University. Participants voluntarily Interpersonal/Affective characteristics non-criminal populations, and possibly earned enrichment credits that were (e.g. glibness, pathological lying, lack of provide targets for intervention that help considered part of their Introductory remorse, lack of empathy) and Factor some of these “hidden” psychopaths to Psychology courses. Students were 2 measuring Social Deviance (e.g. live lives that are less harmful to society free to choose an alternative activity need for stimulation, irresponsibility, and more productive. and were not required to participate to poor behavioral controls, juvenile This study will examine whether earn the enrichment credits. There was delinquency). The drawbacks of using psychopathic personality elements (as no significant difference in mean age this measure in studies with a college measured by the PPI) are related to between males and females, with the population include the high degree adjustment to college. Hare (1993) has mean age of the participants being 19 of professional training required to proposed that one major difference years old. There were two participants use the instrument, its use of multiple between “white collar” or “hidden” who deviated considerably from this items related to an explicit criminal/ psychopaths and those who become sample norm (ages 32 and 47), but their legal history, its validation primarily embroiled in the justice system data did not significantly differ from with incarcerated samples, and its relates to the types of social norms that of the other participants. The class requirements for an extensive interview these offenders violate: the difference construction of the sample included and a review of institutional files. A between ethical standards and laws. 69.9% second semester freshman, screening version was developed for It seems reasonable to assume that if 17.9% sophomores, 9% juniors, and use outside of forensic settings ([PCL- “hidden” psychopaths, in fact, represent 3.2% seniors. SV]; Hart, Cox, & Hare, 1995), but it a proportion of college undergraduates, was found that the behavioral traits had they may be involved in ethical Instruments to be strong before the interpersonal violations and negative interpersonal The Psychopathic Personality Inventory and affective traits become evident behaviors that may not rise to the level ([PPI]; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996) is (Cooke, Michie, Hart, & Hare, 1999), of violence or aggression represented a 187-item instrument labeled “A and it likewise requires a significant by breaking the law, but may be Personality Styles Inventory.” investment in time for an interview measurable as “college maladjustment.” Participants respond to Likert-scale and review of records. Because of these In order to test this hypothesis, descriptive items in accordance with difficulties, several attempts have been college undergraduates were asked to how much the statement applies to made to develop self-report instruments complete both the PPI and the Student them. A score of 1 indicates the to assess psychopathy. Adaptation to College Questionnaire statement is false and a score of 4 One such instrument that (Baker & Siryk, 1984). Because the indicates the statement is true. was recently tested using college PPI is a relatively new instrument, Approximately half of the items are undergraduate students is the this study aims to accomplish several reverse scored. Higher total and Psychopathic Personality Inventory ([PPI]; objectives: estimate the percentage of subscale scores represent a higher Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996). This our sample who may represent “hidden” tendency to manifest overall personality styles inventory has been psychopaths, describe the types and psychopathy or that particular shown to correlate moderately with nature of maladjustment admitted psychopathic trait. The PPI contains

6 Psychopathic Traits And College Adjustment eight subscales that measure different Procedure were no significant differences between facets of the psychopathic personality: Students completed an Informed the genders with regard to year in Machiavellian Egocentricity, Social Consent Form prior to participation school or age. Potency, Fearlessness, Coldheartedness, in the study. The form described Independent T-Tests evaluated Impulsive Nonconformity, Carefree the study as seeking to understand gender differences on PPI subscales. Nonplanfulness, Alienation (also the relationship between aspects of The primary difference concerned known as Blame Externalization), and personality and adjustment in college. fearlessness, with male fearlessness Stress Immunity. In a study by The confidential nature of the study scores (M=49) being significantly higher Poythress, Edens, and Lilienfeld was emphasized. than females (M=45; t=2.536, p<.05). (1998), using a prison inmate To ensure anonymity, participants Also found was a trend involving population, the PPI was found to constructed their own unique research impulsive nonconformity (t= 1.458, correlate moderately high with the identification numbers using an p<.08) with male scores slightly higher PCL-R total score (r = .62). They also algorithm devised by the researchers. (M=36) than females (M=34). There found the PPI to correlate significantly The purpose of the algorithm was to were no further significant differences with scores on both factor 1 (r = .61) ensure the ability to link the participant’s with any of the other six subscales. and factor 2 (r = .48). In another study PPI scores with his or her SACQ scores. An independent T-Test demonstrated conducted by Benning et al. (2003) This algorithm was sufficiently complex no significant differences between males using a non-incarcerated population, that upon review, no two subjects and females concerning overall SACQ factor analysis revealed a central two- produced identical numbers. scores. However, significant gender factor structure of the PPI similar to that Once the informed consent and differences were found on several of the PCL-R. When using an oblique research identification number forms subscales. First, males (M=135) reported rotation, the researchers found the two were complete, students were given the being less adjusted than females factors to be independent of one another, SACQ, immediately followed by the (M=141) with regard to academic signifying that they each measure a “personality styles inventory,” or the adjustment (t=-2.138, p<.05). Second, unique aspect of psychopathy. PPI. Students responded directly on significant differences between the The Student Adaptation to College the SACQ form and utilized a Scantron genders were also found concerning Questionnaire (SACQ; Baker and Siryk, sheet for the PPI. Upon completion of attachment to the institution (t=-2.122, 1999) is a 67-item college adjustment the surveys, students were provided p<.05), with males being less attached scale, in which respondents evaluate with a Debriefing Form that explained (M=109) than females (M=115). Finally, statements on a 9-point rating scale the purpose of the study in more detail. there were significant differences indicating how well he or she is dealing After reading the Debriefing Form, between the genders in relation to with the aspect in question. A rating of students were informed that if they were emotional adjustment (t=2.301, p<.05) 1 indicates the statement applies very concerned or wished to know their where it was found that males in this closely to the subject, and a rating of 9 score on either scale, they would be sample were better emotionally adjusted indicates the statement does not apply able to contact the researchers for their to college life (M=87) than females at all. The higher the subscale and total specific information and for assistance. (M=81). There were no significant score the better the student’s adjustment differences detected between the genders to college. The SACQ contains four Results on social adjustment to college. subscales: Academic Adjustment, Gender Differences Social Adjustment, Personal-Emotional Because the PPI is a relatively new Intensity of Psychopathic Traits Adjustment, and Attachment. Reliability instrument, an exploratory approach A two-step cluster analysis was used studies of the SACQ were carried was taken to data analysis. A possible to determine if the sample fell into out by the Baker and Siryk over gender difference was found in overall natural groupings according to PPI total several years, with coefficient alphas PPI scores with males scoring higher scores. The cluster analysis confirmed consistently ranging from .81 to .95. overall in self-reported psychopathic that both males and females naturally Initial validation studies were conducted traits (M=364) than females (M=356; fell into groups of high, medium, at 21 different colleges demonstrating t=1.541, p<.08). In order to explore and low levels of psychopathy, with high intercorrelation data for all four possible gender-based differences in approximately 68% of the sample falling subscales, with internal consistency phenotypic expression of these traits, into the medium group, 16% in the coefficients ranging from .64 to .91. the sample was split by gender. There high group, and 16% in the low group.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 7 This cluster analysis was consistent with Correlational Analyses and psychopathy. Overall college the normal distribution patterns of both Finally, correlations were run between adjustment was negatively correlated male and female samples, with high and the overall and subscale scores of both with impulsive nonconformity and was low groups falling approximately one surveys to explore bivariate relationships positively correlated with fearlessness standard deviation from the mean PPI between psychopathic personality traits and coldheartedness. Academic total score. There were no significant and college adjustment. Tables 1 and 2 adjustment was positively correlated differences between male and female present these results. It should be noted with coldheartedness, stress immunity, distributions on the PPI total score. that these correlations are consistently and fearlessness. Social adjustment was Hypothesizing that notable differences low to moderate in strength. only found to correlate with fearlessness. in college adjustment would be most Females. There were relatively few Emotional adjustment was negatively visible at the extremes of reported significant relationships between female correlated with Machiavellian egocentricity, psychopathic traits, gender segregated t- PPI scores and college adjustment. The alienation, impulsive nonconformity, tests were used to compare groups based only exceptions were Machiavellian and carefree nonplanfulness, and was on high (Males>406, Females>396) egocentricity and impulsive positively correlated with fearlessness and and low (Males<240, Females<249) nonconformity. Machiavellian egocentricity coldheartedness. Finally, attachment to the scores on the PPI. The only trend noted was negatively correlated with academic institution was only found to negatively was found within the males’ emotional adjustment in females, while impulsive correlate with impulsive nonconformity. adjustment, with males scoring in the nonconformity was correlated negatively low range on the PPI being significantly with emotional adjustment. better adjusted emotionally according to Males. The correlations between the SACQ (M=93.85) than males scoring the measures found among the male in the high range (M=81.71; t=1.749, participants demonstrated multiple p=.088 (2-tailed)) relationships between college adjustment

Table 1. Female Correlates of Psychopathy and College Maladjustment

PPI Scales SACQ Total Academic Social Emotional Attachment

Total -.04 -.06 .02 -.07 .01

Machiavellian -.05 -.12† .03 -.05 .01

Social Potency -.06 -.10 .01 -.07 -.04

Fearlessness .01 .07 .00 -.01 .07

Coldheartedness .02 .04 .00 .04 -.02

Impulsivity -.08 -.08 -.01 -.17* .03

Alienation -.01 -.01 .00 -.08 .07

Carefree .00 -.08 .09 -.05 .09

Stress Immunity .03 .06 -.06 .10 -.04

* p<.05 † p<.10 (trend)

8 Psychopathic Traits And College Adjustment Table 2. Male Correlates of Psychopathy and College Maladjustment

PPI Scales SACQ Total Academic Social Emotional Attachment

Total .04 .10 .10 -.08 -.01

Machiavellian .00 .06 .06 -.13 -.03

Social Potency .01 .03 .07 -.05 .02

Fearlessness .21** .17* .26** .14 .12

Coldheartedness .15* .19* .05 .15* .06

Impulsivity -.13† -.03 -.07 -.20** -.16*

Alienation -.10 -.07 -.04 -.17* -.10

Carefree .00 .04 .08 -.12† .01

Stress Immunity .09 .15* .02 .10 .03

* p<.05, **p<.01 † p<.10 (trend)

Discussion also suggested that males self-report restrain oneself is an important part of In this exploratory study, we higher intensity of psychopathic traits adapting to college life. hypothesized that “hidden psychopaths” than do females; this finding is not For females, there were relatively few might be attending college and that they surprising because it seems to fit with linkages between reported psychopathic would most likely be less impulsive than reported rates of incarceration of male traits and aspects of college adjustment. their criminal counterparts (although versus female criminal psychopaths. In particular, it is intriguing that in more impulsive than nonpsychopaths) Other gender differences suggest that female college students, Machiavellian and less socially adaptable than their primarily males report higher degrees of egocentricity and impulsive non-psychopathic college peers. fearlessness and slightly higher degrees nonconformity were the only variables Without a criminal population to make of impulsive behaviors. However, since negatively related to aspects of college a direct comparison to, it is difficult the PPI is a self-report instrument some adjustment. These findings support a to state whether or not this particular caution is warranted in interpreting growing body of research (Grann, 2000; sample is necessarily less impulsive than these results too strongly. It is unclear Vitale & Newman, 2001) that suggests an incarcerated sample. whether these noted gender differences that females high in psychopathy may Using the PPI as an exploratory reflect actual gender differences in the express those traits in a manner that measure of self-reported psychopathic expression of subclinical psychopathic is distinct in many ways from males, traits, we found that approximately traits or if they reflect, for example, although available data is again based 16% of both male and female students social stereotypes about young males primarily on incarcerated populations. reported psychopathic traits to an and their expected behavior at college. Another important implication extent greater than 84% of the college In addition, these results suggest that found within this research is the population. Although we did not males are less well adjusted than females consistent correlation of fearlessness evaluate to what degree the students overall to college, and in particular, have and coldheartedness in males with in this study might have engaged in less affiliation with their institution. overall college adjustment, academic “psychopathic-like” behaviors, this However, males reported being better adjustment, social adjustment, and group scoring high on the PPI would emotionally adjusted to college, a emotional adjustment. Besides the be a suitable group for further study; finding that may be related to a sense relationship between stress immunity we would suggest that such study focus of increased fearlessness. The negative and academic adjustment, no other on relevant areas such as cheating on correlations between self-reported measures of psychopathy positively exams, taking advantage of others, impulsive behavior for both males relate to the adjustment to college life. and ethical reasoning. The PPI results and females suggest that the ability to These results in males suggest that a

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 9 possible combination of high levels of college, such as fearlessness and stress of behavior consistent with these fearlessness and coldheartedness with immunity, are those that relate to the “hidden” psychopaths. Other samples low levels of impulsive behavior may be interpersonal and affective characteristics of the population also need to be taken the necessary cocktail to a psychopath’s of psychopathy. These characteristics into consideration as a solution to the success in college. The low impulsivity are easier to pass off as personality restriction of range, which is apparent in enables them to delay gratification, an characteristics and are less likely to be studying a single university’s population. attribute not commonly associated with seen as criminally deviant or antisocial. In a phase two study, measures of psychopaths, long enough to obtain a These results suggest that “hidden” grade point average and responses to degree. Their fearlessness may provide college psychopaths who are higher ethical scenarios will be incorporated as a motivating factor by encouraging risk- in the Factor 2 type of antisocial traits more solid behavioral measures. More taking behavior as a means of obtaining may struggle more in college, possibly consideration will also be taken with goals and desensitizing the student leading them to drop out or ultimately gender differences, especially within psychopath to the discouragement to seek other, perhaps more criminal, the two-factor model of psychopathy, voiced by others. The coldheartedness avenues to express their personality to determine the possible pattern provides the lack of concern for fellow traits. Of course, this hypothesis is differences found between male and students and possibly faculty, which speculative, but it suggests that future female psychopathy. is necessary for viewing them as mere studies of college populations might do It is important to understand that by stepping-stones to be manipulated on well to track the trajectories of persons identifying these “hidden” psychopaths the way to success. scoring at different levels on the PPI; by we may be able to conceive of a Also important are the psychopathic evaluating such outcome measures as subtype of psychopathic behavior traits that were found to be inversely criminal arrests, behavioral disruptions that explains how these individuals related to successful adjustment in or infractions on campus, and drop-out are slipping through the collegiate college. Traits such as impulsive rates, we may gain a more significant environment and into the work world. nonconformity, alienation, and understanding of the interaction Through continued research, we Machiavellian egocentricity, which of Factor 1 and Factor 2 traits in can improve upon assessment and were found to negatively correlate with noncriminal populations and how they diagnosis of psychopathic behavior variables associated with successful affect behavior. and in the future increase our risk adjustment to college, are measures The future direction of this study management technologies. Only commonly associated with the seeks to find stronger relationships through a better understanding of deviant behavioral manifestations of between these interpersonal and the spectrum of psychopathy can we psychopathy. These traits are most affective characteristics of college possibly grasp how it manifests in often found within those psychopaths students with psychopathic tendencies. different environments and how we who have already encountered the By looking at the traditional two-factor can better preemptively prepare for criminal justice system and are possibly model of psychopathy and running the destructive predispositions of the less successful at obtaining a higher an array of more complex statistical psychopathic personality. education. The psychopathic traits that analyses in more applied settings, we are associated with proper adjustment to hope to establish a more solid pattern

10 Psychopathic Traits And College Adjustment References

Abbey, A. & McAuslan, P. (2004). A longitudinal examination of male college students’ perpetration of sexual assault. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(5), 747-756.

Babiak, P. (1995) When psychopaths go to work: A case study of an industrial psychopath. An International Review, 44(2): 171-188.

Baker, R. W., & Siryk, B. (1984). Measuring adjustment to college. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 179-189.

Baker, R. W., & Siryk, B. (1986). Exploratory intervention with a scale measuring adjustment to college. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33(1), 31-38.

Baker, R.W., & Siryk, B. (1999). The student adaptation to college questionnaire manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

Benning, S.D., Patrick, C.J., Hicks, B.M., Blonigen, D.M., & Krueger, R.F. (2003). Factor structure of the psychopathic personality inventory: Validity and implications for clinical assessment. Journal of Psychological Assessment, 15(3), 340-350.

Cleckley H. (1988) The mask of sanity (5th ed.). Augusta, GA: Emily S. Cleckley. (Original work published 1941).

Cooke, D.J., Michie, C., Hart, S.D., & Hare, R.D. (1999). Evaluating the screening version of the psychopathic checklist – revised (PSL-SV): An item response theory analysis. Psychological Assessment, 11(1), 3-13.

Edens, J.F., Poythress, N.G., & Watkins, M.M. (2001). Further validation of the psychopathic personality inventory among offenders: Personality and behavioral correlates. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15(5), 403-415.

Grann, M. (2000). A brief report: The PCL-R and gender. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 16(3), 147-149.

Hare R. D. (2003). The Hare psychopathy checklist-revised. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: Simon & Schuster (Pocket Books). Paperback published in 1995. Reissued in 1998 by Guilford Press.

Hart, S.D., Cox, D.H., & Hare, R.D. (1995) The Hare psychopathy checklist-revised: Screening version. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

Lilienfield, S.O., & Andrews, B.P. (1996). Development and preliminary validation of a self-report measure of psychopathic personality traits in non- criminal populations. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(3), 488-524.

Vitale, J.E.& Newman, J.P. (2001) Response perseveration in psychopathic women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110(4), 644-647.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 11 12 Misuse of myth: Conscious adherence or authoritative control mechanism

Abstract Introduction Myths are significant in explaining the It is early morning on December 25, existential questions of life, but when they 2005. The seasonal decorations in this are adopted uncritically, they may generate particular home reflect the Western more harm than good. Admittedly, there is world’s typical adherence to Christianity. no way out of myth; we are the mythical These include a nativity scene of the creature. We need, therefore, to become birth of Jesus Christ and a Christmas more aware of myth and more critical of tree covered in lights and ornaments. the myths we already, if only unknowingly, There are also individually wrapped have adopted. This research addresses gifts placed beneath the tree. This common misconceptions of the definitions scene represents a family’s joyful and of myths, attempts to identify the conscious happy time while simultaneously and unconscious use of myths in our daily revealing some religious significance. lives, and ultimately introduces the concept However, there is also something else of modified myth adoption. This is done at work here. Two different horizons of by analyzing and synthesizing selected consideration that I contend are not so scholarly works and psychological studies on different at all: religious truth and myth. the subject with the objective of promoting Religious truth is represented by the understanding of one’s own and other nativity scene, which is universally Henry H. Averhart, Jr. peoples’ worldviews and belief systems. accepted by Christians as a historically McNair Scholar proven fact depicting the birth of the Son of God in Bethlehem, Judah while being attended to by his earthly mother and father, Mary and Joseph. C.S. Lewis, scholar and theologian, says of this story,

Now the story of Christ is simply a true myth: a myth working on us in the same way as the others, but with this tremendous difference that it really happened. (Lewis, 2004, p. 21)

Secondly, the myth, represented here by the decorated tree, is of Jolly Ole’ St. Nick, Santa Claus, who has gained entry to this home by means of the chimney and is bearing gifts for all. The Catholic Encyclopedia (2003) says of Santa,

In the 19th century, St. Nicholas was superseded in much of Europe by Christkindlein, the Christ-child, who delivered gifts in secret to Corey Anton, Ph.D. the children. He traveled with a Faculty Mentor dwarf-like helper Pelznickel (a.k.a. Bilsnickel) or with St. Nicholas- like figures. Eventually, all three were combined into the image

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 13 that We now know as Santa Claus. worship is used here as a definition of in our daily lives, recognize the potential “Christkindlein” became Kriss religion). More importantly, I also now to abuse its power by manipulation, Kringle. (p. 1106) see more clearly myth’s connection to acknowledge the need for acceptance Christianity, in fact, that Christianity is of modified myths, and encourage How is it that one scenario is known indeed mythic. Watts (1968) elucidates rather than discourage the connection to be false (e.g. Santa Claus) and the this point when he wrote: between myth and religion—even by other (e.g. the birth of Christ) is viewed believers. To accomplish this, we first as historical, religious truth, and yet It is for us to discuss the Christian need a workable, explanatory definition they are celebrated together with equal story as something much more of myth. fervor during this time of the year? The profound as mere facts which once Today, to say myth and Christian in answer to this question is, I believe, an happened, to give it not only the the same sentence, or worse, extend the extremely important one for all of us to status of history but the tremendous context to include the phrase Christian contemplate and attempt to understand. dignity of myth, which is ‘once mythology, is to incur instant protest One reason for our need to upon a time’ in the sense that it is and a figurative rising of the hair on the understand the answer to this question behind all time. (Watts, p. 2) back of the neck. This, along with an is the fact that many scholars, who have extremely defensive posturing, makes studied mythology and its effects on Of the many world religions, explication of the proper use of myths our human relationships and how we Christianity is chosen for comparison difficult. Therefore, what follows is my relate to the physical and metaphysical in this study because of its age, size, personal definition of myth (a definition universe, are inclined to acknowledge and its rich mythological content. But, that should assist in observing myth as that humans view myths as “connecting to suggest that myth actually elevates it is intended, at least for the sake of them to the world around them Christianity as opposed to reducing this research, and not as it is commonly and explaining where they fit in,” as it raises a whole series of challenges. misconstrued). Myths are deep, numinous “explaining the existential questions Two such challenges for the individual narratives that figuratively express the very of life” (May, 1991, p. 37), and as researching this area are the absence foundations of human life. To enunciate “necessary for a healthy psychological of scholarly work on the subject and it another way, myths are organized, existence while revealing the meaning its sensitive nature. Watts (1968) supernatural expressions that use of life and of the universe” (Greenberg, acknowledges both saying, metaphor to reveal human connections 1998, p. 87). Though such statements to life and the universe. The key words highlight the importance of this topic, There are sound reasons for this here are metaphor, supernatural, and they also cause even more complex omission, for the subject [Christian figurative, all of which denote something issues to surface, such as the closeness Mythology] is one of extreme other than the literal. According to that exists between myth and religion, delicacy and complexity, not WordNet (2003) metaphors are “figures theology and science. Another complex because of the actual material, but of speech in which an expression is issue, which will be addressed in this because the whole problem is, in a used to refer to something other than study, is how Christianity relates to each very special way, ‘touchy’ (p. 5). what it literally means.” Webster’s New of the aforementioned myth, religion, World College Dictionary (2000) defines theology, and science. Because humans are the mythical supernatural as “existing or occurring Significant is the fact that I was creature we cannot get away from outside the normal experience or not only raised in Christianity, but myth. This is also the case when knowledge of man” (p. 1437) and also was an ordained minister for Christians analyze and research myth; figurative as “containing figures of seventeen years. Even so, I have only one admittedly cannot get away from speech, metaphoric” (p. 528). Again recently come to appreciate the value Christianity, hence, the need for Watts (1968) illuminates and power of myth as a connection definitions of both myth and Christianity. the subject: to the universe around me and to recognize the potential present in some Myth and Christianity by Definition For the word myth is not to be individuals and groups to manipulate If this study helps to clarify what I used here to mean ‘untrue’ or those who adopt myths uncritically, believe to be the connotation of myth, ‘unhistorical.’ Myth is to be defined especially as the knowledge of myths we may be better able to understand as a complex of stories—some no can affect public worship (public myth’s conscious and unconscious use doubt fact, and some fantasy—

14 Misuse of Myth which, for various reasons human There is no more telling symptom of is pre-history, science—particularly beings regard as demonstrations of the confusion of ‘modern thought’ nature, or time—, which Watts (1968) the inner meanings of the universe than the very suggestion that poetry describes as “behind all time” (p. 2). and of life. (p. 7) and mythology can be ‘mere.’ This What, then, of Christianity? To arises from the notion that poetry find total consensus on this definition In this regard, James Oliver Robertson and myth belong to the realm of would be next to impossible. Therefore, (1980) puts it plainly, “Myths are that fancy as distinct from fact, and that for the sake of this study, I define which holds us together” (p. 80). As since facts equal Truth, myth and Christianity as follows: mythic creatures, we need the hominess poetry have no serious content. Yet of myths and without them we hunger this is a mistake. (p. 64) A monotheistic system of beliefs for it and are lost. Nietzsche understood and practices based on the Old this mythical hunger. In “The birth of Furthermore, both the American Heritage Testament and the teachings of tragedy: Out of the spirit of music” (1956) Dictionary of the English Language (2000), Jesus as embodied in the New he writes, and the Merriam-Webster Dictionary of Testament and emphasizing the role the English Language (1999) list myth as a of Jesus as Savior. (American Heritage What does our great historical “fictitious story” only in their fourth and Dictionary, 4th ed., 2000, p. 239) hunger signify, our clutching about final definitions, which by implication us of countless other cultures, our and placement, seems to show it to As such, the Christian story can consuming desire for knowledge, if not be more of a common application in be referred to with reverence and the loss of myth, of a mythic home, the everyday English, not necessarily the contemplated as one of the greatest mythic womb? (p. 496-497) primary or most accurate application. stories ever told in Western civilization. In definitions one through three in both It can be viewed not just as an event These definitions of myth help to clarify dictionaries, there are no references to that happened (true or false, historical this point: when contemplating myths the historical accuracy or degree of fact or fantasy) but as something with the attention or concentration should be in myth. Notice one such definition: tremendous significance in shaping on their themes, their life lessons, their and connecting the lives of Christian moral education, and the universal truth A traditional, typically ancient story believers worldwide and from which to be extracted and not on the literal dealing with supernatural beings, personal religious truth, a transcendent degree of fact or fantasy therein. ancestors, or heroes that serve as a fundamental or spiritual reality, can The most common perception of fundamental type in the worldview be extracted. Believers can then act the definition of myth is that of being of a people, as by explaining aspects upon it mythically, finding truth in a false story, merely a myth, untrue. If of the natural world of delineating their actions—thinking it forward.1 one were to apply that definition to the the psychology, customs, or ideals And in this simple sense, Christianity Christian account of human beginnings, of society. (American Heritage is mythic! to take that story simply as mere myth, Dictionary, p. 869) one might be inclined to be attentive Conscious and Unconscious only to, and become wrapped up in, the Therefore, this study contends that Adherence to Myth rich poetry of it, to marvel at its magic, what is viewed by some in Christianity Individually and as a society we accept and be awe-struck by its splendor, (and other religions) as religious or at least adhere to various myths then, simply relegate it to the inferior truth cannot be degraded simply by in certain cultural practices. In the position of a mere myth, unbelievable. referring to it as mere myth. Also, a introduction, one such practice was That certainly would not be the position phenomenon referred to as myth or referred to, the practice of celebrating referred to earlier by Watts (1968) as mythical is not merely a false story Christmas as a historical, religious the “tremendous dignity of myth” (p. 2). related simply for entertainment, but truth. Before we examine this horizon Once again, Watts makes it clear when something elevated to a dignified of consideration, let it be stated that he says: position above history. In fact, just as Christianity does not validate Campbell (2002) contends that myth every Western myth, neither should we

1 This action, or process of examining a story, event, or myth for the purpose of realization of its personal, fundamental significance, the following of its meaning to see where it leads you personally in the universal scheme of things; the extracting from it personal, realistic truth for one’s own life, is what I refer to as thinking it forward.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 15 attempt to validate all religious truth via the myth, a deep, numinous narrative, to fear of death in the same sense as related myths. has served its intended purpose—to cultural anthropologist, Ernest Becker If an individual, a believer, can figuratively express the very foundations (1973) does when he said: draw personal truth, a connection to of human life. the universe, and find answers to the Conscious adherence to a The idea of death, the fear of it existential questions of “Where do I go celebration, like Christmas for haunts the human animal like when I die?” or “Why do I have to die example, should be intentional on nothing else; it is the mainspring of at all?” or “Why is there suffering in the the part of the believer, especially if human activity—activity designed world?” or “What are my obligations?” a person has given the celebration largely to avoid the fatality of death, from the story of the birth of the Son critical examination, thought to overcome it by denying in some of God on earth, then that story has it forward. However, we also way that it is the final destination of become their myth. It is mythical; it is unconsciously adhere to myths. man. (xvii) alive and functional. It is not true or The Swiss psychologist, Carl Jung false, but religious truth, a myth. That (1959) stated that myths are original This fear is so overwhelming, says same individual, so as not to accept that revelations of the preconscious psyche. Becker (1973, p. 5), that man, in order myth uncritically, should think the myth He referred to them as involuntary to create for himself some “primary forward, examine it from the standpoint statements about unconscious psychic value,” some “cosmic specialness,” an of where it leads us, and be cognizant happenings (p. 50). Levi-Strauss “ultimate usefulness to creation” will of the history that influences the myth. (1978) described our thoughts of carve out a place in nature by building Then, and only then, can one relate the myths as unconscious saying, “I have a temple, a cathedral, a totem pole, a myth to the doctrine or practice being written that myths get thought in man skyscraper, or a family that spans three examined. By way of example, let’s unbeknownst to him” (p. 3). If myths or four generations. Without getting too think this myth forward and see where are indeed unconscious, our adherence far afield of how this fear of death relates it leads. to them can also be unconscious. to myth, we should allow Becker to History bears out the fact that the This especially is the case when we make clear this point: present day Christmas celebration was contemplate those myths involving more likely than not borrowed from the the psychological stages of human life. The hope and belief is that the Roman celebration of the Saturnalia, a Psychiatrist and sociologist, Dr. Rollo things that man creates in society week-long riotous feast, dedicated to May (1991) refers to these stages as are of lasting worth and meaning, the god of seed and sowing, Saturnus. the “existential crises of life” (p. 39). that they will outlive or outshine This was the most famous of the Roman Of those, none is more prominent death and decay…. (p. 5) holidays because restrictions were than the crises of death. I would relaxed and the social order inverted. venture that if we were to assemble What can then be implied is that Public gambling was allowed and, all of the myths that deal with our our passionate pursuit to possess according to one writer of the time, existential considerations, we would things here in America’s capitalistic, Seneca, “The whole mob would let itself find that none influences our daily commercial-driven society can be, from go in licentious pleasure” (as cited in unconscious thoughts and behavior an unconscious psychological point of Holford, 1988, p. 251). Early Christians, more than the phenomenon of death view, classic reactions to the myths of not wanting to be aligned with this and our inherent fear, and subsequent everlasting life and life eternal. pagan practice, forbade the celebration denial, thereof. I refer to denial in the For the sake of another, albeit darker, of Christmas in this fashion. In fact, its sense that, for example, we can’t seem example let us examine unconscious celebration was illegal here in the United to let go of our loved (or hated) ones adherence to the combined myths of States as recently as one hundred years who have died. So we create for our “redemption” and “racial superiority.” ago. If, with this knowledge of the history loved ones a never—ending paradise Redemption, according to Christian of the celebration and thinking it forward in spiritual places and eternal torment dogma (American Bible Society, 1976, as to where it will lead, one can still find for our enemies. Is not Dante’s Divine Genesis 3:14-18), is necessary because within the Christ story and the adherence Comedy: Inferno (1300), where Dante of mankind’s Fall from Grace (Genesis to a Christmas celebration religious truth meets with his dead friends and 3: 14-18) as a result of the sin of the that connects them to life and their place acquaintances, a prime example? first man, Adam. In order to get back in the universal scheme of things, then (Inferno XXI, lines 112-114). I refer the perfect, eternal life that Adam lost,

16 Misuse of Myth there had to be a perfect life sacrificed destruction still exists, but on an We are able, through scientific in return, to balance the scales, to even grander and more prolific scale. thinking, to achieve mastery over take away the sins of the world. This Knowledge of such potential is one of the nature, while, of course, myth was provided for by the sacrifice and underlying motivations and objectives of is unsuccessful in giving man crucifixion of the Son of God as he this essay: to promote understanding of more material power over the bore mankind’s sins and punishment one’s own and other peoples’ worldviews environment. However, it gives (American Bible Society, Isaiah 53: 4-6). and belief systems. One of the primary man, very importantly, the illusion2 How has our culture socialized this means of achieving this understanding, as that he can understand the universe idea of redemption? Do we still look for has been discussed, is critical analysis of and that he does understand the someone to bear the burden of our guilt, adopted myths. universe. (p. 17) to be our vicar? If so, what does recent history show as to its manifestations? Myth vs. Science vs. Theology Where myth differs from science (I am This cultural or societal need for Critical examination of any myth tempted to say, “at odds with science” someone to bear peoples’ guilt or sin should be natural for people because as but that would be inaccurate inasmuch is not universal because, for one, not humans we use two faculties as a means as the conflict is merely perceived), is in all people believe that there was a Fall of adaptation to the world around us: practice. Science, by way of empirical from Grace and therefore no redemption memory and reflective thought. When evidence tested by experimentation, is needed, but history has shown us we think the myth forward, make it can and does produce hypotheses what can happen, when an individual one’s own, as opposed to adopting it for future predictions. Myths provide or group seeks a replica of the Divine uncritically, we become less vulnerable no such hypotheses, hence no future Scapegoat. I refer here to anti-Semitism to the interpretation of the one who is predictions, and yet myths, by means of as an authoritative control mechanism, relating the myth. Thinking the myth their abstract nature, can and do answer perpetuated upon those who, consciously forward should not be understood to existential questions of life not answered or unconsciously, adhere to the concept mean dissecting the Christ story, to refer by the world’s greatest empirical minds. of the Fall from Grace. By means of to a previous example, for the purpose Let’s consider a mythical example such a reference, I also reveal why this of revealing truth or historical accuracy; that shows how myth works in section was introduced as an example instead it is to uncover the myth’s conjunction, not in conflict, with of adherence to the combined myths significance to the very foundations science. This is important to establish of redemption and racial superiority. of human life. This form of thinking, because of the laborious efforts on the Kenneth Burke (1950, p. 31) referred or reflective thought, should not be part of some Christian theologians to to Hitler’s campaign of “the science confused with scientific thinking. When use science as proof of religious truth, of genocide” as the manifestations of we employ the processes dictated by hence, proof of myth. someone “symbolically laden with the the criteria of empirical discovery, we According to Levi-Strauss (1978) there burdens of individual and collective use limited, trained mental abilities that is a myth from Western Canada about guilt.” Would such a manifestation not, progress us along, step by experimental the skate (a large, flat fish of the family of then, present the need for figurative step, to the total understanding of the rays) and its successful attempt to master (or ritualistic) purging? And, according examined phenomena. In reflection, or control the South Wind. It takes place to Burke, is it not interesting that now, we attempt to arrive at a general at a time when humans and animals in the post-Christian era, we identify understanding of life and the universe— were not distinct from each other, in Jews and other minorities in our as it relates to us personally. Though I other words there were still half-human, present society? Because these negative disagree with his use of the word illusion half-animal creatures roaming the earth. attitudes towards minorities have in his explanation of this point, Levi- Both were extremely irritated by the fact not been dispelled by identification Strauss (1978) makes clear his theory that the winds would blow constantly. and acknowledgment, we have to be when he says: This made it difficult, and sometimes cognizant of the fact that the potential impossible, to fish and gather shellfish for such a horrendous campaign of on the beaches. It was decided by all

2 I would be inclined to replace the word illusion with Chimera. In medicine, Chimera is an organism or part consisting of two or more tissues of genetic composition, produced as the result of grafting. In Greek mythology, Chimera is a composite monster—a fire breathing she-monster made up of the front of a lion, the middle parts of a goat, and the tail of a snake. Illusion carries the connotation of misrepresentation, false perception. Whereas, Chimera blends different components to create a composite, in this instance, the scientific and the mythological understanding of the universe.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 17 that they would have to fight against is also a binary problem. If the that it has to work with a series of the winds to compel them to act more South Wind blows every day of basic unknowns. decently. There was then an expedition the year, then life is impossible for formed that included the skate, who mankind. But if it blows only one metaphysic: the indefinable basis would play the very important role of out of two—‘yes’ one day, ‘no’ the of knowledge, realization. A capturing the South Wind. The skate other day, and so on—then a kind consciousness of life where the released the South Wind only after it of compromise becomes possible mind is not trying to grasp or promised not to blow all the time, but between the needs of mankind and define what it knows. only at certain periods. The South Wind the conditions prevailing in the promised and it is since that time that natural world. (p. 22) metaphysics: (Greek and Western) the South Wind only blows one day highly abstract thought, dealing out of two and that allows mankind to Though the story is not true from an with concepts such as essence, accomplish its activities. empirical point of view, our present day being, matter, and form and treating As opposed to dismissing this as merely study of cybernetics provides us with the them as though they were facts on myth, an impossible story, let’s take it understanding of, for instance, binary a higher level of objectivity than seriously enough to ask: why the skate operations. Current scientific thought, sensually perceptive things. and why the South Wind? I find myself then, helps us understand the contents in agreement with the analysis of this of this myth. Even though, since the theology: an interpretation of Canadian myth by noted anthropologist advent of science in the seventeenth combined myth and metaphysics Levi-Strauss. Levi-Strauss (1978) contends century, mythology has been rejected in which both are treated as that the skate is chosen here because and imputed to primitives and the objective facts of the historical and of its distinct physical characteristics superstitious, there really should be no scientific order. common in all flat fish, namely smooth divorce or parting of the ways between and slippery underneath and rough on mythological and scientific thought. Theologians today laboriously attempt to top, and it appears large from above and True, we are the mythical creature make God a thing, a fact (albeit the first below, and very thin from either side. If with a need for mythic answers to thing and the first fact). Watts (1968) an adversary were to aim an arrow at the questions outside of nature. Yet, felt that such theological language and skate, it would only have to suddenly there are those who continue to miss analysis destroys myth. He relates: change its position showing its profile myth’s explanation of these questions which is all but impossible to target, thus by waiting for scientific proof and/or In spite of the vital power of its providing escape. So, the skate is chosen historical verification. This seems myth, Christianity began to die the here because it is capable of two states to be the fallacy of some Christian moment when theologians began to which are discontinuous—as in cybernetic theologians, whose efforts may be noble, treat the divine story as history— terms—one negative and one positive, one but result in consequences that may be when they mistook the story of yes and one no. causing more harm than good. God, of the Creation, and the Fall Even though it is impossible, from an Prior to expanding this point of for a record of facts in the historical empirical point of view, for a fish to fight Christian theologians and scientific past. (p. 67) and capture a wind, logically we can see verification, it may be of benefit to how experiences could lead to the use glossarize a few additional terms as This line of thought helps us to of practical images. This is how mythical they relate to types of knowledge and appreciate that once these theologians thinking originated, playing the part of our discussion. I agree with Watts started to explain God, they began to conceptual thinking. It is made even (1968, p. 63), and his definitions of the lose all contact with him. Their obvious clearer when we read how Levi-Strauss following terms: mistake was in regard to language. (1978) enunciates it: They looked upon the language of science: historical record of facts, myth as the language of fact. When one An animal which can be used as parts of experience, wherein the attempts to label or rationalize God, it what I call a binary operator can reality of realities it discusses degrades Him to the level of a dead3, have, from a logical point of view, a remain ultimately undefined. Since fixed thing or fact. Eminent scholar relationship with a problem which Hilbert, science accepts the fact and orientalist Ananda Coomaraswamy

3 I refer to dead here as does Watts (1968) when he explains “…all things are past, inhabiting only the world of memory.” (p. 70)

18 Misuse of Myth (1977) makes this comment with person could find himself relying on Then the Lord God made the man respect to the metaphorical language of archaeologists, for example, to find for fall into a deep sleep, and while he mythology and metaphysics, them the Shroud of Turin to prove that was sleeping, he took out one of the Jesus existed. Can that be classified man’s ribs…formed a woman out of Its ‘worlds’ and ‘gods’ are levels as true faith? The myth then ceases to the rib and brought her to the man. of reference and symbolic entities be a vibrant, grounding connection to which are neither places nor the person’s place in the metaphysical In both passages, the interpretation individuals but states of being scheme of things—the very foundations is rendered as justification of realizable within you. (pp. 6-7) of human life. In this view, then, it can genderfication. To those individuals be concluded that theology, by means adhering to the myth of “God the The language of myth, then, should of its reliance on science and empirical Father” uncritically, without thinking it not be exacted, even in interpretation, evidence, takes a staunch stand in forward, the preceding interpretation as literal. When Henrich Zimmer (as opposition to myths and the good they allows for manipulation of ideals, and in cited in Campbell, 2002) made the serve. some instances, control of behavior by statement “The best things can’t be told those perpetuating the myth. and the second best are misunderstood” Misuse of Myth Another example of the use of myth (p. xxiii), it moved noted mythologist To find physical proofs of Christian as an authoritarian control mechanism is Campbell to make this reference to doctrine, to substantiate or validate passivity in the face of violent persecution the misleading effects of using myth’s one’s faith may be an honest endeavor. (turn the other cheek). Horrendous language as fact: On the other hand, the insistence on barbaric butchery and bondage have such proven facts can be intentionally been heaped upon entire races of The second best are misunderstood misleading and self-serving. For people while they consciously and because, as metaphors poetically instance, Christian theologians are unconsciously adhered to the language of that which cannot be told, they insistent on a literal interpretation of of Christian scripture. These people were are misunderstood prosaically as the myth of “God the Father.” Such made to view their persecution as either referring to tangible facts. The adamant adherence can be interpreted a test of their faithful adherence, or as connotated messages are thus lost in as manipulation (whether intentional or purification, as with fire, of the quality of the symbols, the elementary ideas in innocuous) in order to genderize God their faith (American Bible Society, 1976, local ‘ethnic’ inflections. (p. xxiii) as male. Matthew 5:38-42). What purpose and whose interests At this juncture, it may still be difficult From its early beginnings, Christianity would be served by such an application for some to see a myth as being misused has insisted that the divine revelation of the myth of “God the Father?” Those or misapplied. For clarification assistance, be scientific rather than metaphysical who would attempt to perpetuate the I turn again to the scholar who spent or mythical. True, this could have been subservient and inferior position of the his entire life extensively studying due to the time period during which female in the male dominated hierarchy myths worldwide, Joseph Campbell. He Christianity began its rise. This was of a patriarchal society. Those same reiterates the point that these myths are during the Graeco/Roman era, when self-serving individuals might point to not to be promoted as fact, and I say, all, even the Hebrew culture, was the theological language of the Bible thereby cannot literally be misused or extremely preoccupied with personal to prove man’s dominant position, misapplied to propagandize a particular salvation and immortality4. highlighting the order of creation, in ideology. Campbell (2002) writes: Taking the language of myth as Genesis 1:27, (American Bible Society, the language of fact, only serves to 1976) “So God created human beings… For some reason which I have not confuse and alienate, and sets science male and female.” And Genesis 2:18 yet found anywhere explained, above mythology, and empirical proof “…I will make a suitable companion to the popular, unenlightened above faith. With the power of a help him,” or Genesis 2:21-22, practice of prosaic reification of living, working myth being replaced metaphoric imagery has been the by the need for scientific evidence, a fundamental method of the most

4 This is the point at which I take issue. If the concern (even today) is for immortality (personal salvation), should the effort not be to align one’s self (i.e. ego) with the metaphysical and not the empirical? To transcend the natural world and get in touch with one’s essence would more efficiently accomplish this alignment with God. It is apparent that during this time period, this way of thinking was not only unacceptable but was not considered progressive. Does this not reflect early inklings of the theory of denial of death offered by Becker (1973)?

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 19 influential exegetes of the whole purpose in life, and people are at a man” (Coomaraswamy, p. 8). This Judeo-Christian-Islamic mythic loss to control their anxiety. (p. 16) modern man, in effect, confesses that he complex. The Virgin Birth, for has no life/goal. Progress, as conceived example is argued as historical Part of the “aching of hearts” is reflected by him, is dedicated to the “frantic fact, where as in practically every in statistics on suicide in America. The pursuit of a tomorrow that never comes” mythology of the world instances American Association of Suicidology (Coomaraswamy, p. 8). Coomaraswamy have appeared of this elementary (AAS) tracks and records suicides in the (as cited in Watts, 1968, p. 14) pointed idea. American Indian mythologies United States. The figures are alarming: out that in this respect our Western abound in virgin births. 31,655 individuals decided that life was culture is historically abnormal. His work Therefore, the intended reference not worth living in 2002; 12% of those provided vast documentation of the fact of the archetypal image cannot were between the ages of 15 and 24 that in almost every other culture there possibly have been to a supposed (Kochanek, 2004, p. 53). What would has existed a unanimous, common, and occurrence in the Near East in the make our young people, a historical perennial philosophy of man’s nature first century B.C. (p. xxiv) indicator of the health and mental state and destiny—differing from place to of our society, feel so lost and hopeless? place only in terminology and points Does this not give body and substance May (1991) paraphrases a student of emphasis and technique. We, on the to myth as something that can indeed speaker at Stanford University: other hand, as the Stanford student be misused, the power of which can alluded to, are without goals or a clear be manipulated? I think so. Especially …the student speaker described path of effective action. This is the myth- in that one of the intentions of myth his class as not knowing how it less situation we find ourselves in today. is to bring a community together, to relates to the past or the future, Without myths, which express lessons encapsulate it. This research contends having little sense of the present, for life, belief systems, and moral that if given an intelligent chance, no life-sustaining beliefs, secular education, there will be depression myths can accomplish just that. or religious, and as consequently and “aching hearts,” evident by the One effort that would assist myths having no goal and no path of climbing suicide rate. Where there is no in accomplishing this goal would be effective action. (p. 21) mythological thought, there can be no their modification. mythological communication to begin Even at this time, this dilemma was not to address such issues. As long as the The Need for New Myths new. As curator of the Boston Museum ultimate goal is making money, as long In today’s intelligent thought, myths of Fine Arts, Ananda Coomaraswamy as we teach practically no ethics by are not used as effective narratives for extensively researched mythological and example in home and government, as relating to and coping with modern anthropological thought in his time. long as the role models and heroes are problems. At the outset we established In Am I my Brother’s Keeper? (1947), sports, movie, and music celebrities, that “myths are significant in explaining he helped us to appreciate that such as long as there is no inspiration to those existential questions of life.” This thought had outgrown the provincialism subscribe to a higher philosophy of life, is not the case in today’s society. Not of the nineteenth century and had and there are no mentors in learning to due to the loss of the power of myths, ceased to equate wisdom, progress, and love, we will see the continual rise of but due to the lack of conscious use of culture with the peculiar abnormalities those seeking psychological help and myths in our daily lives. May (1991) and agitations of the modern West. He those “repining” and giving up. expounds on the condition of myths in showed that extremely sophisticated and Suicide is not the only indicator of our present day: profound cultures have existed quite a society searching for answers. The apart from the apparatus that we think recent resurgence in cult activity is also We in the twentieth century are in are essential—such as writing, building indicative of a need to have questions a similar situation as the classical in brick or stone, or the employment answered and a need to belong. The Greeks of the third and second of machinery. These cultures, and here International Cultic Studies Association, centuries, of ‘aching hearts’ and is the point I wish to make, did not according to Rudin (1991), is calling ‘repining.’ Our myths no longer pursue or attain the life/goals which we for help in stemming the tide of “cult serve their function of making sense consider important. They would have recruitment on college and university of existence, the citizens of our “other goals out of all relation to the campuses in the United States” day are left without direction or peculiar desires and ‘goods’ of modern (Introduction). The lure of any group

20 Misuse of Myth is that it can promise bliss and love harmonious cohabitation. In Chinese With the Lord’s consent they got married and some inside information on god society, memory depends on the wisdom (Israeli, 2001, p. 187). and what the future holds. The mass passed down through generations by The story does continue, however, suicide of 980 followers of Jim Jones in the sages. In the Islamic tradition, one enough is related here to examine the Guyana, simply because he told them has to either relate to divine revelation corroboration. According to Israeli to, is evidence that people can be lead via the Prophet as outlined in the Holy (2001), the message is the universality and controlled if they are desperate to Qur’an or to the Prophet’s own doings of the origin of man, although the very belong and be loved. and utterances. As related by Israeli, attempt to graft the Islamic creation What, then, can be done? Are we it was decided to use memory and narrative onto the Chinese produces here advocating such a tremendous task history to “collaborate, to inspire one some awkward results. One of the be assigned to mythmaking? Campbell another, and to justify and sustain each characteristics that was immediately (2002) alludes to new myths as a start: other by the power of myth” (p. 185). apparent to me was that without saying Israeli acknowledges the difficulty, but so, the myth refers to the Chinese In the new mythology, which is to persistence of the task at hand: myth of Pan Gu, where the mysterious be of the whole human race, the creature is depicted as the link between old Near Eastern desacralization of To be sure, the past few centuries chaos and order. Notice, that unlike the nature by way of the doctrine of the of Muslim rebellion and Chinese biblical story which depicts the creation Fall will be rejected; so that any such repression were not particularly of Adam and Eve as the apogee of the limiting sentiment as that expressed conducive to memory building Lord’s endeavor to make man the ruler in 2 Kings 5: 15, “There is no God in for the construction of solace and of the earth and its fauna, here the all the earth but in Israel,” will be (to rapprochement, the bricks being too physical and the animal creation of the use a biblical term) an abomination. venomous and porous. Nonetheless, world are generated, like in the Pan The image of the universe will the process of myth-creating, as a Gu story, from the first man on earth. no longer be the old Sumero- reinforcement of collective memory, Another point is highlighted by Israeli: Babylonian, locally centered, three- continues. (p. 185) layer affair, of a heaven above and The difference persists, however, abyss below, with an ocean encircled By way of example, let us examine one in that Allah made him from bit of earth between….(p. xxi) of the modified myths as described by earth while the Chinese version of Israeli (2001). Here, the creation myths creation does not specify his origin. Rather than new myths, this research of both the Chinese and the Muslims are Also, while the Chinese creation is introduces a concept that has already intertwined, using characters from both immanent in Pan Gu, in the case begun to be employed, I refer to it as cultures and slightly modifying some of Adam (A-dan in Chinese), the modified myth adoption. events so as to include aspects of each. Muslim legend wants the creation When the world was created, there to happen by accident, not by the Modified Myth Adoption was only Allah but no human beings. design of the Lord, when Adam This concept, in as simple a term as Later, the Lord created a human being took advantage of the fact that possible, is the mythologization of the with fire-colored earth, named Adan. the Lord “was not around” (again, histories, stories, and folklore of various The Lord decreed that Adan could only a cute Muslim concession to the cultures for the sake of understanding, lay down but never stand up. One day, Chinese regarding the omnipotence harmony, and peaceful co-existence. when the Lord was not around, Adan and omnipresence of God), in order According to Dr. Raphael Israeli tried to stand up, but as soon as he did, to produce precious metals and (2001) of the Hebrew University of his head cracked and from it sprung animal species, and ultimately, also Jerusalem, there is a very exciting out gold, copper and iron; birds and Eve from his rib. (p. 179) undertaking at work today in China to animals; fish, insects, crabs, and shrimps. accomplish just such harmony. Because Adan, with his nails, immediately cut off There are many other similarities, of the large population of Muslims in a piece of flesh from the underside of the concessions, and name changes China and the past resistance to Islam, arch of his foot to mend the crack in his throughout this and other stories the peaceful people of various regions head. Under his left rib grew a big bulge. and yet, they all agree upon and found it necessary to commence an When it broke, a human being fell down consistently maintain the universal effort that would eventually lead to from it. This person was Hai-er-ma. message of both cultures.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 21 The Chinese and the Muslims have Firstly, the definition of myth is more because we all shrink from the also been able to graft myth onto correctly intended as deep numinous full meridian of light of truth… history. Though admittedly shaky at narratives that figuratively express the very mythology, in the highest sense, is times, says Israeli, when it comes to the foundations of human life, as possessing power exercised by language on firmer ground of history, myth-making life lessons and moral education, and thought in every possible sphere of persists and even gains momentum to personal truth to be extracted upon mental activity. (p. 353) the point that these combined myths critical reflection. Secondly, there is a are now solidly anchored in well- need to be more critical and aware of Acknowledgements known and universally accepted events, the myths we do adopt. By thinking the Heartfelt appreciation to my mentor names, and places and, therefore, gain myths forward, we can stall those efforts and friend Dr. Corey Anton, without more historical credibility. This is true to mislead us due to lack of knowledge. whose support and invaluable scholastic modified myth adoption at work. And finally, we need myths. We need contributions this project would to continue to discuss their relevance not have come to fruition. Sincere Conclusion in today’s world community and how, appreciation to Dr. Valerie Peterson It can be said that myths are significant if modified to suit our lives today, they for her ground level “no-nonsense,” in explaining the existential questions can be a binding and uniting force critiques. However, I am most indebted of life and that they have the power universally. As extolled by Max Muller to the dedicated directors of the to ground us and connect us to the (1873) over 130 years ago: Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate universe around us. It can also be Achievement Program at Grand Valley said that we sometimes unconsciously Mythology is inevitable, it is State University, Arnie Smithalexander adhere to various myths in our daily natural, it is an inherent necessity and Dolli Lutes, for their service of lives. However, of the many points of of language….Mythology, no doubt, removing obstacles and making such discussion concerning myths and their breaks out more fiercely during the scholarly pursuits possible. Finally, and origin, their effect on our relationships, earlier periods of human thought, mostly importantly, to the dynamic and how they are viewed by certain but it never disappears altogether. spirit of Dr. Sufen Lai, who not only elements of our society, I would stress Depend on it, there is mythology introduced me to the McNair Program, the following three points more than now as it was in the time of Homer, but rekindled my interest in mythology any others. only we do not perceive it, and as a fresh field of study.

22 References

Alighieri, Dante’. (1300). Divine comedy: Inferno. (Trans.) Mark Mush, 1997. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

American Bible Society. (1976). The good news bible: Today’s English version.New York: ABS.

American heritage dictionary of the English language. (2000). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Becker, E. (1973). The denial of death. New York: The Free Press.

Burke, K. (1950). The rhetoric of motive. Berkley, CA: University Press.

Campbell, J. (2002). The inner reaches of outer space: metaphor as myth and as religion. San Francisco: Publishers Group West.

Cassirer, E. (1946). Language and myth. Dover Publications, New York.

Catholic encyclopedia. (2003). “St. Nicholas of Myra.” New York: Robert Appleton Co.

Coomaraswamy, A. (1947). Am I my brother’s keeper. New York: John Day Co.

Coomaraswamy, A. (1977). The Vedanta and western tradition. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Gabriel, Y. (2004). Myths, stories, and organizations: postmodern narratives for our times. Oxford University Press, Inc. New York.

Highet, G. (1957). The classical tradition: Greek and Roman influence on Western literature. Galaxy Books, New York.

Holford, S. (Ed.). (1988). Aulus Gellius’ The attic nights. Boston: Harvard Press.

Israeli, R. (Spring, 2001). Myth as memory: Muslims in China between myth and history. Muslim World, 91, (1/2), p. 185-208.

Jung, C. (1959). Archetypes of the collective unconscious. Princeton: Bollinger Press.

Kochanek, K.D. (2004). National vital statistics report. Hyattsville, MD: National Centerfor Health Sciences.

Levi-Strauss, C. (1978). Myth and meaning. New York: Schocken Books.

Lewis, C. S. (2004) The collected letters of C. S. Lewis: Books, broadcasts, and the war 1931-1949. San Francisco: Harper.

May, R. (1991). The cry for myth. New York: Delta Books.

Merriam-Webster dictionary of the English language. (1999). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Publishing, Inc.

Muller, M. (1873). The philosophy of mythology. London: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Nietzsche, F. (1956). The birth of tragedy. New York: Bantam.

Robertson, J. O. (1980). American myth-American reality. New York: Hill and Wang.

Rudin, M. (1991). Cults on campus: Continuing challenge. Denver, CO: American Family Foundation.

Watts, A. (1968). Myth and ritual in Christianity. Boston: Beacon Press.

Webster’s new world college dictionary. (2000). Foster City, CA: IDG Books Worldwide.

WordNet. (2003)..At www.dictionary.com Princeton University.

Zimmer, H. (1972). Myths and symbols in Indian art and civilization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 23 Additional References

Becker, E. (1962). The birth and death of meaning: An interdisciplinaryperspective on the problem of man. New York: The Free Press.

Becker, E. (1975). Escape from evil. New York: The Free Press.

Bruns, G. L. (1992) Hermeneutics ancient and modern. London: Yale University Press.

Burke, K. (1961). The rhetoric of religion: Studies in logology. Boston: Beacon.

Jonas, H. (1966). The phenomenon of life: Toward a philosophical biology. Evanston, Il: Northwestern University Press.

Campbell, J. (1988). The power of myth. New York: Doubleday.

Campbell, J. (1990). The hero’s journey. San Francisco, CA: Harper and Row.

Campbell, J. (1990). Transformations of myth through time. New York: Harper-Collins.

Fodor, J. (1995). Christian Hermeneutics: The refiguring of theology. New York: Oxford University Press.

Greenberg, J. (1998). The Echo of trauma and the trauma of Echo. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Nunn, C. Z. (1978) The rising credibility of the devil in America. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing.

24 Misuse of Myth The New Guinea Campaign: A New Perspective Through the Use of Oral Histories

Abstract The New Guinea Campaign: Over the past two decades, historians have A New Perspective Through the Use begun using oral histories to reinterpret the of Oral Histories history of World War II. Earlier historians have relied heavily on official documents, As I was walking through the dense journalists’ accounts and the letters, diaries, jungle, I hiked through the kunai and memoirs of commanders and staff grass; it was razor sharp grass that officers, leaving out the experiences of grew from two to twelve feet high. the common soldier. Oral histories have I was leading men on a mission to provided more detailed, personal, and take a Japanese pillbox, and I saw a emotional accounts of WWII than the path that was cut through the kunai written records. My research combines the grass. I thought, “Why am I going oral histories of the 32nd Infantry Division, through this tall grass? I’ll go where the Red Arrow Division, with written I can see,” so I went down the path. sources in order to gain new perspectives Then all of a sudden it dawned and insight into the soldiers’ experiences in on me that this was a pre-cut fire WWII during the New Guinea campaign. lane and that a Japanese machine gun was training in on me from the other side. I instinctively dove Kelli Brockschmidt for the other side and as I did they McNair Scholar cut loose with their machine guns. A bullet hit me in my arm and leg and another ricocheted off the stock of my rifle that luckily lay across my chest. All I could think about was that I knew I was hit.1

This is an account from an oral history with Sergeant Robert Hartmen of the 126th Infantry Regiment in the 32nd Infantry Division. He is recalling the Battle of Buna, which began in November of 1942 and was part of the New Guinea Campaign, one of the longest and most grueling campaigns fought by United States ground forces in World War II. It began on September 20, 1942 and lasted until November 10, 1944.2 New Guinea’s location off the northern coast of Australia and its status as the second largest island in the world made it an ideal location for Japanese attack, and the hard-won Allied victory there helped to make the final victory possible.3 Despite its importance, the James Smither, Ph.D. New Guinea Campaign has become one Faculty Mentor of WWII’s forgotten episodes. The use

1 Robert Hartmen, oral history, Michigan Military History Institute (MMHI). 2 The 32nd Division Veteran Association, 32nd Infantry Division, The Red Arrow in World War II, http: //www.32nd-division.org/history/ww2/32ww2.html. 3 Harry A. Gailey, MacArthur Strikes Back: Decision at Buna, New Guinea 1942-1943 (Novato, CA: Presidio, 2000), 9.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 25 of oral histories makes it possible to do Infantry Regiment, the division had it they had. According to the majority of justice to the New Guinea campaign and twelve companies in it from across written histories, the men received little the efforts of the men who fought it. Michigan, from Coldwater to Grand general training and no jungle warfare Over the past two decades, historians Rapids and Grand Haven to Ionia.4 The training before being sent to New have begun to utilize oral histories to Red Arrow Division was reactivated in Guinea. An official Army commentary reinterpret the events of World War II. October 1940, and the men were sent to stated, The Veterans History Project (VHP), train at Camp Beauregard, Louisiana. In established in 2000 by the Library of February 1941, they were sent to Camp It was largely an army of amateurs Congress (LOC), has expanded these Livingston, Louisiana.5 The Red Arrow in which many officers were efforts by promoting the collection Division was one of the first National occupied chiefly in learning how to and preservation of the memories Guard units to be called up to active be officers, and the men were being of America’s wartime veterans. Oral federal service. As a National Guard trained with scant equipment, and histories provide personal details that unit, they were not required to serve without realization, on their part, are not found in written records. The outside of the western hemisphere or of the dead seriousness of the task oral histories of the 32nd Infantry for more than twelve months anywhere ahead.10 Division, more commonly known as else. It took a congressional bill to relax the Red Arrow Division, add a personal the restrictions and extend the service According to Harry Gailey, author perspective to aspects of the campaign dates of the Red Arrow Division. This of MacArthur Strikes Back Decision at that have been typically ignored or bill was passed in August 1941, by a Buna: New Guinea 1942-1943, the 32nd overlooked in the existing written slim one-vote margin.6 After the attack Division was unlucky to be selected to histories. These new details help to on Pearl Harbor, the United States began operate in New Guinea because none explain the course and outcome of the preparations to send troops overseas of their training prepared them for the campaign. Above all, the oral histories to fight. The Red Arrow Division was environment.11 The official division shed light on the soldiers’ training, their shipped to Fort Devens, Massachusetts history notes, “The 32d Division’s incessant struggles with the difficult to prepare for an early departure to composition as it began its field training terrain, their relationships with the Northern Ireland, but shortly after was basically the same as it had been Australian allies, and their sufferings arrival at Fort Devens, their orders during World War I.”12 from tropical diseases. They not only changed. Instead, the Red Arrow On the other hand, the oral histories add detail to existing accounts, but also Division was sent to California and on from the Red Arrow veterans who correct distortions and outright errors April 22, 1942, it set sail for Australia.7 served in the New Guinea Campaign in those accounts, making it possible to The division landed in Adelaide, South reveal that the soldiers did receive jungle produce a more complete and accurate Australia and was transported halfway warfare training once they arrived in picture of the campaign. across the continent to Camp Cable in Australia and New Guinea. Red Arrow The Red Arrow Division, which Brisbane for more training before it was veteran Wellington Francis Homminga fought in World War I and World ordered to New Guinea on September explains that the training was similar War II, originally began as a blended 13, 1942.8 The Red Arrow Division in both places, but the change in the National Guard unit with men from ended World War II with a total of 654 terrain made a significant impact on Michigan and Wisconsin. The Division days in combat, which rivaled any other their training. While in Brisbane, they had three regiments that fought during combat unit in America’s history.9 were training at Sandy Creek, and they the New Guinea Campaign: the 126th, There are discrepancies between the had general training with rifles, machine 127th, and 128th Infantry Regiments. written texts and Red Arrow veterans’ guns, grenades, terrain maneuvers, and According to an oral history with oral histories when examining whether jungle warfare. He explains that the jungle Sergeant Robert Hartmen of the 126th the men had training, and how much of warfare training increased once they

4 Robert Hartmen. 5 Public Relations Office, 32nd Infantry Division, 13,000 Hours, 4. 6 Major General H. W. Blakeley, The 32nd Infantry Division in World War II (Nashville: The Battery Press, 1957), 10-11. 7 Blakeley, 20. 8 Blakeley, 33. 9 Blakeley, inside cover. 10 Blakeley, 9. 11 Gailey, 102. 12 Blakeley, 10. 26 The New Guinea Campaign: A New Perspective Through the Use of Oral Histories arrived in Brisbane, Australia. There they I told Generals MacArthur and There are two main examples seen were sent out into the Blue Gum woods Sutherland, MacArthur’s Chief of Staff, in the descriptions of the jungle terrain with a series of compass readings, and that I thought the 32d Division was that lack detail, oversimplify, and do they had to find their way back. They not sufficiently trained to meet the not draw conclusions about how it used the compass to find a specific area or Japanese veterans on equal terms.14 affected the soldiers while in battle. person that was designated as their goal. First, written histories tend to generalize In his oral history, Homminga compares According to an oral history with Red the hardships of the terrain, glossing this training to the training the soldiers Arrow veteran Stephen Janicki, while over the effects it had on the soldiers’ received immediately after arriving in the soldiers were not fully trained for fighting conditions. Authors like Samuel New Guinea. He states, “You walked jungle warfare, they were somewhat Milner in his book Victory in Papua, The into the jungle and you immediately prepared for Japanese tactics because War in the Pacific fail to recognize how did not know where you were, the only of the instructions they received from the terrain affected the men. He writes, thing you had to go by was the compass the Australians. While the soldiers were “The terrain, as varied as it is difficult, headings.”13 He says that in Australia the in Brisbane, Australian officers came is a military nightmare. Towering saw- soldiers at least had some sense of where to their camp and trained them on toothed mountains, densely covered they were going, but in New Guinea they Japanese tactics and operations. Janicki by mountain forest and rain forest…”16 could wander around for hours in the recalls the Australian officers telling This statement draws attention to jungle without knowing where they were. them to be on alert because the Japanese the problematic terrain, but it fails to Homminga’s oral history reveals that the were cunning, ruthless, and that they recognize and make any connections men did receive training that was related were everywhere, including in the trees. to how it affected the soldiers who to jungle warfare and that they were The officers explained that the Japanese were fighting a war in the middle of trained on how to venture through the would tie themselves to trees, which it. Author Harry Gailey also uses such jungles of New Guinea. These insights, meant that the soldiers had to watch broad statements in his book, MacArthur revealed through oral histories, at least both the ground and the jungle canopy Strikes Back Decision at Buna: New Guinea partially contradict what the written in order to defend themselves from the 1942-1943 when he writes: histories, such as the official history, assert cunning Japanese. Later in Janicki’s oral about the men’s training. history, he refers to his training and The area around Buna was The second issue that the text recalls that they realized that what the dominated by the Girua River, draws attention to is in the official Australians had told them was true, that which emptied into the bay written history of the 32nd Infantry the Japanese were in the trees, so they through several channels. One of Division where it examines General began to fire upon the trees while in these, Entrance Creek, wound its Eichelberger’s (Commander of the combat.15 Janicki’s oral history adds new way between the village and the Eighth Army of which the 32nd was insight into the wartime experiences government station. To the east a part) controversial book, Our Jungle of the Red Arrow Division. While the was a huge swamp formed by Road to Tokyo where he writes: written histories portray the troops the backup of the river over the as lacking and incapable because of low-lying ground. These natural In Washington I had read General insufficient training, the oral histories obstacles alone would make it MacArthur’s estimates of his two reveal that the training the men received difficult for troops moving toward infantry divisions, [32nd and 41st] helped them while they were involved Buna from the interior.17 and these reports and our own in action. This shows that while the inspections had convinced my staff soldiers may have been undertrained, This written account observes that the and me that the American troops were the limited jungle training that they did terrain caused problems for the troops, in no sense ready for jungle warfare. have was of value to them. but it does not explain how the terrain

13 Wellington Francis Homminga, oral history, MMHI. 14 Blakeley, 25. 15 Stephen Janicki, oral history, MMHI. 16 Samuel Milner, Victory in Papua, The War in the Pacific, (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1957), 56. 17 Gailey, 37.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 27 affected the soldiers themselves. Milner their foxholes when the tide was out, This statement identifies general also over generalizes why the terrain was and when it came back in their holes problems, but Taaffe does not explain a military nightmare. He writes, would fill up with six to seven inches of these problems specifically. The oral water.19 Homminga also tells about the histories again reveal what such It rained steadily during the preceding trouble the soldiers incurred because of problems meant to the soldiers and how few weeks, and the heavy tropical swampy conditions that they had to deal they affected the course of the campaign. downpour continued….Except for with, recalling that they were in swamps For example, when dealing with the a few abandoned plantations and with water up to their knees for three to issue of mobility, Red Arrow veteran mission stations, the corridor was a four days at a time and that they would Homminga explains that the jungle trails sodden welter of jungle and swamp, sleep in them, eat in them, and relieve were extremely muddy and went up an utter nightmare for any force themselves in them because they had and down cliffs that were at seventy-five operating in it.18 nowhere else to go. He also explains degree angles.22 Hartmen also describes how at one point after spending days the difficulties of these muddy cliffs. With details such as these, the going through the swamps he stopped He states, “It was a nightmare. We reader is left questioning what sort on dry land, and when he took his would take three steps forward and we of a nightmare was it for the actual shoes off for the first time after being would slide two steps back.”23 Both common soldiers, and what were their soaked through for days on end, his men also describe the difficulties of experiences like in this nightmare? skin came off with them.20 The oral sight in a dense jungle. Hartmen says The written texts document that the histories thus reveal more detailed that the troops could not see twenty to terrain was so miserable that it could information than the written histories thirty feet in front of them and that this be explained as a military nightmare, do, going beyond simply stating that the caused problems because they never but they do not examine how it directly rivers and swamps caused difficulties to knew who was shooting at them or affected the soldiers. showing how they did. whom they were shooting at. Veteran Through the use of the Red Arrow The second major discrepancy seen Stephen Janicki also goes into detail accounts the necessary details that are between the written and oral histories is about how the lack of visibility because not seen in the written histories are used an oversimplification on the hardships of the terrain affected their mobility. He to help interpret how the hardships and negative effects of the jungle terrain describes the field of vision as being of the terrain affected the men while and the soldiers’ continuing ability limited to two feet and that the jungle in battle. For example, according to to fight. Written histories typically was overgrown. He said that the soldiers the veterans, the rivers caused several oversimplify the problems of hiking never knew which way the bullets were problems. Hartmen explains that through the terrain. In MacArthur’s coming from, and they would holler crossing the rivers in New Guinea could Jungle War: The 1944 New Guinea out to each other, “It is coming from the be easy, but was often quite difficult. Campaign Stephen Taaffe states: right!” or “It is coming from the left!”24 He describes the river during flood These oral history accounts provide season as being especially dangerous New Guinea’s remote and hostile richer descriptions of how the terrain because it was easy to lose one’s balance terrain challenged an American affected the troops while in action. The with a full pack and rifle. Hartmen military establishment that written histories state that there were also describes the troubles of being emphasized firepower, technology, problems, but they do not explain how in a watery terrain in regards to their simplicity, mobility, and material these problems arose, or how the men foxholes. His description is that it would superiority. In order to win the coped with them. Through the use of rain two times a day, and they were campaign, MacArthur had to oral histories the reasoning and evidence between the mountains and the ocean in overcome not only the Japanese for why the troop’s mobility was a spot where the land was low and the but also the big island’s horrendous hindered becomes clear. jungle was thick. There they would dig topography and climate.21

18 Milner, 82. 19 Hartmen. 20 Homminga. 21 Stephen Taaffe, MacArthur’s Jungle War: The 1944 New Guinea Campaign (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 5. 22 Homminga. 23 Hartmen. 24 Janicki.

28 The New Guinea Campaign: A New Perspective Through the Use of Oral Histories While most written histories do not the men, not only physically, but with 1942 when U.S. Military Police and utilize oral history accounts, Gailey the tasks of cooking as well. This oral Australian soldiers clashed outside of does effectively use a total of five oral history gives the necessary narrative Brisbane, Australia. The result was that histories in MacArthur Strikes Back. In for the reader to understand why the one Australian solider was killed and an interview with First Sergeant Paul terrain was difficult for the troops to nine were wounded. The following day, Lutjens describing how the effects of the maneuver. Gailey’s use of oral histories Australian troops randomly attacked terrain impeded the soldiers when they and interviews are exceptional, and American soldiers, which ended with were hiking to Jaure, a location in New they help provide richer context in twenty-one injured. This written text Guinea, Gailey writes: regards to how events or obstacles such emphasizes, “The blending together of as the terrain affected the troops while U.S. and Australian systems did not It was one green hell to Jaure. We in combat. While Gailey does not cite work well.”27 When Gailey examines the went up and down continuously; oral histories often in his account of American and Australian officers’ and the company would be stretched the New Guinea Campaign, the small soldiers’ attitudes toward each other, he over two to three miles. We’d start number of examples he does cite clearly uses secondary sources to conclude that at six every morning by cooking demonstrate the value of oral histories. the antipathy felt by individual soldiers rice or trying to. Two guys would The oral histories offer evidence on why extended to the officers as well.28 In work together. If they could start the terrain caused problems in mobility. addition Gailey writes, “Contrary to a fire, which was hard because the They describe why the obstacles in the the myths that developed in the years wood was wet even when you cut terrain such as steep cliffs, mud, water, after the war, they [off-duty American deep into the center of the log, swamps, and overgrown jungle slowed and Australian servicemen] did not they’d mix a little bully beef into the men down, which affected their like one another.”29 On the other hand, a canteen cup with rice, to get the fighting conditions. The oral history oral histories expose a different primary starchy taste out of it. Sometimes excerpt that Gailey used provides perspective. They reveal that the we’d take turns blowing on sparks evidence that these personal accounts relationships were positive, rather than trying to start a fire, and keep it up add new perspectives and insight into the vexing relationships that the written for two hours without success. I why the terrain affected the troops and texts portray. could hardly describe the country. how it affected them. The Red Arrow veteran’s oral histories It would take five or six hours to Through the use of first-hand oral have provided a more accurate, clearer go a mile; edging along cliff walls, history accounts a new perspective is picture when examining the complex hanging on to vines, up and down, also given in regards to the American and nature of the American and Australian up and down. The men got weaker; Australian soldiers’ relationships. The soldiers’ relationships. The oral histories guys began to lag back….An officer oral histories of the Red Arrow veterans reveal that the common everyday stayed at the end of the line to keep provide a more accurate, clearer picture soldiers did get along well with each driving the stragglers. There wasn’t when examining the complex nature of other and were even helpful to one any way of evacuating to the rear. the American and Australian soldiers’ another. Hartmen’s oral history examines Men with sprained ankles hobbled interactions. Written histories like Gailey’s their interactions, and he concludes along as well as they could, driven MacArthur Strikes Back tend to focus on that the Auzzies were good people, on by fear of being left behind.25 the friction between the Australian and they were terrific fighters, and they got American soldiers. Gailey writes that along well with the soldiers, especially Gailey’s use of this oral history gives the relation between off-duty American in New Guinea. He states, “They were personal details about why the men had and Australian servicemen was vexing.26 darn good men.”30 He also goes into troubles with mobility. It shows how the His book focuses on such incidents as depth about how the Australians and watery conditions made it difficult on one which occurred on November 26, Americans worked well together, unlike

25 Gailey, 108-109. 26 Gailey, 155. 27 Gailey, 156. 28 Gailey, 156. 29 Gailey, 155. 30 Hartmen.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 29 what the written texts document. that the two systems, as Gailey refers settlements dotted the flat malarial Hartmen tells how the Australians gave to them, got along well, were helpful north coastline, but inland the lush the Americans advice on how to fight. to one another, respected one another, tropical jungle swallowed men and They told them to keep their heads and saved each other’s lives by sharing equipment.35 down and to follow their common information. By utilizing oral histories, sense. Red Arrow veteran Erwin new perspectives and new insights After this statement, which is lacking Veneklase also goes into depth on the have been added to what the written in detail, the text goes on to describe Australian soldiers. Veneklase describes texts document. The written texts look aspects of the terrain. It does not how the Australians gave them helpful at legitimate points during which the examine the details of the various advice. At one point in New Guinea, an soldiers may not have gotten along, but diseases or the effects of the disease on Australian soldier told him, “Don’t shoot they fail to recognize the whole story. the soldiers and their abilities to fight the Japanese, let him go by and then They do not show that the two groups while in combat. you hit them in the back of the head did get along the majority of the time. Dysentery is also vaguely addressed with a gun…take your knife and cut The oral histories do recognize that in MacArthur Strikes Back. Gailey their throat, that don’t make a sound.”31 while the Australians and Americans had inadequately addresses the issue of This may sound like gruesome advice, reasons not to get along together, they the many tropical diseases. He writes, but it was something that could save still did. These first-hand accounts show “Intestinal disorders and skin diseases the American soldiers’ lives. The oral that they were friendly and even helpful were epidemic. Severe diarrheas histories show that the relation between to one another, which is something that and dysentery could not be treated the Americans and their Australian the written texts fail to document. adequately given the conditions along allies was amiable and helpful. Janicki The effects of various tropical diseases the trail…”36 Milner also explains the says, “We went into Brisbane and the in the New Guinea Campaign are also problem of dysentery with insufficient Australian officers came in and told us characterized more accurately and in detail. Milner writes, “Dysentery was how the Japanese operated.”32 Janicki more detail in the oral histories than the most widespread affliction.”37 Gailey also explains how the Australian’s advice in the written histories, which tend and Milner refer to the vastness of helped save their lives. He says that to be vague and inaccurate. These the various diseases, but neither one while they were training in Australia, the discrepancies between the written examines indepth the effects that these Australians had given them life saving and oral histories can be seen in the tropical diseases had on the men. advice about the necessity of watching descriptions of the tropical diseases, The Red Arrow veterans’ oral histories both ahead of them and above them. dysentery, the physical effects of malaria, provide the dramatic descriptions and After active combat in New Guinea and in the number of cases of malaria. necessary information on the effects he recalls, “They realized what the The pamphlet New Guinea, issued by of the various diseases on the soldiers’ Australians had told them was true the U.S. Army shortly after the war, is a ability to fight, and they provide the about the Japanese tying themselves prime example of how the written texts necessary context to understanding in the trees.”33 Many of the Red Arrow are too vague when describing tropical the written records. In Hartmen’s oral veterans respected the Australians diseases in the New Guinea Campaign. history, he says that there were flies all because they recognized the hardships It says: over the food, and the men were getting they were going through without dysentery because of it. He explains that receiving much repayment. Veneklase Disease thrived on New Guinea. they were all passing blood, and the states, “I would say I have the highest Malaria was the greatest debilitator, medics did not know what to do about regards for the Australian people. I was but dengue fever, dysentery, scrub, it because it was not a couple of men, making more in the service than the typhus, and a host of other tropical but the whole regiment of two to three guys in Australia were making working sickness awaited unwary soldiers thousand men.38 Janicki also describes seven days a week.”34 This also shows in the jungle. Scattered tiny coastal the effects of dysentery on him. He says 31 Erwin Veneklase. 32 Janicki, oral history. 33 Janicki, oral history. 34 Veneklase, oral history. 35 U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II, “New Guinea,” 1. 36 Gailey, 51-52. 37 Milner, 197. 38 Hartmen.

30 The New Guinea Campaign: A New Perspective Through the Use of Oral Histories that he entered the war weighing one written statement does not describe Veteran Stephen Janicki also explains hundred and eighty pounds and he left what the weakening effects were or what the symptoms of malaria. In his oral the hospital weighing one hundred and malaria did to the men who were trying history he says, “you got a high fever, twenty pounds because of dysentery.39 to fight a war in the dense New Guinea and you became soaking wet with Descriptive details such as these add jungle while being infected with this sweat, and then you would suddenly be new insight into what the effects of horrific tropical disease. absolutely freezing.”44 He explains that dysentery were on the men. Rather The Red Arrow personal narratives you would go from hot to cold, and that than plainly stating that it was a large thoroughly examine the physical effects you became delirious and eventually problem, these oral histories show that of malaria, giving a different perspective passed out.45 These descriptions also the men who were suffering from these on the “debilitating disease” and its give a different look into the disease tropical diseases, especially dysentery, “weakening effects.” malaria than the written histories do. were impeded by the effects while Red Arrow veteran Robert Hartmen They describe how malaria infected the fighting a war. They were physically goes into more detail about how malaria men, and they explain the symptoms of exhausted, they were passing blood, physically affected him while fighting in the disease. By utilizing oral histories, and they were losing an extensive New Guinea. In his oral history he states: a detailed description of the disease amount of weight, which crippled them is given rather than the simple vague while trying to march through a dense, [I] had a 103-degree/104 degree statements in the written histories such mountainous jungle, fighting a war. fever, and I went to the medics. as, “Malaria and exhaustion were taking Malaria is another example of a There they gave me twenty-five a toll on the men inside and outside the tropical disease that is not adequately grams of quinine, and they lay me block.”46 Oral histories give a more vivid described by the written histories in down on the ground. They put a description and definition of malaria terms of its physical effects. Malaria is cover over me and twenty-four hours than the written texts. By utilizing these generally addressed, but not with the later my fever broke, and they sent oral histories, malaria can be understood sufficient details of what it is, or how it me back to the front lines.42 in a more detailed manner, and through affected the troops. On the other hand, the use of oral histories, many aspects of the Red Arrow veterans’ oral histories This description gives a different malaria that are in the written histories provide these necessary details, which perspective on how it directly affected and are wrong can be corrected. the written histories tend to gloss the common soldier. It shows how The written histories also give over. In MacArthur Strikes Back, Gailey severe their fevers were and what little inaccurate information in terms of the states, “Malaria was a scourge, and the medical help was available to aid them. number of cases of malaria in the New hard pressed officers, faced with an Red Arrow veteran Homminga also Guinea Campaign. Had the authors increasing number of battle casualties, describes malaria in a more detailed utilized oral histories, these false could do little to aid those who had the way that gives a new perspective on the descriptions would not have occurred. debilitating disease.”40 This statement disease. He states, Stephen Taaffe writes in MacArthur’s raises the questions: what are the Jungle War, symptoms of malaria and how did they Malaria is a disease that is affect the men? Author Samuel Milner transmitted by the mosquito and Malaria initially caused SWPA also uses vague descriptions when it enters your system in your liver [South Pacific Area] problems. In describing malaria. He writes, “Some and kidneys. You get an extremely February 1943, for example, 23 of the men picked up malaria in the high fever and you get the chills. out of every 1000 SWPA personnel mosquito-infested swamps along the You could shake a bed across the were in hospital with malaria at any Musa, and the weakening effects of the floor….It takes days to get over an given time, and the average stay the march were apparent in the subsequent episode, but you always have the following month was twenty-eight operations of the battalion.”41 This bug in your system.43 days per afflicted patient.”47 39 Janicki. 40 Gailey, 52. 41 Milner, 107. 42 Hartmen. 43 Homminga. 44 Janicki. 45 Janicki. 46 Gailey, 185. 47 Taaffe, 117. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 31 He then adds: “It was a one hundred percent killer, By only utilizing the medical records, everyone had malaria.”49 He also goes on Taaffe is not only getting inaccurate MacArthur appointed Colonel to describe the severity of the problem, numbers, he is failing to get the full Howard Smith, a former public which also explains how inaccurate picture on why the men had to have health officer who had been the the numbers in written texts were. one hundred and five degree fevers Philippines’ chief of quarantine Homminga describes the conditions in in order to be sent to the hospital. service, to bring malaria under regards to malaria: Oral histories reveal this perspective. control. Smith and other SWPA Sergeant Hartmen explains, “We were health officers introduced DDT, After being in combat for a little bit getting to the point where we couldn’t repellent cream, atabrine (a they had too many people getting afford to lose another man to malaria. synthetic quinine), mosquito malaria so they wouldn’t let you go We were outfitted by the Japanese as it netting, and other suppressant to the medics, hospital, whatever was.”51 Red Arrow veteran Janicki also and prevention measures to the unless you had a one hundred and offers further insight into the number theatre….Such stringent measures five degree fever or passed out…. of malaria-infected soldiers. In his oral worked. In March 1944, only 2 per They were pretty picky about history, he explains that there were 1000 SWPA personnel were in the whether you had a one hundred nearly fifty to one hundred men on hospital for malaria at any given and five degree fever or not.50 the front lines at any given time, all of time, and the average stay was nine whom were suffering from malaria, yet days. In fact, as of 1 April 1944, This evidence, revealed through an oral they were still forced to fight unless their there were only 751 malaria cases history, contradicts the written texts. By fevers reached one hundred and five throughout the entire theatre.48 utilizing oral histories, the inaccuracies degrees or they fainted.52 Through these in the written texts can be corrected. oral histories a new perspective on the Taaffe researches the malaria problem by While improvements may have been high number of soldiers infected with utilizing medical records from the U.S. made by 1944, the problem was not malaria is seen. The Red Arrow veterans’ Army forces in the Southwest Pacific solved. Many men had previously oral histories divulge the truth about the Area. He does not utilize oral histories contracted malaria, and once it entered campaign. They correct the written text, or examine first-person accounts. This their systems, they always had it. Also, revealing that the number of infected leads to problems because the common despite medical improvements, Taaffe men was not down, rather the troop’s soldiers, those who were infected with fails to recognize the severe conditions fevers had to reach one hundred and malaria, are not being consulted. Only the men had to be in, before they could five degrees or they had to faint in order second-hand written medical reports leave the front lines to see a medic, to be sent to a medical facility. This are used, and, in this case, they tend which explains why the U.S. medical is one aspect of the problem that the to be inaccurate, portraying malaria as records showed such a small number of written texts have failed to recognize an improving problem with fewer men cases, which in turn made the malaria making those texts inaccurate. By only contracting malaria after 1944 because problem look like it had undergone vast researching malaria through the medical of new medical improvements and improvements between 1943 and 1944. records, Taaffe is failing to understand preventions. By utilizing the soldiers’ Had the medical records recognized that the full problem that the Red Arrow oral histories, a different story is told. men on the front lines were suffering veterans’ oral histories divulge. The oral histories from Red Arrow from malaria, or had Taaffe utilized oral veterans like Janicki, Homminga, and histories, his analysis would not have Hartmen demonstrate that malaria was been so far off. a much larger problem than Taaffe’s sources indicated. Homminga explains,

48 Taaffe, 117. 49 Homminga. 50 Homminga. 51 Hartmen. 52 Janicki.

32 The New Guinea Campaign: A New Perspective Through the Use of Oral Histories In conclusion, personal narratives clearly play an important part in understanding the history of the New Guinea Campaign. Oral histories provide personal accounts from the viewpoints of both the officers and common soldiers. This adds a new perspective to what the written histories have documented in terms of training, terrain, allies’ relationships, and tropical diseases. They question the accuracy of some written texts, and they clarify other areas of the campaigns that the written texts have only vaguely examined. By utilizing oral histories, the story of the everyday individual soldier is told, which gives a different perspective and new insights into the New Guinea Campaign that cannot be seen in the written records. They collect and preserve the recorded memories of our veterans, which is a valuable and irreplaceable resource. In the words of one soldier, Wellington Francis Homminga, “The entire story comes together when oral histories are a part of it.”53 He also offers valuable insight into the positive effects of using oral histories. He remarks, “When we are gone history is gone with us, unless it is recorded, so I am glad you did this.”54 The Red Arrow veterans’ oral histories are a valuable resource that offers a different view than the written texts. They preserve our past, and in doing so, they clarify, correct, and increase the necessary descriptions in the New Guinea Campaign.

53 Homminga. 54 Homminga.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 33 Bibliography

Blakeley, Major General H.W. The 32nd Infantry Division In World War II. Nashville: The Battery Press, 1957.

Gailey, Harry A. MacArthur’s Victory: The War in New Guinea 1942-1943. New York: Presidio Press, 2004.

Gailey, Harry A. MacArthur’s Victory: The War in New Guinea 1943-1944. New York: Presidio Press, 2004.

Hartmen Robert. oral history, Michigan Military History Institute.

Homminga, Wellington Francis. oral history, Michigan Military History Institute.

Janicki, Stephen. oral history, Michigan Military History Institute.

Milner, Samuel. Victory in Papua: The War in the Pacific. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1957.

“New Guinea.” U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II, (unknown date).

“The Red Arrow in World War II,” http://www.32nd-division.org/history/ww2/32ww2.html.

Taaffe, Stephen R. MacArthur’s Jungle War: The 1944 New Guinea Campaign. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1998.

Veneklase, Erwin. oral history, Michigan Military History Institute.

Public Relations Office, 32nd Infantry Division. “13,000 Hours, Combat History of the 32nd Infantry Division - World War II, The Philippine Islands.” 1944.

34 The New Guinea Campaign: A New Perspective Through the Use of Oral Histories Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and ethnicity: A literature review

Abstract Introduction Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, (ADHD) is one of the most expensive or ADHD, is one of the most commonly mental disorders, costing U.S. citizens diagnosed child clinical syndromes $77 billion every year (Reinberg, 2004). (Ferguson, 2000; Molina & Pelham, Although ADHD effects between 3-7% 2003; Nigg, 2001). According to of U.S. children (American Psychiatric the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Association [APA], 2000), there are of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), many misconceptions about the disorder approximately 3-7% of U.S. children and concerns have been raised regarding have ADHD (American Psychiatric appropriate diagnosis and treatment Association [APA], 2000, p. 92-93). in children, adolescents, and adults. In This disorder is broken down into three addition to these concerns, several authors subtypes, each with nine symptoms: have noted that there is a lack of research predominantly inattentive type, regarding ethnicity and ADHD. The limited predominantly hyperactive/impulsive research that has been done is confusing type, and the combined type. To qualify with some studies indicating that there is for any of the three subtypes, a person no difference in rates of ADHD diagnoses must have six of the nine symptoms in (Nigg, 2001) and other studies indicating one subtype (see Appendix A). Other Shanel M. Bryant that African American children are placed stipulations are that the symptoms must McNair Scholar in behaviorally disordered classrooms at be present before the age of 7, must higher rates (Maddox & Wilson, 2004). occur for at least 6 months, must take Reid, Casat, Norton, Anastopoulus, and place in 2 or more settings (e.g. home, Temple (2001) found that teachers were school, or neighborhood), and must more likely to exhibit a bias in their cause clinically significant impairment rating scales if their students were African in social, academic, or occupational American. The purpose of this paper is functioning. Likewise, the symptoms to review the literature on ADHD, with a may not be better accounted for by particular focus on the research of ethnicity any other disorder (Brown, 2000; and ADHD. Gamarra, 2003; Hallahan & Kauffman, 2005; Hartnett, Nelson, & Rinn, 2004; Maddox & Wilson, 2004; Nigg, 2001; Root & Resnick, 2003; Samuel, Biederman, Faraone, & George, 1998; Semrud-Clikeman et al., 1999; Wilens et al., 2002; Wilkin Bloch, 2002). The first of the three subtypes is the inattentive type. Individuals in this subtype are not able to get focused or stay focused on a task or activity, and they do not pay close attention to details. Organization is a challenge because people in this group are often distracted by everything around them. While playing or completing school Andrea L. Rotzien, Ph.D. or homework, these children often Faculty Mentor lose things such as toys, papers, and books; they may even forget to bring their books home or when they do remember, they bring the wrong ones.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 35 If these students do complete their may be the result of depression, anxiety, ADHD with the subtype inattentiveness, homework, it is often full of errors boredom, poor instruction, or other which may be less obvious to parents or erasures. Children in this category environmental issues. This is why and less likely to prompt help seeking have difficulty processing information appropriate assessment and diagnosis is (Bussing et al.). Therefore, gender- as quickly and accurately as others, so critical and so controversial (Hartnett correlated behavioral problems may be so they are just seen as spacey, easily et al., 2004; Nigg, 2001). Skeptics note identified more as ADHD in boys than in confused, daydreamers, and lethargic that ADHD is not a true diagnosis, but girls due to the frequency of disruptive (National Institute of Mental Health rather the result of poor parenting and classroom behavior exhibited by boys [NIMH], n.d.; Root & Resnick, 2003; a failing educational system (Hallahan (Reid et al., 2000). Likewise, almost Wilens et al., 2002). & Kauffman, 2005). Others have 50% of children with ADHD will be Children in the second subtype, speculated that the higher rates of placed in special education programs hyperactive/impulsive, are very active behavioral disorders noted in African- for learning disabilities and behavioral and often talk without thinking. They American children may be due to cultural disorders (Reid et al., 2001). Since often blurt out answers before questions differences rather than neurobiological special education programs are found in have been completed and have trouble differences (Livingston, 1999). elementary and middle schools, ADHD playing quietly. This is the easiest was believed to be a childhood disorder subtype to recognize because being too Prevalence that was outgrown around mid-to late- active is the most visible sign of ADHD. ADHD is one of the most frequent adolescence. Yet 50%-80% of children A child does this by running around reasons children are referred to guidance will continue to have symptoms of or climbing constantly, fidgeting and clinics (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2005). ADHD into adolescence. Also about 3%- squirming, or noisily tapping pencils. Since 3-7% of school age children have 7% of adults have ADHD, yet only 15% Since children who are hyperactive need the diagnosis of ADHD, this means of them know they have ADHD (Barkley, to be in motion, they have difficulty approximately 2 million children in the Fischer, Fletcher, & Kenneth, 2002; staying seated in their chairs during United States have the disorder; therefore Steinhausen, Dreschsler, Foldenyi, Imhof, class time (NIMH, n.d.; Root & Resnick, in every classroom with 25 to 30 students & Brandeis, 2003). This may be due to 2003; Wilens et al., 2002). at least one child will have ADHD the fact that they were not diagnosed Lastly, the combined subtype brings (APA, 2000; Brown, 2000; Bussing, with ADHD as a child and that behaviors together all the characteristics of the Schoenberng, Rogers, Zima, & Angus, are exhibited differently in adulthood. inattentive and the hyperactive/impulsive 1998; Ferguson, 2000; Gamarra, 2003; For example, instead of disrupting subtypes. Children with the hyperactive/ Gingerich, Turnock, Litfin, & Rosen, classrooms, adults tend to have poorer impulsive or combined subtype cannot 1998; Hallahan & Kauffman, 2005; work records, more marital problems, sit still or are otherwise disruptive, thus Hartnett et al., 2004; Maddox & Wilson, additional car accidents, and do things they will most likely be noticed in school, 2004; Molina & Pelham, 2003; National impulsively such as smoke, shop, and but the inattentive daydreamers may be Dissemination Center for Children with talk (Maddox & Wilson, 2004). overlooked. The impulsive child who Disabilities, 2004; NIMH, n.d.; Redden et acts before thinking may be considered al., 2003; Reid et al., 2000; Reid, Casat, Etiology just a “discipline problem,” while the Norton, Anastopoulos, & Temple, 2001; Medical child who is passive or sluggish may be Root & Resnick, 2003; Samuel, et al., The exact cause of ADHD is unknown, viewed as merely unmotivated. So when 1999; Weiler, Bellinger, Marmor, Rancier, yet many researchers offer different the child’s hyperactivity, distractibility, & Waber, 1999; Wilkin Bloch, 2002). ideas as to the source of this disorder. poor concentration, or impulsivity In terms of gender, boys are diagnosed A widely accepted view centers on begin to affect performance in school, at a rate of 4 to 9 for every one girl. This the medical model which poses that social relationships with other children, occurs because boys are referred more ADHD is the result of neurological or behavior at home, ADHD may be often for behavioral problems, while girls abnormalities, brain injuries, and/or suspected (NIMH, n.d.). However, it is are referred more for learning problems genetics. The behavior of children with important to note that most children (Reid et al., 2000). Recent studies have ADHD is thought by some researchers demonstrate all of these behaviors at shown that girls may be at an increased to be caused by a structural anomaly in times, so frequency and intensity of risk of remaining underdetected and the prefrontal cortex of the brain and/or these behaviors need to be thoroughly untreated. A common explanation for neurotransmitter abnormalities (Brown, assessed. Moreover, these behaviors this is that girls are presumed to have 2000; Gamarra, 2003). Yet other

36 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and ethnicity: A literature review researchers feel that it is other parts of a moderately strong genetic link for the (“Bad Behavior”, 2005). Mothers that the brain where the dysfunction lies disorder (Gamarra, 2003). drink during pregnancy place their including the basal ganglia, cerebellum, babies at risk for developing Fetal striatal regions of the cortex, or anterior Environmental Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). One of the cortical regions (Hallahan & Kauffman, On the other hand, some researchers, hallmark symptoms of this disorder 2005; Hartnett et al., 2004; Samuel et especially mental health professionals, is ADHD. The amount of alcohol al., 1999). In regard to neurotransmitter feel that ADHD is not simply a intake that causes FAS or another less dysfunction, those with ADHD may medical issue, but is influenced by the severe disorder known as Alcohol have more dopamine transporters environment. According to Gingerich, et Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder than those without ADHD (Gamarra; al. (1998), the environmental situation is unknown, so all alcohol should be Hallahan & Kauffman). Thus even provides a lens for a person with ADHD avoided during pregnancy (Burden & though some researchers feel that the to understand and be treated. Therefore, Croxford, 2005). Finally, according to cause lies in neurological abnormalities, an appropriate “fit” between individual the Center for Children’s Health and the there is not a consensus on where the and environmental characteristics is Environment (2002), lead exposure has dysfunction is located. Scientists at the necessary to minimize distress due to been linked to IQ deficits, disruptive National Institute of Mental Health the disorder (Gingerich et al.). Many behavior, and inattention in school (NIMH) suggest that ADHD has a factors go into the environmental children. It has also been linked to biological basis that serves as a link situation, including family life, society, ongoing behavioral problems in adults. between a person’s ability to pay close and culture. Under the category of According to Hallahan and Kauffman attention to detail and his or her level of family life are subcategories of research (2005), some analysts believe that brain activity. These researchers feel this that include: food additives and sugar, by watching too much television and has to do with the level of glucose used television viewing, lead, and substance playing too many video games, kids by the areas of the brain that inhibit abuses during pregnancy. Beginning in will develop ADHD. To date there is impulses and control attention (Maddox the 1970s, a number of theories emerged limited evidence that watching TV & Wilson, 2004). in literature concerning the contribution increases ADHD behaviors. However, According to the medical model, of foods and other dietary factors (such one recent study found that the amount another possible cause of ADHD is as sugar intake) to the development of television exposure between the brain injury (NIMH, n.d.). Earlier of ADHD (Gamarra, 2003). A few ages of 1 and 3 increases the chances theories were based on studies of brain researchers have concluded that sugar that a child will develop attentional injured children who exhibited signs intake and food additives (in things such problems at age 7 by 10% for every or behaviors similar to those in a child as pop, cake, and candies) make a child hour of television watched (Hecht & with ADHD. In fact, one of the early more hyperactive, however improved Hecht, 2004). It is important to note terms for ADHD was Minimal Brain research has concluded that additives do that this recent research is correlational Dysfunction or MBD. Yet only a small not cause ADHD. Furthermore, children in nature, which makes it difficult percentage of children with ADHD may be more hyperactive depending on to rule out that parents who let their have suffered significant traumatic the setting in which they are receiving children watch more TV contribute brain injuries, therefore there is no sugary foods, such as a party (Hallahan et in some other ways to their children’s specific evidence for this cause (NIMH) al., 2005; NIMH, n.d.), which can make inattentive behaviors, perhaps because in a majority of cases. As for genetics, determining cause and effect difficult. they provide less supervision. In the attention disorders often run in families, Some professionals feel that there are same way, poor parenting skills or so there are likely genetic influences possible correlations between the use of family environments probably do (NIMH). Research indicates that 25% cigarettes and alcohol during pregnancy not cause ADHD, but could make a of close relatives in families of ADHD and the risk of ADHD or high levels of situation worse. For example, poor children also have ADHD, whereas lead in the body and ADHD (NIMH, parenting could result in a child being the rate is about 5% in the general n.d.). In terms of cigarettes, a recent unprepared for school, this could lead population. Twin studies have also twin study conducted by researchers at to misbehavior and a higher likelihood demonstrated strong evidence for a link London’s Institute of psychiatry found of referrals by the teacher. If the between genetics and ADHD (Maddox a “small but significant” link between professional conducting the referred & Wilson, 2004; NIMH). Therefore, maternal smoking during pregnancy evaluation does not do a thorough these studies suggest that there may be and conduct disorder and ADHD job, it is possible that the child will

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 37 be misdiagnosed and unnecessarily other psychological disorders that matter, it should be left to specialists medicated (Hallahan & Kauffman). A could better account for the problems. who should have sufficient time to similar hypothesis is made that teachers Interviewing sources is a critical part conduct careful evaluations and be well in poor, inner city schools over identify of the assessment because they provide acquainted with all the disorders that some students as having ADHD, thus information about a child’s physical and share characteristics of ADHD (Perry). they are blaming the children rather psychological characteristics as well The process of assessing ADHD may be than their poor training or the absence as his or her home life and how they time consuming; yet gathering as much of the appropriate tools for inattentive, interact with peers. A complete review information about the client is critical behaviorally disordered students of a child’s records consists of looking in accurately concluding if a child or an (Hallahan & Kauffman). Finally there at report cards, achievement tests, adult has the disorder. are sociocultural misunderstandings psychoeducational assessments, and that can occur. In other words, different medical/psychological treatment records Diagnosis cultures may have different standards to determine if a child’s hyperactive and/ Since ADHD symptoms vary across for what is and is not acceptable or inattentive behavior was observed settings, ADHD can be difficult to behavior. For example, African- early on in the child’s life. Structured diagnose (NIMH, n.d.). It is also not American boys are allowed to be more diagnostic interviews and Child uncommon to hear of misdiagnosis of aggressive than Caucasian boys in Behavior Checklists (CBCL) are often ADHD, wherein a child’s behaviors are society and school, and Asian-American the primary focus of assessment, yet if attributed to ADHD when in actuality students are seen as more disciplined a checklist is used as the only means of they are caused by or related to some and studious than any other ethnic determining ADHD, the possibility of other conditions or traits, such as group. There is no conclusive medical confusing ADHD with other disorders giftedness (Hartnett et al., 2004). Given method for identifying ADHD, neither increases (Hartnett et al., 2004; Maddox that ADHD tends to affect functioning is there a conclusive environmental & Wilson, 2004; Reid et al., 2001; most strongly at school, teachers cause for it, thus controversy about Stein, Roizen, & Leventhal, 1999). may be the first to recognize a child’s ADHD exists and many wonder if Often times these checklists address hyperactive and inattentive symptoms children are being over diagnosed and only the expressions of the behavior, and may point it out to parents or overmedicated (Hartnett, et al., 2004; which can be biased or inaccurate. consult with the school psychologist Zavadenko, 2002). According to Perry (1998), to help (NIMH). Therefore having a teacher in assessing ADHD, specialists must involved in the assessment of ADHD Assessment consider the following questions: “Are is vital, yet at times doctors and Despite the fact that the cause is unclear, these behaviors excessive, long-term, psychologists may be influenced by a the proper way to assess ADHD is and pervasive and do they occur more teacher’s subjectivity and preconceived known. The assessment process should often than in kids the same age? Are notion about the child, and this may include a physical exam, interviewing at they a continuous problem, not just a result in the over diagnosis of ADHD. least three sources (parent(s), teacher(s), response to a temporary situation? Does Also, if the disorder is not thoroughly and child), the use of child behavior the behavior occur in several settings assessed, it may be confused with such rating scales (by parents and teachers), a or only in one specific place like the things as anxiety, depression, giftedness, review of a child’s complete school and playground or classroom?” (p. 113). a learning disability, bipolar disorder, health records, psychological testing, Once these questions are addressed, the conduct disorder, and oppositional and behavioral observations of the child person’s pattern of behavior is compared defiant disorder. Misdiagnosis also as well as parent and child interactions against the criteria listed in the DSM-IV- has potentially harmful consequences (Gamarra, 2003; HaileMariam, Bradley- TR for ADHD. It is very important when (Hartnett et al., 2004). Once an ADHD Johnson, & Johnson, 2002; Hallahan comparing individuals with ADHD with diagnosis is placed on the child it & Kauffman, 2005; Root & Resnick, others to make sure that people of their may be very difficult to perceive his 2003; Weiler et al., 1999; and Wilkin ethnicity are included. According to or her behavior any other way but Bloch, 2002). A physical exam is needed Gamarra (2003), the instruments used within that framework (Hartnett to rule out other medical problems in evaluating the client should measure et al.). Also, stimulant medication that may cause or relate to ADHD the same constructs in different cultures given unnecessarily leads to appetite symptomatology, while psychological to avoid systematic bias. Because the suppression, insomnia, irritability, testing looks to see if there are any assessment of ADHD is not a simple anxiety, sadness, and nightmares

38 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and ethnicity: A literature review (Hartnett et al.). Unnecessary pill- estimated that the diagnosis was about up quickly, so it should not be wasted popping as a child can even possibly 20 times higher in the United States on people who do not need it at all. lead to depression in adulthood (Wren, than in England. It was concluded that Treatment plans should be tailored 2005). In the same way, missing the it occurred more in the U.S. because to the specific needs of the child and diagnosis of ADHD can incapacitate a of different diagnostic criteria used his or her family (Maddox & Wilson, person from functioning at his or her and differences in cultural training of 2004). The daily class schedules, length fullest potential (Hartnett et al.). the professionals making the diagnosis of school day, and homework demands Some medical doctors and across and within countries (Gamarra). all should be investigated in the process psychologists tend to think ADHD Effective treatment options do exist, but of the treatment planning for ADHD diagnosis is not very difficult or they a correct diagnosis must first be given as well (Livingston, 1999). There are may be influenced by a teacher’s (Hartnett et al., 2004). differences in overall demands of the subjectivity and preconceived notion school environment between private about the child; this results in ADHD Treatment religious schools, other private schools, over-diagnosis and misdiagnosis Once the diagnosis of ADHD is given and public schools, and this must be (Zavadenko, 2002). A case study there are two treatment options: the taken into account as well. Private by Wolston and Caracansi (1999) medication-only approach and the and public schools also vary as to the provides the first published report of combination of the medication with the knowledge of the staff about ADHD undiagnosed comorbid Graves disease behavioral or psychosocial treatment. and tolerance for imperfect behavior complicating the treatment of Tourette’s The combination of the medication (Livingston). According to Maddox and disorder and ADHD. This case report and treatment has been proven the Wilson, the treatment of ADHD requires provides an example of the deleterious most effective because it not only gives medical, educational, behavioral, and interaction between metabolic and clients medication, but it gives them psychological treatment. This involves psychiatric disorders in childhood. time to talk about what is going on parent training, behavior intervention In the case study, a young boy was with them and how their behaviors can strategies, an appropriate educational sent to a pediatrician, neurologist, be adjusted (Ferguson, 2000; Redden program, education regarding ADHD, and special education teachers for et al., 2003). On the other hand, individual and family counseling, and testing. The pediatrician focused on skeptics have noted that the amount medication when required (Arnold et the diabetes mellitus (DM) type one, of methylphenidate prescribed in the al., 2003; Maddox & Wilson). the neurologist attempted to treat the United States is much higher than any ADHD and Tourette’s disorder, and the other country and they feel it is because Ethnicity special education staff grappled with those prescribing the medications are Even though there is a wealth of his behavioral problems. Since the three doing so inappropriately (Jensen et al., information available on ADHD, the care providers had only minimal contact 1999). In prevalence studies, African- vast majority of research on these with one another, no effort was made American children have less psychiatric individuals has been carried out on to integrate the clinical understanding medication use relative to Caucasian white, male, middle-class subjects of the child’s worsening symptoms or children (Stevens, Harman, & Kelleher, (Gamarra, 2003; Gingerich et al., 1998; to view this deterioration as a signal for 2005). Therefore, even though African Maddox & Wilson, 2004; Samuel et al., further medical evaluation. Therefore, Americans are being diagnosed with 1999). Diversity variables have been fragmented medical care for children ADHD more, they are being treated for generally overlooked in assessment, with complex psychiatric and medical ADHD less often. On the other hand, diagnosis, and treatment of individuals disorders significantly increases the risk once an ADHD diagnosis is given, there with ADHD in the United States; yet for missed diagnosis and subsequent is no difference in care found between the disorder is looked on in a different mistreatment (Wolston & Caracansi). Caucasians and Hispanics (Stevens light internationally. Gingerich, et al., Research has also been conducted et al.). About 80% of children who noted that in most cultures, some comparing the frequency of diagnosis need medication for ADHD still need children display disruptive behavior of ADHD in the U.S., versus countries it as teenagers and over 50% need the that is considered by adults to be such as England (Gamarra, 2003). By medication as adults (NIMH, n.d.). unacceptable; however, important examining clinical records including Thus the stimulant medication given for differences exist between cultures drug prescription records, case registries, ADHD is something that is often needed in regard to symptom terminology, and epidemiological studies, it was for a lifetime and the cost of it can add diagnostic criteria, and treatment

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 39 modalities (Gingerich, et al.). In other More recent research has found of ADHD contributes greatly to words, what adults in one culture that there are differences in the rate overrepresentation of African-American may tolerate behaviorally may not be of hyperactivity as well. Compared to children in special education classes. tolerated in another one. Gingerich, Caucasians, African-American children African-American males are particularly et al., also noted that beliefs about have the highest rate of hyperactivity overrepresented in certain special etiology vary widely internationally and Asian Americans have the lowest education programs, as well as more and there is a lack of uniformity in rate (APA, 2000; Brown, 2000; Bussing likely to experience certain disciplinary assessment instruments. For example, et al., 1998; Ferguson, 2000; Gamarra, practices (e.g. recipients of corporal professional psychologists and 2003; Gingerich et al., 1998; Hallahan punishment and suspension). pediatricians from the United States & Kauffman, 2005; Hartnett et al., It is possible that these differences are and Italy were given a case description 2004; Maddox & Wilson, 2004; Molina a result of stereotypes. In a 2000 survey of a boy with disruptive behavior & Pelham, 2003; NIMH, n.d.; Redden by Williams (as cited in Maddox & and the professionals did not differ in et al., 2003; Reid et al., 2000; Reid Wilson, 2004), research on stereotypes the frequency of diagnosing ADHD. et al., 2001; Root & Resnick, 2003; revealed many whites view African However, they did significantly differ Samuel et al., 1999; Weiler et al., 1999; Americans negatively. Twenty-nine in the assessment to diagnose ADHD. Wilkin Bloch, 2002). Yet the problem percent of whites felt blacks were Americans used more assessment is that we are uncertain whether these unintelligent, 44% felt they were lazy, procedures than Italians, and they differences are due to real differences and 56% felt blacks preferred to live also differed in their beliefs regarding among the groups, rater bias due to on welfare. Only a small percentage etiology: Italians cited environmental ethnicity, or a combination of the two of whites reported positive views of influences and Americans more (Hallahan & Kauffman; Reid et al., blacks. Only 20% believed blacks were frequently cited organic influences 2000; Reid et al., 2001). Reid, et al. intelligent, 17% felt most blacks were (Gingerich, et al.). The prevalence rates (2001) addressed the issue of rater bias hard working, 13% felt blacks prefer of ADHD internationally also vary from with teachers and found that teachers to be self supporting, and 15% felt country to country. In Canada, the rate do exhibit a bias in their ratings if their most blacks were not prone to violence for boys is 9% and 3.3% for girls. In students are African American. The (Maddox & Wilson). China, the rates range from 1.3% to study showed that teachers considered Despite the fact that African-American 13.6%, depending on the assessment African-American males 2.5 times children are diagnosed as behaviorally instruments utilized. In Puerto Rico, more likely than Caucasian males to disordered at much higher rates, they the prevalence rates are around 9.5%. have ADHD and African-American are unlikely to receive treatment. On the other hand, in Israel the rate is females 3.5 times more likely to have Research conducted by Bussing, et al. 3.9% (Gingerich, et al.). the disorder. Caucasian teachers (1998) showed that African-American Not only does the ADHD diagnosis rated African Americans higher than families are less likely to receive vary internationally, it varies across white students; however, African- information or education about ADHD the races in the United States as well. American teachers on average rated from health-care providers and reported A study was conducted in 1974 African-American students somewhat using fewer health services for their by Blunden (as cited in Gingerich lower. African-American teachers children with ADHD. Also it revealed et al., 1998) that compared 1,300 tended to perceive less difference that African-American parents were African-American, Hispanic, and between African-American and white less likely to apply behavioral problem Asian-American children to the “white students than did white teachers. labels or imply their child had ADHD, norms” using the hyperactivity rating Thus, African-American students but they simply considered their child scale. It was reported that African- were more likely to be rated higher if to be “bad.” Furthermore, Arnold, et al. American children had the highest mean they were rated by a white teacher as (2003) reported that African Americans hyperactivity rating, Asian-Americans opposed to an African-American one more often use such coping strategies as had the lowest, and the mean ratings (Reid et al., 2001). In 1991, African- “counting one’s blessings” or religiosity for Hispanics were around that of the American children constituted 16% rather than seeking services. If the above white norm’s average. A similar study nation’s school population and 35% notion is true, those who are seeking was conducted in 1977 by Anderson (as of the special education population. services are those with more severe cited in Gingerich, et al.) reached the Teacher bias in the referral process disorders, who are more impaired, and same findings. combined with biases in the assessment have greater comorbidity (Arnold et al.).

40 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and ethnicity: A literature review It is clear that there are important symptomology. The authors suggest of parents, teachers, and physicians is cultural differences in the demands that one reason for the decreased rate essential for the correct diagnosis and of the environment in the homes, of hyperactivity in Hispanics could be treatment of all childhood behaviors” schools, and communities of people because of acculturation, which has (HaileMariam et al., 2002, p. 99). from different ethnic and cultural been associated with maternal reports Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder groups (Livingston, 1999). In regard to of ADHD symptomatic children. across the lifespan costs the United socioeconomic status SES, poor rural This occurs because as the rate of States billions of dollars, thus early areas are found to have higher rates of acculturation increases, the rate of and accurate diagnosis is important. ADHD versus urban areas (Gamarra, ADHD maternal reports decreases It is equally important to find out if 2003). Also cultural variations exist (Stevens et al.). practitioners are exhibiting biases on in attitudes and beliefs about illness, Moreover, low SES has been identified the basis of ethnicity and to correct choice of care, access to care, degree as a risk factor for developing ADHD it as quickly as possible. Given the of trust toward majority institutions for several possible reasons (Reid et biopsychological nature of ADHD and and authority figures, and tolerance for al., 2001). SES may be associated with the evidence that ethnic bias exists, certain behaviors. Failure to have ADHD other ADHD risk factors (e.g. marital it is surprising that more research diagnosed earlier in life does not appear discord, large family size, and foster has not been conducted regarding to be rare, but may be partly a function care placement). Low SES may expose the perceptions of individuals who of ethnicity (Livingston). Culturally kids to environmental or psychosocial may diagnosis or treat ADHD. Future specific health beliefs and health stressors and may help explain why research should examine the potential behavior may explain a significant these children are more hyperactive for bias in these professionals. Finally, amount of care-seeking and adherence, than those children who come from more research is needed regarding the patterns, but very little is known about families higher in status. Given that increased likelihood of special education whether and how ethnicity influences minorities are more likely to have a placement for African American health perceptions and practices lower socioeconomic status and that children. This fact conflicts with concerning ADHD (Bussing et al., 50% of unserved children with ADHD growing evidence that these children 1998). Cultural differences in parent are African American (Maddox & are not always perceived as behaviorally perceptions, teacher perceptions, and Wilson, 2004), it is possible that ethnic disordered by their parents, nor in cases socioeconomic status all play a role in differences in ADHD symptomology are where an ADHD diagnosis is accurate, determining if a child is hyperactive. really economic differences. are they receiving the appropriate Stevens et al., (2005) found that treatment. For those African American Hispanics and African Americans were Conclusion children who do indeed have ADHD, less likely to be diagnosed with ADHD A pediatrician once stated “ADHD has the lack of medication and therapy may by parent report than white children. become a wastebasket diagnosis for result in lifelong consequences. In this study, the Hispanic group had any child demonstrating inappropriate the lowest level of reported ADHD behavior…a renewal of the mindset

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 41 Appendix A: Diagnostic Criteria for Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A. Six or more of the following symptoms of inattention must have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental levels:

Inattention 1. often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities 2. often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities 3. often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly 4. often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace 5. often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities 6. often avoids, dislikes, or reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort 7. often loses things necessary for tasks or activities 8. is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli 9. is often forgetful in daily activities

Six or more of the following symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental levels:

Hyperactivity 10. often fidgets with hands and feet or squirms in seat 11. often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected 12. often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate 13. often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly 14. is often “on the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor” 15. often talks excessively

Impulsivity 16. often blurts out answers to questions before they have been completed 17. often has difficulty awaiting turn 18. often interrupts or intrudes on others

B. Onset before the age of 7.

C. Some impairment from the symptoms is present in two or more settings.

D. There must be clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning.

E. The symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of a Pervasive Developmental Disorder, Schizophrenia, or other Psychotic Disorders and are not better accounted for by another mental disorder.

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44 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and ethnicity: A literature review Second language acquisition programs: An assessment of the bilingual education debate

Abstract Introduction Second language acquisition programs In the United States, bilingual are frequently misunderstood, as various education has been the focus of a programs are often mistakenly labeled as heated nationwide debate since the bilingual education. Inaccurate labeling 1968 implementation of the Bilingual creates confusion and fuels the already Education Act, Title VII of the heated bilingual education debate. The Elementary and Secondary Education purpose of this research is to clearly define Act of 1965 (Ambert & Melendez, different second language acquisition 1985; Padilla, 1983). Today, thirty-seven programs, assess major arguments on years later, bilingual education continues opposing sides of this nationwide debate, to generate controversy, as linguistically and discuss program evaluations from diverse students are the fastest growing the 1991 Ramirez investigation and the group of students in the United States Rossell and Baker study (1996). In so (Samway & McKeon, 1999). Different doing, important issues regarding the world parts of the country have had their of second language acquisition programs own responses to the increase of non- will surface. Expectantly, this research will native English speakers. California, for generate, or continue, further discussion example, passed Proposition 227, an addressing these concerns in an effort anti-bilingual education amendment, in Jessica Cruz to ameliorate the confusion surrounding 1998 while other parts of the country McNair Scholar second language acquisition programs. further developed and enhanced previous bilingual education program models (Adamson, 2005). Bilingual education may be the center of the debate, but the debate is the center of field research. Numerous investigations have been executed to test the efficacy of individual second language acquisition programs including bilingual education programs; however, the validity of these studies is the focus of yet another dispute. The battle seems never ending; each argument is continuously supported or refuted by both sides of the debate. The goal in this research is not to conclude who is right and who is wrong, nor is it simply to explain the rationale behind the two opposing sides of this debate. Instead, the objective is to examine the dynamics of the debate itself. An analysis of the debate’s structure will help unveil underlying issues, which may prevent the perpetuation of this deliberation. The analysis will begin with a detailed Dennis Malaret, Ph.D. description of major second language Faculty Mentor acquisition programs, followed by an explanation of the rationale behind the support for different programs on opposing sides of the debate. Having

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 45 done so, new insight will be revealed correctly distributed as subgroups through which the student is expected concerning the debate about bilingual for the debate, the most controversial to perform at a level equivalent to education efficacy. matters will be addressed. These that of his or her classmates without matters will include the dynamics and receiving additional help. The fact Methodology the history of this significant debate. that the student is not capable of The variation amongst second language Segregation, cognitive development, the comprehending the English language is acquisition programs happens to be assimilation versus acculturation debate, not taken into consideration. Instead, a the center of an extremely controversial and language acquisition theories linguistically diverse student is simply debate currently taking place across the used to support specific programs exposed to the target language, English, nation. Professionals within the field, will be addressed as well. In addition through the instruction of academic program participants, and concerned to these issues, I will also include a content in that language (Brisk, 1998). parents all have differing opinions. section discussing program evaluations It is important to remember that native Unfortunately, many of those opinions concerning the academic achievement languages are not incorporated into lack a solid educational foundation, as and success rates of linguistically immersion programs. Immersion’s main not all are truly aware of the differences diverse students, or non-native English objective is to have students acquire and similarities between programs. speaking children. The 1991 Ramirez English proficiency as soon as possible Hence, I will begin my study by investigation will undoubtedly be one through continuous and constant exploring the uniqueness of individual of the evaluations discussed, but the submersion within the language (Brisk; second language acquisition programs. Rossell and Baker study (1996) will Baker & Jones, 1998). Furthermore, in an effort to increase also be included in order to provide an In the second program, English as accurate program awareness, a definition opposing perspective. After comparing a Second Language, or ESL, the needs and a description of the three major and contrasting second language of linguistically diverse students are program models of second language acquisition programs, considering recognized. Although this program acquisition (immersion, English as both sides of the debate, and analyzing uses English as the sole language a Second Language, and bilingual current available data furnished by of instruction, it acknowledges education) will be provided in the form these various programs and experts in the needs of linguistically diverse of a brief literature review. the field, a deductive reasoning may children by using a simplified version After describing the three major be formed regarding which program is of the English language, pictures, program models of second language most beneficial for linguistically diverse and gestures to facilitate and ensure acquisition programs, the assessment of students. In doing so, I hope to shed effective communication between the the national debate will begin. Although light on the issue of efficacy with regards students and the teacher. This program the programs can be categorized to second language acquisition programs is typically referred to as ESL Pullout differently depending on the underlying in the United States. because it often removes a child from issue being addressed within the debate, the mainstream English-only classroom I have decided to focus specifically Second Language Acquisition for a period of the day to provide target on the issue of the use of the native Programs: An Overview of Available language instruction (Baker & Jones, language as an instruction tool. Doing Literature 1998). After this instruction takes place, so will force the study to concentrate Before beginning the assessment of the the child is returned to the mainstream particularly on arguments for and against debate, one must first be familiar with classroom. ESL’s purpose is to have the bilingual education because the use of second language acquisition programs student become proficient in the English the native language within the classroom themselves, their unique approaches to language and participate in a mainstream is bilingual education’s defining factor. language acquisition, and their stated English-only classroom without an ESL Following these guidelines, the debate objectives. For instance, there are three Pullout component as soon as possible will be broken up into two groups: one general types of programs: immersion, (Ambert & Melendez, 1985). against and one in favor of bilingual English as a Second Language (ESL), The third program, bilingual education, each containing different and bilingual education. In immersion education, is the only second language second language acquisition programs as programs, also known as submersion acquisition program employing the supporting subgroups. programs, linguistically diverse students native language as an instruction tool. Once the major categories of second are expected to follow the traditional Bilingual education is implemented in language acquisition programs are “sink or swim” method—a method a variety of ways, yet these programs

46 Second language acquisition programs: An assessment of the bilingual education debate typically fall under one of bilingual placed and kept in one classroom with bilingual education, i.e. the use of the education’s major subgroups, transitional other linguistically diverse students for native language as an instruction tool. bilingual education or developmental the entire day (Baker & Jones, 1998). As was the case with Group A, Group bilingual education (Baker & Jones, In a sense, structured immersion can be B also branches off into two separate 1998). Transitional bilingual education viewed as an extension of ESL. subgroups, each favoring a different is the most commonly used form type of second language acquisition of bilingual education programs. The Bilingual Education Debate program, which in this case are In transitional programs, the native Most educators as well as parents of bilingual programs. The two supporting language is used as an instruction tool linguistically diverse children agree second language acquisition subgroups to facilitate intense English language that the main goal of second language for Group B are transitional and instruction as well as to prevent the acquisition programs is the concurrent developmental bilingual education. child from falling behind in academic mastery of English language proficiency Before beginning the assessment of areas such as mathematics or science and subsequent academic success. the debate’s rationale, it is important to (Castro Feinberg, 2002). Ideally, Unfortunately, not many agree on note that although ESL and transitional participants of this program are expected how programs are to carry out their bilingual education lie on opposite to make a transition from bilingual purpose nor is there a consensus on sides of the bilingual education debate, education to the mainstream English- whether second language acquisition they often have more similarities than only instruction within a few years. programs are, or should be, addressing differences. As will be discussed later, In developmental bilingual education, the linguistic and cultural needs of non- ESL and transitional bilingual education the native language is not simply used English speaking minorities (Samway tend to yield similar results when to facilitate intense English language & McKeon, 1999). This along with evaluated for participant academic instruction. Instead, it is employed in the previously mentioned Bilingual success (Rossell & Baker, 1996). an effort to produce bilingualism within Education Act of 1968 has led to a The reason for this may be that both its participants. The main focus of nationwide debate, which has been programs have a common goal—the developmental programs is to develop ongoing because the Act’s goal was never assimilation of the recipients into the as well as maintain cognitive skills in clearly defined (Padilla, 1983). mainstream English-only classroom the native language while acquiring and thus society as soon as possible. English proficiency and fluency Debate Dynamics and Format However, each program employs (Watts, 2005). The program’s goal is On one side of the debate, we have different methods in achieving this therefore to develop bilingualism and what I will refer to as Group A. This objective. Because the main stylistic acculturation instead of monolingualism group is completely against bilingual difference stems from the use of the and accelerated assimilation into the education, but not second language native language for instruction, the two mainstream English-only classroom, acquisition programs, because they are programs are categorized in opposition as is the case with the other second against the use of the native language to one another within the bilingual language acquisition programs. for classroom instruction, which is education debate. While immersion, ESL, and bilingual exactly what bilingual education is. education are the major program models Second language acquisition programs, Foundational Arguments for second language acquisition, many however, also include programs that The first disagreement between the other models are also implemented do not use a language other than two groups is, of course, the use of throughout the United States. Programs English as an instructional medium. a language other than English for such as structured immersion, for Therefore, although Group A may be classroom instruction; the second example, are a combination of against bilingual education itself, it is foundational argument concerns immersion and ESL because measures not necessarily against second language the history of bilingual education. are taken to ensure communication acquisition programs in general. In fact, Although this is truer for supporters between the teacher and the student, yet Group A branches off into two separate of immersion than for supporters of the student’s native language is not used subgroups, each favoring a different ESL, Group A believes that if past as an instruction tool (Brisk, 1998). second language acquisition program— immigrants succeeded in the United Unlike ESL, participants are not pulled immersion or ESL. State of America without bilingual out of the mainstream English-only On the other side of the debate, we education, then current immigrants classroom. Instead, students are simply have Group B, which is in favor of should be expected to do the same

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 47 (Crawford, 1998). Bilingual programs languages will inevitably cause cognitive assimilation, but also because this are also believed to produce segregation delays in participants of bilingual group views bilingualism as a means of since linguistically diverse students education programs. This belief is linguistic segregation. In their opinion, are taken out of the mainstream based on the underlying idea that the bilingualism will only further segregate English-only classroom and placed in a simultaneous development of two this country through linguistic and different, separate classroom in which languages, or bilingualism in general, cultural categorization, thus reinforcing the student only has contact with other creates cognitive confusion because the discrimination rather than racial linguistically diverse students (Guzman, child will have to constantly differentiate harmony and unity under one common 2002; Baker, 1996). between two languages (Brisk, 1998). language (Crawford, 1998). Group B, on the other hand, affirms Group B, however, argues that cognitive As for Group B, while transitional that although the Bilingual Education confusion and delay are actually the bilingual education does aim for Act was implemented in 1968, it did not greatest misunderstanding in the world assimilation, it nonetheless accepts mark bilingual education’s birth (Baker, of second language acquisition. Since the value of the native language 1996). It merely provided funding for the 1960s, research has continually and recognizes the benefits of previously implemented programs. shown that bilingual and even bilingualism, unlike immersion or Bilingual education in reality existed multilingual students display far more ESL programs. However, correctly long before 1968. In fact, in 1863 a cognitive advantages than monolingual implemented developmental bilingual German high school was established in students, once the child’s mind is well education programs do in fact lead Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and a bilingual developed. In 1962, psychologists to acculturation, or the addition of a institute was founded by Cuban exiles in Peale and Lambert conducted a foreign culture onto one’s own. This 1871 (Castro Feinberg, 2002; Duignan, groundbreaking study regarding the philosophy is far more accepting of 2002). Group B also negates Group A’s association between bilingualism other cultures than is assimilation second argument regarding segregation. and cognitive ability and found that because assimilation is the replacement While some bilingual education bilingualism does indeed positively of a native culture with the dominant programs such as ESL and transitional affect intelligence; these results were one (Baker & Jones, 1998). Expectedly, bilingual programs do indeed segregate later confirmed by Nandita in 1984 and Group B is against English-only within its participants, developmental bilingual by Bochner in 1996 through the use of the United States because this group programs do not. In developmental modern experimental techniques (qtd. considers monolingualism to be a bilingual education, programs such as in Guzman, 2002) practice of intolerance based on the fear dual or two-way language immersion of the unknown. place in the same classroom students Assimilation versus Acculturation who speak only English and students Supporters of immersion and ESL Language Acquisition Theories who have yet to learn English. These believe assimilation is the key to success Second language acquisition programs classrooms unite all students regardless in this country. They believe that by conveniently use language acquisition of linguistic backgrounds. Dual or two- assimilating into the dominant culture, theories for support. For example, way immersion programs help native linguistically diverse students will immersion programs will often refer English speakers learn the linguistically have access to the same opportunities to the Sink or Swim or Time on Task diverse students’ native language while as native English speakers (Baker & theories. The Sink or Swim Theory non-native English students, in turn, Jones, 1998). Therefore, a child who simply states that if a child is surrounded learn English. This dual language is placed in an English-only classroom by the target language twenty-four hours instruction is an effort to induce will assimilate into the dominant a day, seven days a week, the child will bilingualism and acceptance of other culture sooner, which will allow the pick up the language (Brisk, 1998). This languages and cultures, not racism or linguistically diverse student to succeed theory is further supported by the Time segregation (Brisk, 1998). in the United States before his or her on Task Theory which states that the bilingual education counterparts. more time spent on a given task within Cognitive Development Accordingly, Group A believes English a classroom, the faster the child will Cognitive development is a highly should be the only language used accomplish the task (Rossell & Baker, discussed matter within this debate. within the United States. English- 1996). The combination of these two Group A believes the simultaneous only is favored by this group not only theories justifies the structure, or lack development of the native and target because they believe it will accelerate thereof, in immersion programs.

48 Second language acquisition programs: An assessment of the bilingual education debate English as a Second Language 1996). Furthermore, when students apply the newly learned concept to all programs also use the Time on Task do begin to acquire a degree of languages (Rossell & Baker, 1996). This Theory because this program does target language competency through theory also states that cognitive abilities not utilize the native language as an immersion programs, they learn the are best developed in the native instruction tool, yet ESL does have an vernacular, or familiar, version of the language and are readily transferable additional theory—the Comprehension target language, for this version is highly into additionally acquired languages. It, of Target Language Input Theory. This contextualized thus helping the input therefore, makes sense to develop skills theory argues that in order for the child become comprehensible to the child. in the native language in order to best to learn the target language, the child The vernacular version of the target develop the child’s cognitive abilities as must first be able to comprehend the language, however, is not enough to well as to facilitate additional language information (s)he is receiving. After all, suffice because academic language is acquisition (Watts, 2005). It is for this time spent on any given task is of no decontextualized, which forces the reason that developmental bilingual value if input is incomprehensible. In student to comprehend the input with education focuses on both developing the words of Krashen, a well-known less contextual help (Krashen). and maintaining a linguistically linguistic researcher and professor of Developmental bilingual education diverse student’s native language while the University of Southern California, uses the Time on Task and acquiring English. it is a matter of quality not quantity Comprehension of Target Language (qtd. in Cromwell, 1998). Hence, theories for support. However, the Conceptual Assessment of Existing ESL’s use of a simplified version of the time spent on the task of learning the Programs English language, gestures, pictures, and English language is decreased and Evaluations fuel the on-going any other methods helping to ensure comprehension of target language controversy surrounding bilingual communication are justified through input is increased even more than education because results are the Comprehension of Target Language in transitional bilingual education inconsistent from study to study; Input Theory. because more time is spent on the some studies are in favor of bilingual As mentioned earlier, ESL and native language in developmental than education while others are not. The transitional bilingual education in transitional programs. This is due to purpose here is not to conclude which have more similarities than they do the fact that developmental programs studies are valid and reliable, but rather differences because both have the same include both 90-10 and 50-50 program to outline some of the major issues goal, assimilation into the mainstream models (Baker & Jones, 1998). The pertaining to this topic by examining English-only classroom as soon as 90-10 model begins with 90% native two examples of controversial studies. possible. Therefore, it is not at all language instruction and 10% English shocking for transitional bilingual language instruction during the The Ramirez Report education to use the same theories as first year, then 80% native language In 1991, a national longitudinal study ESL for support. However, because instruction and 20% English language supported by the U.S. Department of transitional bilingual education employs instruction during the second year, and Education reported its long-awaited the native language while ESL does not, so on until 50-50 is reached. The 50- results. The Ramirez Report, as it is time spent on task is decreased and 50 model, however, simply begins with informally referred to after its primary comprehension of target language input 50% instruction of both languages; investigator, compared the academic is increased in transitional bilingual there is no continual change, the model progress of Latino elementary school education programs. remains constant for its entire duration children participating in different Developmental bilingual education (Baker & Jones). Finally, developmental bilingual education programs such as not only uses theories to support its bilingual education programs also gain structured English immersion, early-exit program approaches, but it also refutes support from the Facilitation Theory, transitional bilingual education (exit the arguments of the Sink or Swim which states that when cognitive after approximately two years), and Theory used by immersion programs. abilities are developed, language late-exit transitional bilingual education Supporters of this program argue acquisition becomes much easier (exit after approximately four to five that linguistically diverse students do because an educational foundation years). The data was collected over a not just pick up a language by being has been set for language instruction. period of four years from over 2,300 immersed within it; language input Once a student knows and understands Spanish-speaking students in 554 must be comprehensible (Krashen, the concept of literacy, the child will classrooms (K-6) in New York, New

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 49 Jersey, Florida, Texas, and California primary language development immersion was then compared to ESL. (Samway & McKeon, 1999). The study in facilitating the acquisition of The results demonstrated structured concluded that linguistically diverse English language skills. (qtd. in immersion to be better in 100% of the students in immersion and early- Cummins, & Genzuk, 1991, p. 3) studies, but only three studies were exit transitional programs progressed evaluated. Finally, the last comparison academically at the same rate as Rossell and Baker was between TBE and maintenance students from the general population. An example of a study against bilingual education. In this comparison, However, the gap between participants bilingual education is that of Rossell TBE was shown to be better in 100% and general population students and Baker. The study attempted to percent of the studies (Rossell & Baker). remained large. Furthermore, program answer the question, “Is transitional However, only one study was used for participants did not fall further behind, bilingual education (TBE) the best this comparison. but the gap between the two student method for teaching limited English This data suggests that the ideal populations was not bridged. This proficient (LEP) students?” In an effort program for second language acquisition finding refutes the belief that increased to assess the educational effectiveness is structured immersion where English instruction leads to improved of transitional bilingual education, instruction is in English, in a self- English language achievement because Rossell and Baker compared it to other contained classroom consisting entirely early-exit transition students had less second language acquisition programs of LEP students, and at an appropriate English instruction, yet performed including immersion/submersion, ESL, level for students to understand. at the same level as immersion and structured immersion. This study It therefore supports the Time on participants (Cummins, 1992). In did not collect original data; instead it Task and Comprehension of Target contrast, according to the study, reviewed data from previous studies Language Input Theories, but refutes which Rossell and Baker found to the Facilitation Theory. While Rossell as in mathematics and English be acceptable. Of a total 500 studies and Baker (1996) state that structured language, it seems that those read, 300 of which were evaluations, immersion appears to be more effective, students who received the strongest 72 were found to be methodologically Krashen (1999) suggests that further opportunity to develop their acceptable. This constituted a mere methodologically sound research primary language skills, realized 25% of the total studies read (Rossell & needs be conducted in order to make a growth in their English reading Baker, 1996). intelligent decisions. skills that was greater than that When comparing TBE to immersion/ of the norming population used submersion, or doing nothing, 22% of Discussion in this study. If sustained, in time the studies showed TBE to be superior, This debate may have its origins these students would be expected 33% showed it to be worse, and 45% in the Bilingual Education Act of to catch up and approximate the showed no difference. A comparison 1968, but misconceptions about average achievement level of this between TBE and ESL showed TBE bilingual education, bilingualism norming population. (qtd. in to be superior 0% of the time, worse (or multilingualism for that matter), Cummins & Genzuk, 1991 p. 2) 29% of the time, and no different and the inconsistencies in program 71% of the time (Rossell & Baker, evaluations have kept the dispute alive. Overall, the study concluded the 1996). Furthermore, since immersion Misconceptions will always be present, following: programs also have an ESL component, but why are there inconsistencies within Rossell and Baker compared TBE to data furnished by these programs? students who were provided with a submersion/ESL. The findings were very One explanation may be the lack substantial and consistent primary similar to the previous ones; TBE was of terminological consensus within language development program better in 19% of the studies, worse in the field. Certain second language learned mathematics, English 33%, and no different in 48% (Rossell acquisition programs have a number language, and English reading skills & Baker). The next two programs of names or aliases, which can create as fast or faster than the norming compared were TBE and structured confusion amongst the public and population in this study. As their immersion. TBE was shown to be better professionals. Given the abundance of growth in these academic skills is than bilingual education in 0% of the titles for identical programs, studies atypical of disadvantaged youth, studies, worse in 83%, and no different should always include an accurate and it provides support for efficacy of in 17% (Rossell & Baker). Structured detailed description of the program(s)

50 Second language acquisition programs: An assessment of the bilingual education debate evaluated. Doing so will prevent fact that is often overlooked. While the Conclusion confusion or misinterpretation of nature of ESL may seem contradictory Programs showing respect for the native gathered data as has been the case in to that of TBE due to the fact that one language yield the most favorable results past studies. employs the native language while the not only because multilingualism is Often times, certain programs will other does not, the two programs have favorable for cognitive development, but purposely be mislabeled for funding the same objective -- to assimilate the also for cultural reasons. When a child’s purposes. ESL, for example, was linguistically diverse child into the native language is not incorporated into often labeled as bilingual education mainstream English-only classroom as the curriculum, the child is indirectly as a tactic to obtain federal funding soon as possible without developing or receiving a message stating that his since the Bilingual Education Act maintaining the child’s native language. or her native language is inferior to provided funding for programs using This similarity actually places these the dominant language. Linguistically a language other than English for programs on the same side of many of diverse children are thus culturally classroom instruction, a characteristic the issues addressed within the debate, empowered by the use of the native not shared by ESL program models. as demonstrated by their positions on language within a classroom. This This tactic, however, only caused the assimilation versus acculturation inclusion therefore relays a message misunderstandings and therefore discussion. Furthermore, the nature of worthiness and equivalence, for the misinterpretations of data because of the ESL and TBE may be against dominant language is no longer superior data gathered from so-called bilingual developmental bilingual education, to the minority, or native, language. programs were actually gathered but the implementers of these two In general, literature seems to be in from ESL programs. The inclusion programs may actually be in favor of favor of correctly implemented bilingual of accurate descriptions of program the developmental model. Many times education programs, regardless of the models in studies and a consensus ESL and TBE programs are implemented label placed upon program models. On amongst professionals regarding instead of developmental programs for the other hand, research shows that terminology within the field will help financial reasons because developmental bilingual education programs are not generate valid conclusions from reliable bilingual education is both rare and as effective as they could be (Adamson, experiments. These conclusions can costly. Therefore, when developmental 2005). Further development is needed then be generalized to similar program programs are fiscally impossible, TBE in order for students to fully experience models in an effort to address the issue becomes the next best option. The all of bilingual education’s benefits. of bilingual education efficacy. same is true for situations in which Yet, in order to avoid prolonging the While mislabeling and lack of TBE is not a possibility; ESL becomes already impassioned debate, the lack of terminological consensus are issues in the next best option for those who terminological consensus and the effects need of urgent attention, the layout oppose immersion. Although the two of the debate’s dynamics should all be of the debate must also be taken into programs by definition may be against considered as well as further analyzed. consideration. According to the debate’s developmental bilingual education, Doing so will ensure a desperately usual format, supporters of bilingual their implementers may not be. In fact, needed positive progression, as this education, or the use of the native implementers of ESL or TBE may be debate has become stagnant from the language in the classroom, are against in favor of acculturation rather than constant refuting. those opposing bilingual education. assimilation, but this is far from obvious This may not necessarily be the case, when solely examining the programs especially in reference to ESL and themselves. Therefore, the debate is by transitional bilingual education (TBE). no means always an accurate description As previously mentioned, ESL and TBE of implementers’ true feelings. have more similarities than differences, a

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 51 References

Adamson, H. D. (2005). Language minority students in American schools: An education in English. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Ambert, A. N. & Melendez, S.E. (1985). Bilingual education: A sourcebook. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.

Baker, C. (1996). Foundations of bilingual education (2nd ed.). Bristol, PA: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Baker, C. & Jones, S. P. (1998). Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education. Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Brisk, M. E. (1998). Bilingual education: From compensatory to quality schooling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Castro Feinberg, R. (2002). Bilingual education: A reference handbook. Santa Barbara California: ABC CLIO.

Crawford, J. (1998). Issues in U.S. Language Policy. Retrieved March 29, 2005 from http://www.http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/biling.htm#Hak2.

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Cummins, J. (1992). Bilingual education and English immersion: The Ramirez report in theoretical perspective. Bilingual Research Journal, 16, 91-104.

Cummins, J. & Genzuk, M. (1991). Analysis of final report longitudinal study of structured English immersion strategy, early-exit and late-exit transitional bilingual education programs for language-minority students. California Association for Bilingual Education Newsletter, 13.

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Krashen, S. D. (1996). Under attack: The case against bilingual education. Culver City, CA: Language Education Associates.

Padilla, R. V. (1983). Theory, technology, and public policy in bilingual education. Rosslyn, VA: InterAmerica Research Associates Inc., b/a National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

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52 Second language acquisition programs: An assessment of the bilingual education debate Infrared Laser-based Method for Measuring Isotope Ratios

Abstract Introduction The purpose of this research is to build Isotopes of the same element have a an inexpensive, compact, and precise different number of neutrons within the spectrometer that will measure the 13C/12C nucleus. The purpose of this research ratio in a sample of carbon dioxide gas. is to build a device that will measure The infrared diode laser-based apparatus an isotope ratio, which is the relative operates by modulating the laser frequency amount of two or more isotopes of the as it scans. The frequency modulation is same element in a sample. The isotope then converted to amplitude modulation ratio that we are currently focusing on is 13 12 in the signal. A ratio of signal intensities the ratio of CO2/ CO2 within a sample 13 12 for CO2 and CO2 can be converted to a of CO2 gas. We will exploit the spectral measurement of the samples’ isotope ratio. separation of the different rotational/ 13 12 The analysis of the CO2/ CO2 ratio can vibrational peaks in the infrared spectrum be used for the detection of stomach ulcers of these two molecules to measure the and in various environmental applications. isotope ratio in a gas sample. There are numerous applications for a device that could measure the 13C/12C isotope ratio. We seek to develop a device that could improve Jerry Fluellen on previous technology that has been McNair Scholar used to measure this ratio. The current method that is widely used to determine the isotope ratio of a sample is called mass spectroscopy. This device works by charging particles in a sample and determining the weight of the particles. The device uses an electric field that launches the charged particle. Then a magnetic field causes the particle to move in a curved path, whose curvature is determined by the mass to charge ratio. The mass spectrometer determines the mass of the particle according to the location at which the particle strikes a detector. Using the fact that most molecules possess a unique set of masses, the mass spectrometer determines molecular concentrations in a sample. To obtain very good precision, one must increase the paths of the charged particles and to do this one must use a larger magnetic and/or electric field. This has caused the development of mass spectrometers that include very bulky magnets. As a result, high-resolution Stephanie Schaertel, Ph.D. mass spectroscopy is a very precise Faculty Mentor method but one that is expensive and not easily portable. We seek to develop an alternative method with lower costs and greater portability.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 53 Isotope determination is used in could eliminate the sample preparation spectroscopy is that the amount of light numerous applications. Detection needed for mass spectroscopy. In that is absorbed by the gas sample is of stomach ulcers is one medical addition, lasers are becoming both relatively small when compared to the application. A person is given a C13 more compact and powerful, whereas original strength of the laser. In order doped urea shake. Helicobacter pylori magnetic fields only become more to overcome the hindrance of weak bacteria will digest the carbon within powerful with more electricity and signals, WMS uses a device called a the shake and release two products, larger magnets. lock-in amplifier. The lock-in amplifier 13 [1] ammonia and CO2. Our apparatus In infrared absorption spectroscopy, singles out the component of the would be able to detect the change infrared laser light is sent through a signal at a specific reference frequency in the 13C/12C ratio and detect the sample. As the light passes through the then amplifies the signal. The lock-in presence of the helicobacter pylori sample, some of the light is absorbed. amplifier produces an output that looks bacteria, which has been linked Each quantized or specific energy like a first derivative; however, in order to stomach ulcers. There are also absorbed produces a different vibration to see changes in the signal more clearly, numerous environmental applications. or rotation of the molecule. CO2 exhibits we will view the second derivative of the Wassenaar and Hobson have developed three types of molecular vibrations. signal. The lock-in amplifier filters out a stable isotope approach to delineate First is the symmetric stretch in which electronic noise, allowing us to detect a geographical locations of birds.[2] A the oxygen molecules oscillate outward very small absorbance. tracing system was devised in order together from the central carbon atom. Finally, after the lock-in amplifier to track the different species in North Next is the asymmetric stretch in which produces the output, the areas of the America using the 13C/12C found on the the oxygen molecules stretch out at two second derivative curves have to birds’ feathers. By setting up migration different times. Then there are two be compared to get the isotope ratio. monitoring stations across the continent, degenerate bends in which the two If we were to just take the area of the 13 the researchers have devised a way to oxygen molecules bend up and down CO2 peak and divide this by the area 12 observe migration trends of endangered or forward and backward away from of CO2 peak, then this ratio would 13 12 species. Another study used isotope the carbon atom. The specific vibration be proportional to the CO2/ CO2 13 12 measurements of carbon dioxide to we are using for the CO2/ CO2 ratio ratio but not equal the exact isotope measure the pollution off the Pakistani is an overtone, with 3 quanta in the ratio. The ratio of areas does not coast.[3] Annual wood tissue 13C/12C symmetric stretch, 0 quanta in the account for the Boltzmann population ratios could potentially be useful in bend, and 1 quantum in the asymmetric distributions or the intrinsic line estimating historic changes in soil stretch. Within this vibrational manifold, strengths of the two molecules. The water potential and basal area growth we are comparing two specific rotational Boltzmann distribution describes the in mature forest ecosystems.[4] Finally, lines in the spectrum. The light that relative populations of different states the 13C/12C ratio has applications in goes into the vibration and rotation of at thermal equilibrium. Intrinsic line quality control. Analysis of the 13C/12C molecules is absorbed by the sample, strengths describe the strengths of the ratio has been proven as a means of resulting in an intensity change that can transition dipole moments for specific characterization of the geographical be measured by a detector. The amount molecular absorptions. Previously, origin of Pecorino Sardo cheese.[5] In of light absorbed is proportional to the our method had been to calculate a addition, the 13C/12C ratio can be used number of molecules in the sample. The weighting factor using Boltzmann’s to determine the authenticity of Mexican central wavelength of the absorbed light formula [8] and the intrinsic lines tequila.[6] Our device would be able to indicates which molecule is absorbing strengths obtained from the HITRAN make the same isotope measurements the light. A comparison of the amount Database.[9] We can multiply the peak 12 13 with greater precision, more portability, of light absorbed by CO2 and CO2 areas by this quantity to account for and cheaper cost than the current will give the relative amounts of these these parameters. The weighting factor standard of the mass spectrometer. two molecules in the sample. that we calculated was 0.2024. When While mass spectroscopy uses The technique used in this research using this number, our results did not charged particles and the measuring of is called wavelength modulation agree with measurements taken by a molecular weights, our method involves spectroscopy (WMS) and is a form of high resolution mass spectrometer.[10] absorption of infrared light. If perfected, absorption spectroscopy. This technique In order to obtain results that are more this method could offer much to isotope has been used by Chaux and Lavorel.[7] accurate, we attempted the use of ratio determination. Using spectroscopy The main problem with absorption standard addition.

54 Infrared Laser Based Method for Measuring Isotope Ratios In the standard addition technique, Table 1: Pressures used in standard addition incremental amounts of an unknown sample are added to a sample whose isotope ratio is known. In our research, the known is CO2 gas that has mostly 12 13 CO2 and some CO2. The known gas has been previously analyzed by mass 13 12 spectroscopy and has an CO2/ CO2 isotope ratio of 0.010735.[10] The unknown gas tank was prepared to have 13 roughly double the amount of CO2. 13 The CO2 doped tank is the one we want to analyze in this technique. The linear best-fit line is shown in Eq. 1. Figure 1: Diagram of WMS apparatus. The dotted line is the path of the laser beam. The solid lines are connections between electronic equipment. Eq. 1. Linear best-fit line.

Sx = aRs + a(Ru - Rs)xu

In this equation, Sx is the ratio of the peak areas, a is the scaling factor that accounts for Boltzmann distribution and intrinsic line strength, xu is the mole fraction of the unknown gas in the total sample, Ru is the isotope ratio of the unknown gas, and Rs is the isotope ratio of the standard. The intercept in this equation is aRs and the slope is a(Ru-Rs). The final step is to take the slope and solve for Ru, the isotope ratio of the unknown.

Experimental Section We are using standard addition along with WMS. As previously stated, in a standard addition incremental amounts of unknown are added to a known. In this case, we must keep the pressure the same in all the additions in order to eliminate pressure-broadening effects. The WMS set-up is shown in Fig. 1. piezzo electric motor, which moves a We chose to use 30 Torr as our constant The sample cell is filled with one phase grating at different angles to change the pressure because of the results of a of the pressures outlined in Table 1. A wavelength of the photons emitted. The pressure broadening study that showed B. K. Precision 4011 function generator laser beam is emitted from the laser that this pressure is where the effects produces the scanning range that (Lasertechnik TEC 500 with center started to occur. The pressure amounts encompasses about two wavenumbers wavelength of 1.6 µm) and focused used to fill the sample cell are outlined -1 (cm ). The SR830 lock-in amplifier through the gas sample cell using ir in Table 1. produces the modulation frequency mirrors. Irises and a neutral density filter at about 2 kHz. The two signals are are placed into the beam path in order combined and sent to the laser control to reduce the intensity of the beam. box. This combined signal controls a

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 55 Another device that minimizes the Eq. 2. The second derivative of a Gaussian curve. electronic noise is a Nirvana Detector 2017 auto-balancing detector which uses two photodiodes. One photodiode is used to collect the sample and the other is used to collect a reference beam. The reference beam is the same beam that comes from the laser but is with A and α as fitting parameters. A is fit in the equation of a Gaussian which is split off before reaching the sample. the top-to-bottom height of the peak; analytically integrated to obtain the area. The Nirvana detector takes the signal α is the full width at half maximum We repeated this process of calculating and balances it with the reference. height; ν0 is the center frequency, or the proportional areas for all the phases This device isolates the section of the x-axis position at maximum height. in the standard addition. Next we apparatus that occurs after the signal A and α are used as empirical fitting plotted the S for each phase against the beam is split from the reference. x parameters, while ν is read from the mole fraction. This plot was then fit to Essentially, this auto-balancing 0 spectral data. Next, we used the A and the line described in Eq. 1 to find the eliminates etalon effects and laser α parameters found from the nonlinear isotope ratio in the unknown sample. instability from the signal. The signal is then sent to the lock-in amplifier (SRS 830). The main function Fig. 2: Peak height at center versus sample pressure for a CO sample. Peak height was of the lock-in amplifier is to filter out 2 taken for a 12CO peak at 6253.6 cm -1. The insert shows an expanded view of the linear anything that does not modulate at the 2 portion of the data. same frequency as the one at which the laser is modulating. Any slow drifts in the laser or random noise are filtered out. The lock-in amplifier also has various noise filters that it uses on the signal. The signal is then amplified and the final processed signal is sent to a LeCroy 9310A digital oscilloscope, which collects the signal. The oscilloscope takes an average of 100 spectra as another filtering technique to average out random noise. In Eq. 2, the data from the oscilloscope is fit to the second derivative of a Gaussian,

Results until approximately 25 Torr, and then Pressure Broadening the change in peak height flattens out. In The results of a pressure broadening order to decrease the effects of pressure 12 study show that after 30 Torr, the CO2 broadening but still have enough peak height at center does not increase pressure to get good signal, we chose linearly with the increase in pressure, as 30 Torr as the pressure to use in the seen in Fig. 2. The graph looks linear standard additions.

56 Infrared Laser Based Method for Measuring Isotope Ratios Laser Diagnostics Fig. 3: Sample spectra taken at two different modulation frequencies. The thin line spectrum In this research, we are very interested at 1720 Hz and the thick line spectrum at 1592 Hz. The larger peak in each spectrum is a in finding out how our laser behaves. 12CO2 peak at 6253.6 cm-1 and the smaller peak is a 13CO2 peak at 6253.9 cm-1. The Unexpected factors that affect the two spectra are offset for visual purposes. isotope ratio have prompted some specific studies. One study investigated the effect of modulation frequency on the isotope ratio. In theory, changing the modulation frequency should not significantly affect the signal to noise ratio of the peaks. Fig. 3 shows spectra when the modulation frequency is changed from 1592 Hz to 1720 Hz. This change in modulation frequency affects the signal sizes. As seen in Fig. 3, there is a significant size change 12 in the CO2 peak. The peak heights decreased by more than a factor of 13 eight; this caused the CO2 peak to be too small to measure. One possible explanation for this behavior is that laser wavelength changes abruptly. We at different temperatures. At some mechanical coupling in the laser’s tuning also believe that mode hops become temperatures, the peaks, which we mechanism could result in a situation more frequent after long periods want to analyze, are not even visible. in which the modulation depth is without using the laser. These mod hops Furthermore, we have noticed that one unintentionally changed along with have become a factor that affects the day a temperature setting will contain 13 12 the modulation frequency. Changing CO2/ CO2 ratio. erroneous peaks and the next day it the modulation depth is expected to In addition to infrequent use of will not. We also believe that mode change the peak size. Although such the laser, another factor that creates hops are more frequent at different laser unintended coupling is undesirable for interferences in the signal is the temperatures. our purposes, correcting it is technically temperature of the laser. We have difficult. We have chosen to simply noticed that the signal looks different work at a modulation frequency that gives a good signal to noise ratio. Fig. 4: Neutral density filter study results of the 13CO2/12CO2 ratio. 13CO2 is at 6253.9 Time also plays a factor in the size and cm-1 and 12CO2 is at 6253.6 cm-1. Diamonds are individual trials run. Square is the shape of signals that we have observed average ratio for that filter. in our research. For instance, after long periods between laser use, we would notice that the read out would have interferences in the places where we recorded our spectra. These interferences would have random line shapes with some that look like first or second derivative curves. Although some looked like signals that would be produced by absorbance, these line shapes were not pressure dependent. The interferences were apparent even when there was a vacuum in the sample cell. We believe that a cause for this behavior is mode hops. A mode hop happens when the

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 57 Another unforeseen factor that plays Fig. 5: Comparison of previous standard additions performed. a part in ratio modification is the effect of the optical devices that are in the path of our laser beam. We use neutral density, iris, mirrors and beam splitters. We performed a study in which we took spectra with different neutral density filters using only the standard gas tank. We found a subtle change in the 13 12 CO2/ CO2 ratio. The filters seemed to 13 affect the size of the CO2 peak as seen in Fig. 4.

Standard Addition 13 The CO2 gas tank has not been analyzed yet by an outside source, therefore we cannot comment on the accuracy of our technique. Nevertheless, 13 our efforts to analyze the CO2 doped gas tank have not been reproducible. Fig. 5 shows four standard additions 13 12 13 -1 12 2 performed. Each gave a different slope Fig. 6: Standard addition results of the CO2/ CO2 ratio. CO2 at 6253.9 cm and CO -1 and intercept. Fig. 6 shows an expanded at 6253.6 cm . Total pressure 30 Torr. view of one of the trials shown in Fig. 5. In the four standard additions already performed, we can see some trends in the data. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show 12 13 Gaussian fits to CO2 and CO2 peaks in the most recent standard addition. These fits make up the third data point in Fig. 6. These two Gaussian fits do not 13 12 match up perfectly. The CO2/ CO2 ratio calculated from the fit line found from all the data points shown in Fig. 6 was 0.219541. We assume that the ratio should be roughly double that of the known, which was 0.010735. The ratio that we calculated yields a 20-fold increase. This could be caused because the Gaussian fits are not as accurate for 13 the CO2 peaks. Another trend that we see in all the data is one that appears in all the the overall ratio of the gas tank is data points in the other trials all show standard additions so far. The first three undeterminable. The equipment is not a linear relationship. Without the first data points in Fig. 6 show no change sufficiently sensitive to detect the small points, the slope is similar, as shown in in the isotope ratio. This is a concern changes in the first two steps of the Fig. 9. Unfortunately, the intercept also because there should be a linear increase standard addition which causes little to governs what the ratio is; if the intercept of the isotope ratio. With the first points no change in the ratio. If these points is too high or too low, then the ratio of showing no change in the isotope ratio, do not fall into the linear fit, then our the unknown will be inaccurate. our linear fit has been false. Therefore, ratio cannot be accurate. The rest of the

58 Infrared Laser Based Method for Measuring Isotope Ratios 12 -1 Fig. 7: CO2 peak at 6253.6 cm fit to 2nd derivative of Gaussian. As shown in Fig. 5, the intercept is a different value in every standard addition. According to Eq. 1, the intercept in every standard addition should be constant and equal to the ratio of the standard. Excluding the first two points in the performed standard additions shows a similar slope in all three trials. All the standard additions were taken under the same conditions and the intercept should not change to this degree. In using the standard addition technique, the only thing that must be accurate is the ratio of the standard. Everything else, if held constant, would be factored into the constants given in the intercept and slope. 13 -1 Fig. 8: CO2 peak at 6253.9 cm fit to 2nd derivative of Gaussian. Discussion The pressure broadening study tells us that we have to work at low pressures so we do not get skewed results. This means that we cannot, in our current

setup, take a ratio of CO2 in air because there is less than 1% of carbon dioxide in air. This means that our sample tank would have to be at much higher pressure than what our pressure study allows. We are currently examining ways to measure the ratio at higher pressures so that our final apparatus would not need a high-powered vacuum attached to get pressures low enough for precise measurements. Fig. 9: Comparison of previous standard additions performed with the first three The next step is to better understand data points removed. the laser and incorporate our findings into the apparatus. Methods have been refined to create a more stable diode laser. Use of these methods will probably be the next step in our pursuit to perfect the apparatus. There are many aspects of the laser that must be explored. Diode lasers are prone to have frequent mode hops. Is there anything that we can manufacture or that has already been created that we can put to use in our experiment to get better results while still maintaining our goal to create a compact inexpensive device that measures isotope ratios? We need to explore whether our specific laser has

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 59 technology built into it that suppresses mode hops. If so, would a different laser have the ability to better stabilize itself? We would also like to decrease power jumps that occur during our experiment. We are also exploring whether our laser’s power output is constant with input voltage. If our laser’s intensity changes drastically between absorption peaks, problems could result. Since absorption does depend on input light intensity, a drastic change in light intensity between peaks would affect the peak ratio. We are currently working on normalizing the spectra to input light intensity.

60 Infrared Laser Based Method for Measuring Isotope Ratios References 1 Crosson, E. R.; Ricci, K. N.; Richman, B. A.; Chilese, F. C.; Owano, T. G.; Provencal, R. A.; Todd, M. W.; Glasser, J.; Kachanov, A. A.; Paldus, B. A.; Spence, T. G.; Zare, R. N. Stable Isotope Ratios Using Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy: Determination of 13C/12C for Carbon Dioxide in Human Breath. .Anal. Chem, 2002; 74(9), 2003-2007.

2 Wassenaar, L. I.; Hobson, K. A.; A Stable Isotope Approach to Delineate Geographical Catchment Areas of Avian Migration Monitoring Stations in North America. Environ. Sci. Tecnhnol. 2001, 35, 1845-1850.

3 Riffat M. Qureshi; Mashiatullah, A.; Fazil, M.; Ahmad, E.; Khan, H.A.; Sajjad, M. I. Seawater Pollution Studies of the Pakistan Coast Using Stable Carbon Isotope Technique. The Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South. (COMSATS). http://www.comsats.org.pk/latest/riffat_qureshi2.pdf (retrieved Dec 2005).

4 McNulty, S. G.; Swank, W. T. Wood _13C as a Measure of Annual Basal Area Growth and Soil Water Stress in Pinus Strobus Forest. Ecology. 1995; 76(5); 1581-1586.

5 Manca, G.; Camin, F.; Coloru, G. C.; Del Caro, A.; Depentori, D.; Franco, M. A.; Versini, G.; J. Agric. Characterization of the Geographical Origin of Pecorino Sardo Cheese by Casein Stable Isotope (13C/12C and 15N/14N) Ratios and Free Amino Acid Ratios. Food Chem. 2001, 49(3), 1404-1409.

6 Aguilar-Cisneros, B. O.; Lopez, M. G.; Richling, E.; Heckel, F.; Schreier, P.; Tequila Authenticity Assessment by Headspace SPME-HRGC-IRMS Analysis of 13C/12C and 18O/16O Ratios of Ethano.l J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50(26), 7520-7523.

7 Chaux, R.; Lavorel, B. Relative line intensity measurement in absorption spectra using tunable diode laser at 1.6 um: application to the determination of 13 12 CO2/ CO2 isotope ratio. Appl. Phys. B. 2001, 72, 237-240.

8 Serway, R.; Jewett, J. Jr. In Physics for Scientist and Engineers 6th edition. 2004, p654-655.

9 Rothmana, L.S.; Barbeb, A.; Bennerc D.; Brownd, L.R. Camy-Peyrete, C.; Carleerf , M.R. ; Chancea, K. ; Clerbauxf C.; Danae, g, V. ; Devic, V.M.; et al. The HITRAN molecular spectroscopic database. Quant. Spectrosc. & Radiat. Trans. 2003, 82, 5–44.

10 Ostrum, N., Department of Zoology and Center for Global Change and Earth Observations, Michigan State University. Report: Grand Valley State University CO2 Standard Calibration. 2002.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 61 62 From the Delta to Chicago: Muddy Waters’ Downhome Blues and the Shaping of African-American Urban Identity in Post World War II Chicago

ABSTRACT It is not surprising that in 1903 the African Americans developed the blues as a infamous “father of the blues,” W.C. reaction to the harsh living conditions in the Handy, a traveling musician, first heard Mississippi Delta. The music found a new the “primitive music” known today as home during the first half of the twentieth the Blues while waiting for a train in century when thousands of African Tutwiler, Mississippi. Robert Palmer, Americans migrated to Chicago. The author of Deep Blues, notes that the first purpose of this research is to understand words Handy heard the ragged man sing how migration and the urban environment were, “Goin’ where the Southern cross shaped the Black experience. Blues music, the Dog,” a reference to the intersection specifically the music of Muddy Waters, will of two trains.1 In fact, Lawrence Levine, be the focus of this study. His Downhome in Black Culture and Black Consciousness, Blues, which grew in popularity following describes the blues as “an ode to WW II, both shaped and reflected the movement and mobility.”2 Having been emergence of an Urban African-American bound to the land for centuries, African identity in Chicago. Americans viewed the ability to move as the greatest manifestation of their American right to self-determination.3 By the 1870s thousands of African- Jennifer Goven American migrant workers and McNair Scholar wanderers—mostly male—traversed the South.4 The unknown bluesman that Handy described most likely moved from plantation to plantation across the Delta—guitar in tow—looking for work. This assertion of mobility broadened the American landscape and expanded the African-American experience; thus, “[setting] the stage for the evolution of the country blues.”5 This paper examines the role of Blues Music as part of the African-American experience and consciousness and argues that the blues played a vital role in the development of a Black urban identity. Until the First World War, African Americans rarely traveled north of the Mason-Dixon line, but the growing number of vacant industrial positions in the North coupled with the intolerable cruelty of the South inspired thousands of African Americans to head to the Promised Land. Historians often gravitate towards this first wave of migration, referred to now as the Great Anthony Travis, Ph.D. Migration; however, following World Faculty Mentor

1 Robert Palmer, Deep Blues. (New York: Penguin Books, 1982), 45. 2 Lawrence Levine, Black Culture, Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 262. 3 Ibid., 262. 4 LeRoi Jones, Blues People: Negro Music in White America. (New York: Perennial, 2002), 61. 5 Angela Y. Davis, Blues Legacies and Black Feminism. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1998),

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 63 War II, 200,000 African Americans, a portrait of the Negro in America at Mississippi—not far from Tutwiler—to the majority Mississippians, migrated that particular time.”8 Some historians research and record the unique to Chicago.6 Much can be understood question the validity of the blues that African-American folk music. Located about the relationship between migrated to the urban North. However, in the heart of the Mississippi Delta migration and identity formation by blues music remained a reflection of the and populated by a large majority of examining the function of the blues, folk experience, despite its migration, African-American cotton sharecroppers, specifically Muddy Waters’ recordings, because as Levine explains: Coahoma County, with its long tradition during this tumultuous period of of African-American music, proved transition in African-American history. The personalized, solo elements of the a near perfect destination for John As a bluesman, Waters convened the blues may indicate a decisive move Work, a member of the Fisk University community, conjured up safe spaces into the twentieth-century American Music Department, and Alan Lomax, a amidst the unusual urban landscape, consciousness, but the musical style folklorist for the Library of Congress. and assisted those who came with him of the blues indicates a holding on to That summer, they had hoped to record from the Delta in renegotiating their the old roots at the very time when the legendary, but illusive, bluesman past, their home, and their identity. the dispersion of Negroes throughout Robert Johnson, but another popular His lyrics vividly addressed the issues the country and the rise of the radio delta bluesman Son House informed that confronted both the pre-migrant and the phonograph could have them of Johnson’s untimely death and and post-migrant psyche. Thus, by spelled the demise of a distinctive sent them in search of a young bluesman examining Waters’ lyrics, it is possible Afro-American musical style. While called Muddy Waters instead. to understand the abstract processes it is undoubtedly true that work When Lomax and Work arrived at of reshaping the collective identity songs and field hollers were close to the Stovall Plantation, Muddy Waters, of a generation of African-American the West African musical archetype, born McKinley Morganfield, was migrants. so much of which had survived the working as a tractor driver. On the The blues, according to Houston centuries of slavery, blues with its weekends, Waters, then twenty-six, A. Baker, author of Blues, Ideology, and emphasis upon improvisation, its turned his modest cabin into a juke Afro-American Literature, “constitute retention to call and response pattern, joint to supplement his meager income an amalgam that seems always to have its polyrhythmic effects, and its and make a name for himself as a been in motion in America—always methods of vocal production which bluesman. African Americans living in becoming, shaping, transforming, included slides, slurs, vocal leaps, the Delta often gathered at juke joints displacing the peculiar experiences of and the use of falsetto, was a definite or county picnics; whether in the deep Africans in the New World.”7 Baker’s assertion of central elements of the woods or a cramped one-room shack, unique definition implies then, that traditional communal musical style.9 they found they could let loose in the the blues music that enveloped the absence of their oppressor’s gaze. Waters’ Delta for the first half of the twentieth The fact that the blues remained wholly moonshine warmed the aching bones century reflected the African-American traditional, yet forward looking at the of men and women who spent their rural experience while the blues that same time is reflective of the collective days in sun-drenched cotton fields, enlivened Chicago’s South side following African-American identity which Farah and his blues soothed the soul that the migration reflected the African- Jasmine, author of Who Set You Flowin’?, undoubtedly ached for something more. American urban experience. Jones describes as “at once modern and The presence of the bluesman was vital supports this idea, claiming, “the most premodern.”10 to these gatherings; it was he who, expressive Negro music of any given In 1941, thirty-eight years after W. C. from behind his guitar, orchestrated period will be an exact reflection of Handy first heard the blues, two folksong the eating, drinking, and dancing that what the Negro himself is. It will be collectors traveled to Coahoma County, eased the tension caused by the ruthless

6 Mike Rowe. Blues Chicago: The City and the Music. (New York: Da Capo Press, 1975), 174. 7 Houston A. Baker Jr. Blues, Ideology, and Afro-American Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984) 8 Jones, 137. 9 Levine, 223-224. 10 Farah Jasmine Griffin. Who Set You Flowin’? (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 82.

64 From the Delta to Chicago: Muddy Waters’ Downhome Blues and the Shaping of African-American Urban Identity in Post World War II Chicago humiliation and backbreaking work that I feel mistreated, girl, you know For African Americans who spent characterized Delta life. now, I don’t mind dyin.14 most of their lives in the Delta, the In the Delta, the overwhelming desire urban landscape was unnatural. Many of to be free from oppression connected By invoking the train, “long a symbol of the new migrants traded the strenuous the pre-migrant psyche to the bluesman freedom in the African-American oral sharecropping system that sustained who commonly invoked mobility as an tradition,” Waters provided an answer them in the Delta for the most grueling assertion of freedom and an escape from for those looking to escape the harsh industrial jobs Chicago had to offer. mistreatment. Levine suggests that just Mississippi Delta.15 The train, with its The stench of the slaughterhouses or the possibility of movement “operated magnificent strength and rhythmic the choking fumes of the foundries as a safety valve for millions of Negroes splendor represented freedom from filled their noses and replaced the who without the alternative of migration the Jim’ Crow South. Although African scent of freshly plowed dirt or warm would have felt trapped and hopeless.”11 Americans left the station in segregated spring rain. Hard pavement rather than This is exemplified in the first verse from passenger cars, engulfed in the stench dirt roads greeted their feet, massive “I Be’s Troubled,” recorded on the Stovall of inequality, perhaps as the train rolled steel structures instead of tall trees Plantation in 1941 when Waters sings: further north, they felt the strangling emblazoned the horizon, and bright grasp of Jim Crow weaken as Viethel lights rather than brilliant stars lit the Well, if I feel tomorrow Wills, in the documentary Goin’ to way for the new urbanites. Amidst Like I feel today, Chicago suggests: this strange industrial environment, I’m gonna pack my suitcase a familiar character emerged carrying And make my getaway. I came to Chicago on the train, with him the sound of the Delta. The I be troubled, I’m all worried in mind, what I remember most about it bluesman, the “wandering stranger” of And I never be satisfied, was the conductor when we got to the South, the embodiment of mobility, And I just can’t keep from cryin.12 Cable, Illinois said, okay, you can became the personification of home in through down that yassir’ and no the big city.17 In the verses that follow, Waters goes on sir’ and say yes and no now.16 Historians often use the terms urban to describe the mistreatment he endured and country as well as downhome to at the hands of a no-good woman. In Waters used the image of the train to describe the blues that Waters made Downhome Blues Lyrics, Jeff Todd Titon call upon the desire for freedom shared popular in Chicago during the 40s and suggests that blues singers often assumed by the Delta community. By doing so 50s. While the terms urban and country the role of the victim so they could “express he tweaked the collective consciousness fit logically, the term downhome fits their desire for freedom more concretely.”13 of African Americans whose identity psychologically. More than just the fact In “I Be’s Troubled” Waters told the had been shaped by years of Southern that they originated in the country or common tale of a fickle woman in order oppression and prepared them for the that they were popularized in an urban to stress his overall dissatisfaction with the transition from rural sharecroppers, environment, it is the power of the blues continuous cloud of oppression that hung bound to the land, to migrants, ready to to evoke the South for the throngs of over the Delta. In his 1941 version of the conquer the North. On a rainy day in African Americans attempting to adjust Delta standard “Country Blues,” recorded 1943, two years after he heard his voice to city life that is most significant. When on the Stovall Plantation, he resolves to played back to him for the first time by examining the blues as a function of “ride the blinds”—hitch a train—rather the two song-collectors, Waters joined identity formation, it makes sense to than endure more misery; he sings: the exodus. As the Delta faded in the utilize the term downhome because as distance, so too did his rural identity Titon explains: Well, I’m leaving this morning, leaving the necessary space for a more if I have to ride the blinds urban identity to develop.

11 Levine, 265. 12 Lomax, The Land Where the Blues Began. (New York: The New Press, 2002), 417. 13 Jeff Todd Titon, ed., Downhome Blues Lyrics: An Anthology from the Post-World War II Era, 2nd ed. (Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 10. 14 Lomax, 417. 15 Griffin, 19. 16 George King, Prod. Goin’ to Chicago. (Mississippi: University of Mississippi, 1994) Viewed November 27, 2004. 17 Griffin, 55.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 65 The term downhome is evocative, the values and memories that functioned to soften the hard edges of calling up not so much an actual, sustained black people. The South the city and provide the new migrants physical place (the rural South), emerges as a home of the ancestor, a transitional space to renegotiate but the spirit of the place, the the place where community their collective identity. However, Southern root, that moved with the and history are valued over the acclimatization and the development music and the culture as African Northern individualism.19 of an African-American middle class Americans carried their downhome led African Americans who rode the way of life into the twentieth- Before African Americans could first wave of migration to view the century cities.18 collectively move towards an urban downhome blues that accompanied identity, they first had to renegotiate the second-generation migrants as old- The supreme function of the blues their collective rural identity. Waters’ fashioned. in Chicago at this time was to guide downhome blues facilitated this re- The downhome blues may have the consciousness of newly arrived examination. Newcomers, comforted by appeared old-fashioned to the older migrants out of the rural South safely the safe space that surrounded the blues generation, but the unfamiliar sense of into the urban North. The bluesman, and the nostalgic memories evoked homesickness drew the new arrivals by invoking the soul that sustained the in Water’ songs, renegotiated their to the bluesman because, as Titon Black community in the South, carved Southern history, molded a collective suggests, the familiarity of the southern a path out of the Delta as powerful and memory, and passed through the first music steadied them.23 The sound of as promising as the tracks of the Illinois phase in the transition from rural to strings moaning under the pressure of a Central Railway. urban identity. bottleneck and the locomotive rhythm of Conveniently traversing the intolerable Newly transplanted bluesman the harp invoked an image of the South Delta, the Illinois Central brought were especially drawn to rent parties, “tinted with nostalgia.”24 A number thousands of African Americans to the described by Waters’ biographer of popular blues tunes during this city’s South Side during the 1940s. Robert Gordon as “a get-together in period revolved around returning to the Waters downhome blues grew in someone’s home where the drinks South. Waters, in “I Can’t Be Satisfied,” popularity among the freshest arrivals were cheaper, the food more plentiful, his 1948 version of “I Be’s Troubled,” that gathered at after-hour joints and and the audience nearer the band, resolves to return to the South, the rent parties. Rich in southern tradition and where musicians could establish oppressive setting that drove him and and lacking the sophistication that the their reputations.”20 There, bluesmen thousands of other African Americans to growing African-American middle class found an audience uninspired by the the North, he sings: was becoming accustomed to, such get- “bluebird beat,” a mixture of earlier togethers appealed to bluesmen as well classic blues and jazz that dominated Well, I’m going away to leave; as the city’s young new audience. Waters’ the music scene.21 Pete Welding, Waters’ won’t be back no more. sound, although amplified in the city, friend and the founder of Testament Going back down South, child; remained distinctly Delta in style. The Records, described what Waters called don’t you want to go? rent parties, reminiscent of southern “sweet jazz” as a “refined, polished, and Woman I’m troubled; country picnics, were significant in that institutionalized” version of the country- I be all worried in mind. they created safe spaces, best defined by based blues that arrived in Chicago Well babe, I just can’t be satisfied, Griffin as: following the first wave of migration. and I just can’t keep from crying.25 Since the 1920s, Welding suggests, sites where the South is invoked— the music “had been progressively Waters’ resolve, although hypothetical, not just in its horror, terror, and emasculated.”22 Perhaps initially the symbolized the new African-American exploitation, but a place that housed popular blues of the 1920s similarly Chicagoans vision of the South as home,

18 Titon, 1. 19 Griffin, 9. 20 Robert Gordon, Can’t Be Satisfied: The Life and Times of Muddy Waters. (Massachusetts: Little, Brown and Company, 2002), 71. 21 Robert Palmer, Deep Blues. (New York: Penguin Books, 1982), 135. 22 Gordon, 97. 23 Titon, 10. 24 Griffin, 53. 25 Titon, 148.

66 From the Delta to Chicago: Muddy Waters’ Downhome Blues and the Shaping of African-American Urban Identity in Post World War II Chicago and as such, a place worthy of missing. Along with offering nostalgic images well.29 Of these spiritual gatherings, Julio As they did in the South, bluesmen of the South for the newly arrived, Finn, author of The Bluesman, suggests: continued to express the attitudes bluesmen like Waters’ often incorporated of African Americans in the North. symbols of Southern African-American There, on the ground where Perhaps this traditional style, which traditions; one of the most popular their people had come together combined themes of mistreatment and being hoodoo. Naturally, in the midst to be reunited with the gods of mobility, comforted the migrants not of dramatic change, African Americans Africa, their spirits were able to only because of its nostalgic pulse but welcomed tradition with open arms. free themselves from the slavers’ because so many African Americans Waters explained to Robert Palmer why bondage and soar, and out of these felt disillusioned by urban life. In he sang about hoodoo so often, saying stolen flights would come the music 1949, when Chicago’s South and near “you know, when you writin’ them songs and words which became the blues, West sides swelled with new arrivals, that are coming from down that way, jazz, creole and cajun music.30 Waters’ “Train Fare Home” soothed the you can’t leave out somethin’ about that homesickness that spread like a cold in a mojo thing. Because that is what people Finn quotes W. E. B. Dubois’ description cramped kitchenette. He sings: believed in at that time.”27 A perfect of the Root Doctor, one of the most example of this is Waters’ 1950 hit important figures in the hoodoo Blues and trouble just keep on “Louisiana Blues,” in which he sings: tradition, also called the Medicine Man worrying me or Hootchie Cootchie man. Dubois Blues and trouble just keep on I’m goin’ down to Louisiana describes him as, worrying me Baby, behind the sun They bother me so bad, I just can’t I’m goin’ down to Louisiana the healer of the sick, the interpreter stay here, no peace Honey, behind the sun of the Unknown, the comforter of If I could get lucky and win my Well, you know I just found out the sorrowing, the supernatural train fare home My trouble’s just begun avenger of wrong, and the one who If I could get lucky and win my I’m goin’ down to New Orleans rudely but picturesquely expressed train fare home Get me a mojo hand the longing, disappointment, I believe I’ll go back down in I’m goin’ down to New Orleans, and resentment of a stolen and Clarksdale, little girl that’s where umm-hmmm oppressed people.31 I belong.26 Get me a mojo hand I’m gonna show all you good- Ironically, this is nothing other than Again Waters invokes the powerful lookin’ women a concise definition of a bluesman; symbol of the train. In the Delta, the Just how to treat your man28 perhaps the recent migrants viewed sound of a train in the distance reminded Waters as the modern Root Doctor of African Americans that there was In “Louisiana Blues,” Waters again the city; Waters himself seems to. While somewhere besides the heartbreaking begins with a hypothetical journey this may appear to be a metaphorical plantations that stained the American south, this time to New Orleans, whose analogy, Waters did comfort those South. However, Chicago did not prove forbidding and mysterious bayous are transplanted from Delta soil in much to be the Promised Land it had been in home to hoodoo. In much the same way the same way that the Root Doctor the minds of those dreaming to escape that juke joints, and later rent parties, did those transplanted from African the cotton fields. Waters, by claiming provided African Americans with a safe soil. In his 1954 hit “I’m Your Hoochie Clarksdale as his home, ameliorated space that nurtured their identity, the Coochie Man,” Waters illuminates this some of the homesickness felt by the well-insulated swamps of New Orleans connection. He sings: recent migrants. offered African Americans refuge as

26 Gordon, 97. 27 Palmer, 97. 28 Palmer, 98. 29 Julio Finn, The Bluesman: The Musical Heritage of Black Men and Women in the Americas. (New York: Interlink Books, 1992), 110. 30 Ibid., 111. 31 Ibid., 5.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 67 I got a black cat bone American males specifically is the mannish of mobility, and his deep connection I got a mojo too behavior that characterized their identity to African-American tradition. This I got the John the Conqueroo in the city. Bluesman, like Waters, radiated powerful combination both liberated I’m gonna mess with you masculinity and exuded confidence. This and elevated the collective African- I’m gonna make you girls combination excited the male migrants American male identity. Lead me by the hand who had witnessed the perfection with Considering that prior to the Then the world’ll know which the Delta stifled African-American Emancipation most African Americans The Hoochie Coochie man32 masculinity. When Alan Lomax recalled lived and died bound to the land, the meeting Waters on the Stovall Plantation, assertion of their natural American right The hoodoo charms that Waters claims he described the young bluesman as a to mobility undoubtedly expanded to have in this verse, the “black cat “Delta wallflower.” This image sharply their collective consciousness. Angela Y. bone,” the “mojo,” and the “John the contrasts with Lomax’s later depiction of Davis, author of Blues Legacies and Black Conqueroo” are described by Finn as Waters as a “sharply dressed, supervirile Feminism, suggests that the personal the “material manifestations of power.”33 dude, with money in his pocket, [and all] journeys that African Americans began These amulets, composed of “any the women in town on his trail.”35 Waters’ post-emancipation “were occasioned by number of objects: cats’ claws, hair, projected this new overtly masculine psychological repositionings.” Examining teeth, roots, herbs, etc… sealed in a image in lyrics like these taken from his the impetus for, and the progression of, small bag or cloth,” obtained their power 1955 hit “Mannish Boy.” such “psychological repositionings”37 is from the Root Doctor.34 By claiming to necessary to understanding the effect of possess such charms, Waters is in fact I’m a man, I spell mmm, migration on African-American identity claiming to have the ability to empower aaa child, nnn formation on Post World War II Chicago. his people. In hoodoo blues songs like That represents man. The popularity of downhome blues “Louisiana Blues” and “Hoochie Coochie No B, O child, Y among the newly relocated Mississippians Man,” both the hoodoo tradition and That mean mannish boy reflects a period of transition for African blues music “come together to function I’m a man, I’m a full grown man Americans in which their rural identity as a source of strength, to set off a I’m a man, I’m a natural born evolved into a more urban identity. reaction and bring about a desired effect. lovers man However, the blues not only reflected They act as magic—perhaps the first I’m a man, I’m a rollin’ stone the new urban identity of African function music ever had.” I’m a man, I’m a hoochie Americans but also was an active Waters’ downhome blues not only coochie man36 ingredient in the alteration itself. It soothed and strengthened the post- soothed the heartache heaped on the migrant psyche; it transformed it as well. In “Mannish Boy,” Waters flaunts his tired shoulders of sharecroppers in the Once steadied by the blues, the urban masculinity, something the oppressive Delta, inspired them to assert their right identity of the new arrivals began taking hierarchy of the Delta never would have to search for a freer place, nurtured their shape. One major distinction between allowed. He expresses his manliness in post-migrant psyche, and strengthened the rural and urban identity of African- terms of his sexual prowess, his freedom their urban identity in Chicago.

32 Eric Sackheim, ed. The Blues Line: Blues Lyrics form Leadbelly to Muddy Waters. (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1969), 432. 33 Ibid., 128. 34 Ibid., 128. 35 Lomax, 419 36 “Muddy Waters - Mannish Boy Lyrics” http://lyrics.rare-lyrics.com/M/Muddy-Waters/Mannish-Boy.html. Viewed: June 23, 2005. 37 Davis, 68.

68 From the Delta to Chicago: Muddy Waters’ Downhome Blues and the Shaping of African-American Urban Identity in Post World War II Chicago Bibliography

Baker, Houston A. Jr. Long Black Song: Essays in Black American Literature and Culture. Virginia: The University Press of Virginia, 1990.

Davis, Angela. Blues Legacies and Black Feminism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1998.

Griffin, Farah Jasmine. “‘Who Set You Flowin’?” New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Finn, Julio. The Bluesman: The Musical Heritage of Black Men and Women in the Americas. New York: Interlink Books, 1992.

George King, Prod. Goin’ to Chicago. Mississippi: University of Mississippi, 1994 Viewed November 27, 2004.

Gordon, Robert. Can’t Be Satisfied: The Life and Times of Muddy Waters. Massachusetts: Little, Brown and Company, 2002.

Grossman, James. Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners and the Great Migration. Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1989.

Jones, Leroi. (Amiri Baraka) Blues People: Negro Music in White America. New York: Perennial, 2002.

Levine, Lawrence. Black Culture, Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.

Lomax, Alan. The Land Where the Blues Began. New York: The New Press, 2002.

“Muddy Waters—Mannish Boy Lyrics” http://lyrics.rare-lyrics.com/M/Muddy-Waters/Mannish-Boy.html. Viewed: June 23, 2005.

Palmer, Robert. Deep Blues. New York: Penguin Books, 1982.

Rooney, James. Bossmen: Bill Monroe and Muddy Waters. New York: The Dial Press, 1971.

Rowe, Mike. Chicago Blues: The City and the Music. New York: Da Capo Press, 1975.

Sackheim, Eric. The Blues Line: A Collection of Blues Lyrics. Ecco; Reissue edition, 1993.

Spear, Allan. Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920. Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1967.

Titon, Jeff Todd, ed., Downhome Blues Lyrics: An Anthology from the Post-World War II Era, 2nd ed. Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1990.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 69 70 Between Religion and Honor: Charles Colcock Jones and a Discussion of Antebellum Southern Values

Abstract On August 26th, 1861 Charles Colcock The ethic of honor among Southern white Jones, a prominent Presbyterian and an men encouraged violence, excess, and elite Georgia plantation owner, wrote public displays of manhood. Conversely, an irate letter to a former employee evangelical religion compelled Christians and fellow minister. After citing his toward abstinence and self-control, ideas credentials as a Christian gentleman, usually incompatible with the expectations Jones accused the man of “debauch[ing] of honor. An elite plantation owner and a a young Negro girl...,” who happened prominent Presbyterian minister, Charles to be a slave belonging to Jones, and Colcock Jones, acted on both these opposite fathering her child. Jones angrily told ideals during the Secession Crisis and his former assistant he had violated the Civil War. An examination and analysis principles of Christian benevolence and of his and other Jones family letters and betrayed Jones’s trust. Jones declared that, correspondence will demonstrate how Jones “You, [sir], are the only man who ever incorporated the ethic of honor as the threat dared to offer...so vile and so infamous of disunion materialized, only to turn back an insult to me personally and to my toward evangelical Christianity following family!” Disgusted, Jones finished, “How the outbreak of war. you have wounded the Saviour [sic], and brought disgrace upon religion.”1 Jonathan Howard As Jones made clear, he believed that McNair Scholar the offense was a crime against both himself and his slave. In making his claim, Jones drew upon two distinct ethical belief systems that dominated the antebellum South to justify his position— honor and evangelical Christianity. Jones based his personal umbrage on the Southern ethic of honor and took it as an insult that a former employee would enter his household under the pretense of Christian service only to commit such an ungodly act. In addition, Jones believed that his former guest had compromised the principles of Christian duty towards others. By using the two together, Jones created an amalgamation that might seem unexpected or, at the very least, unorthodox. Yet Jones accomplished this task with relative effortlessness. Upon closer examination, however, in moments of personal crisis, Jones seems to have used his evangelical beliefs more so than the ethic of honor. At first glance, Jones’s simultaneous use of the ethic of honor and the Steve Tripp, Ph.D. precepts of evangelical Christianity Faculty Mentor might appear to be antithetical. Indeed, scholars of honor and evangelical Christianity have often been inclined

1 Rec. C.C. Jones to Mr.______, Aug. 26, 1861, in Robert Manson Myers ed. The Children of Pride, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1972), 741-742.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 71 to note the differences between the culture of honor. Several key factors men of honor, he was concerned about two rather than the potential for distinguished the Southern ethic of his status within the community, the cooperation. Historian Bertram Wyatt- honor. First, when Southerners spoke most important aspect of honor. Brown suggests that because the church of and acted upon honor, they believed Just as the ethic of honor displayed population of the antebellum South only white men could possess it. several distinct characteristics, was only a small portion of the entire Women, minors, and blacks of both evangelical Christianity possessed certain population, “Churchmen either were sexes, regardless of their status as free distinctive attributes. One prerequisite themselves involved or stood quietly or enslaved, were excluded from the upon which all evangelicals insisted was aside, recognizing the superior moral world of honor.5 Second, Southerners conversion. Conversion symbolized the force of the circle of honor itself.”2 defined honor in terms of a man’s rejection of one’s own will and ceded In an examination of post-bellum relationship with the community. control to God. In addition, evangelicals Southern culture, historian Ted Ownby Society’s opinion determined his worth stressed the personal relationship with argues that Southern men vacillated and standing, and this public assessment God. They hoped that this could prevent between the worlds of manly honor was the most important aspect of a worldly influences from corrupting and pious evangelicalism in a binge man’s character. Third, the very nature the individual and thereby maintain and purge cycle of excess and denial.3 of the community’s expectations the personal piety essential to the Even when the two did converge, required men to act independently. evangelical view of Christianity. Another historian Christine Leigh Heyrman This translated into aggressive behavior view to which evangelicals subscribed suggests that evangelicals bent to the in an attempt for self-assertion. By was a missionary ethos, which required will of honor, coming to “accept the acting in such a manner, Southern all Christians to convert others. By most basic assumption of the code white men hoped to prove their doing this, Jones fulfilled the mandate of honor…behavior in the company masculinity and gain community esteem to all Christians first given by Christ. of other masters.”4 Jones, however, and public acceptance. Elites often Finally, although much dissimilarity provides an excellent example of one expressed their honor through seeking existed between evangelicalism and person bound to both standards of political office, oratory, gambling, honor, evangelicals like Jones believed Southern ethics and time and again, he and dueling. Members of the lower in submission before God, just as those relied on both to inform his actions as classes resorted to more crude methods of an honor–bound society bent to the a Southerner. As Jones dealt with issues including brawling, profanity, acts will of the community. Wyatt–Brown relating to parenthood, secession, and of miscegenation, and other boorish notes that the graceful element of slavery, he was guided by both honor activities. Nevertheless, each was Christianity, in which God conveyed and evangelical Christianity. Yet while an attempt to earn credibility and mercy upon humanity, lent itself well to he acted on the influences of each, acceptance in the eyes of others. Thus, a hierarchy in which honor was central.6 particularly during moments of crisis, when Southern white men acted out, Evangelical submission, however, was Jones seems to have been influenced they were submitting to the community’s unique in that, at least theoretically, more by his evangelical beliefs than his expectations. To do otherwise signified all were equal before God.7 This belief status as a man of honor. a complete lack of honor. Although could potentially lend itself toward As a prominent white Southerner, Jones was not one to indulge in worldly an egalitarian view of society, and it Jones lived within the Southern pleasures or excesses like most other did to some degree in the Northern

2 Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), xvii. 3 Ted Ownby, Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920, (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 31. 4 Christine Leigh Heyrman, Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 252. Heryman suggests that a key feature of early 19th century evangelicals was to demonstrate “self-mastery” and that doing so was a means for demonstrating their worth in Southern culture. 5 Steven M. Stowe, Intimacy and Power in the Old South, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), 14; Edward L. Ayers, Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the 19th-Century American South, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 13. 6 Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s-1880s, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), xii. 7 A number of historians have provided descriptions of evangelical Christianity. For those I have found particularly helpful, see: Heyrman, 4-5; Anne C. Loveland, Evangelicals and the Social Order: 1800-1860, (Baton Rouge, 1980), 1-90; Donald G. Mathews, Religion in the Old South, (Chicago, 1977), xvi-xvii; also Steven Elliot Tripp, Yankee Town Southern City, (New York: NYU Press, 1997), 50.

72 Between Religion and Honor: Charles Colcock Jones and a Discussion of Antebellum Southern Values states. However, as historian Eugene calling a fellow man a liar often escalated the honor of the accused, an embattled Genovese notes with his usual expertise, trivial disputes into duels.10 While Jones white man of standing. Yet just as the egalitarian aspects of evangelical would likely not have been inclined to they did, they began an affair of honor Christianity were not so powerful by engage in a duel, the accused clearly between themselves and Jones. In themselves as to threaten the status quo selected his words carefully when dealing subsequent letters, Jones lamented within the antebellum South.8 with so prominent a man as Jones. the fact that sometimes the guilty are A closer analysis of the case of the Hon. John Johnson and A.G. Redd, exonerated and that the product of debauched slave reveals an example of the officials from the Presbyterian the infidelity, the child of the slave, how Jones used honor and evangelical Church of Columbus, Georgia, also used unmistakably resembled the accused. Christianity simultaneously. As it the language of honor when coming to In addition, he reaffirmed his support developed, the incident began to take the defense of the accused. They based of the female slave and pointed out that on several important aspects of an affair their position on their belief in a lack the argument against her had likely of honor. Central to such development of credibility on the part of the female been informed by racist tendencies. was the correspondence between slave especially when compared with the He argued, “If my servant were a Jones, the accused, and officials from accused, a white male with considerable white woman…she would carry a another Presbyterian church who standing in the community. They snidely prosecution for bastardy against him became involved at the behest of the remarked that, “the fact is apparent that in any common court.”13 In so doing, accused. When confronted with the your woman…has departed from the Jones clearly deviated from the norms of charges, the accused denied Jones’s rules of chastity.” They further asserted, the antebellum South. Moreover, Jones claim in an enclosure to a letter from the hoped to encourage his colleagues to aforementioned officials to Jones, stating, [He] is a member of the church... put aside their prejudices and consider it is…our duty to protect and the charges against the accused before Charges have been made against defend innocent members…[His] defending him. me by Rev. C.C. Jones embracing character is in great jeopardy, The advocates of the accused pointed adultery and therewith un-Christian and with his character goes his out that in a world based on male conduct. I hereby deny…such prospects for success even in his honor, taking the word of a debased charges and pronounce them to be secular vocation.11 slave was a violation of the social false and unfounded.9 hierarchy. Even though they recognized Clearly, the defenders of the accused Jones’s status as an elite, they remained Clearly, the accused attempted to defend perceived a threat to white male honor; committed to defending the accused. his reputation. Yet, he was careful to namely, that a woman, a slave, no less, Still, Jones staunchly pursued the case. avoid questioning Jones’s honor as a man could challenge a white’s status in Thus, while this incident exemplifies of a higher social standing, particularly society. As Wyatt–Brown points out, many characteristics of an affair of in the presence of church officials the south was a true patriarchal society honor, it also demonstrates that Jones who would have regarded Jones as a in that it placed white men at the top believed in the primacy of evangelical social equal. Calling Jones a liar would of the hierarchy and institutionally Christianity within the Southern culture. have indeed been a serious affront. As assaulted female identity.12 As such, While Jones did not see the slave as historian Kenneth Greenberg argues, these officials felt compelled to defend an equal with whites, the fact that he

8 Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made, (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), 167-173. 9 Hon. John Johnson to Rev. C.C. Jones, Nov. 18th, 1861 enclosure of Mr.______; Myers, 800. 10 Kenneth Greenberg, Honor and Slavery, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 8-9. 11 Hon. John Johnson and A.G. Redd to Rev. C.C. Jones, Sept. 24th, 1860; Myers, 754. 12 Wyatt-Brown, 226, 246; Also see: Wilber J. Cash, The Mind of the South, (New York: Vintage Books, 1991; reprint), 29-58. In his dated but still valuable examination of Southern history, The Mind of the South, Cash argues that the central character of antebellum Southern society was the white male, and it was his word and action which stood paramount above all others. 13 C.C. Jones to Hon. John Johnson and Mr. A.G. Redd, Oct. 16, 1861; Myers, 774-776.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 73 reduced the word of a white to that of black women on countless occasions, and was concerned with securing the a slave suggests, in terms of the sinful Jones would have no part of it as a benefits of both.” Moreover, Jones nature of man, Jones believed all were patriarchal master who felt responsible argued that to leave the system of equally susceptible to temptation. for the moral condition of a slave. It slavery as it was would have been Although the dynamics of master and is on this point that Jones revealed his in negligence of Christian duty, but slave relations often permitted similar evangelical foundations. with Christianity, it could be vastly cases of miscegenation among white This was not the first time Jones ran improved.18 Clearly, by 1842, when men as that of the alleged debauchery afoul of the South’s racial orthodoxy Jones wrote a treatise on Christianity mentioned by Jones, he believed the because of his evangelical beliefs. As a and slavery, he had no intentions of accused had committed a greater offense young theology student at Princeton eliminating slavery. In The Religious than violation of Jones’ honor. Rather, he Theological Seminary, he dabbled with Instruction of the Negroes in the United had committed a morally indefensible antislavery sentiments. As historian States, Jones urged masters to convert act to which any evangelically conscious Donald Mathews argues, the minister– their slaves to Christianity as means master would object. As an evangelical in–training harbored misgivings about for providing earthly benefits as well and a member of the master class, Jones slavery because he was, “saddened and as heavenly rewards for those bound felt compelled to address the issue. embarrassed by the contrast between in servitude. At the same time, he In making his argument, Jones did southern society and the northern emphasized that conversion would be more than take the word of a female society he had come to admire.”16 Yet beneficial to the master class. He argued slave over a white man. Historian as historian Erskine Clarke suggests, that by bringing Christianity to the Steven Stowe argues that in affairs of Jones’s contempt for slavery was not unconverted slave population, “There honor, men of elite status “invoked…a the deep antipathy of abolitionism would be a better relation of master and moral force” to justify their claims.14 which regarded it as sin. Rather, Jones servant: and of their reciprocal duties.” While this no doubt influenced Jones’s viewed it as an evil which could be (italics by Jones) Thus, just as masters thinking, he took this event a step purged through gradual emancipation. fulfilled their responsibilities by offering further than most others among his While such a distinction might seem the benefits of Christianity, slaves in social strata. Jones reduced the word of confusing at first, it was significant in turn, at least in theory, would be better a man of considerable esteem to that that Jones would not have believed equipped to accept their station in of a slave. As Greenberg points out, that slaveholders were sinning per se. life if they became Christians.19 Such Southerners associated slavery with a Instead, they were simply actors in a sentiments deviated from those of his lack of personal autonomy. While white system beyond their control. Thus for youth in that instead of bemoaning of elite standing were free to do as they Jones during his youth, it could be slavery, he attempted to both purify chose to assert themselves among their argued that he believed in slavery as a and support it. Yet as he wrote of peers, a slave was limited to submitting “necessary evil,” a socially undesirable the acceptable treatment of masters to the will of others.15 Misuse or aspect of the South about which little toward slaves, Jones never strayed mistreatment of another man’s property could be done to fully eradicate, at least from his central purpose of ensuring was a considerable offense in an honor– in the short term.17 that the relationship be Christian in bound society; however, in most cases Upon returning to the South, nature. Moreover, Jones implied that if an infringement of this nature would however, Jones became more slavery were to continue, slaveholders not be so severe as to entirely remove a conservative in his views toward slavery. should be required to recognize and white man’s honor. Yet Jones’s rejection As he became more firmly established accommodate for the evangelical of white solidarity is significant in that it in the ministry, Jones contributed to needs of the enslaved. In making such reflects a sense of moral equality for the what Mathews calls a “slaveholding an implication, Jones clearly places slave. While white men could and did ethic” which “emphasized the moral evangelical objectives at the center of get away with such treatment toward responsibility of both master and slave his agenda.

14 Stowe, 33. 15 Greenberg, Honor and Slavery, 103-104. 16 Donald G. Mathews, “Charles Colcock Jones and the Southern Evangelical Crusade to Form a Biracial Community,” Journal of Southern History, Vol. 41, No. 3 (Aug., 1975), 301. 17 Erskine Clarke, Wrestlin’ Jacob: A Portrait of Religion in Antebellum Georgia and the South Carolina Low Country, (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1999), 12. 18 Mathews, Religion in the Old South, 173, 141. 19 Charles Colcock Jones, The Religious Instruction of the Negroes in the United States, (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), 158-163, 206.

74 Between Religion and Honor: Charles Colcock Jones and a Discussion of Antebellum Southern Values Just as Jones applied both the ethics on the proper conduct of a Southern the army! ...There is true nobility in of honor and evangelical Christianity to political elite. He furthermore urged him their action,” he wrote to his daughter his stance on issues of race and slavery, to read his Bible and pray constantly as Mary. Clearly he believed public opinion he acted on these models to guide his he exercised the mayoralty of Savannah. would recognize their contributions. approach in the realm of parenting. Such language suggests Jones believed Jones also believed his sons would And here again, while acting on the that honor and evangelical Christianity serve honorably because “the current principles of honor, Jones acted more could not only coexist but cooperate cause exceeds in character that of our closely in line with his evangelical as well. Just as Jones expected his son first revolution.” Is so doing, Jones beliefs. While Jones had three children, to behave in an honorable fashion attempted to associate the actions of his two sons and a daughter, we know regarding politics, he also emphasized son with the ethic of honor.24 Just as the most about his relationship with the religious elements involved. heroes like George Washington, a fellow his oldest son, Charles Colcock In addition to advising Charles C. Southerner, had manfully resisted the Jones, Jr, because of their extensive Jones, Jr. on his political ascendancy, British, Southerners in 1861 must do correspondence with one another. Jones also considered his son’s other the same against a Northern contingent A graduate of Harvard Law School, public achievements, a distinguishing they viewed as bent on a policy of Charles C. Jones Jr. ran a law practice characteristic of a man bound to subjugation. Surely, he believed, his sons in Savannah, Georgia. In 1860, Jones the Southern ethic of honor among would act appropriately for men of their Jr. took up an active interest in politics. elites. Following a speech given at social standing during such times. In October of that year, he notified a secession meeting, Jones praised Despite his satisfaction with his father of his election as mayor of his son’s performance in a letter Charles C. Jones Jr.’s services as the city.20 “It is a high honor, coming written to his daughter, Mary S. mayor of Savannah and later as a unsolicited, and the expression of the Mallard. Happily acknowledging the Confederate Army officer, Jones confidence of the majority of your community’s approval he wrote, “Your expressed displeasure with his son fellow citizens,” his father responded, brother presided with ease and dignity, on certain occasions. While the two “[we] are gratified that your conduct and delivered an admirable opening undoubtedly had a healthy relationship, and character have been such to attract address…rapturously applauded.”23 they apparently disagreed, at least you their suffrages and place you in While any proud father might have periodically, over the question of the highest office in their gift.” Jones noted the “ease and dignity” with salvation. Although Jones figured to even compared his son with Socrates, which a son spoke to an audience, a be one of the South’s most prominent but noted that he had an even greater man of honor took special occasion to evangelicals, his son resisted conversion likelihood of success than “that great draw attention to the way an audience until 1861. Jones expressed these and excellent heathen.” Yet he also “rapturously applauded” a speaker. In concerns to his son numerous times. On warned his son to be wary of popular so doing, Jones noted the community’s many occasions, Jones exhorted his son demands and implied that he could role in assessing his son’s achievements, to accept Christ and save himself from only be assured of honor by holding essential to the world of honor. eternal darkness. Interestingly, however, a steadfast position.21 As Greenberg Jones also praised his children for Charles C. Jones Jr. did not respond suggests, by resisting such demands, their military service, another element to these demands. While he often Southern politicians demonstrated their often associated with the world of spoke of God’s aid and the dealings of ability to act independently from outside honor. While Jones was too old and Providence, when his father pressed influence, proving that they deserved frail to serve, he repeatedly expressed him about becoming a Christian, he honor.22 In encouraging Charles C. satisfaction toward both his sons for remained silent on the issue. Not until Jones, Jr. to be wary of the pitfalls of their contributions to the Southern the illness and death of both his wife popular politics, Jones advised his son cause. “Our only sons—and both in and young daughter in the summer of

20 Charles C. Jones Jr. to Rev. and Mrs. C.C. Jones, Oct. 9th, 1860; Myers, 613. 21 Rev. C. C. Jones to Hon. Charles C. Jones Jr., Oct. 15th, 1860; Ibid, 615 22 Kenneth Greenberg, Masters and Statesmen; The Political Culture of American Slavery, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 19. 23 Rev. C.C. Jones to Mrs. Mary S. Mallard, Dec. 13th, 1860; Myers, 634. 24 Rev. C.C. Jones to Mrs. Mary S. Mallard, Oct. 26th, 1861; Ibid, 781.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 75 1861 did Charles C. Jones Jr. heed his After such a poignant plea, Charles C. his evangelical beliefs when defending father’s demands for conversion. Jones Jr. finally chose to address his the Confederacy. Even when he called While some might see Jones’s attempts eternal affairs. He wrote, on the ethic of honor during this time, to convert his son as a patriarchal dispute such usage was sparse and framed of honor between father and son, closer I would not have you believe that within a larger context as a defense of analysis reveals Jones’s true motivations. I am trifling with God’s dealings evangelical precepts. He urged his son to convert because his with me…Those realities are too Even when Jones used honor to evangelical beliefs required it. Moreover, sacred, too awful, too heartening, defend the South, he combined it Jones went so far as to tell his son to reject to admit…vain imaginations… with a defense of Christianity. On one worldly attractions. Of the temptations my wish is…to embrace that occasion, Jones wrote to fellow minister the world had to offer, Jones wrote that salvation…and peace made with David H. Porter regarding the split God. All else is valueless.”27 of the Presbyterian Church. Of the there is nothing to draw you back, eminent divide he wrote his colleague, but much to draw you on, in them. From the sources that exist, it seems You have but very few friends clear that Jones believed his son’s The inauguration of war upon the who have your present and eternal uncertain eternal affairs presented a South by the Black Republican interests at heart.25 greater threat than any political or government, backed by the entire military adversary he would ever have North, is sufficient reason [for When using such language, Jones to face. While he could be a man of the separation]. emphasized the eternal implications, a honor, wealth, or worldly esteem, all keystone of evangelical rhetoric. would be for naught if he did not secure Jones leveled this charge because By the time Charles C. Jones Jr. his eternal future. Thus, while Jones he wanted to call attention to what decided to convert, Jones, in light of complemented his son on his honorable he believed was a North devoid of the deaths of his daughter–in–law achievements, he viewed worldly Christianity. If Southern Christians and granddaughter, told his son that acclaim as superficial in comparison to were true to their beliefs, they would salvation was even more essential at religious security. defend themselves against a Northern this moment of loss. Reminding his son While Jones used both the ethic of contingent they saw as imposing and that he would not be reunited with his honor and evangelical Christianity oppressive. Furthermore he argued, departed wife and child if he remained extensively in the spheres of race “Ecclesiastical connections conform to unconverted, Jones wrote: and fatherhood, he took a unique civil and political…our being citizens position during the Secession Crisis of separate confederacies will but tend There is such a thing as substituting and Civil War. Instead of relying on to bring up the question.”28 While imaginations for realities; and unless the standards of the honor code, Jones such language contains elements of you have a real interest in the merits based the defense of the South on his honorable Southern assertion, notably and intercession of the Lord Jesus evangelical beliefs. Although Jones had self–defense when faced with an assault, Christ…you will never meet her in distinguished himself by combining the Jones relegated the ethic of honor heaven…your immortal soul will precepts of evangelicalism and honor on to a supporting rather than primary be eternally lost! Nothing short [of other occasions, his actions during the role. If honor were dominant, Jones conversion] will satisfy me…the Sectional Conflict demonstrated Jones’s would have spoken of being personally emptiness of pleasure and honor commitment to Christian convictions. violated. Instead, he believed that and of wealth and all else earthly… Instead of using the ethic of honor Northern Republicanism threatened the perhaps you would never have so to defend the South like most fellow South’s Christianity. fully realized as by the affliction.26 Southerners, Jones relied heavily on

25 Rev. C.C. Jones to Mr. Charles C. Jones Jr., March 17th, 1860; Ibid, 568. 26 Rev. C.C. Jones to Hon. Charles C. Jones, Sept. 27th, 1861; Ibid, 755-756. 27 Hon. Charles C. Jones to Rev. C.C. Jones, Oct. 1st, 1861; Ibid, 757. 28 Rev. C.C. Jones to Rev. David H. Porter, April 30th, 1861; Ibid, 670.

76 Between Religion and Honor: Charles Colcock Jones and a Discussion of Antebellum Southern Values Although Jones believed the South’s the opportunity for the South to Clearly, Jones received true consolation in actions were an honorable defense of compete with the North and assert its believing that God controlled all things Christianity, he justified the war as a honor. Greenberg points out, some when he could not rely on the ethics of matter of divine purpose. He reminded Southerners even admired the assertive his elite standing to affirm his beliefs. son Charles C. Jones Jr., who by and dangerous John Brown despite From the fervor of the Secession November 1861 was lieutenant in a his attempted slave insurrection.31 Crisis through some of the darkest Confederate artillery division, that, Instead, Jones offered a harsh rebuke moments in the Confederacy’s existence, for a North he viewed as threatening Jones associated the South with If it should please God to enable to true Christianity. In so doing, Jones evangelicalism, only using honor to us to repel the invading fleet, it associated the South with Christianity defend Christianity. In November of will greatly strengthen our cause… and transformed the conflict into an 1860, he admitted some concern about we must hope and believe that issue that invoked the Almighty’s aid. the prospect of war with the North. God will not suffer before their As his sons served the Confederate In such an event, Jones declared, boasted power.29 cause, he justified the war not in “Certainly we do need ‘the prayers terms of honor, but rather as an event of the pious.’” Still, Jones confidently Moreover, when criticizing the North, which would demonstrate the South’s asserted, “I do not fear it (war) if the Jones suggested that its leaders behaved Christian virtues. Southern states are united.” After a in a reckless manner, describing the Jones also repeatedly expressed his Confederate victory at Fort Sumter, Republican Party as belief that God, not human agency Jones supported the Palmetto State’s would determine the outcome of the valor and hoped Georgia could destitute of justice and mercy, war. As such, he refused to place much emulate such behavior. Yet following without the fear of God, supremely faith in European intervention. Early in a particularly disastrous Confederate selfish and arrogant…The conduct the war Jones declared, “We must let showing at the Battle of Antietam, Jones of the old United States…is an England and France go…and depend woefully wrote his son, outrage upon Christianity…No on ourselves, trusting in God.”32 Such man can even conjecture where this language was a clear indication that What a judgment is falling upon strife is to end. Yet it is under the Jones believed the Southern cause was our country!…it is enough to sober control of God...we can but cast his in God’s hands. If the South was indeed the most inconsiderate and soften care upon him and humbly await worthy of honor, God would deal justly the obdurate and bring our whole his interposition.30 with the North. Even when things were people to humiliation before God.34 going badly, Jones maintained a higher A close analysis of Jones’s language power was at work. Jones wrote to his While we may find such language to be reveals a twofold purpose. When son on December 25, 1861, contradictory, the Reverend Jones saw criticizing the North, Jones questioned no conflict between the defiant words he the attributes of haughtiness and With the shadow of God’s used before the war to the humble tone assertion, aspects which would judgment…and no ray of absolute he took during its darkest hours. Rather, be viewed favorably in the South. light…I do not know that we can Jones believed the South to be truly As Greenberg and Wyatt–Brown greet each other with a ‘Merry Christian in nature. Thus, when the demonstrate, manly pride and Christmas.’ But…His judgments are South came under assault by an entity aggressiveness were essential right…and so rest upon him to keep he saw as lacking in Christian virtues, characteristics in the Southern culture and to sustain and bless us.33 Jones felt bound to defend it. Only of honor. If Jones were an ordinary then did honor come into play and in a Southerner, he might have relished distinctively supportive role.

29 Rev. C. C. Jones to Lt. Charles C. Jones, Jr., Nov. 4th, 1861; Ibid, 786. 30 Rev. C.C. Jones to Hon. Charles C. Jones, Jr., Apr. 20th, 1861; Ibid, 667. 31 Greenberg, Honor and Slavery, 104-107. 32 Rev. C.C. Jones to Lt. Charles C. Jones, Jr., Dec. 20th, 1861; Ibid, 823, 838. 33 Rev. C.C. Jones to Lt. Charles C. Jones, Jr., Dec. 25th, 1861; Ibid, 823, 826. 34 C.C. Jones to Hon. Charles C. Jones, Jr., Nov. 15th, 1860; C.C. Jones to C.C. Jones, Jr., Apr. 20th, 1861; C.C. Jones to C.C. Jones, Jr., Oct. 2nd, 1862; Ibid, 629, 666, 971.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 77 With the lone exception of urging his in mind, it may be possible to view be both religiously pious and honorable son to convert, no other event seems Jones as a forerunner for a South on at the same time. When attacked by to have spurred Jones toward invoking the verge of transformation. While he Northern reformers on social issues, the aid of the Almighty more than the embraced both the traditions of honor Southerners of both honorable and tension with the North. While Jones and evangelicalism, traditions that evangelical persuasions had a means for undoubtedly believed in and acted historians have seen as increasingly defense on which they could rely. For upon the ethic of honor, by associating compatible, evangelical Christianity was example, when Northern critics attacked the South with Christianity, he placed clearly ascendant. Southerners resisted slavery for its ungodliness, Southerners evangelical Christianity at the center change in many ways before the Civil called on men like Jones to refute this of his worldview. When the Southern War, but initial resistance to evangelicals claim. In turn, after being attacked system in which he experienced faded into acceptance. The emergence of as hypocritical, Southern Christians evangelical success became embattled, the biblical defense of the Confederacy defended themselves and the Southern Jones wielded the ethic of honor to and the Lost Cause following the war system with the language of honor. defend his evangelical foundation. further suggests an increasing tendency Jones, it seems, offered an example of Following the war, one observer among Southerners to identify with this process of reciprocity and how each described Liberty County, Georgia, evangelicalism. Still, the vestiges of side benefited from the other. Jones’s home, as socially and morally honor remained strong in Southern Yet the two were not always perfectly destitute.35 Had Jones lived to witness society and postwar Southerners used harmonious either. Just as Jones used the South’s defeat, such conditions such language to support often distorted the two seamlessly, he also bent the would not have surprised him. Jones views of evangelical purity. rules of honor to conform to his might have expected that with the As theological historian Samuel S. Hill Christian beliefs. While in some ways, demise of the Southern social system, Jr. argues, Southern evangelicals believed Christianity was, by the time of the the Christianity, which Jones had in an ethic of “social responsibility.” Yet Civil War, adapting and conforming to created, was also bound to suffer. Thus, instead of taking a progressive form the rules of an honor–bound society, it seems clear that when Jones married as it did within Northern churches, it Jones offers an interesting example of the South to Christianity, he placed all became, “the preservation of orthodoxy, an evangelical who adapted the rules of other beliefs in a supporting role to his primarily religious, but with social honor to conform to a different set of primary evangelical ethics. orthodoxy in a supporting role.”37 For ethical standards. And while Jones did Jones, like many other Southern Jones, this portrait, though accurate in not speak for all Southern evangelicals Christians, clearly valued both the some regards, does not fully explain of his day, he was one of the group’s ethics of honor and social hierarchy his behavior. While Jones did become most eloquent voices. Moreover, Jones’s alongside evangelical Christianity. As a Southern conservative by the late apparent tendency to reshape the rules such, he acted on the precepts of each antebellum period, he did not view of honor to conform to evangelical throughout his changing circumstances his relationship with Southern society Christianity seems to suggest a far more and experiences combining various as a one way street. Instead a mutual complex relationship between the two each to varying degrees. As war and reciprocity existed between the than has heretofore been previously poor health threatened his worldly worlds of honor and evangelicalism. understood. By studying Jones and security, however, he turned increasingly When Southern Christians became looking for similar examples it might toward evangelical Christianity. Yet he conservative, and therefore non– be possible to better understand how spoke in a distinctly Southern tone, threatening, they gained greater Southern evangelicals dealt with the and believed to his death that the ethic religious liberties within Southern culture of honor and how Christianity of honor was fully compatible with society. Conversely, when the culture has since emerged as such a dominant evangelical expectations.36 Still, there of honor conceded these freedoms to factor in Southern society. were occasions where honor took a Southern evangelicals, it allowed men back seat to evangelicalism. With this of honor to point out that they could

35 Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, (New York: Harper Collins, 2005), 537. 36 Heyrman, 27. 37 Samuel S. Hill, Jr. et al, Religion and the Solid South, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1972), 28.

78 Between Religion and Honor: Charles Colcock Jones and a Discussion of Antebellum Southern Values Bibliography Published Primary Sources

Jones, Charles Colcock. The Religious Instruction of the Negroes in the United States. New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969.

Correspondence of the Family of Charles Colcock Jones from 1854–1868; Myers, Robert Manson ed. The Children of Pride. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1972.

Published Secondary Sources

Ayers, Edward. Vengeance and Justice; Crime and Punishment in the Nineteenth Century American South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Cash, Wilber J. The Mind of the South. New York: Vintage Books, 1991.

Clarke, Erskine. Wrestlin’ Jacob: A Portrait of Religion in Antebellum Georgia and the South Carolina Low Country. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1999.

Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877. New York: Harper Collins, 2005.

Greenberg, Kenneth. Masters and Statesmen; The Political Culture of American Slavery. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985.

______. Honor and Slavery. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).

Genovese, Eugene D. Roll Jordan Roll; The World the Slaves Made. New York: Vintage, 1974.

Heyrman, Christine Leigh. Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997.

Hill, Samuel S. Jr. et al. Religion in the Solid South. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1972.

Matthews, Donald G. “Charles Colcock Jones and the Southern Evangelical Crusade to Form a Biracial Community.” The Journal of Southern History. Vol. 41, No. 3 (Aug., 1975).

______. Religion in the Old South. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.

Ownby, Ted. Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865-1920. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1990.

______. The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s-1890s. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2001.

Stowe, Steven M. Intimacy and Power: Ritual in the Lives of the Planters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.

Tripp, Steven Elliot. Yankee Town, Southern City: Race and Class Relations in Civil War Lynchburg. New York: New York University Press, 1997.

Wyatt-Brown, Bertram. Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 79 80 Resistance to U.S. economic hegemony in Latin America: Hugo Chávez and Venezuela

Abstract Introduction Recent years have seen increasing opposition On April 11, 2002, a group of to U.S. political and economic influence in senior military officers stormed the Latin America. Venezuela is a key player in presidential palace in Caracas, the the South American economy. This project capital of Venezuela. They ousted the researches the country’s history from the leftist president, Hugo Chávez, and 1950s to the present and the role of the replaced him with the more conservative U.S. in its formation. Through political Pedro Carmona. The coup had the economy, this study asks if recent political support of the business community, changes are due to the effects of U.S. policies the upper classes, the mass media, and in Venezuela. The research examines tacit support from the U.S.; however, the relationship between the two nations the de-facto government was short and the development models proposed lived (Cooper, 2002; Hellinger, 2003; by the Chávez government. The paper García-Guadilla, 2003; Parenti, 2005). considers alternative models of economic Thousands of the nation’s poor filled development, independent from U.S. the streets demanding that Chávez be political hegemony. restored to office while, in a surprising move, branches of the Venezuelan military acted to support rather than Rachel M. Jacques suppress the movement. After two McNair Scholar days of massive protests, Carmona stepped down and Chávez returned to power. Scholars Steve Ellner and Daniel Hellinger (2003) claim that this scenario “has no equivalent in Latin American history” (p. ix). No equivalent in Latin American history? Such a strong assertion, as well as the media controversy over Chávez and his “Bolivarian Revolution,” are what spur research on this topic. What has happened in Venezuela to create such controversy, and what does it mean? The goals of this project are two-fold. The first is to investigate recent changes in Venezuelan society since the election of Hugo Chávez, putting them in a historical context that reveals their root causes. This enables one to see beyond the rhetoric and romanticism of street protests and coups, making sense of social and economic changes that may appear at a glance to be chaotic. The second goal is to develop a theoretical interpretation of these national changes George Lundskow, Ph.D. that is grounded in a global framework. Faculty Mentor Globalization has been changing the way people understand the concepts of community and economy; therefore focusing on the national level alone is

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 81 insufficient. Careful attention has been was founded in 1958 with the Pact of power with nature, rather than with paid here to the colonial history of Punto Fijo, an agreement that established the people: “the nation’s social body Latin American countries – this history an electoral democratic system after became more marked as the passive continues to shape development and years of dictatorship and coups. The beneficiary of its natural body, seen politics of power in the region, and it is new arrangement was designed to bring now as the main source of the nation’s my belief that present-day inequalities together democracy, oil nationalism, powers” (Coronil, 1997, p. 168). It is stem from its legacy. Upon looking at and economic development in a project in this context that one can understand the case of Venezuela, I argue that the that cast the state as distributor of oil Venezuela’s economic system of statism. revolutionary program proposed by rent money (Coronil, 2000; Hellinger, Such systems, internally-focused and Chávez is not so shocking given the 2003). In the electoral system, two less open to foreign investment, were history and structure of Venezuela’s dominant parties shared power – the common from the 1930s to 1960s in political-economic system. I also submit social democratic Acción Democratica Latin America and the United States. that, despite its shortcomings, the (AD) and Christian democratic Comité Statist philosophy maintains that the program offers policy changes that are de Organización Política Electoral state should create the conditions for necessary for the development of regional Independiente (COPEI). The two parties industrial development and strategic sovereignty for South America and for alternated in power uninterrupted for strength (Kelly & Romero, 2002). This a sustainable system that is inclusive of nearly four decades. was the goal of the Pact of Punto Fijo, previously marginalized Venezuelans. The According to historian-anthropologist which organized the state to be the “revolution” that Chávez brought with Fernando Coronil (1997), Venezuelan manager of its natural resource wealth. his presidency may well be a middle- democracy was distinctive because The close relationship between the road model that defies both traditional of its fusion of resource wealth with state and industry in this model meant capitalist and state-socialist models. political power. With this combination, that the government derived most of he says, citizens could expect to both its revenue from the oil industry. Oil History participate in the political system and drilling had begun in 1914, expanded Traditional democracy: The Punto Fijo system benefit from the natural wealth of the quickly throughout the 1950s, and For decades, Venezuela was considered country’s resources. Furthermore, he when Venezuela nationalized its oil by many to be an “exceptional” nation, describes how the nation could be industry in 1976, it represented the both because of its prosperous economy thought of as having two parts: a “social culmination of the Punto Fijo project and because of its governmental system body” made of its people and political (Hellinger, 2003). After the oil embargo similar to that of the United States organization, and a “natural body” made by the Arab states of OPEC, global (Coronil, 2000; Ellner, 2003; Kelly & of its physical resources. This split was oil prices skyrocketed, making for Romero, 2002). The political structure significant because it aligned political windfall revenues to oil-exporting nations world-wide. (See Figure 1.) Indeed, Venezuela received more money Figure 1. International crude oil prices from 1978 to 2005 (Source: Oil Energy) during this boom than all of Europe did under the Marshall Plan (Coronil, 1997). The surge in income allowed the Venezuelan government to further its statist agenda. It increased spending on social programs and infrastructure projects, and from the oil industry grew a prosperous middle class. A sharp decline in oil prices after the 1970s began to erode the middle class and forced the government to borrow heavily to maintain its social spending. This caused Venezuela (and numerous other Latin American export-based economies) to accumulate massive debts, the effects of which are still felt today.

82 Resistance to U.S. economic hegemony in Latin America: Hugo Chávez and Venezuela It is critical to understand how the in Venezuela was to create a society If the Punto Fijo system is analyzed bond between governmental institutions in which the population expected in this light, the failure of Venezuela to and oil money shapes the economic the state to distribute the wealth create a sustainable economy did not and social progress of the country. of its export, despite the lack of result only from mismanagement by Statism and Import Substitution productivity and organization on the party leaders, but also from the structure Industrialization were common in other part of the population (Parenti, 2005; of the political-economic system itself. It Latin American countries as well, but Kelly & Romero). Ever since 1936, is well-documented that the system was the high revenues brought in by oil (as the government has touted its goal of marred by corruption, and the struggle opposed to other primary-good exports) “sowing the oil,” the phrase for using to be rid of it continues (Maya, 2003; were what had helped to bolster the nation’s oil wealth to establish Roberts, 2003; Gott 2001; Coronil, Venezuela’s exceptional image. productive enterprises in other sectors. 1997; Munckton, 2005; Parenti, 2005). The country’s failure to “sow the Corruption was visible when Carlos The demise of Punto Fijo and the statist oil” does not surprise Coronil (1997), Andres Pérez, president for the first model: Long-term causes however, who argues that Dutch Disease time during the late-seventies oil boom, The exceptionality was not an inherent is a misnomer. He says that it should suffered two separate coup attempts national characteristic, however, and in be renamed the “Third World” or “Neo- during his second term in 1992. The the last decade Venezuelans watched colonial Disease,” pointing out that coups failed, but Pérez was impeached as their system of 40 years came apart it is “an epidemic in the monocrop on counts of corruption the following at the seams. There are both long-term economies of the third world” that year. In the 1993 presidential elections, and immediate reasons for the decline, seldom afflicts nations of first-world the abstention rate was 39%, the both of which must be acknowledged status (Coronil, 1997, p. 7). He also highest in Venezuelan history (Buxton, to understand the current situation. argues that the Dutch Disease does 2003). These events, and others to The long-term economic and political not give a satisfactory explanation of follow, served to reinforce a widespread factors leading to the demise of the decline of the economy because discontent with the party system, which puntofijismo have to do with the efficacy the real causes are beyond mere had caused them in the first place and legitimacy of the system. Scholars mismanagement. The economic and (Coronil, 2000). disagree over which factors were most social downturn that took place after Partly as a result of the corruption, important, though there is a general the boom of the 70s had to do with the benefits of oil money were not consensus that the system was in decay. over-reliance on oil, but the overall enjoyed equally by all Venezuelans. Some believe that the main cause was decline was the result of structural and Political power in the democracy was a matter of economic mismanagement. cultural deficiencies in the country. The strictly centralized in the two parties Terry Karl (as cited in Hellinger, Punto Fijo government was not really and was distributed on the basis of 2001; as cited in Ellner, 2003) blames a democratic revolution that eliminated patron-client relationships. Unlike the Venezuela’s economic failure on the the oligarchs of the past, as the national ideology that cast each citizen as part reliance on oil to sustain the economy. mythology led people to believe. Rather, land-owner (Coronil, 2000), not all of She argues that oil-exporting nations Coronil (1997, 2000) claims, it was a the population shared in the prosperity suffer a phenomenon known as the compromise on the part of the elite to of oil sales. The biggest beneficiaries of “Dutch Disease,” a problem that occurs transfer political power to the electorate national wealth were those who were when booms overvalue currency and while maintaining the privileges of best positioned to take advantage of weaken other sectors in a domestic wealth and influence. political institutions in the patronage market. A single-export based economy system – these tend to be urban is also vulnerable to fluctuations in Just as oil wealth had allowed the dwellers of upper-class status and market prices, which can be disastrous concentration of political power in White/European ethnic origins. Political when they fall. the figure of the president during access has been especially difficult for As Kelly and Romero (2002) point [previous military dictatorships], Indigenous and Black Venezuelans, out, high prices can also be disastrous. it made it possible for the ruling minorities who were not protected by High revenues can lead to over- democratic parties to monopolize the constitution prior to 1999 (Becker, confidence (“an atmosphere of easy political and economic power and 2004). Even in 2000, the top 10 percent money”) and corruption (Kelly & to exert extraordinary influence of the population received half of the Romero, p. 149). The boom’s impact over society. (Coronil, 2000, p. 35) national income (Gott, 2001).

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 83 Acknowledging the sources of had been elected for another term by a continuing commitment to the anti- the economic decline, it must be Venezuelans who opposed free-market party cause, and his apology left an emphasized that the erosion of living or neoliberal reforms (Buxton, 2003; impression in the minds of the public, standards began far in advance of the Márquez, 2003). Contrary to his social who were not accustomed to hearing tumultuous events of the 1990s. After democratic platform, Pérez shocked political figures accept blame for their international oil prices plummeted in the nation by embracing the policies he failures (Parenti, 2005; Gott, 2001). the 1980s, Venezuela had borrowed had decried in the 1970s. In what has While the military coup tactics failed, heavily to maintain its funding for been dubbed “The Great U-Turn,” he Chávez returned after his release from social programs and services. Loans did announced on February 16 that he had prison to organize a coalition that not secure social spending, however. already made an agreement with the could oust the dominant parties in a During the neoliberal economic International Monetary Fund (IMF) to presidential electoral bid. As the Punto adjustments of the late 1980s, countries implement liberalization measures. Fijo regime faded, various smaller aimed to decentralize the government Shortly after his announcement the parties came on board to form the Polo and economy through financial Bolivar was deregulated and the price Patriótico (Patriotic Pole), a coalition deregulation and privatization of state of petroleum shot up by 100%. This for what had become the Movimiento enterprises. However, these measures placed an immediate burden on bus Quinta República or Movement for the only exacerbated poor conditions. In drivers living in the crowded shanty Fifth Republic (MVR). In 1998, Chávez Venezuela, social spending decreased towns around Caracas. To cover costs, ran on the platform of writing a new from 8 percent of GDP to 4.3 percent they doubled bus fares, and on February constitution and leading the nations of (Roberts, 2003), and with the decreased 27, commuters rioted in response, South America in an original direction national income came impoverishment sending a wave of protests through the that would unite and strengthen the and a widening income gap. Julia countryside in a matter of days. It took region (Gott, 2001). After the MVR Buxton (2003) reports that poverty grew five days to quell the revolt, known as did well in local elections, COPEI and from 36% to 66% from the mid 80s to the Caracazo, and this single event has AD desperately moved to endorse the mid 90s, shooting from 43.9% to 66.5% had a lasting impact on Venezuelan independent Salas Römer one week in the year between 1988 and 1989. At society. Pérez later explained that his before the election. It was not enough the height of political crisis in the mid decision was due to the desperate need to sway the election, and Chávez 1990s, the general poverty rate was at for foreign investment. Acknowledging won the presidency by a 56 to 39.9 86% (Buxton). The middle class had that the decision was unpopular, he said percent margin (Hellinger, 2003). The shrunk and civil society increasingly that Venezuelans “…must understand new constitution was drafted by a lacked organization. This was especially that these are unavoidable. There was constituent assembly and approved by a true of organized labor; as the economy no other way out” (Gott, 2001, p. 51). referendum vote in 1999. grew less formal, the traditional, more The riots were the country’s first mass productive enterprises of industry and expression of class-based unrest since Politics and policy in the era of Chavismo agriculture waned while service jobs, the 1930s and marked the end of Using legitimate means to take power short-term and informal employment passivity on the part of the public. has not guaranteed an easy time for had become prominent. These trends Like the Caracazo, the failed coups Chávez and his administration. The show that the economic decline came in of 1992 were also turning points. The opposition has been fierce since his first a number of ways and occurred over an first attempt was led by Hugo Chávez election, marching en masse afterward to extended period of time. Frías, a young officer who had been demand both his ouster and a recall vote involved in revolutionary organizing on the basis that the election had been The demise of Punto Fijo and the statist within the military academy. When he rigged. Supporters have also turned out model: Immediate causes and the coup supporters were arrested to fill the streets, marching in defense of Immediate factors signaled the fall of the for treason, he made a one-minute Chávez’s legitimacy and celebrating the traditional system as well. The coups televised statement in which he told his anniversary of his inauguration. Both of 1992 and impeachment of Carlos comrades to put down their arms and opponents and supporters continue to Andres Pérez were not the only visible took responsibility for the failure. He protest, voicing opinions about chavista evidence of the decline; other events declared to the public that por ahora policies and programs. The stark split illustrated the increasing social unrest (for the time being), their objectives had between those who revere the president and disillusionment. In 1989, Pérez not been reached. This phrase signaled and those who despise him makes for a

84 Resistance to U.S. economic hegemony in Latin America: Hugo Chávez and Venezuela polarized and volatile political climate 2002; Hellinger, 2003). Pedro Carmona, a practical attempt to provide jobs and (Ellner & Hellinger, 2003; García- the man chosen as interim president services and a political attempt to show Guadilla, 2003; Roberts, 2003). during the coup, had been the head the MVR party as a joint civil-military Increased polarization can be seen of Fedecámaras, the nation’s leading organization (Buxton, 2003; Hellinger, in political parties, labor groups and business association. Even during the 2003; Roberts, 2003). A series of other civil organizations, but class divisions anti-government oil strike/lockout of projects, or missions as they are called, are what most clearly distinguish 2001, the majority of worker organizing have been initiated more recently, pro- from anti-governmental factions. was done by unionized labor, which addressing the foundations for social Chávez’s support comes predominantly is imbedded in the clientelist political welfare and a sustainable economy. from the peasant and working classes. system; workers in the informal sectors Two of the most successful missions According to a Datanalysis poll, in the continued working (Hellinger, 2003). have been for health care and education. 1998 presidential campaign Chávez A New York Times editorial affirms the Misión Barrio Adentro (Inner-City received the strongest support from source of opposition, saying that Chávez’ Mission, roughly) has been providing youth, men and lower classes (as cited opponents do not speak for the majority health care with the help of over 20,000 in Hellinger, 2003). In a subsequent of the population. Referencing his Cuban medics; it is reported to have race against Francisco Arias Cárdenas, victory in the 2004 recall referendum, done over 185 million consultations the class distinction was again very clear, the editorial attributes Chávez’ victory and saved over 25,000 lives (Munckton, with Arias receiving support from 2/3 to the fact that his programs address 2005). The program has been criticized of the wealthy and middle-class sectors, the concerns of the poor, who have by Venezuelans who fear the influence Chávez from a majority of the poorest “felt like the neglected stepchildren of of Cuban communism; others regard it social sectors (Hellinger, 2003). And as the country’s oil boom” (“Hugo Chávez as nothing more than social work (“Oil, noted, the reversal of the 2002 coup wins,” 2004). The referendum had been missions,” 2005). Social work in the was due in large part to the immediate called for by opponents on the basis realm of education is being provided response of crowds from the poor of fraud, but after auditing the results by Misión Ribas (Mission Robinson), a barrios (Hellinger, 2003). Chávez’s win was endorsed by both the program that offers free adult education. As Chávez continues to pay particular Organization of American States and the It serves Venezuelans who haven’t attention to the poor and to the U.S.-based Carter Center (Forero, 2004). been able to attend high school due to Indigenous and Black communities, his economic hardship; it offers stipends approval ratings have grown immensely. Domestic agenda in the new order: to poor students and flexible hours for The 1999 constitution brought changes The Missiónes those who are working. The program by offering protection of land and Despite the fierce opposition, the graduated over 20,000 people in June, resources for Indigenous communities, administration has won seven national and 210,000 people are expected to have official status for Indigenous languages, referendums, succeeding in passing been graduated by the end of this year. and the reservation of three deputy seats a new constitution and initiating a Most have already enrolled in Misión in the National Assembly for Indigenous number of social programs. With the Sucre, which provides people with free representatives (Becker, 2004). In two stated goal of forming its own model university education (Munckton). polls, Chávez’s support has grown to a of “21st century socialism” or a “social, Other missions address issues of range of 53% to 70% and support for humanist, egalitarian economy” (“Oil, food, land reform and housing. Food the opposition has shrunk to a range of Missions,” 2005), the government’s sovereignty is the goal of Misión Mercal, 10% to 27% (“And now your,” 2005). purpose with the projects is to give a project of state-run supermarkets. Conversely, it is in the ranks of the more Venezuelans access to land, Twenty five thousand Mercal stores middle and upper classes that the most education, health care and a means hold 60% of the food market and opposition is found. The opposition of livelihood (Parenti, 2005; “Oil, source food from government-owned rallies and marches during the brief Missions,” 2005). cooperatives. This is a strategic move 2002 coup were organized in the more One of the first major projects was toward food sovereignty for a country affluent areas of eastern Caracas. The “Plan Bolívar 2000,” a civil-military that imports the vast majority of its coup itself showed where opposition public works project in which military food (Munckton, 2005). lay: it was supported by a faction of personnel worked to improve sanitation, Likewise, land reform is a crucial military officers, business elites and the health, transportation, housing, and component of food sovereignty. privately-owned mass media (Cooper, other public infrastructures. It was both Government projects have been started

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 85 to address rural land access issues, contest the government’s decision. As part of the broader Project which is urgent in a land where the According to Bruce (Apr 29, 2005), PAIS (Poblaciones Agro-Industrialies population is concentrated in urban officials in charge of the reform say that Sustentables, or Sustainable Agro- centers. The situation is precarious; the goal is “effective but peaceful land Industrial Populations), Chávez is according to The Economist, 75% of reform” (para. 23), which involves only combining the missions with job farmland is owned by less than 5% of partial expropriation; the government training and the formation of worker landowners (“And now your,” 2005). says that it would like for the ranchers cooperatives. The goal is to encourage The government claims that the country to continue using part of the land for re-settlement of the countryside by cannot grow enough food to feed its cattle ranching. creating centers of development that citizens, and its newly-created National The Chávez administration is also contain clinics, schools, and workshops Lands Institute has begun a review of trying to address urban land issues. for the production of goods (“Oil, latifundio, or large estates, for possible The Housing Mission is giving titles to missions,” 2005; Gott, 2001; Munckton, redistribution (Bruce, Apr 29, 2005). poor Venezuelans who have been living 2005; Parenti, 2005). The projects are The government has asked hundreds on plots for years, often in homes they reported to have benefited 70% of the of firms to provide proof of title back built themselves (“Venezuela to offer,” population thus far (“Venezuela politics,” to 1848; failure to do so may result 2005; Munckton, 2005). Additionally, 2005; Munckton, 2005). However, all in distribution of plots of land to the government is building low-cost of Chávez’s projects have been made campesinos for small-scale agriculture housing and providing subsidies and possible by unusually high international and farming cooperatives. At the time credits to help pay for the homes. oil prices, over $65US per barrel at the of this publication only two estates have Chávez has promised to build half a time of this paper. (See Figure 2.) Time had land expropriated, one of which million homes by next year, with hopes will tell if the projects have succeeded in is a cattle ranch owned by the British of completely solving the housing crisis “sowing” the oil money, or if they have Vestey Group. Parts of the ranch have in 17 years. He has admitted, however, merely spent it. The future of Chávez’s been occupied by peasants for several that so far they have fallen short of the agenda remains uncertain. years. In March of this year, however, mark, saying that housing “is one of the Chávez’s programs may also appear the government declared failure of the most serious [problems] that Venezuela inadequate because poverty rates have firm to provide adequate proof of title. faces. Our revolution has provided some not decreased since reforms began. This clears the way for the government answers but they’re really not enough” The statistic from the Miami Herald to provide permanent titles to dozens of (“Venezuela to offer,” 2005). In the last (as cited in Weisbrot, 2005) is often families already living on the land under five years, only 91,000 homes have quoted by opponents that the poverty provisional titles. The move is opposed been built, not enough to house the 26 rate grew from 49% in 1998 to 53% by ranchers, who have 60 days to legally million who have inadequate housing. in 2004. The figures are correct, but they do not necessarily depict what Figure 2. Global crude oil prices over 2-year span (Source: U.S. Department of Energy) is taking place in society as a whole. Others counter that the poverty rate had begun to decline in 2003, and living standards for the lowest 84% of the population have increased by one third after accounting for inflation (Datos Information Resources, as cited in Munckton, 2005). According to Weisbrot (2005), statistics on household poverty do not include non-cash income of the poor such as subsidized food, health care and housing. Furthermore, he says that these kinds of subsidies have dramatically improved quality of life for the majority Note: WTI (West Texas Intermediate) and Brent are particular types of crude oil of Venezuelans. Because of this, he that are used as references for quality (Elf, 2005). argues, one must take into account the

86 Resistance to U.S. economic hegemony in Latin America: Hugo Chávez and Venezuela different kinds of changes in resource 2005, para. 16). Chávez has also used class issues to the forefront of political distribution that are happening in the Organization of American States dialogue in Venezuela. Because the Venezuela in order to compare the and the United Nations as sounding traditional balance of power has been effectiveness of Chávez’s policies. boards for building regional unity and for unequal, the creation of a more inclusive defense of political actions. In an hopeful system will necessarily require the International agenda statement in a March meeting between political elite to sacrifice some privilege. The missións are attempting to improve Chávez and heads of state from Brazil, Land reform, proportional representation quality of life for Venezuelans on the Colombia, and Spain, Chávez said that “a and government-subsidized social domestic front. As a direct result of new geopolitical map is forming on the services are just a few examples of how a the missións, millions of Venezuelans horizon,” one “without confrontations” better balance of power may be created. are receiving food and land, forming (“Presidente Chávez,” 2005, para. 8). If productive enterprises such as worker worker cooperatives for production of cooperatives can be sustained, they goods for the domestic market, and Discussion may also be the key to the country’s have more access to a high school and Class relations within Venezuelan society sustainable non-oil economy. college-level education. But international It seems quite possible that a new Most Venezuelans were prosperous relations also play an important role in geopolitical map is on the horizon for during the oil boom of the 20th Chávez’s Bolivarian vision. When he ran Latin America, though it is not likely to century. The problem was that it was for president, Chávez promised changes be free of confrontations. As illustrated, not a sustainable prosperity nor was that would protect the country from the a fierce debate rages between supporters it, as many had believed, the reward negative effects of globalization (Kelly and opponents of Chávez. Both sides for their exceptional self-governance. & Romero, 2002). A key part of his have claims that are legitimate; thus in With citizens content to rely on the plan to revive the nation is encouraging order to understand the situation it is government for distribution of resources, cooperation among countries in South not enough to take a side, one must they were not required to be active America and the Caribbean, outside understand what is at stake for those beyond participating in elections. This of the influence of the United States. on different sides of the debate. Also, poses a problem today as the country Venezuela’s increasing involvement the struggle is taking place in both the tries to wean itself off of its reliance in the Andean Community, OPEC, national and international arenas. on oil and spur productivity in other and neighboring countries shows his As discussed above, most of Chávez’s areas. As the planning and development commitment to regional integration opponents are of privileged social status minister, Jorge Giordani, told The Nation: and international trade, though moves and class. As a result, their privilege is such as oil contracts with Cuba have at risk with the success of the MVR’s We’ve been fighting political battles not been well-received by the U.S. Even policies. The Punto Fijo government, for most of our time in office. Many yet, Venezuela has remained a reliable while far more democratic than the people have learned to read in the supplier of oil to the United States and is dictators and military regimes that last few years, but how long will still a major importer of U.S. goods. preceded it, was a system that remained it take for them to work in high Economic integration is just one part of by and for the wealthy. The reason that technology, or medicine, or services? the plan to strengthen the region; cultural Chávez was able to gain power and Three years? A generation? We are and political coordination form the other. that his revolutionary programs have fighting a very individualistic, rentier This summer the government (along been relatively well-received is that the culture. Everything has been ‘Mama with Argentina, Uruguay, and Cuba) majority of the population was and state, Papa state, give me oil money.’ launched a new Latin American television is seeking radical change (Hellinger, To organize people is extremely network, Telesur, which is meant to 2003). Coronil’s observation (1997, hard. (as cited in Parenti, 2005, p. 5) provide a venue for media from a Latin 2000) that the system appeared, but American perspective. Andres Izarra, was not fully inclusive is important. This problem is not easily placed on Telesur’s president, describes the project Political power has consistently been any one individual or institution, but as “an initiative to integrate through reserved for the upper class status and on a confluence of factors in Venezuela’s communication the different countries of people of European descent – never history. The root causes of economic the region [and] an essential pre-requisite for Indigenous or mixed ethnicity, until decline were many, and as a result for closer political and economic links Chávez (Becker, 2004). What Chávez solutions will necessarily take time. across Latin America” (Bruce, Jun 28, did with his electoral bid was bring Chávez seems to be trying to address

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 87 this by requiring that communities and Mercosur as an “alternative to accusing his government of using oil organize in order to receive aid from globalization” (p. 39). This is only money to “destabilize its democratic the government. One attempt at this accurate if globalization is defined neighbors” while “financing extremist organization is the proliferation of narrowly, as what has been dubbed and antidemocratic groups” in the “Bolivarian circles,” which are small, the “Washington Consensus” or the region (“EEUU envió informes,” 2005). civilian-led local groups formed to model of U.S.-led neoliberal capitalism. Chávez was quick to rebuke the United broaden participation in and support Globalization should not be limited States, defending his commitment to for the Bolivarian cause (Maya, 2003; to the design of first-world schools democracy. Citing the history of U.S. García-Guadilla, 2003; Parenti). In of thought, however. Chávez has said intervention in the region, he called order for there to be true and long- that his project is “neither statist nor the memorandum “a slap in the face” lasting transformation, however, local neo-liberal,” that they are “exploring (“EEUU envió informes”). community organizing must continue the middle ground, where the invisible Despite this tension, Chávez has by Venezuelans of all political bents. hand of the market joins up with the not completely rejected nor attacked Education as well will play a key role, if visible hand of the state: as much state the historical ally of his country. He the educational missiónes are carried out as necessary, and as much market as is critical of U.S. intervention, as he in a way that cultivates active and non- possible” (Gott, 2001, p. 172). It is is seeking ways for nations in the partisan citizenship. clear both by the government’s efforts region to resolve their own conflicts to strengthen ties with neighboring and determine their own style of Changes in global dynamics of power nations and its enthusiastic involvement involvement in global affairs. Given Because no nation exists in complete with international trade that it is not that there is a well-documented history isolation in today’s world, power opposed to globalization. It cannot be of U.S. involvement in Latin American relationships must be transformed on anti-capitalist either, as evidenced by affairs, including the coup attempt on the global level as well. The relationship the way that Chávez has maintained Chávez in 2002, his wariness is perhaps between nations of first- and third- constitutional protection for capitalist justified. Relations were not helped by world status has historically been one elements such as private property rights the recent television broadcast of U.S. of inequality, and for all its wealth as and foreign collaboration with the state Reverend Pat Robertson, who called for an oil-exporting nation, Venezuela oil industry. the assassination of Chávez on the basis has not managed to escape this. What seems more likely is that that he had “destroyed the Venezuelan Extraction of resources by colonial Chávez is seeking a model of economy” and will make the continent powers was followed by extraction involvement in the global economy “a launching pad for communist of resources by first-world consumer that puts Venezuela first – a model that infiltration and Muslim extremism” markets, and finally loans that required will raise the standard of living for the (Borger & Campbell, 2005, p. 1). But radical structural adjustments ravaged poor and empower the country and the condemnations of these statements the fragile society. For economic region, rather than continue the failed already voiced by citizens of the United development to benefit everyone in neoliberal model that was destructive States will hopefully serve to ameliorate South American nations, serious strides in its implementation. It should come the situation. must be made to give the poor access as no surprise that most Venezuelans Certainly problems exist with to institutions of power and democratic have rejected the orthodox economic Chávez’s authoritarian tendencies; decision-making. How Venezuela is model championed by the United States, for the sake of limiting the scope of represented in international forums, because it did not benefit them. this paper, I have not attempted to institutions, and in mass media will Once this distinction is made, elaborate on his reported disrespect for do much to determine the role the it becomes easier to understand the civil rights of his opponents and country will have in determining its Chávez’s harsh treatment of the U.S. members of the private media. What development agenda. in his rhetoric. His inflammatory anti- I do assert is that we must be careful Though it is often portrayed as such, Americanism is often the focus of media not to think that the scenario is simply chavismo cannot be easily dismissed attention, as with his denunciation one of democracy versus dictatorship, as anti-globalization, anti-capitalist or of a U.S. memo to the nations of because this is misleading; it obscures even anti-American. Kelly and Romero CARICOM in June. The memo asked the problem of poverty and political (2002) cite regional integration in CARICOM nations to encourage Chávez exclusion that was the impetus for the the form of the Andean Community to respect democratic institutions, changes Chávez promises.

88 Resistance to U.S. economic hegemony in Latin America: Hugo Chávez and Venezuela The extent of the “Revolution” models, people who have been held The pressure that South American in third-world status will need to have countries face to modernize by the same more leadership roles in development. model as the United States and Western Venezuela today is pioneering a model Europe has created a clash of cultures of economic development that breaks that has yet to be reconciled because with the past orthodox models of as of yet no one side has prevailed. statism and capitalism. Those who This seems to be the question posed live in the “first-world” would do by Venezuela’s “revolution.” Chávez’s well to glean fresh insights from the policies for economics, international experiments of communities to the relations, and development have serious South. Not only are they sure to impact implications both for Venezuelans the future of global economic relations, and for how the world conceives but their experiments may provide of development. They have similar helpful models for even the most implications for how the U.S. conceives successful nations, as all countries will of its role in the hemisphere as a face rapid change and uncertainty in the leader and mediator. In the interest globalizing world. of sustainability and more egalitarian

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Maya, M. L. (2003). Hugo Chávez Frías: His movement and his presidency. In S. Ellner & D. Hellinger (Eds.), Venezuelan politics in the Chávez era: Class, polarization, and conflict (pp. 73-92). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

Munckton, S. (2005, July 04). Venezuela: The fight against poverty. Green Left Weekly, retrieved July 20, 2005 from http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/ articles.php?artno=1494

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90 Resistance to U.S. economic hegemony in Latin America: Hugo Chávez and Venezuela Presidente Chávez: Nuevo mapa geopolítico se asoma en el horizonte. Prensa Presidencial (2005, March 29). Retrieved July 2, 2005 from http://www.rnv.gov.ve/noticias/index.php?act=ST&f=2&t=15409

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GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 91 92 Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis: Analysis and Identification of Protein Kinase Substrates

Abstract Introduction This research study examines the synthesis Cancer is the second leading cause of tyrosine containing peptides based on of death in the United States. About the protein paxillin. Paxillin is a proposed 570,280 Americans are expected to substrate of the Focal Adhesion Kinase die of cancer in 2005, more than (FAK) protein tyrosine kinase. FAK is 1,500 people per day.1 There are overexpressed in tumor cells; therefore, its numerous factors which contribute to abnormal function is associated with several the oncogenesis of cells and a better cancer types. The peptides designed here understanding of these variables may are based on the substrate sequence FAK one day lead to improved cancer preferably binds to and phosphorylates. treatments. One such factor is abnormal, Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS) over expression of certain types of provided substrate compounds which were enzymes called protein tyrosine kinases then tested via biological assays with FAK. (PTK). A kinase may be thought of as The synthesis of large peptides provides an a “chemical switch” since it chemically accurate method to determine kinase amino alters its substrates by covalently acid phosphorylation preference to confirm attaching a phosphate (PO3-2) group paxillin as a FAK substrate. to them. Once phosphorylated, these Derrick Kroodsma substrate enzymes may be turned “on” McNair Scholar or turned “off.” A specific kinase is FAK2 (See Figure 1.) FAK, located in the mammalian cell membrane, has been associated with several cancer types, including lung and breast cancer3-4 (See Figure 2.) A proposed substrate for FAK is paxillin. A substrate can be thought of as a key which fits a kinase lock. The protein paxillin is a ligand that binds to membrane bound receptors that trigger cellular transduction pathways. FAK functions in regulation of cell adhesion and that trigger cellular transduction pathways. FAK functions in regulation of cell adhesion and migration by phosphorylating a tyrosine residue (Y) in paxillin (See Figure 3.) Within the amino acid sequence of paxillin, there are many possible tyrosines, which can be phosphorylated by FAK (See Figure 4.) The aim of this project is to focus on the tyrosine in paxillin and synthesize short versions of the paxillin protein around this targeted residue. While proteins are larger (longer) chains of amino acids, peptides are Laurie A. Witucki, Ph.D. short chains of 2-100 amino acids Faculty Mentor (See Figure 5.) The peptides for this research project include a specific

Abbreviations: FAK, focal adhesion kinase; PTK, protein tyrosine kinase, ATP, adenosine triphosphate; SPPS, solid phase peptide synthesis; Fmoc, 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl; HOBt, hydroxybenzotriazole hydride; HBTU, 2-(1 H-Benzotriazole-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate; TFA, trifluroacetic acid; TIS, triisopropylsaline

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 93 tyrosine from the paxillin sequence, Methods deprotection, a three-fold excess of each Y118 (Residue number 118). This was Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS) amino acid was used. The Fmoc group chosen based on previous Western The peptide synthesis was automated was “deprotected” or removed with blots using anti-paxillin antibody with an Advanced Chemtech peptide piperidine before each coupling step. indicating that phosphorylation may synthesizer. Table 1 shows the target Activation of the amino acid’s carboxy occur at this tyrosine location.5-7 This peptides for this study. group was done with HOBt and HBTU. study synthesized, via SPPS, tyrosine Polylysine (K) tails were attached A ninhydrin test was performed to containing paxillin peptides.8 A general to the C-terminal end of each peptide confirm complete lysine coupling to the tyrosine peptide sequence is: for adhesion to the negatively charged resin.13 Each peptide used 0.25 g of the phosphocellulose paper disks used polylysine resin. All of the other amino 9 H2N-aa7-aa6-aa5-Y-aa3-aa2-aa1-COOH. during assaying. The γ-phosphate is acids were attached as described above H2N = N-terminal transferred to the tyrosine residue from by the automated Advanced Chemtech COOH = C-terminal ATP to produce the phosphorylated peptide synthesizer. The continuous, tyrosine YP, and ADP. This is measured computerized process handles larger Testing a synthesized peptide with quantitatively with γ-P32 ATP. The C- peptides without compromising either the kinase FAK will provide a more terminal of each peptide is bonded purity or the product yield. Upon accurate quantitative determination of to a 90µm diameter polymer resin completion, the Wang resin and any the extent of phosphorylation instead bead called Wang (100-200 mesh).10 amino acid side chain protecting groups of the qualitative Western blot analysis. Each amino acid attached to the were cleaved and deprotected by TFA This study will also investigate varying peptide initially contains an N-α-Fmoc and scavengers.14-15 Once cleaved, the lengths of peptides surrounding tyrosine protection group and amino acids solid peptides were obtained, rinsed, 118; the range of sizes is from 12-30 may also contain side chain protecting and dried. The amounts and percent amino acids in length. Testing with FAK groups11-12 (See Figure 6 for chemical yield are shown in Table 2. will determine if it is possible to have 12 structures of reagents) and (See Figure 7 amino acid peptides act as a substrate for steps of SPPS.) To ensure successive for this kinase. amino acid coupling before Fmoc

Table 1. Description of Target Peptides

Target Peptide Sequence Molecular Weight Length Peptide #1 E114EHVY118SFPN122KKK MW: 1249.5847 g/mol 12-mer Peptide #2 V111GEEEHVY118SFPNKQK125KK MW: 2047.0607 g/mol 17-mer Peptide #3 G105SPCSRVGEEEHVY118SFPNKQKSAEPSP131KKK MW: 3330.6535 g/mol 30-mer

Results

Table 2. Analysis of Peptides

Target Peptide Grams Obtained Percent Yield Peptide #1 0.160 76.4% Peptide #2 0.135 39.4% Peptide #3 02.63 47.1%

94 Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis: Analysis and Identification of Protein Kinase Substrates Discussion 12-mer and 30-mer peptides, then Knowledge gained through Three peptides were successfully it is reasonable to synthesize smaller research such as this would assist the synthesized by SPPS on an automated peptides for future research. Future pharmaceutical industry by providing peptide synthesizer. The peptides are research using these peptides will be a a tool that could be used to screen in 3 successively increasing lengths confirmation of the peptide structure thousands of possible drug molecules. that are identical to the structure in by Edman sequencing and mass Although these peptides are neither drugs paxillin around Y118. The purpose spectrometry. Biological assaying against nor treatments, therapeutic agents could is to determine, through biological FAK, using γ-ATP32, will quantify the be developed for FAK-related cancers. assaying, which peptide best represents phosphorylation rate on Y118. The an actual substitution for paxillin. If numerical results would help determine the rates of phosphorylation on Y118 if Y118 is the tyrosine FAK preferably are indistinguishable between the binds to within paxillin.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 95 References

1 American Cancer Society. Cancer facts and figures; Atlanta, Georgia, 2005

2 Hardie G.; Hanks, S. The protein kinase facts book: Protein-tyrosine kinases; Academic Press Inc.: San Diego, 1995.

3 Mukhopadhyay N.K.; Gordon G.J.; Chen C.J.; Bueno R.; Sugarbaker D.J.; Jaklitsch M.T. Activation of focal adhesion kinase in human lung cancer cells involves multiple and potentially parallel signaling events. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 2005, 2, 387-397

4 Schmitz K.J.; Grabellus F.; Callies R.; Otterbach F.; Wohlschlaeger J.; Levkau B.; Kimmig R.; Schmid K.W.; Baba H.A. High expression of focal adhesion kinase (p125FAK) in node-negative breast cancer is related to overexpression of HER-2/neu and activated Akt kinase but does not predict outcome. Breast Cancer Res. 2005, 2, 194-203

5 Bellis S.L.; Miller J.T.; Turner C.E. Characterization of tyrosine phosphorylation of paxillin in vitro by focal adhesion kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 1995, 29, 17437-17441

6 Iwasaki T.; Nakata A.; Mukai M.; Shinkai K.; Yano H.; Sabe H.; Schaefer E.; Tatsuta M.; Tsujimura T.; Terada N.; Kakishita E.; Akedo H. Involvement of Phosphorylation of TYR-31 and TYR-118 Of Paxillin in MM1 Cancer Cell Migration. Int. H. Cancer 2002, 97, 330-335

7 Romanova L.Y.; Hashimoto S.; Chay K.; Blagosklonny M.V.; Sabe H.; Mushinski J.F. Phosphorylation of paxillin tyrosines 31 and 118 controls polarization and motility of lymphoid cells and is PMA-sensitive J. Cell Sci. 2004, 117, 3759-3768

8 Merrifield R.B. Solid phase peptide synthesis: The synthesis of a tetra-peptide J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1963, 85, 2149-2153.

9 Rininsland F.; Stankewicz C.; Weatherford W.; McBranch D. High-throughput kinase assays with protein substrates using fluorescent polymer superquenching. BMC Biotechnol. 2005, 16

10 Wang S. p-alkoxybenzyl alcohol resin and p-alkoxybenzyloxycarbonylhydrazide resin for solid phase synthesis of protected peptide fragments. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1973, 4, 1328-1333

11 Bodanszky M.; Deshmane S.S.; Martinez J. Side reactions in peptide synthesis: Possible removal of the 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl group by the amino acid components during coupling. J. Org. Chem. 1979, 10, 1622-1625

12 Carpino L.A.; Han G.Y. 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl function, a new base-sensitive amino-protecting group J. Org. Chem. 1972, 22, 3404-3409

13 Ruhemann S. Triketohydrindene Hydrate Trans. Chem. Soc. 1910, 1438, 2025

14 King D.S.; Fields C.G.; Fields G.B. A cleavage method which minimizes side reactions following Fmoc solid phase peptide synthesis. Int. Peptide Protein Res. 1990, 36, 255-266

15 Chang C.; Waki M.; Ahmad M.; Meienhofer J.; Lundell E.O.; Haug J.D. Preparation and properties of Nalpha-9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonylamino acids bearing tert.-butyl side chain protection. Int. J. Peptide Protein Res. 1980, 15, 59-66.

96 Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis: Analysis and Identification of Protein Kinase Substrates Figure 1. A 3-dimensional crystal structure of FAK in ribbon structure. The peptide substrate is absent but ATP is shown in the center in ball & stick notation.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 97 Figure 2. Location of FAK within a cell and a cellular process it participates in.

Trans- Intracellular Signal Membrane Nucleus Receptor Target

Receptor Protein Tyrosine Kinase Pathways

GF GF Growth Factor or Hormone

Receptor PTK Plasma Membrane PI-3 Y Y SHC Grb-2 SOS Ras Kinase Y Y Y Y SRC PLC-γ MEK

PKC Nuclear Membrane FAK MAPK Raf

Transcriptional RSK Regulation Paxillin ?

Differentiation/Growth Differentiation

98 Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis: Analysis and Identification of Protein Kinase Substrates Figure 3. Cartoon representation of a tyrosine kinase phosphorylation reaction.

Figure 4. This full amino acid sequence of the paxillin protein was used to derive the synthesized peptides. The 30 amino acids underlined above correspond to peptide #3 in Table 1.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 99 Figure 5. A general amino acid structure is shown on the left and a dipeptide structure is shown on the right. Peptides are chains of repeating units (amino acids) connected together by amide bonds (circled).

Figure 6. Chemical structures of reagents used during peptide synthesis via SPPS.

100 Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis: Analysis and Identification of Protein Kinase Substrates Figure 7. Chemical structures of reagents used during peptide synthesis via SPPS.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 101 102 The relationship between parole and recidivism in the criminal justice system

Abstract Introduction From 1990 to 1999 the criminal justice In July 1965, President Lyndon system experienced a fifty percent increase Johnson appointed the National in the inmate population, which included Crime Commission to make the most recidivated parolees. Critics claimed the comprehensive study of crime in the parole process was not working and lobbied history of our country at that time. legislature to take action. The system This report took over two years to responded by decreasing parole agency develop and when completed, it so budgets, increasing prison sentences, and frequently referred to all the components reducing rehabilitation services for paroled involved (law enforcement, judicial, inmates. Research pertaining to parole and and correctional) as the “system” that recidivism indicates two variables: there is it created the concept of a criminal or isn’t a direct association. The objective of justice system. The report, The challenge this study is to compare the data and decide of crime in a free society, gave us an if parole is a viable solution for decreasing exceptional insight into the nature of recidivism rates. crime and criminal justice in America. Also outlined in the report was the basic sequence of events in the criminal justice process. It also illustrated that Jacquelin A. Robinson relationships between the police, courts, McNair Scholar and corrections are interrelated and interdependent. The report included a reference to the importance of and need for a far broader, and more profound, range of treatment. The challenge of crime in a free society was considered, at that time, the blueprint for building a successful crime prevention system. Even though it suggested that the need was for all ages, it insisted treatment was especially crucial for the young. President Johnson’s report explained that the generation of teenagers during that time was the largest in U.S. history, and he foresaw a rise in juvenile delinquency in the decade to follow unless drastic changes were implemented in the effectiveness of the criminal justice system, as well as in economic and social conditions of the United States. One specific component in the report that caught my attention was recidivism of offenders on parole. The report stated that many offenders, the young most of all, stood a better chance James Houston, Ph.D. of being rehabilitated in their home Faculty Mentor communities, rather than in ordinary confinement. Included in the report were the findings of a study completed by the California Youth Authority. This

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 103 study concluded a five year experiment, industry in their prison work. By 1869, According to Joan Petersila (2000), which tested various methods of twenty-three states had good time laws, in Crime: Public policies for crime control treatment. In this research, the convicted and prison administrators supported the at the end of 1999 6.4 million adults juvenile delinquents were assigned to concept as a method of keeping order were under some form of correctional two groups. One cohort consisted of and controlling the prison population supervision, and only 1.9 million of that community placement. The other cohort size (Serrill as cited in Allen, Eskridge, number were in actual physical custody. consisted of placement in a regular Latessa, & Vito, 1985). In 1990, the number under correctional institution of confinement. Only 28 The first parole systems were supervision was 4.3 million, which is percent of the experimental group from controlled by state legislatures that, in an increase of 46.5 percent in only 10 community placement had their parole general, rigidly defined which prisoners years (Petersila, 2000, p. 483-484). revoked. More than half of those in the could be paroled. Most legislation Scholarly articles written by academics group assigned to prison later had their authorizing parole release restricted it are filled with terms such as best paroles revoked and were returned to to first time offenders convicted of less practice, effective practice, and what confinement (Johnson, 1966). serious crimes. Through the passage of works; these terms show that the critics In the nearly 40 years since the time and a gradual acceptance of the are insisting that correctional services report was published, the problem of idea of discretionary early release, the be more accountable and provide recidivism hasn’t changed nor has there privilege was eventually extended to evidence of their effectiveness (Burnett been any decrease. In fact, the rising serious offenders. By the late nineteenth & Roberts, 2004) numbers in the prison systems suggest and early twentieth century, criticism of an increase in recidivism. The Bureau of parole practices began to surface. The Literature Review Justice Statistics estimates that parolees basic arguments against parole were the This literature review probes what we are currently responsible for between 10 lack of supervision of parolees, which know about parole and recidivism to 12 percent of all arrests for serious put the community in danger, and and determines if there is, or is not, crimes in the United States (cited in the parole authorities who were not a direct association between parole Petersila, 2003). Also in 1999, 22 following proper procedures in releasing and recidivism. It also presents factors percent of those in state prisons reported deserving inmates (Allen, Eskridge, affecting the recidivism of offenders being on parole at the time they Latessa, & Vito, p. 30-31). on parole. Research on recidivism is committed the crime that landed them Parole has a long history in the scattered in three different disciplines: in prison. It is now well-documented criminal justice system but along criminology, sociology, and psychology. that the high parole revocation rate is with the decision to parole there This brief literature review is based on one of the major contributing factors must also be the discussion of parolee the findings in the scholarly journals to the growing U.S. prison population recidivating. This idea of recidivism and books from those disciplines. In the (Travis & Lawrence, 2002). runs concurrent with parole. The surveyed literature, it appears one can Parole is the status of an offender who Bureau of Justice Statistics compared find support for a relationship between has been conditionally released from the data from two studies which parole and recidivism. However, the prison prior to the expiration of his or came the closest to providing national strength of that correlation is controlled her sentence. This conditional freedom recidivism rates for the United States. by other variables such as: community is granted by a paroling agency to a One tracked 108,580 state prisoners cohesion, social disorganization, convicted offender, as long as the person released from prison in eleven states employment, economic well-being, meets certain conditions of behavior in 1983. The other tracked 272,111 family support, mental and physical while incarcerated (Schmalleger, 2003, prisoners released from prison in health, political alienation, housing, and p. 753). The concept of rewarding well- fifteen states in 1994. The prisoners homelessness (Petersila, June 2000). behaved prisoners with a reduction in tracked in these studies represented sentence was first formalized in 1817 two-thirds of all prisoners released in Analysis by the New York State legislature. In the United States for those years. Sixty- The method of study for this analysis that year, the first “good time” law was seven percent of prisoners released was to focus on the findings of previous passed. This law authorized a 25 percent in 1994 were rearrested within three studies and make a decision based on reduction in length of term for those years, an increase over the 62.5% for those findings. Prior research indicates inmates serving five years or more who those released in 1983 (Bureau of that the success rates of parolees are were well-behaved and demonstrated Justice Statistics). highly dependent upon the conditions

104 Relationship between parole and recidivism under which they are released. Although in the regular labor market (Holzer as citizens move from the area, disorder different models and characteristics cited in Petersila, November 2000). escalates, and serious crime often were used in the studies that were Unemployment directly influences crime, continues (Petersila, June 2000). reviewed, the underlying connection as well as two other social pathologies Petersila (June 2000) highlights the is the variables that appeared most closely related to both violence and conditions that parolees are finding significantly. It has been hypothesized property crime: drug and alcohol abuse. upon release into the community. that offenders who are released with Those who study life-course trajectories Most are being released to parole a continued service plan for reentry of criminal careers show that losing a systems that provide few services and are less likely to recidivate at the rates job can lead to substance abuse, which impose conditions that more than that are currently experienced by the in turn is related to child and family likely guaranteed failure. Even though criminal justice system. violence (National Research Council as monitoring systems are getting better, the cited in Petersila, June 2000). public tolerance for failure on parole is Does Parole Work? Inmates with mental illnesses are decreasing. The result is that many more To assess the relationship between parole also being imprisoned at higher rates parolees are being returned to prison, and recidivism, we have to look not only and ultimately are released back into putting pressure on states to build more at when a prisoner was released, but also the community on parole. In 1998, facilities—which limits money available how they were released and the other the Bureau of Justice Statistics (1999) for rehabilitation of parolees while in variables that are involved in that release. estimated that 16% of jail or prison the community. This cycle ensures Petersila (June 2000) looked at different inmates reported a mental condition or that parolees will continue to receive conditions such as community cohesion, an overnight stay in a mental hospital. fewer services to help them address social disorganization, employment, More to the point concerning mental the unfortunate collateral consequences of economic well-being, family support, illness and prisons is that mental parole. The relationship between parole mental and physical health, political illness can be agitated by incarceration, and recidivism in this study shows a alienation, housing, and homelessness particularly chronic anxiety and direct association when the significant and their effect on parolees. These depression. Psychologists believe that factors such as homelessness, mental “unfortunate collateral consequences” of incarceration often breeds global rage, an illness, etc. are not addressed. parole, as she referred to them, can and impulsive and explosive anger so great The Pennsylvania Department of most likely will dictate whether a parolee that a minor incident can trigger an Corrections (DOC), in response to is successful or not. Of the 500,000 uncontrolled response. Lastly, mentioned concerns that parole violators were parolees who leave U.S. prisons annually, in this report were the effects of becoming a driving force behind 17.2%, or nearly 1 in 5, live in California homelessness on the crime continuum. increasing prison admissions, conducted (Petersila, June 2000). While homelessness certainly affects a needs assessment of its parole violator Research has long documented how homeless individuals and the rest of population (Buckllen, Zajac, & Gnall, the social organization of neighborhoods their families, transients, panhandlers, 2004). To assess the needs of parole particularly poverty, ethnic composition, and vagrants also increase citizen fear, violators, the Pennsylvania DOC and residential stability influences crime. and that fear ultimately contributes conducted a survey of technical and Researchers have also written about to increased crime and violence. This convicted parole violators who returned tipping points, when communities are phenomenon originally labeled broken to prison in twelve state correctional no longer able to exert stable influences windows by Wilson and Kelling (as facilities. The study by the Pennsylvania over the behavior of residents. When cited in Petersila, June 2000), theorized DOC was built around a similar study these tipping points exist, the structure that increased crime often results from done in Canada in the late 1990s, which of a community changes, disorder a cycle of fear-induced behavior. For attempted to redirect attention from the and incivilities increase, out-migration example, when law-abiding citizens general determinants of recidivism to an follows, and crime and violence increase begin to avoid using streets filled with investigation into the individual processes (Wilson as cited in Petersila, November transients, loitering youth, graffiti, and of recidivism. Approximately 600 parole 2000). The majority of inmates other signs of property damage, they are violators were used in this study which leave prison with poor prospects for effectively yielding control of the streets covered a two-month time span. The 600 employment. Survey data indicate that to those who are not frightened by such violators selected represented 75 percent one year after being released, as many as signs of urban decay. As broken windows of the total parole violators readmitted to 60% of former inmates are not employed spread, businesses and law-abiding the system for the two-month period.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 105 One of the first considerations of violators also had a problem with alcohol participants had the opportunity to give this survey was whether technical and drug abuse while on parole. For the information from their perception parole violators and convicted parole some violators, alcohol and other drug and view point. violators represented two significantly abuse proved to be a major obstacle and Jeremy Travis (May 2000), in a study different populations with unique contributed greatly to their recidivism. reported by the National Institute of needs. The Pennsylvania DOC study However, those who participated in a Justice, concluded that parole does not revealed compelling evidence of just the prison substance abuse program before reduce recidivism but does just the opposite and showed the two groups being released reported being able opposite. The numbers increase in the to be statistically similar. The Level to better cope with substance abuse criminal justice system when parole of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R) problems (Buckllen, Zajac, & Gnall). is not successful and the parolee is scores indicated a similar distribution Another strong contributor to returned to the system. He stated that of risk levels for both groups (Buckllen, recidivism revealed by the Pennsylvania most states still had and maintained Zajac, & Gnall, 2004). The survey DOC survey was emotional problems, some form of parole supervision; answers revealed only two differences such as stress, depression, frustration, fourteen had actually abolished between the groups. Convicted parole and worry. Examination of the data parole boards who previously had the violators indicated money management revealed three more important factors. responsibility to release parolees. This problems, while technical violators First, many parole violators held study attempted to compare the value reported having trouble finding a place unrealistic expectations about what of incarceration to the value of parole. to live once released from incarceration. life would be like outside of prison. In this author’s view, the offender had These two differences were marginal Second, the majority of parole violators the obligation to society to serve the in importance and had no effect on indicated strong antisocial attitudes. sentence given and demonstrate an the results of the survey (Buckllen, Thirdly, the most prevalent theme ability to live according to society’s Zajac, & Gnall). The findings from this identified throughout the entire study rules. They also felt, at the time of this study were divided into four primary was that parole violators indicated study, that parole had been significantly sections, basically the same ones used poor self-management, self-control, weakened, and the system of parole in the prior study: living arrangements, and problem-solving skills in the face supervision was struggling to find employment, financial situation, and of every day problems. This study purpose (Travis, May 2000). drug and alcohol use. Nearly three- supported programming specifically Travis (May 2000) found that fourths of parole violators indicated focused on cognitive-behavioral rehabilitation programs are ineffective, they lived in low crime areas while out treatment as the deterrent to recidivism along with faulty parole decisions. but this perception of low crime areas rates. Also, re-entry programs should Parole supervision, no matter how may have been influenced by their focus on teaching parole violators life intensive, was found not to be a individual tolerance for crime levels. skills such as money management and contributor to reducing recidivism This group also reported encouraging financial responsibility. In addition, drug (Glaser as cited in Travis, May 2000). information concerning employment. and alcohol abuse treatment programs Further analysis revealed admissions Eighty-two percent of parole violators should be intensely reinforced for those resulting from parole violations are indicated they were legally employed who have an obvious abuse problem. now the driving force behind prison while seventeen percent reported Finally, this study suggested parole growth. Parole violators constitute 34% difficulties in finding a job once out on violators should stay “rooted in reality” of all admissions, a figure that almost parole. Some complained of available and maintain realistic post-release doubled from 1980 to 1995 (Bureau jobs being unsuitable and not sufficient expectations (Buckllen, Zajac, & Gnall). of Justice Statistics, 1996). In 1984, to live on. Even though this could have This study focused on addressing 70% of those who left parole status been a legitimate complaint, further data the needs of the parole violators were determined to be successful; but revealed unreasonable expectations when through self-reported experiences of in 1996 less than half were successful it came to accepting jobs offered to some the recidivated parolees. Although there in completing their parole terms parole violators. According to the parole was definitely a relationship indicated, (Petersila as cited in Travis, May 2000). violators surveyed, money management the approach of this study focused on Travis (May 2000) recommended, problems was one of the strongest needs assessment to prevent future from his findings, that new ways had contributors to their recidivism. Survey parolees from recidivating. In reviewing to be created to manage the parolee’s results revealed a great number of parole this study, we have to consider that the successful re-entry into society.

106 Relationship between parole and recidivism Instead of treatment and Discussion The three studies used for this report, programming being separate entities The goal of this brief literature review is out of the 50 surveyed, were chosen in correctional institutions and parole, to assess at an aggregate level whether because of the variables included in the two should mix and become one the relationship between parole and reporting the major areas of interest and process. For example, according to recidivism is of any significance. As as examples of the literature surveyed. Travis and Lawrence (2000), the drug stated earlier, Travis and Lawrence Although at this time, parole supervision treatment continuum would combine (2000) showed a direct association is shown to have little effect on the treatment with the criminal justice between parole and recidivism. As recidivism rates, criminal justice scholars process under one umbrella for a the parole rates continued to go up realize something must be developed to united effort at reducing drug use and so did the recidivism rates. I can combat crime and recidivism. President recidivism. The basis for their report only conclude that there is a definite Lyndon Johnson attempted to address was that the challenge of reducing the relationship of significance between the the idea of a combined effort to win in numbers of returning parolees would two variables. Parole, when coupled this “war on crime” 40 years ago. Maybe build interagency relationships. This with the unfortunate consequences it’s time for it to be achieved. interagency relationship would be a of drug and alcohol abuse, conglomerate between incarceration and unemployment, homelessness, and parole and probation. mental and physical illnesses, create the conditions for recidivism.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 107 References

Allen, H., Eskridge, C., Latessa, E., & Vito G, (1985). Probation and parole in America. New York, N.Y.: McMillan, Inc.

Buckllen, K., Zajac, G., & Gnall, K., ( April 2004). Understanding and responding to the needs of parole violators. Corrections Today, p 66.

Bureau of Justice Statistics (1999). Reentry trends in the U.S.: Recidivism. Retrieved July 19, 2005.

Bureau of Justice Statistics (1996). Correctional populations in the United States 1996. Retrieved July 19, 2005 from www.ojp.usdog.gov/bjs/reentry/recidivism.htm.

Burnett, R., & Roberts, C. (Eds.) (2003). What works in probation and youth justice: Developing evidence based practice. England: Wilan.

Petersila, J. (November 2000). When Prisoners Return to the Community: Political, Economic, and Social Consequences. (NIJ Publication N. 9) Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office.

Petersila, J. ( June 2000). Challenges of prisoner reentry and parole in California. Retrieved July 19, 2005 from www.ucop.edu/cprc/parole.html.

Petersila, J (2000). Community corrections. In Crime: Public policies for crime control (Eds) Wilson, J., & Petersila, J., Oakland, CA: ICS.

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108 Relationship between Parole and Recidivism Diel summer movement patterns of fish in Sickle Creek, Manistee County, Michigan

Abstract Introduction This study investigated the location, Much research has been done on the habitat preferences, and diel movements topic of fish migration, particularly in of burbot (lota lota) and salmonids in a regards to spring spawning patterns small tributary stream in late spring, early (Soloman and Templeton 1976; Young summer. The research provides base-line 1994, 1996). In addition, focus is information on fish distribution prior to the often placed on larger river systems. replacement of a culvert and reconnection However, there are countless smaller of upstream reaches. The tributary was stream systems that have an important divided into six 100-meter reaches using ecological role (White 2003; Schrank blocker nets and data was collected and Rahel 2004), including low-order using mark-recapture and electrofishing tributaries. Both main channel and techniques. The community was dominated tributary systems represent viable habitat by coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) that fish can potentially select. The main and chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus channel may be a necessary habitat tshawytscha), rainbow trout (Salmo from a feeding standpoint (Shrank gairdneri), northern mottled sculpin and Rahel 2004) but also typically has (Cottus bairdii bairdii), brook lamprey higher velocities and may contain more (Ichthyomyzon fosser), and the burbot. competitors or potential predators than Andria Salas Salmonids favored undercut banks during a smaller tributary system. As such, McNair Scholar the day (p=0.014) and woody debris at tributary streams represent a potentially night (p=0.017, ANOVA). Substrate was important area of refuge that maintains dominated by sand thus the bulk of aquatic often slower velocities and cooler macroinvertebrate production was likely temperatures (Osborne and Wiley occurring on large woody debris—the 1992). The salmonids investigated by area preferred by the fish at dusk and Kahler et al. (2001) showed preference at night. In addition, water depth was for pools. An advantage of greater positively correlated to fish density (R2 = depth is protection provided from 0.73; p=0.031, step-wise MLR). Like the avian predation (Kahler 2001), in salmonids, burbot preferred undercut banks addition to cooler temperatures. Kruzic and abundance appeared to increase at et al. (2001) also noted that there is night—a pattern observed in all major fish increased mortality in riffles versus species with the exception of the chinook pools. Therefore, the main channel has salmon, although trends were not significant its benefits in regards to feeding but the for any species. The majority of captured tributary should also be a highly sought fish were juvenile, and we hypothesize that after habitat due to the advantages its at these early life-history stages, the fish are pools confer via reduced velocities and moving into the tributary system at dusk cooler temperatures. to avoid predation pressure in the main It has been shown that salmonids channel. The coho population decreased existing in even small streams are through time (p=0.034) while rainbow migratory in order to find spawning trout YOY increased (p=0.039). There was sites (Soloman and Templeton 1976; no recapture of fin-clipped rainbow trout Young 1994, 1996). After spring (year one plus) indicating a high degree of spawning, salmonids stop extensive turnover with the main channel, likely as a movement when an appropriate summer Eric Snyder, Ph.D. result of the culvert. habitat is located (Schrank and Rahel Faculty Mentor 2004). The fish do continue to travel, but at reduced distances, as indicated by research done with Bonneville cutthroat trout (Schrank and Rahel 2004) and

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 109 other studies that have detected such preparation for the winter months and (Paakkonen et al. 2000). Juvenile burbot a pattern for salmonids (Swanberg particularly for those who are preparing shelter during the day under rocks, 1997; Hilderbrand and Kershner 2000; to migrate (Railback et al. 2005). Thus, weeds, and under cut banks (Robins Schmetterling 2001). The amount of the need to increase in size in the hopes and Deubler 1955; Hanson and Qudri movement is generally dependent on of reaching the pinnacle of sexual 1980). Thus, this age class may be more the location of food and proper habitat maturity may very well outweigh the nocturnal than the adults. It is also (Schrank and Rahel 2004; Schlosser desire to strictly avoid predation. of note that in northern rivers burbot 1995). Theoretically, an organism will Habitat is clearly a determining often were found in main channels and only travel as far as necessary in order to factor in where an organism chooses to seemed to thus prefer turbid waters obtain resources because any additional, reside. It is important to note however (Chen 1969; Hatfield et al. 1972; avoidable movement will result in that the utility of a specific habitat Breeser et al. 1988). wasted energy. In a study conducted can fluctuate based on the time of day Discrepancies in movement patterns by Shrank and Rahel (2004) it was or year, and the activity the animal is between age classes also exist in determined that the trout often moved performing. Heggenes et al. (1999) and salmonids. Smithson and Johnson less than 0.5 kilometers. Hiscock et al. (2002) made observations (1999) noted that juvenile salmonids Diel patterns of fish movement of salmonids that suggest the fish exhibit what is called “exploratory” are driven mainly by the intensity of use different habitats for feeding and movement in which they move more sunlight, although no fish are strictly hiding. The features of a habitat will than once in all possible directions and nocturnal or diurnal (Railsback et al. often determine when during a 24- return to the original location. Size 2005). Fish are primarily visual creatures hour time period it is utilized by a fish can also influence movement patterns and thus have the most success feeding species (Bradford and Higgins 2001). for larger fish. Larger salmonids, such in daylight. It has been estimated that For example, it has been observed that as brown trout, have been shown nighttime feeding efficiencies are less habitats with lower depths and velocities to travel further distances (Clapp et than 35% of that during the daytime are used primarily by salmonids al. 1990; Young 1994; Bunnell et al. (Fraser and Metcalfe 1997). Thus, for nighttime feeding as opposed to 1998), particularly downstream (Clapp salmonids tend to feed during the day daytime feeding (Harwood et al. 2001; et al. 1990; Behnke 1992; Bunnell et and hide at night (e.g., Young et al. Jakober et al. 2000; Valdimarsson and al. 1998). This is thought to be due to 1997, Bradford and Higgins 2001). Metcalfe 1999). In addition, levels of the abundance of small prey fishes that Dawn and dusk are also significant competition can also vary on a diel basis exist downstream that would provide in that there is sufficient sunlight for (Valdimarsson and Metcalfe 2000). At food for larger piscivorous trout (Colyer foraging yet a degree of encroaching night there is no benefit for an organism 2002). Upstream movement is also darkness that aids in protection from to defend the same-sized territory that quite common (Kahler et al. 2001) thus predators (Alanara et al. 2001). For it does during the day for such an making the presence of any upstream example, mottled sculpin (Cottus bairdi) expanse cannot be utilized due to the obstacle or impediment, such as a foraging reaches its peak intensity diminished feeding efficiency at dark dam or perched culvert, a significant at dusk (Becker 2001). The choice (Railsback et al. 2005). Naturally then, it disruption to upstream movement. between day and night-time foraging has been observed that at night there is It is the aim of this project to is based upon the fact that during the often a higher local density of organisms investigate the movement patterns day prey is easier to see, yet the forager (Valdimarsson and Metcalfe 2000). of salmonids, primarily rainbow itself is also easily seen by potential Movement patterns seen by fish may trout (Salmo gairdneri), coho salmon predators (Metcalfe et al. 1999). It is very well differ between species, size, (Oncorhynchus kisutch), and chinook also important to note that this tradeoff and age. Burbot are a particular fish of salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), is weighed differently depending on the interest because of limited distribution during their post-spawning/summer age-class of the fish. It has been observed and population size, and this species is portion of their life history. The main that adult salmonids feed less frequently shown to be nocturnal in July through focus will be to monitor diel patterns during the day than juveniles (e.g., February while day-active March in relation to how these species move Gries and Juanes 1998, Bradford and through early July (Paakkonen et al. within a 750-meter segment of a Higgins 2001). One possible explanation 2000). Thus, July is the transitional tributary stream, and their exchange for this is the need for juvenile fish period and there is little difference with the receiving river system. The to gain sufficient resources to grow in between day and night activity tributary in question is very small

110 Diel summer movement patterns of fish in Sickle Creek, Manistee County, Michigan (1st order) and we hope to shed (1983) and Nickum (1988). One-pass night-time samples. This allowed us to light on the ecological role of these electrofishing was performed at a voltage determine which physical parameters often overlooked tributary channels. of 250 watts, duty cycle of 35%, and had the most influence on where the fish Attention will also be focused on frequency of 90 Hz. These settings were located within the tributary and if burbot, a species of concern and a remained relatively constant throughout habitat requirements changed on a diel native resident. This is of interest from the three sampling blocks. All captured basis. No reference species were collected a conservation viewpoint given the fish were measured and identified and for this study. narrow focus of this study on a tributary released to the appropriate stream system. This study also calls into reach as soon as possible. The nets Site Description attention anthropogenic disturbances, were then removed. Just prior to dawn The study system is located in the as there is a perched road culvert at the following morning nets were again northwestern region of the lower the upstream end of the segment being placed at the boundaries of each reach peninsula of Michigan. Sickle Creek is investigated. Objectives of this study to prohibit the passage of fish. Once a part of the Manistee River watershed are: 1) to investigate the location of enough daylight was present, each and flows south into the Manistee fish, particularly salmonids and burbot, individual reach was again electrofished River. It is relatively small (1st order) within the Sickle Creek tributary and in the same manner as the previous day. and has a low water velocity that can their exchange with the main channel The first collection on June 2, 2005 rapidly increase at times of heavy rain. on a diel basis, 2) to conduct a mark also entailed clipping the left pectoral fin Riparian woody vegetation consists of and recapture study using the fin clip of all rainbow trout collected that were white cedar, American basswood, maple, method on the rainbow trout to further over 10 cm in length. This procedure poison ivy, and willow, in addition to understand movement patterns between allowed us to monitor the exchange dense coverage of herbaceous species, the main channel and the tributary, and patterns between the tributary and main particularly in the open meadow 3) to provide base-line information on channel of the age-I rainbow trout. reaches. This vegetation provides canopy fish distribution prior to the replacement Data collected was analyzed using both cover at a magnitude of approximately of the culvert and subsequent presence/absence and abundance data 80% and also contributes to moderate reconnection of the upstream portions to determine diel movement patterns. woody debris within the tributary. The of the tributary system. In addition, catch per unit area was substrate is primarily sand and silt with quantified for each electrofishing reach, occasional areas of pebble and gravel. Methods data for each reach sampled was pooled Research took place in twenty-four- among sample dates, and statistical hour blocks with a sample being taken comparisons were conducted using during the daytime and a repeated analysis of variance (ANOVA). procedure at night. Sampling was Additional data also consisted of conducted on June 2 and 3, June 24 monitoring basic chemical and physical and 25, and July 8 and 9, 2005. The properties of the reaches. Measurements 750-meter reach of the Sickle Creek of velocity, depth, degree of right and tributary that was utilized for this left undercut banks, percent of large study was divided into approximately woody debris, and the classification of 100-meter reaches using blocker nets. substrate were collected randomly fifty Blocker nets (0.5 cm minnow seines) times in each reach. The measurements were used to isolate the reaches and of pH, temperature, dissolved solids, and were put into place during midday for dissolved oxygen were taken close to the the daytime samplings and just prior to culvert during each of the three sampling dawn for the nighttime samplings. periods, in addition to discharge data Electrofishing was conducted in each at the culvert and the mouth of the reach using a backpack unit (AbP-3™ tributary. A Stepwise multiple linear pulsed DC electrofishing backpack regression (MLR) analysis was conducted unit manufactured by the University to compare the physical data of each of Wisconsin) following standard reach to the combined quantity of fish procedures as outlined in Reynolds collected in that reach for both day and

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 111 Results Salmonids Individual fish taxa All taxa combined An analysis using combined day and When analyzed separately, coho salmon With all fish taxa combined, water night abundances revealed that depth abundance was positively correlated to depth appeared to be the only variable was the most significant physical water depth (r2=0.73, p=0.031) (Table with a strong positive correlation to fish parameter (r2=0.76, p=0.023) (Table 1). 1), burbot preferred undercut banks abundance (r2=0.73, p=0.03; step-wise However, the nighttime distributions (r2=0.92, p=0.01) (Table 1), the Chinook multiple linear regression) (Table 1). indicated that large woody debris (LWD) salmon and mottled sculpin revealed no Tukey’s post-hoc multiple comparison was preferred (r2=0.79, p=0.017) (Table significant preference, and all rainbow test (ANOVA) was utilized to determine 1). The daytime analysis showed that the trout (regardless of size class or day/ by what degree the reaches differed from degree of undercut banks was the most night) preferred large woody debris. each other in relation to depth. This influential physical parameter (r2=0.81, A correlation was run comparing the analysis revealed that only reaches 3 and p=0.014) (Table 1). In both the night physical parameters to each species/m2 5 were significantly different from each and day-time analyses, including depth in addition to the total fish/m2 (Table 2). other (p=0.084). as a second independent variable greatly strengthened the predictive power of the model (Table 1).

Table 1. Summary of step-wise multiple linear regression comparing fish densities (all sampling periods combined) to physical habitat data

Table 2. Significant rank correlation values (p > 0.733) between physical habitat data and fish densities (all sampling periods combined)

112 Diel summer movement patterns of fish in Sickle Creek, Manistee County, Michigan Diel patterns in fish abundance (all taxa Figure 1. Average # of fish/m2 in Sickle Creek combined) The data obtained in each of the three sampling blocks (Table A, Appendix) were averaged to generate a mean value representing the number of fish/m2 caught during the day vs. night in each reach (Figure 1). Although results of this analysis indicated no significant differences, there was a trend particularly in reaches 1 and 5 for the nighttime abundance to increase relative to the daytime sample. There is also a marginal increase at night in reaches 4 and 6. This is supported by the fact that all but one of the major fish species found within the Sickle Creek Figure 2. % change in abundances of major species from daytime to nighttime samplings. tributary increased in number from day Three sampling periods combined. to night (Figure 2). Percentages of increase ranged from 114.3% (rainbow trout) to 146.2% (northern brook lamprey). The Chinook salmon population decreased by 67.3% and was the only species to decline in number from day to night. These patterns can be seen for specific reaches for both chinook, coho (Figure 3) and rainbow trout (Figure 4).

Burbot Burbot abundance appeared to increase to further understand movement trend for more YOY rainbow trout to be at night on average by 120% (Figure 2). patterns between the main channel caught at night vs. day. LWD was the Overall, however, the number of burbot and the Sickle Creek tributary. In the preferred habitat type for this age class captured in all reaches decreased by initial daytime sampling period seven of rainbow trout (r2=0.85, p=0.034; 81.7% from the first sampling date in rainbow trout were caught and fin- regression analysis) (Table 1). early June to the last sample collected in clipped. The lengths of these fish were YOY sculpin were collected, but only early July. The extent of undercut banks 9.6, 11.2, 12.2, 12.5, 13.0, 16.0, and in the third sampling period. Eleven was the most important physical habitat 16.5 cm, respectively. The subsequent were found during the daytime sampling characteristic positively correlated to nighttime sampling period resulted in (average size of 1.5 cm) and 60 were burbot densities (r2=0.92, p=0.01; day a catch of 3 of these fin-clipped fish. found during the nighttime sampling and night included in analysis) (Table 1). None were captured in the following (average size of 1.4 cm). Their size Similarly, a correlation analysis indicated two sampling times. suggests that they are roughly 3-4 weeks that the burbot density was strongly Abundance of young of the year of age (Becker 2001). correlated to both undercut banks (0.92) (YOY) rainbow trout increased and depth (0.83) (Table 2). significantly as the summer progressed Discussion in both the day and night samples. One of the primary focuses of this study Rainbow trout The bulk of these were located in the was to determine if diel movement The dominant fish species, based on reaches closest to the mouth (reaches occurs between the tributary and the size, in the tributary were the rainbow 1 and 2) (Figure 4). As with the other main channel of the Manistee River. trout and these were fin-clipped fish species, there was a nonsignificant While the trends vary somewhat

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 113 depending on the species, overall the Figure 3. Abundances of Chinook and Coho salmon on June 2 (day) and June 3 (night) data reveals no significant statistical evidence of diel fish movement in and out of the tributary. However, it is certainly intriguing to note that the data suggests a variation in habitat selection according to the time of day. This has been suggested by Heggenes et al. (1999) and Hiscock et al. (2002) who recognized that salmonids use different habitat for different activites. Railsback et al. (2005) developed a theory for diel activity and habitat use based upon this observation and others. This study differs from previous studies in that a much smaller study stream is being utilized (average width of 2.1 meters); Figure 4. Average density of YOY Rainbow trout. Three sampling periods combined. and these sorts of first-order tributaries are often overlooked. The presence of the culvert reflects fish behavior in light of anthropogenic influences. In addition, exchange with the main channel on a diel basis was also studied. A separate analysis was performed on only the salmonids (both YOY and year one). This was done because it is these species that have proven to be the most mobile (Swanberg 1997; Hilderbrand and Kershner 2000; Schmetterling 2001; Shrank and Rahel 2002; Becker 2001) and will thus be most likely to reveal movement patterns. Even though this night it is the presence of large woody to be foraging (Alanara et al. 2001). study was conducted on a first order debris that encourages the fish to reside Rainbow trout are most active at times of tributary stream, we hypothesized that in a specific habitat. The analysis also low light, such as dusk (Becker 2001). there could be significant movement reveals that depth is the second most Both the coho salmon and rainbow trout given that Shrank and Rahel (2001) influential habitat parameter during both feed on aquatic invertebrates (Hubbs found that trout movement was the day and night. This is logical given and Lagler 2004), which are often generally confined to 0.5 km. The the size class of the fish that composes concentrated on woody debris especially portion of Sickle Creek examined in the majority of this group—namely in systems that are dominated by sand, this study was 0.75 km. Burbot, while a YOY. During the day it would be natural as is the case in Sickle Creek. The young major species, was analyzed separately for these small fry to seek protection chinook salmon, on the other hand, in order to focus on this less understood conferred by the undercut banks from feeds primarily on plankton (Hubbs and group individually. The mottled sculpin terrestrial and aquatic predators. In Lagler 2004). In this case, it is likely that is a benthic species (Hubbs and Lagler addition, it is also possible that the these fish are able to feed more efficiently 2004) with limited migration. undercut banks offer slightly cooler in the open channel (where the woody The stepwise multiple linear regression temperatures given the lack of direct sun debris is mostly located), for velocities analysis of the salmonids demonstrate exposure. However, this pattern shifted to are higher here than in the undercut that during the day these fish are a preference for LWD at night or at dusk, banks. Therefore, the higher velocities choosing habitat based on the degree which was included in the nighttime would provide a greater abundance of of undercut banks, while during the sampling, when the fish are more likely planktonic organisms than the more

114 Diel summer movement patterns of fish in Sickle Creek, Manistee County, Michigan stagnant waters found under the banks. habitats (Colver 2002). However, it is an ample supply of macroinvertebrates. In addition, these fish may be utilizing interesting to notice that reach 6, which These reaches are also the closest in woody debris as foraging areas for the is furthest from the main channel, had proximity to the main channel, and thus protective benefits the debris may be the greatest abundance of the year-one may be found most concentrated here conferring. rainbow trout. This is supported by for that reason alone. In the analyses with all fish taxa Kahler et al. (2001) who suggests The regression analysis of the coho combined and also with coho that upstream movement is also quite salmon revealed that depth is the salmon alone, depth was the primary common. Therefore, the presence of the major determinant of the location of determinant of fish location. This is culvert restricted this pattern and may this species (p=0.031). Taylor (1991) supported by Kahler et al. (2001) who be a factor in the returning of these fish noted that coho salmon use pools to a noted that depth was a significant to the main channel. greater extent than their counterpart, factor motivating salmonid movement. The year-one rainbow trout are not the chinook salmon. In this study, the However, it is interesting to note that in the only fish that appear to exchange chinook salmon showed no significant the analyses of rainbow trout, it was the with the main channel to some degree. preference for a habitat parameter. percentage of woody debris that proved Although not statistically significant, Taylor (1991) suggested that in streams the most significant, at least at night, trends suggest that YOY rainbow where both coexist, such as Sickle regardless of size class. Regardless, the trout utilize the lower reaches at night Creek, the chinook is dominated by trout are most likely using the woody (Figure 4). There is a slight increase in the coho and thus does not always debris as feeding sites for invertebrates the number of YOY rainbow trout at have access to its favored habitat. The at dusk/night. During the day the night versus the daytime abundances. chinook salmon prefer areas of greater inconclusive results demonstrate that These fish have a strong affinity for depth, and always are often found in the rainbow trout are likely tending to downstream movement (Becker 2001), riffles regardless of the presence of coho other survival tasks, such as hiding from and thus may be using the tributary as (Taylor 1991). It has been suggested predators or locating areas of cooler refuge from larger predators and higher that these two species have genetic temperatures. These results suggest velocities in the main channel and differences that result in the selection that the salmonids are changing habitat feeding opportunities (as suggested by of different habitats (Taylor 1991), a preferences on a diel basis. their habitat selection of woody debris). divergence that is certainly beneficial to In the fin-clip analysis using the larger It is a reasonable trend for more fish both. Regardless, it was noted by Taylor rainbow trout, the fact that only 3 of to be found in the nighttime sampling that greater chinook emigration took the 7 fin-clipped fish were re-captured because they may be escaping the place when coho were present. This was in the subsequent sampling period and predators feeding at dusk in the main also observed in the first sampling block then none in the next two sampling channel, with an added benefit of being of this study. While the change in the times suggests that the older age classes able to feed themselves in the tributary. number of either chinook or coho from are using the tributary only temporarily. These fish were found mainly in the day to night was statistically significant, These larger trout are most likely lower reaches (1-3), which were also a trend existed in which the number of residing in the tributary for short time the reaches with the highest amount of coho increased in the tributary at night periods for feeding, cooler temperatures, woody debris (Table 3), and presumably while the number of chinook decreased and/or refuge from the larger predators and faster velocities in the main channel Table 3. Physical habitat data for Sickle Creek and then returning back to the Manistee River. The fish might be migrating back out into the larger main channel due to the feeding opportunities these systems present. It has been shown by Shrank and Rahel (2004) that the main channel is an important habitat from a feeding standpoint. In addition, movement down the Manistee River may be motivated by the greater abundance of small prey fishes existing in downstream

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 115 (Appendix, Table B). This could be tributary at night. The inconclusive the MLR (Appendix, Table C) allow due to different habitat requirements results could also be a result of the for predictions of fish abundance to or the fact that coho do indeed out- transitional time period between be made as depth, degree of undercut compete the chinook (Taylor 1991). nocturnal and diurnal behavior, which banks, and amount of LWD vary. These Again, this trend was only noted in the occurs in early July (Paakkonen et al. equations could only be used for a first sampling block, which could be a 2000). This shift in behavioral patterns stream of similar size and in a similar result of the declining numbers of the could also be the reason why less burbot location as Sickle Creek, yet could coho salmon from the first to the third were captured overall from sampling certainly be useful in the planning of sampling period. The number of coho block one to three. developments around such systems. decreased during both the daytime The presence of the perched culvert samplings (p=0.034) and nighttime Limitations seemed to prevent upstream movement samplings (p=0.005) (Appendix, Limitations of this study include the of species that have a tendency to do Table B). The reasons for this are bias inherent in electrofishing and so and thus may be a factor in the somewhat unclear given that these fish variation in capture efficiency from returning of these fish to the main are age-0. Coho of this age are known reach to reach. For example, netting channel. A future study that would to spend the first year of their life in efficiency was compromised in areas of certainly address this would be one the tributary in which their parents dense woody debris and overhanging either on Sickle Creek after the culvert is spawned (Becker 2001). However, these riparian vegetation that decreased removed, or in a study stream similar to fish appear to be leaving the tributary, visibility of the water. that of Sickle Creek that lacks a culvert. likely their natal stream, and migrating While the culvert impedes further into the more dangerous Manistee River. Conclusion movement of the fish upstream, the Becker (2001) noted that coho travel up In conclusion, this study provides tributary is still serving as an important a tributary as far as physically possible, support for the claim that tributaries are habitat for the younger life-history stages and perhaps the sudden blockage an important habitat within the river of salmonids and burbot. produced by the culvert is causing these system. They provide important areas fish to emigrate. of refuge and feeding for small fry, who Acknowledgments The coho salmon and, as mentioned made up the majority of the fish present. Extensive field assistance was provided earlier the rainbow trout parr, are not In accordance with Southwood’s habitat by Nicholas Gressick, April Wright, the only species to display significant template theory (1977) this study Kevin Donner, Angelica Fuentes, and fluctuations in population size through supports the importance of habitat on Joseph Salas. Funding was provided by time. The analysis of burbot revealed species distribution and demonstrates the McNair Scholars Program. that for the daytime samplings that habitat selection varies according abundance increased from the first to to species, life-history stage, and time the third sampling period. All of the of day. In this study, we found that burbot captured in this study were habitat suitable for hiding was being juveniles who often shelter during the utilized during the daylight hours while day (Robins and Deubler 1955; Hanson foraging habitats were sought during and Qudri 1980), as supported by the the dusk/night hours. Interestingly fact that the regression analysis revealed velocity, often considered an important that undercut banks were the major habitat variable, seemingly did not have determining factor in where the burbot a noticeable impact on habitat selection, were locating. Therefore, it could be despite the fact that significant variation presumed that they are more nocturnal in average velocity existed from reach creatures and thus are moving into the to reach. The equations generated using

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GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 117 Nickum, J.G. 1988. Guidelines for use of fishes in field research. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, American fisheries Society, American Institute of Fishery Research Biologists. Fisheries 13: 16-23.

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118 Diel summer movement patterns of fish in Sickle Creek, Manistee County, Michigan Appendix

Appendix Table A. General fish abundance data of all species collected

Appendix Table B. General fish abundance data of all species collected

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 119 Appendix Table C. Multiple linear regression: Predictive equations

120 Diel summer movement patterns of fish in Sickle Creek, Manistee County, Michigan Education for Democracy: Discovering Civic Engagement

Abstract Introduction Exploring the concepts of an experiential In recent years, the educational education promotes transformative landscape has changed dramatically, connections between the academic classroom especially in post-secondary education. and other domains of student life. Therefore, Since more high school students have this research aims to discover the capacity gained access to college, more women, that education has to change the world. It individuals of color, people from diverse explores Jane Addams’ work, her efforts to cultural origins, and economically encourage democracy, and her educational disadvantaged students comprise post- philosophy that emphasizes learning secondary education’s frontier. As the from life experiences. Additionally, her terrain of American colleges continue to philosophy of social ethics is intertwined become more diverse, it is necessary to with the writings of John Dewey, Charlene address how post-secondary educators Haddock Siegfried, Ira Shor, and various can reform their pedagogical methods other theorists. My analysis uses feminist within the classroom to effectively reach and critical theory to formulate a learning all of these students. foundation that fosters civic engagement for The current world of academia students and educators. gradually erodes students’ essential need for participatory learning over time by Sally Sayles focusing on knowledge transfer instead McNair Scholar of transformation. Because of this lack of experiential learning, educators need to focus on how to create a classroom that proposes active participation, sharing of common experiences, and a commitment to social change. This idea came about when I started doing research on feminist and liberatory pedagogies and reflecting on my own education. During my exploration, I found that the road has been paved for creating a classroom environment that stimulates and incorporates life experiences. Over the years these progressive methods and theories have faded from educators’ eyes. I want to bring back the voices of educators who have become invisible, therefore, I am focusing on the methods of Jane Addams, who until recently has not been acknowledged for her efforts to incorporate various educational methods to achieve a rich and diversified educational process. Jane Addams is best known for Judy Whipps, Ph.D. founding Hull House in 1889, a Faculty Mentor social settlement in Chicago. Addams began her journey with concerns for immigrant neighbors and over time began reflecting on their shared

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 121 experiences. She is most often noted her efforts to be applicable to all areas Critical theory as a research as a women who “captured the dreams, of education. I have decided to use methodology adopts an overtly critical ideals, imagination, and sometimes an interdisciplinary approach for this stance to inquiry. Critical theory hatred of many people in the United research project. By using this approach, researchers attempt to understand the States” as a social reformer, organizer, I am able to transcend structural ideologically distorted situation of some and peacemaker.1 During her time boundaries between disciplines and individual or group, to discover the at Hull House, Addams developed a achieve a more complete method forces that have caused that situation, theory of social democracy that became of inquiry. For my research, I am and to show that these forces can be influential in the world-wide peace combining feminist and critical theory overcome through awareness. Thus, movement, for which she was awarded approaches of inquiry. critical theory research is based on the the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. At the heart of much feminist conviction that societal conditions are Addams’ views on education stem research is the aspiration, even historically created and deeply influenced from her understanding of democracy. the responsibility, of taking action by the imbalance of power and special She argued that democracy rests on our and bringing about change for interests. Because of this, critical theory mutual understanding and willingness the condition of women. Feminist insists upon an awareness of the political to listen to others, appreciating others’ research is not simply a stance against nature of a social phenomenon. perspectives in light of their ways male chauvinism or a movement for For my research, I use both feminist of living, and working cooperatively women’s equal rights, but the lasting and critical theory methods to illustrate with those individuals we may commitment to alleviate the ideology Addams’ social philosophy and how disagree with. The central view of of domination that permeates Western her methods can be used to create democracy that Addams developed at culture on various levels. As John an educational environment that is Hull House “was a vision of society Dewey stated, “When women who are transforming, thus formulating a in which all individuals, regardless of not mere students of other persons’ foundation for an interactive, engaged gender, ethnicity, race, or economic philosophy set out to write it, we cannot pedagogy that opens up the door to status, would have the opportunity conceive that it will be the same in view empowerment. Within critical theory, to fully express and to develop their point or tenor as that composed from I analyze the various perplexities that talents, interests, and ambitions.”2 By the standpoint of the different masculine Addams worked through during her incorporating Addams’ thoughts on experience of things.”3 Feminism offers time at Hull House. Some of the issues education, her social philosophy, and new ways of viewing human values, I will be addressing are dialogue, her deep conviction in the importance decision-making, and the very nature of diversity, cooperative learning, and of experiential learning with educational human experience. Feminist methods empowerment. In addition, through goals today, a new ground for classroom allow one to see the indispensable the use of feminist and critical theory, discourse and the exploration of component of human diversity. At the I will explore how Addams applied knowledge can be created. I propose most nominal level, feminist research her methods to the conditions she that through the integration of Addams’ simply attempts to integrate the encountered. By reviewing Addams’ methods, a community of learners will female perspective into social reality. application of her educational methods be produced that stimulates democracy Because of the feminist insistence that I want to effectively compose an agenda and civic engagement. the particulars of women’s lives are for contemporary classroom dynamics. significant in the public sphere, feminist By combining feminist and Methodology research encourages the incorporation critical theory methods, I am able to Jane Addams’ educational methods of individual experiences, which are holistically address Addams’ thoughts focused on learning from life, thus, I used to help authenticate and validate on education. For instance, Addams’ do not believe researching her theories the scholarship.4 efforts represent feminist methods by through one method would allow for presenting new ways to view human

1 Karen Shafer Lundblad, “Jane Addams and Social Reform: A Role Model for the 1990s,” Social Work 40, (September 1995): 661-669. 2 Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, “Jane Addams: An Educational Biography,” On Education, (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1994), 2 3 John Dewey, “Democracy and Education,” The Collected Works of John Dewey, Edited by Jo Ann Boydston. (Edwardsville, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969-1991), Middle Works 11, 41-53. 4 University of Texas, “Four Feminist Themes,” Academic Information System, (12 August 2005).

122 Education for Democracy: Discovering Civic Engagement values and the very nature of human and new situations, social intercourse see that they had a self-interest—a self- experiences. In addition, she advocates between classes and races becomes interest that was also a common social that we must recognize and cultivate the a way of life. More progress and interest—in the protection and fulfillment essential component of human diversity. transformation arises, as each member of the interests of others.”10 Addams Addams’ philosophy integrates various becomes part of the community. worked to ignite the common interests critical theory or liberating methods Addams conceived society or of the community members by offering by calling for individuals to recognize community as a social organism, kindergarten classes, reading clubs, the situation of some individual or with all parts necessary for the whole drama clubs, alternative classroom group, discover the forces or situations and dependent on the whole. In settings, and various other educational that have caused the individual’s order to create a social organism and engaging activities. The clubs and predicament, and to overcome those that incorporates everyone’s ideals, groups that Addams helped foster at forces through awareness. Addams focused many of her efforts on Hull House may have had different democratic ways of life. In her book, objectives, however, all of them were Searching for the Right Social Democracy and Social Ethics, she stated formulated to civically engage and reveal Philosophy that she thought of democracy, “not the common interests of individuals Jane Addams worked the majority of merely as a sentiment which desires within the community. her life refining the methods she used to the well-being of all men, nor yet as a The activities at Hull House create and uphold democratic relations creed which believes in the essential encouraged Addams to continually at Hull House. When Addams set out dignity and equality of all men, but reflect and refine her social philosophy. on her mission at Hull House, she as that which affords the rule of living Addams aspired to create a social defined a settlement as “an attempt to as well as a test of faith.”8 Before the philosophy centered on a diverse express the meaning of life in terms of introduction of Hull House to the city community that fostered a sense of life itself, in forms of activity.”5 Addams’ of Chicago, individuals from different citizenship essential for a continual definition of a settlement anticipated a ways of life had minimal interaction. In reciprocity of thinking and action. ground for exploring life that promoted the Social Darwinist thought of Addams’ Within this constant reciprocity, growth and constant interaction among era, people often saw themselves pitted individuals were urged on towards a the members of the community. For against others in competitive modes, social and individual life of democracy Addams, democracy was the foundation both individually and in terms of class, as a social ethic. she used to explore and define the therefore, democratic thought allowed very meaning of the settlement. Her for a broadened and humanizing Jane Addams and American comprehension of democracy “is not perspective of the community. Addams Pragmatism merely a way to structure government; it once stated, “A democracy modifies our The guiding vigor in Addams’ social is more broadly a way of living together conception of life, it constantly raises philosophy is pragmatism. Charlene that enables individual abilities and the value and function of each member Haddock Seigfried in her book social life to flourish.”6 As we can see, of the community, however, humble he Pragmatist Feminism defines, Addams’ conception of democracy and may be.”9 her definition of a settlement parallel The main objective of the settlement pragmatism, as a philosophy that each other in many ways. She states, was to bring into the circle of knowledge stresses the relation of theory to “The social and educational activities individuals who may have been left out praxis, takes the continuity of of a settlement are but differing or who felt that they had no significant experience and nature as revealed manifestations of the attempt to socialize function within the community. Thus, through the outcome of directed democracy, as is the existence of the it is not surprising that “her view of action as the starting point of settlement itself.”7 Through continuous democracy was built on the insistent reflection. Experience is the ongoing interaction and experience in diverse conviction that all people could be led to transaction of organism and

5 Jane Addams, A Centennial Reader, (New York, NY: The Macmillan Company, 1960), 25. 6 Marilyn Fischer, Wadsworth Philosophers Series on Addams, (Toronto, Canada: Thomas Learning, 2004), 14. 7 Jane Addams, “The Subjective Necessity for Social Settlements,” Philanthropy and Social Progress, Edited by Henry Carter Adams, (Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith Publishing Corporation, 1970), 8 Jane Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics, (Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 7. 9 Addams, A Centennial Reader, 145. 10 Lagemann, 4.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 123 environment; in other words, both William James structure of society were based on subject and object are constituted in Seigfried points out in her book that democracy and education. In Dewey’s the process.11 James and Dewey took measures that work, he advocated that “in order to promoted individual women and understand both that and how all of However, it is imperative to note causes of equality. For example, “Lucy [our] experiences, including those that Addams was often forgotten as a Sprague (Mitchell), Gertrude Stein, and we call intellectual, are grounded pragmatist philosopher, even though Mary Whiton Calkins all studied with in transactional [relations]—is for John Dewey credited her influence, James.”13 Even though these women philosophy to achieve the significance because she was a woman and not studied and interacted at the university of a method.”16 Thus, philosophy in academia. The inherent principle level with James, he still practiced the needed a method that rejected dualistic of pragmatism, which Addams theory of “separate spheres.” Since thinking and recognized that ignoring demonstrates in her work at Hull James maintained this notion, he perspectives was oppressive. House, is a strong conviction for contradicted his own philosophical Even though Dewey’s philosophy anti-absolutism. In Addams’ social pleas for pluralism, tolerance, and and work did not have anti-feminist philosophy, she viewed truth as a never- openness to change. Thus, James’ notions, “it can be argued that [he] ending, back-and-forth process between philosophy should be very accepting did not go far enough to imagine thought and action. of the feminist perspective, but in how the philosophical engagement of his practice he systematically affirms women might look and how it would Beginnings of Pragmatism difference between men and women. transform philosophy.”17 Furthermore, American pragmatism became very Even though James assigns differences it can be said that he often did not popular during the late nineteenth to to women, he recognizes that multiple sufficiently acknowledge the influence early twentieth centuries, better known viewpoints are needed in order to of certain women in his work. As a male as the Progressive Era. The innovative correct dominant views. For example, philosopher, it appears that he did not idea of pragmatism originated at Harvard “while he mistakenly assigns sympathy feel that academia would discredit him University with Charles Pierce and as something natural in women, he does for not acknowledging certain ideas by William James. However, soon after take the bold step of suggesting it is an women. For instance, when he credited philosophers at the University of Chicago important moral attribute that all should women, like Addams, those credits have quickly generated an approach called develop.”14 faded away and diminished the voice the Chicago School of Pragmatism. “This of women in the pragmatist movement new school was first noted by James in John Dewey almost entirely. his correspondence with John Dewey Dewey is most often recognized as the in 1904 when referring to the recently most influential pragmatist philosopher Dewey and Addams published Studies Logical Theory.”12 In in education. He did not hold the direct As noted previously, Addams is often addition, during this time the first anti-feminist sentiments that James forgotten as a pragmatist philosopher, generation of women were attending did in his work. For Dewey, “we are all even though John Dewey credited her college and entering discussions on conscious beings whose capacities for influence. Some may ask, why is this the problems with industrialization interactional awareness are coextensive important? Recovering the heritage and urbanization. On the other hand, with our ways of being alive.”15 In his of women in philosophy is necessary even though women were finally work, he focused on the importance of because “as long as thinkers and issues achieving access to education, the reflecting on our experiences in order sanctioned by the canon dominated feminist perspective was restricted in to be open minded and conscious of philosophy, women were discouraged the field of philosophy. different views. Similar to Addams, from seeing themselves in the role of Dewey’s major thoughts about the academic philosophers and had little

11 Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Pragmatism and Feminism, (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 6. 12 Mary Jo Deegan, Jane Addams and the Men of the Chicago School, 1892-1918, (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1990), 248. 13 Erin McKenna, “Pragmatism and Feminism: Engaged Philosophy,” American Journal of Theology and Philosophy, (January 2003, 24, 1), 5. 14 Ibid., 7. 15 Elizabeth Kamarck Minnich, “Experiential Education: Democratizing Educational Philosophies,” Liberal Learning, Association of American Colleges and Universities, (Summer 1999), 12. 16 Ibid, 10. 17 McKenna, 7.

124 Education for Democracy: Discovering Civic Engagement incentive to look to philosophy for when we interact responsively with one idea of Hull House makes Addams guidance in their lives as women.”18 As another, we must adjust in order for our different from William James and previously stated, Dewey first discussed organism to continue functioning. As a John Dewey because she opened up The Chicago School of Pragmatism idea result, when we experience something boundaries by presenting an alternative formally with James in 1904, but by we act upon it, we do something view of education based entirely on this time Hull House had been open with it, and then we undergo change. understanding others’ experiences and for five years and Addams had already Diversity is needed in order for the cultivating those relationships in a published her book Democracy and inclusion of multiple voices and points communal setting. Social Ethics (1902). Since Addams was of view. In pragmatism one never Hull House opened at a time when a woman, there is often a misconception knows truth unless one hears all sides, the first generations of American women about who developed central ideas for Addams, hearing multiple voices were graduating from college, thus, first. When in fact, “Dewey credits and the under-represented people is it provided a forum for these women Addams with developing the thesis that a necessity for knowing truth and for to use and combine their knowledge. democracy is a way of life, a position taking the right action. Florence Kelley, an influential that is central to his own theorizing.”19 Progressive reformer, understood that Overall, pragmatism uses the essential Looking Back and Thinking Forward “personal changes were never enough. component of democracy to create Jane Addams opened Hull House “on [Women’s] significance lay in the ways a social philosophy focused on the the theory that the dependence of they led to changes in group life, importance of human connections and classes on each other is reciprocal; and particularly changes in the highest the understanding of differences. that as the social relation is essentially expression of group life—the state.”22 a reciprocal relation, it gave form of Furthermore, participation in public life Jane Addams Pragmatism expression that has peculiar value.”20 was necessary for social reform; thus, The three main ideas of pragmatism The settlement was designed as an women began organizing and working that Addams developed through alternative method of education, which together locally and nationally to her work at Hull House were the promoted clubs for the awareness stimulate social change. Therefore, from importance of experience, emphasis of social and cultural problems. She the beginning, “pragmatism appealed to on continual growth, and the essential realized that class and ethnic lines women thinkers and activists who found need for diversity. Addams emphasized divided American society, which in it a movement within which they the importance of experience because presented unequal opportunities for could work for a new intellectual and she believed that all truth, all-knowing, individuals to cultivate their educational social order.”23 comes from interaction with others abilities. In addition, these dualistic in the community, thus, pragmatist divisions within society discouraged Was Addams a Feminist? experimentation is transactive, changing individuals from crossing and engaging The term feminism was not coined until both the investigator (teacher) and in relationships outside of their class later in the Progressive Era and was not the object of investigation (student). or race. The second motivation for the widely used until 1913. Addams did Secondly, continual growth and the settlement that Addams discusses in not call herself a feminist most likely ability that humans have to adapt her essay, “The Subjective Necessity because the term was not used during themselves and their societies stems for Social Settlements,” is “the impulse the majority of her work. By the time from our reflections of our experiences. to share the [human] race of life, feminism became an appropriate term For instance, in Addams’ analogy of and to bring as much as possible of for women working for equal rights, the society as an organism, all the parts of social energy and the accumulation suffragist movement had been divided an organism are necessary for the whole of civilization to those portions of into two different realms. However, and dependent on the whole. Therefore, the race which have little.”21 The very when looking back we can evaluate how

18 Charlene Haddock Seigfried, “Feminism and the Writings of American Women,” Pragmatism and Classical American Philosophy, Ed. By John J. Stuhr, (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000), 626. 19 Ibid.,628. 20 Addams, “The Subjective Necessity for Social Settlements,” 1-2. 21 Ibid, 15. 22 Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Nation’s Work: the Rise of Women’s Political Culture, 1830-1900, (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1995), 315. 23 Seigfried, Pragmatism and Feminism, 19.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 125 Addams’ social philosophy includes culture thus, creating an environment change; therefore, the foundations of the feminist perspective and how that focused on active emancipation through feminist pedagogy can be unlocked perspective influenced the methods awareness. In this sense, “[culture] is by looking at its origins in grassroots she used at Hull House. Nancy Cott shaped by the lived experiences and political activity. Women’s consciousness describes that the modern feminist institutional forms organized around groups that formed in the late 1960s agenda “enable[s] female individuals diverse elements of struggle and were based on friendships, common with several loyalties to say we and to domination.”26 Through this process, political commitments, and discussion achieve sexual equality while making the student’s experiences within the of shared experiences, much like the room for sexual difference between sphere of popular culture (such as clubs at Hull House. Furthermore, they women and men.”24 Therefore, when television, music, news, and movies) emphasized reliance on experience and reviewing the definition of feminism in aid the process of understanding and feeling, sharing common experiences relation to the social philosophy that reflecting on classroom material. Hence, in collective leaderless groups, and the Addams promoted at Hull House and in in order to examine the diverse histories shared assumption that understanding her life, we must take into consideration and perceptions of race, class, gender, and theoretical analysis were the first how her influence as a woman affected ethnicity, and sexuality, it is inherent steps to revolutionary change. As the her pedagogical/pragmatism methods. that both the students’ and teachers’ main goal of feminism was infused into voices be heard. By engaging both feminist classrooms, the need for social Liberatory and Feminist Pedagogies the students’ and teacher’s voices in change became relevant to students When thinking forward we can trace classroom discussions, educators are and educators. As a result, the call for Addams’ methods to show unique able to unchain themselves from the social change and activism within the parallels to liberatory and feminist traditional relationship restraints with feminist classroom has been essential to pedagogy. The objective of liberatory or students. As the traditional relational transforming the classroom environment critical pedagogy is to provide a scope chains are broken between students and and the students’ learning process. through which educators are more educators, the classroom environment capable of examining and interacting provides a ground for the crossing and Finding the Connections with the politics of education. In this engaging of multiple interconnected In Addams’ writings, she frequently instance, politics does not define any relationships. However, “the mere stressed the idea of cross-cultured political party, but refers to “how we removal of constraints or a mere contact, which leads to individual make meaning of commonplace events relaxation of controls will not ensure the growth and sympathetic understanding. [or] the purpose and goals of emergence of free and creative human She stated, “that we may get, and public education.”25 Like Addams’ beings.”27 Instead, liberatory pedagogy should get something of that revivifying philosophies, the primary goal of encourages the plurality of American and upspringing of culture from our liberatory pedagogy is to challenge voices to be heard in the classroom and contact with the groups who come educators, students, and administrators for new relationships to be forged from to us from foreign counties, and that to recognize, engage, and critically engaging dialogue. we can get it in no other way.”29 Her examine undemocratic practices and The pedagogy of feminist teachers main goal in education was to create institutions that maintain inequality and is based “on the certain assumptions an environment where individuals of oppressive identities. This goal promotes about knowledge, power, and political different backgrounds, classes, and the development of educational practices action that can be traced beyond the races could learn from each other’s that encourage teachers and students academy to the political activism of the experiences. Addams believed that to critically examine and identify women’s movement in the 1960s.”28 the public schools held the power to relationships of power, ideology, and Feminist pedagogy is grounded in social recognize and cherish culture, however,

24 Ibid, 10. 25 Pepi Leistyna and Arlie Woodrum, “Context and Culture: What is Critical Pedaogy,” Breaking Free: The Trasnformative Power of Critical Pedagogy, Edited by Pepi Leistyna, Arlie Woodrum, and Stephen Sherblom, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review, 1999), 3. 26 Ibid, 3. 27 Maxine Greene, “In Search of a Critical Pedagogy,” Breaking Free: The Transformative Power of Critical Pedagogy, Edited by Pepi Leistyna, Arlie Woodrum, and Stephen Sherblom, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review, 1999), 28. 28 Kathleen Weiler, “Freire and a Feminist Pedagogy of Difference,” Harvard Educational Review 61, (1991), 456. 29 Jane Addams, Second Twenty Years at Hull House, (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1930), 409-410.

126 Education for Democracy: Discovering Civic Engagement she “criticized the schools because in which individuals could feel a fire in people’s hearts to contribute to their culture had become entirely comfortable. By creating an environment the cause of humanity. detached from experience.”30 Similar that was empowering, individuals were to liberatory and feminist pedagogy, gradually encouraged to step out of their Setting the Stage for Education Today Addams’ methods recognize the need for boxes and recognize the importance Throughout this paper, I have discussed multiple viewpoints to change students, they served in the community. Addams’ techniques in education, teachers, and the world we live in, thus, During Addams’ time at Hull House, thus, the next step is to find a way to promoting a classroom environment her methods were not regarded as an intertwine her methods with education that encourages the transformation of educational pedagogy, however, when today. In order to effectively assess how knowledge and active participation looking at liberatory and feminist her ideas can be fused with education within the community. pedagogy today, it is quite easy to today, we must first understand the For Addams, “education encompassed see how her methods strove for the importance that civic engagement all the ways of equipping people with same goal. Addams wanted to kindle or citizenship has for education. the knowledge, skills, and moral individuals’ dreams by widening the Citizenship to most individuals is and emotional sensitivities they need circle of knowledge and by stressing thought of as distinctively political for democratic participation.”31 She the importance of personal experience. and defined in terms of government; discovered that it was hard to find In addition, she wanted people to however, in Addams’ view we see an educational process that would realize that truth is not absolute, but a different view of citizenship. We work for uneducated adults because instead it is forever changing. By must realize that government is only many were working in factories and introducing multiple viewpoints through a small portion of life. Today, we find sweatshops in industrial Chicago in the democratic dialogue and sympathetic that most of our problems cannot be 1890s. Extended college classes proved understanding, the bridge between solved through legislation, but instead to be unpromising and only added life and learning can be formed by through sympathy and understanding more stress to individuals’ day. In producing a community of learners. of common experiences. John Dewey, addition, the “adding of evening classes Addams stated, stated that “the content of the term and social entertainments as a mere frill citizenship is broadening; it is coming to a day filled with monotonous and We have learned to say that the to mean all the relationships of all deadening drudgery constantly became good must be extended to all of sorts that are involved in membership more apparent.”32 Despite the constant society before it can be held secure in a community.”35 When we take to failures, Addams continued to pursue by any one person or any one class; heart the meaning of citizenship, we can her interest in finding opportunities for but we have not yet learned to add understand how important democracy reciprocity in teaching and learning. to that statement, that unless all is in education. Hence, Addams’ She thought “that public schools should men and all classes contribute to a comprehension of democracy as a way be neighborhood centers, connecting good, we cannot even be sure that of living together that encourages and people to each other and the life of the it is worth having.34 fosters social intercourse can aid in the city rather than functioning as a place reconstruction of pedagogical methods apart.”33 She suggested using kitchens Hull House was an attempt to cultivate in post-secondary education. and workshops as classrooms in order and share common experiences, with In academia, there have been two to overcome the unnatural feeling of the hope of finding the good that all intense shifts: “first, at the level of being cramped in desks and learning of society wished to contribute to. By practice, as excluded and formerly from books. I believe that this technique sharing common experiences, Hull silenced groups challenge dominant allowed Addams to create conditions House’s various activities aimed to spark approaches to learning and to definitions

30 John C. Farrell, Beloved Lady: A History of Jane Addams’ Ideas on Reform and Peace, (Baltimore, Maryland: The John Hopkins Press, 1967), 85. 31 Fischer, 32. 32 Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics, 84-85. 33 Fischer, 44. 34 Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics, 97. 35 John Dewey, “The School as a Social Center,” National Education Association Proceedings, (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1902), 373-383.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 127 of knowledge; and second, at the level of to prior knowledge. Often for students Addams frequently recognized that theory, as modernist claims to universal to see the relevance of class material, the figure of authority should also be truths are called into questions.”36 they need to connect that knowledge to a teachable role, whether that figure Addams has addressed these dramatics their own experiences through reflection is a parent or a teacher. In addition, shifts by focusing on a need for personal and dialogue. As for myself, connecting she believed that recognizing the experience and a critical, reawakened knowledge learned within the classroom responsibility that we have for the awareness of issues of power, with outside experiences helps me well-being of others would only follow ideology, and culture. Using Addams’ understand the material more clearly. when individuals first realized how comprehension of democracy and her Since truth is not absolute, but they depend on others. Certainly, “those pragmatist approach, I will highlight only partial and relative, students and who are less well-off in society are made certain areas that her philosophy can teachers can become aware of how acutely aware of their dependency on help expand and broaden for education their positions affect others. Addams those who have the power to deprive today: (1) the importance of experience; believed, “The democratic ideal demands them of the necessities of life, those in (2) the role of authority; (3) diversity; of the school that it shall give the child’s positions of power find it more difficult and (4) empowerment. own experiences a social value; that it to recognize or acknowledge their shall teach [them] to direct [their] own dependency on others.”41 The goal here Personal Experience as a Source of activities and adjust them to those of is not to degrade the role of a teacher, Knowledge and Truth other people.”39 Therefore, Addams not but to get away from the dominant Like scholarly knowledge, personal only asks for individuals to own their view of teachers as mere transferors of experience can be an invaluable fountain experiences, but also to recognize the knowledge because without questioning of knowing. Experience allows for oppressor within us through exploring one’s own position of authority, an exploration of the gap between our emotions, feelings, and personal obtaining a nonhierarchical vision is students’ and teachers’ life experiences experiences. The very process of using often difficult for educators. and learning experiences inside the life experiences to link new information The role of authority continues to educational realm. Early women’s to prior knowledge is not knowledge be one that is hard to translate into consciousness-raising groups saw feelings transfer, but knowledge transformation. a classroom setting that encourages “as the source of a ‘true’ knowledge reflection of one’s own personal of the world for women living in a The Role of Authority experiences. For example, bell hooks society that denied the value of their The role of authority within the states, “I am troubled by the term perceptions.”37 Nevertheless, women in classroom undoubtedly sets the tone ‘authority of experience,’ accurately the early consciousness-raising groups for teacher-student and student-peer aware of the way it is used to silence viewed feelings and emotions as a way relationships. Ira Shor states, and exclude.”42 Additionally, for women of testing the accepted truths within teachers in any academic position, knowledge. Addams thought “we can Students who play dumb have maintaining a stance of authority is only discover truth by rational and learned in traditional classrooms sometimes necessary in order to refute democratic interest in life.”38 Truth was that their role is to answer the idea that male professors are more a never-ending, back-and-forth process questions, not to question competent than female professors. Much between thought and action, thus as answers… [therefore, they are] like Addams, Henry Giroux and Peter educators, students, and citizens, it unable to perceive purpose or McLaren have suggested that a form of important to recognize that no one’s life community in the curriculum, they “emanicpatory authority needs to be experiences are more important than grow unequipped to analyze and developed, one that can illuminate the another’s, but rather a way of helping transform their world.40 connection and importance of…teacher each individual link new information education programs.”43 When teachers

36 Weiler, 450. 37 Ibid, 463. 38 Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics, 7. 39 Ibid, 81. 40 Ira Shor, Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change, (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1992), 137. 41 Charlene Haddock Seigfried, “Introduction to the Illinois Edition,” Democracy and Social Ethics, (Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2002), xxi. 42 bell hooks, Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom, (New York, NY: Routledge, 1994), 90. 43 Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren, “Teacher Education and the Politics of Engagement: The Case for Democratic Schooling,” Breaking Free: The Transformative Power of Critical Pedagogy, Edited by Pepi Leistyna, Arlie Woodrum, and Stephen Sherblom, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review, 1999), 313. 128 Education for Democracy: Discovering Civic Engagement initiate a form of emancipatory authority is very simple to see that education Empowerment into the classroom, students are able to is related to race, class, gender, and For me, as a woman student, engage in critical thinking, to decide sexuality. For example, “if education is empowerment in the classroom is what forms of knowledge are best suited viewed as preparation for carrying on often the key for opening doors to a for living in a just and democratic processes historically associated with transformative education. I have decided society. Thus, males, it will inculcate traits the culture to analyze empowerment last because considers masculine.”46 The environment the importance of experience, the role a reconstituted notion of of the classroom is the most important of authority, and diversity are essential emancipatory authority suggests, in phase for opening up new ways of components for empowerment. The this case, that teachers are bearers of thought and crossing and engaging in basis of empowerment can be traced critical knowledge, rules, and values multiple relationships, however, it is back to Freire, whose ideas were through which they consciously often the most difficult to transform. developed from his experiences in Brazil articulate and problematize their Addams developed the Labor during the 1920s. Even though Freire’s relationship to each other, to Museum in 1900 to help area residents work emerged from his connection to students, to subject matter, and to understand different cultural practices class oppression, his ideals have been the wider community.44 and to create a sense of unity amongst expanded to aid in the empowerment the community. In doing so, she of women and other minorities. Freire Giroux and McLaren’s idea of bridged the divide between thought also believed that “one cannot empower emancipatory authority confronts and practice, which “fulfilled Addams’ others but can create conditions that the dominant view of teachers as the vision for Hull House as a place to make it possible for others to reflect and transferors of knowledge, therefore, express the meaning of life through act on their reality.”49 Understanding positioning teachers to reject any life itself, and to unite people in that one cannot empower others, ideology that constrains them from solidarity, recognizing their common demonstrates that as educators we providing a transformative education. humanity.”47 If education is molded as cannot explicitly believe that the The emancipatory authority that Giroux an opportunity for everyone’s lives to classroom environment empowers and McLaren call for is very similar be part of a learning experience, then individuals, but we can evaluate how we to the idea of authority that Addams we create appreciation for different uphold an environment that stimulates wanted. In Second Twenty Years at Hull cultures, races, and genders. Addams self-reflexive thinking among students. House, Addams stated, “Democracy once said, “It was the function of the Feminist theories have added believes that the [individuals] at the settlements to bring into the circle a gendered view to the overall bottom may realize [his/her] aim only of knowledge and fuller life, men conceptualization of empowerment. This through an unfolding of [his/her] own and women who otherwise might be gendered view of empowerment began being, and that [he/she] must have an left out.”48 Understanding multiple in the early women’s consciousness- efficacious share in the regulation of identities within the classroom is best raising groups that focused on sharing [his/her] own life.”45 Addams’ hope was when personal experience is presented common experiences of sexuality, that the settlements would work with for others to reflect and understand work, family, and participation in individuals to show them how to break dominant structures of oppression. a male-dominated society through free from their constraints and recognize The Labor Museum created conditions collective, leaderless groups. These their roles in the community. that allowed for the environment to groups functioned similar to the clubs transcend structural and hierarchical at Hull House, as creative and enriching Diversity boundaries to create relationships, outlets for the participants. Therefore, As education is embedded with so-called bonds, and an understanding of each feminist pedagogy adds the notion that characteristics of “cultural norms,” it other’s common experiences. empowerment is relational in nature.

44 Ibid, 313. 45 Addams, Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 383. 46 Jane Roland Martin, Changing the Educational Landscape: Philosophy, Women, and Curriculum, (London: Routledge, 1994), 206. 47 Fischer, 46. 48 Addams, Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 404. 49 Falk-Rafael, Adeline, Chinn, Anderson, Laschinger, and Robotzky, “The Effectiveness of Feminist Pedagogy in Empowering a Community of Learners,” Journal of Nursing 16, (1996), 108.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 129 Addams’ methods, feminist pedagogy, Finding a transformative pedagogy and liberatory pedagogy emphasize that engages students and teachers classrooms based on participation will hopefully promote an academic they respect and encourage students environment that stimulates individuals to be connected or hands-on-learners. to become active participants not only Ira Shor states, “people begin life as in the classroom, but also in society. I motivated learners, not as passive believe that the foundations needed for beings. Children naturally join the a transformative pedagogy already exist, world around them. They learn by but need to be brought together as one interacting, by experimenting, and by method and not as separate methods. using play to internalize the meaning By analyzing Addams’ social philosophy, of words and experience.”50 However, I have revealed ideas that promote our current educational systems erode a new ground for the exploration of students’ essential need for participatory knowledge, which is neither oppressive learning by focusing on knowledge nor suppressive of the development transfer. When I look back on my of personal experiences as a legitimate education, the cornerstone of my starting place for learning. success and educational endeavors has As we culminate our journey, I urge been found in environments that have individuals to think about Jane Addams challenged and empowered me. Hence, and her efforts to encourage learning by integrating pedagogies that propose from life. Most importantly, we need active participation amongst diverse to recognize that as we begin thinking backgrounds, sharing of common forward into the future of education, experiences, and a commitment to social finding the necessary elements that change, we will find ourselves in an engage students and teachers will be environment that promotes freedom and the key to a curriculum that encourages active emancipation. democratic learning and discovers the power of civic engagement. Therefore, Culminating our Journey as students and educators, we must Becoming a teacher gives one recognize that “transformation is a power to open up the world of journey of hope, humor, setbacks, possibilities, knowledge, and self- breakthroughs, and creative life, on reflection. Therefore, a teacher has the a long and winding road paved with possibility to create an empowering dreams whose time is overdue.”51 The environment where all participants are light at the beginning of the journey has interconnected. I do not want to imply been ignited, and now it is our choice to that teachers are perfect individuals keep it lit or let it burn out. who cannot make mistakes, but instead that teachers – even those who stumble along the way – can increase awareness, passion, and inspiration to create an environment that is transforming. My research has aimed to discover the capacity that education has to change the world.

50 Shor, 17. 51 Shor, 263.

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GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 131 132 The effects of infant age on parental vocalizations about object categories in a play-type setting

Abstract From the moment of birth, infants are Previous studies have examined the role of bombarded with novel sensations and various perceptual features of objects on an perceptions. Everything they encounter infant’s ability to effectively categorize the has a name, and the process of learning object. Few, if any studies have examined the names of all these new objects the role of parents in the formation of and concepts requires a great deal of categories early in infancy and the effect of cognitive organization. Categorization the infants’ age on the type of categorical of novel stimuli allows an infant to information provided by the parents. efficiently store and effectively access In two studies, parental vocalizations this new wealth of data (Quinn, 2002). directed to their infants (3- to 12-months If categorization were not possible, of age) about objects were videotaped every day would be full of numerous and analyzed. In Study 1 the proportion instances of trial and error as the infant of superordinate labels used by parents tested and retested every new object increased as a function of the infant’s age and phenomena he or she encountered, while the proportion of basic level labels making sure the results were the same decreased with age. In Study 2, parental every time. Categorization saves the attempts at label elicitation increased as a infant the time and energy of being function of the infant’s age. The results show a constant experimenter because Katherine L. Schwartzkopf definite age-related patterns in parental it allows infants to use previous McNair Scholar vocalizations about objects and their knowledge about categories and categories. The results indicate that parents members of categories when an infant are a source of categorical information encounters new, yet similar objects. For early in infancy. example, if an infant is familiar with the category dog and what it means Gwenden Dueker, Ph.D. to be a member of that category, then Faculty Mentor he or she does not need to observe every dog wagging his tail or barking to know that he does so. The infant knows from previous experience with dogs that barking and wagging tails are typical behaviors of dogs. Therefore, he or she can confidently expect that any new dog will also exhibit similar behavior without actually observing the behavior firsthand. This process of using previous knowledge to infer or expect a similar response from previously unknown stimuli is known as generalization.

Object categories Categorization is defined as equivalent responding to a set of discriminably different instances (Quinn, 2002). For example, again looking at the category, dog, categorization treats an 80 pound, black Labrador retriever the same as a 19 pound, white and tan Jack Russell Terrier. They are both dogs even though

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 133 they are clearly different from each and therefore basic level categories have can categorize cats as separate from dogs other. fewer members than superordinates. (Quinn & Eimas, 1996), can distinguish There are three main levels of For example, not only are dogs living chairs as separate from other pieces of categorization to which objects and things that voluntarily move and do not furniture, and can categorize furniture concepts belong: superordinate, basic, make their own food, they also bark, as separate from animals (Behl-Chadha, and subordinate. These levels of have four legs, fur, are warm-blooded, 1996), and also categorize animals as categories are arranged hierarchically, and give birth to live young. Because separate from vehicles (Arteberry & with superordinate categories being the there are more characteristics used to Bornstein, 2001). most inclusive and subordinate categories categorize dogs as compared to animals Quinn & Eimas (1996) used the being the least. For example, consider and that these characteristics are more heads of cats and dogs as the exemplars the category, dog. At the superordinate specific, this shrinks the number of shown to infants demonstrating infants’ level, a dog may be considered an animal. members that fall into the basic-level ability to use facial information to At the basic level, a dog is simply a dog. category, dog. Also, most of the members categorize whole objects. Vidic and At the subordinate level, a dog may be of any basic level category, such as Haaf (2004) tested 4-month-old infants’ categorized by breed such as Jack Russell dog, share many similar characteristics ability to distinguish dogs from cats Terrier or as is more often the case, without considerable overlap with when body regions (face, head, and categorized as an individual. other basic level categories [that are torso) were interchanged among objects. Superordinate categories are all- within the same superordinate] (Rosch Their results indicated the importance of encompassing categories. As mentioned et al., 1976). While most dogs share the torso in infants’ ability to categorize earlier, animal, is an example of a the characteristics of barking, having the animals. In addition to facial and superordinate category label. The fur and four legs, other animals such bodily features, Arteberry & Bornstein category animal not only includes dogs as birds and snakes do not share these (2001) demonstrated that 3-month-old but many other basic level categories characteristics. infants can use motion to distinguish including but not limited to: cats, Finally, the subordinate level is the animals from vehicles. horses, bears, birds, snakes, fish, least inclusive or most specific level So even in very young infants, the insects, etc. The superordinate category, of categorization. Subordinate level ability to categorize everyday objects is animal, also includes many subordinate categories use the most descriptors to present, and infants use many different categories that refer to specific types designate its members. For example, perceptual features to categorize objects. of animals such as Burmese pythons, Jack Russell Terriers not only have However, how this ability to categorize panda bears, and Jack Russell Terriers. the characteristics that make them comes about is not well understood. Further, Rosch, Mervis, Gray, Johnson, animals and dogs, they also have many There is evidence to suggest that & Boyes-Braem (1976) found that characteristics such as small size (14 language and the information conveyed members of the same superordinate to 22 pounds), short tail, broad chest, to infants through language may have an category share very few of the same and narrow snout that put them into effect on an infant’s ability to categorize characteristics with one another. a smaller, more specific subordinate (Balaban & Waxman, 1997). Put another way, objects within a category, Jack Russell Terrier. Subordinate superordinate category have the fewest members share many common Parents as sources of category things in common. Consider animals. characteristics and these characteristics information Animals are living things that voluntarily often have considerable overlap with One source of category information move and do not make their own other subordinate level categories that is provided to infants through food. In addition, the characteristics (Rosch et al., 1976). This is illustrated language comes from more experienced used to categorize superordinates are by the fact that most terriers share these categorizers such as parents. As the broadest or most non-specific specific characteristics while they are not Sugimura (1992) suggests, acquisition of characteristics used among the three members of the subordinate category of natural concepts is assumed to depend category levels. Jack Russell Terrier. on mainly categorical information which Quinn (2002) referred to the basic is provided by parents and other people level as an intermediate level of Categorization in infancy and children’s existing knowledge for inclusiveness. The characteristics used Previous studies investigating categories which may be related to to describe basic level categories are categorization in infancy have found their age level. Understanding that more specific than for superordinates, that infants as young as 3 months of age existing knowledge is often experience

134 Infant age and parental vocalization dependent (Sugimara), it is meaningful superordinate term, vehicles, a parent would follow that parents would seldom to point out that very young infants may say, “This is a car, but it is also a label at the superordinate level because often lack sufficient experience to vehicle.” However, in the above Callanan it would provide no useful information have gained a large enough knowledge studies, this anchoring technique was to the infant. For example, boats could base from which they could generalize only observed when parents were be labeled at the superordinate level as to new experiences. Jaswal (2004) introducing superordinate labels, but not things that float. However, if a 4-month- writes that in every domain of human observed when parents were teaching old infant fails to grasp the concept of cognition that involves the acquisition about subordinate categories. floating, it would be futile for a parent of knowledge, we learn from others, Parents also provide contextual to label the object as such. The more often through language. The acquisition information about the objects including appropriate labeling behavior would of categories in infancy is no different. their relative functions and general contain information useful to the infant As in the case of very young infants, characteristics (Callanan, 1990; Wales, such as basic level labels. As stated one source of information about object Colman, & Pattison, 1983). Features earlier, the majority of object labels categories is what parents are saying and parts of objects such as color, size, provided by parents are at the basic about the objects. shape, wing, leg, etc. were mentioned level. However, as the infant gets older So just what are parents saying to their when discussing basic and subordinate and his or her cognition becomes more infants about objects and categories? categories while functions such as sophisticated, he or she will be able Labeling or naming the objects is actions of an object (an airplane flies), to understand increasingly abstract one of the most common pieces of actions performed on an object (you concepts, and therefore parents may information provided to infants about use a mixer to make cakes) and typical begin to include more of the abstract, objects (Poulin-Debois, Graham, & locations of an object (a wrench is superordinate labels within their Sippola, 1995; Callanan & Sabbagh, in a tool box) were mentioned when conversations to their infants. 2004). The majority of object labels discussing superordinate categories The current study explored how provided by parents are at the basic (Callanan, 1990). Both object labels and parents, in a fairly naturalistic setting, level of categorization for children 24- contextual cues provided by parents categorized objects dependent upon months of age and older (Callanan, are relevant and necessary pieces of the age of their infant. Specifically, 1985, 1990, Rosch et al., 1976). Other information for the children about this study investigated when and how studies have supported similar parental the objects themselves and also about parents begin to naturally discuss the labeling patterns for children as young the categories of which the objects are more abstract superordinate level of as 12-months of age (Blewitt, 1983; members. While much work has been categorization in an unstructured play- Poulin-Debois et al., 1995). Subordinate done examining parental influences on type setting. We hypothesized that and superordinate labels are far less categorization, the above studies focused as the age of the infant increased, the common with superordinate being the on parents of children two years of age proportion of the utterances by parents least common. Also, when teaching and older. Few studies have looked at containing superordinate level labels children about objects and the categories how parents facilitate categorization for would also increase. those objects belong to, parents will infants younger than one year of age. adjust their teaching strategy based on There is reason to expect that the Study 1 the category level they are asked to teach types of category information parents In this study, we examined whether about (Callanan, 1985, 1990; Sugimura, speak about with their children might parents vary the amount and type of 1992). When instructed to teach be influenced by the infant’s age. Rosch categorical information they provide superordinate categories to their young et al. (1976) wrote that the less specific to their very young infants based on children, parents tended to anchor an object category, the more abstraction the infant’s age. Previous studies have their statements about items in the is required to understand what the researched categorization in infancy superordinate category with examples category represents. Superordinate (Arterberry & Bornstein, 2001; from the basic level (Callanan, 1985, categories are the least specific and Mareschal, Powell, & Volein, 2003; 1990). The anchoring technique refers therefore require the most abstraction Mareschal & Quinn, 2001; Pauen, 2002; to parents using a basic level label when in order to understand their meaning. Quinn, 2004; Vidic & Haaf, 2004). introducing any non-basic label such Because very young infants may not However, only a few of these studies as a superordinate or subordinate label. be capable of the abstract cognition have focused on parents’ involvement in For example, when introducing the required of superordinate categories, it categorization during infancy (Callanan

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 135 & Sabbagh, 2004; Poulin-Debois et al., including an oval, a triangle, a circle, a The parental vocalizations during the 1995) and these studies only focused on square, and a plus-sign. Each of the topic interactions were transcribed word for infants older than one year. Many more cards began with the instructions, “Please word. Each transcript was then coded. studies of parents and categorization talk to your child about…” Topic Card 1 were done with 2- and 4-year-olds stated: Family. Topic Card 2 stated: What Coding (Blewitt, 1983; Callanan, 1985, 1990; you and your child did yesterday. Topic Each individual statement made by the Sugimura, 1992; Wales et al., 1983). Card 3 stated: How he or she is feeling. parent was referred to as an utterance. The few studies conducted that have Topic Card 4 stated: The weather and/or Each utterance was first coded for examined the kind of categorical the season. For the purposes of this whether the utterance was on-topic information provided by parents to their study, only conversations prompted by or off-topic. Off-topic utterances were children have explicitly instructed the objects were analyzed. considered to be any spontaneous parents to teach their children about utterances from the parent not pertaining categories. Studies in which parents Design and Procedure to playing with their infant. For example, are instructed to teach their infants and Each parent was asked to play with “Mommy’s not feeling well today” or children about object categories create a his or her infant while the researchers “Let’s move you from the bouncy seat” somewhat artificial situation. Few, if any, videotaped the interactions. Before the were considered off-topic utterances. studies have explored how the parents interactions took place, each parent was No further coding occurred for off-topic may naturally foster their infant’s ability given the following instructions: utterances. All on-topic utterances were to categorize. This current study does then coded for the following criteria: just that. Younger infants (3- to 12- a) Play with your infant in the same months of age) and their parents will be way you would play with him or a) The number of object labels the studied within a naturalistic setting. her at home using the guiding utterance contained. materials. b) The categorical level of the Method b) Use one basket or topic card object label: superordinate, basic, Participants at a time, in no particular order, or subordinate. Prior to coding, Twenty-six infant-parent dyads however, please alternate between the researchers developed a participated in the study. The infants topic cards and baskets. comprehensive list of acceptable were between the ages of 3 months, 27 superordinate, basic, or subordinate days and 11 months, 28 days (M = 8.1 c) Talk with your infant using either the card or basket until he or she, labels for each object used in the months, SD = 2.0 months). Thirteen study. (See Table 1,) infants were female. The majority of you, or both of you get bored. parents participating were mothers. The d) When finishing with the toys, c) If two or more different levels participants were recruited from the please finish completely with the of labels were mentioned in the wider community by mail and follow-up topic or objects before moving onto same utterance or two consecutive phone calls. the next topic or basket. utterances, the relationship between the two labels was determined. In e) Try to play with all four baskets Materials keeping with previous research and discuss all four topic cards. The parent-infant interactions were results demonstrating that labeling guided using a variety of objects and f) There is no minimum or begins and is rooted at the basic topic cards. Four baskets of objects were maximum time you have to play level, two relationships were coded used along with four topic cards. Basket with your infant, however, each (Rosch et al., 1976; Callanan, 1 contained baby clothes including session usually takes approximately 1985). The basic-to-superordinate a romper or “onesie,” a pair of baby 8-10 minutes to complete. relationship and the basic-to- pajamas, an infant hat, and a pair of subordinate relationship were infant booties. Basket 2 contained four, After answering any questions, digital noted. small, stuffed dogs. Basket 3 contained recording was begun and the parents d) If the utterance attempted to plastic, toy fruit including an apple, a were then told to begin playing. After elicit a label by asking a question. pear, a whole banana, two banana halves the parent and infant were done playing, For example, did the parent ask, split vertically, and two oranges. Basket parents were thanked for their time and “What is this?” or “What are these?” 4 contained small, yellow, plastic shapes given a small gift for participation.

136 Infant age and parental vocalization e) If the utterance contained were at the basic level. Superordinate superordinate categories as the infant functional information about the labels were used 13% of the time ages. Indeed, as the infants get older, object. Functional information while subordinate labels were used less parents do increase the proportion of was defined as any movement or than 4% of the time. In addition, the utterances containing superordinate sound-based attribute of the object proportion of utterances attempting to labels. In addition, the proportion of such as walking, rolling, talking, elicit a label was analyzed. Here 4.4% utterances containing basic level labels honking, etc. All functional of utterances to infants were aimed at decreased. However, each set of objects information was further coded as eliciting a label. Also, the proportion only contained objects from within a applying to either the whole object of utterances containing functional and specific superordinate category. This or only part of the object. characteristic information was analyzed. could have limited the number of f) If the utterance contained While only 4.7% of utterances to infants superordinate labels used by parents, an information about the contained functional information, 12.6% issue we investigated in Study 2. characteristics of the object. of utterances contained characteristic Characteristics were defined as information. Lastly, the utterances Study 2 non-movement attributes such as containing characteristic and functional In Study 1, each basket contained color, size, shape, etc. Characteristic information were analyzed to determine one group of objects from within information was also coded as what proportions of those utterances one superordinate category. In applying to either the whole object applied to either the whole object or to order to determine if the number of or part of the object. part of the object. One hundred percent superordinate categories per basket of the utterances containing functional affected the way parents label the Results information applied to the whole object. objects, the number of types of objects Preliminary analysis In contrast, only 56% of the utterances per basket was changed in Study 2. First, the proportion of utterances containing characteristic information Three of the baskets contained objects containing labels was analyzed. applied to the whole object while 44% that could be categorized as belonging The results indicated that 29.4% applied to various parts of the objects. to at least two different superordinate of utterances to infants during play categories. The fourth and final basket contained a label. Next, of the utterances Main analysis was retained from Study 1 and only containing a label, the levels of each Age effects on parent utterances were contained one group of objects, all from label were analyzed (see Fig. 1). examined by estimating a series of the same superordinate category. regression analyses. A marginally significant effect of age on parents’ Method Figure 1. Level of label in parental vocalizations of superordinate level Participants utterances to infants for Study 1 labels was found (F (1, 25) = 3.42, Ten infant-parent dyads participated p = 0.08) signifying that as the age in the second study. The infants of the infant increased, so did the were between the ages of 3 months, proportion of superordinate labels. 25 days and 8 months, 8 days (M = In addition, a marginally significant 5.9 months, SD = 1.4 months). Two effect of age on parents’ vocalizations infants were female. The majority of of basic level labels was found (F (1, parents participating were mothers. The 25) = 3.83, p = 0.06) indicating that participants were recruited from the as the age of the infant increased, wider community by mail and follow-up the proportion of basic level labels phone calls. decreased. There were no other significant effects of age on parent’s Materials patterns of vocalizations to infants. In this second study, again four baskets Consistent with previous studies, the of guide objects were used for the parent- results indicated an overwhelming Discussion infant interactions along with the four tendency of parents to label at the basic Our results support the original topic cards. Basket 1 contained four level. Eighty-three percent of labels hypothesis that parents change their plastic, toy vehicles including a dump vocalizations with regards to the truck, a train, a car, and a bulldozer. It

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 137 also contained four plastic, toy animals Next, of these utterances containing Main analysis including an alligator, a panda bear, a a label, the levels of each label were Age effects on parent utterances were wolf, and a hippopotamus. Basket 2 examined (see Fig. 2). again examined by estimating a series contained four plastic, toy people. It of regression analyses. A trend in the also contained four, plastic, toy animals Figure 2. Level of label in parental proportion of utterances containing including a horse, a buffalo, a pig, and utterances to infants for Study 2 labels was observed (F (1, 6) = 3.16, an elephant. Basket 3 contained the same p= .11). This indicates that as the infants plastic, toy fruit as Study 1. Basket 4 get older, the parents were labeling more contained four, plastic, toy boats and four often. There were no other significant plastic, toy birds including a penguin, a effects of age on parent’s patterns of swan, a duck and a rubber ducky. All of vocalizations to infants in Study 2. the plastic, toy animals used in Study 2 with exception of the rubber ducky were Discussion anatomically correct and looked similar Nearly one third (33.4%) of the to their larger, living counterparts. Again, proportion of utterances by parents the four topic cards used in Study 2 contained a label. This is slightly higher began with the instructions, “Please talk than the 29.4% of utterances containing to your child about…” labels found in Study 1. This could be due, in part, to the fact that there were a) how people in the world As was the case in Study 1, the majority more categories of objects included in communicate with each other. of labels uttered by parents were at the Study 2 versus Study 1, and therefore b) things that start with the letter ‘F’. basic level. Seventy percent of the labels parents had a larger number of labels were at the basic level. Superordinate they could use in conversation to their c) the pictures on the card without labels were used 10% of the time infants. The majority of the labels were showing what is on the card. The while subordinate labels were used at the basic level. However, subordinate three pictures on the card were 20% of the time. The proportion of labels were the second most common different facial expressions: happy, utterances attempting to elicit a label type of label with fully 20% of the labels sad and confused. was again analyzed. Here 3.4% of used at the subordinate level. This d) things in the world that moved. utterances to infants were aimed at is in stark contrast to Study 1 where For the purposes of Study 2, only eliciting a label. Also, the proportion subordinate labels were used the least. conversations prompted by objects of utterances containing functional Only 4 % of the labels used were at the were analyzed. and characteristic information was subordinate level in Study 1. And while measured. Slightly more than eleven superordinate labels were used more Design and Procedure percent (11.2) of utterances to infants often than subordinates in Study 1, the The procedure for Study 2 was identical contained functional information reverse was true for Study 2. to Study 1. and 13.2% of utterances contained characteristic information. Finally, the Study 1 and Study 2 Combined Data Coding utterances containing characteristic and Although both studies had relatively The same coding scheme developed for functional information were analyzed small sample sizes (Study 1, 26 infants Study 1 was also used for Study 2. For to determine what proportions of those and Study 2, 10 infants) and therefore classifications of superordinate, basic, utterances applied to either the whole low statistical power, similar patterns of and subordinate object labels for the object or to part of the object. Again, parental vocalizations were observed. materials used in Study 2, see Table 2. when mentioning functions, the large For this reason, we thought it reasonable majority of utterances (98%) by parents to combine the two groups of subjects Results refer to functions of the whole object. and to analyze the larger data set for Preliminary analysis However, in the case of characteristics, possible age-related changes in parental The proportion of utterances containing only 48% of the utterances containing vocalizations. Further support for labels was analyzed. The results characteristic information applied to combining the data sets came from indicated that 33.4% of utterances to the whole object while 52% applied to comparing parent labeling in the two infants during play contained a label. various parts of the objects. studies for the one set of objects that

138 Infant age and parental vocalization was the same across both studies–the was found (F (1, 35) = 2.88, p = 0.10) proportion of basic levels decreased. basket containing only fruit. When indicating that as the age of the infant Because the proportion must remain comparing the labeling behaviors of increased the proportion of utterances 100% for the total proportion of all the parents regarding the basket of aimed at eliciting a label also increased. labels, if the proportion of one label fruit, we see markedly similar patterns There were no other significant goes up, another proportion of a of behavior. The majority of the labels effects of age on parents’ patterns of different label must go down. When used by the parents were at the basic vocalizations to infants. combining the data from Studies 1 and level with few superordinate labels used 2, the proportion of superordinate labels and subordinate labels being used the General Discussion increased but this time the proportion least. However, there was one slight The purpose of this study was to of subordinate labels decreased difference. The parents in Study 2 used determine if and how parents begin instead of basic level labels as was the somewhat fewer superordinate labels to discuss the superordinate level of case in Study 1. In order to provide than would have been predicted categorization. The results partially more of one type of information, i.e. (X2 (3) = 9.3, p < 0.025). Since supported the initial hypothesis that superordinate labels, the parents must there were no other differences, we parents would use more superordinate lessen the amount of some other piece concluded the parents in each study labels as the infants get older. In Study of information. In Study 1, it was the were exhibiting fairly similar labeling 1, there was a trend in the proportion proportion of basic level labels that behaviors, and this allowed us to of superordinate labels used, indicating decreased. In Study 2, there were combine data from the two studies there were more superordinate labels more labels as the infants got older together for this overall analysis. used with an increase in age while at but the level of labels did not change. the same time the proportion of basic Finally, the combined data show that Participants level labels used decreased. When the proportion of subordinate labels The data of all thirty-six infant-parent combining the two studies, a similar decreased. In future studies, we will dyads from studies 1 and 2 were trend of superordinate labeling was continue to examine whether the piece analyzed. The infants were between observed, indicating that, overall, of information which is given up is the ages of 3 months, 25 days and 11 parents increased the proportion of consistent and/or important. It may months, 28 days (M = 7.5 months, SD = superordinate labels used as a function be the case that it is more important 2.1 months). Fifteen infants were female. of the infants’ age. This could indicate for the parents to provide increasing parents are adjusting the input they amounts of abstract information, such Results provide to their infants based on the age as superordinate level labels in order to Analysis of the infant. further facilitate their infants’ cognition, Age effects on parental utterances In addition, the analysis of both data rather than which piece of information within the combined sample were sets showed a marginally significant parents choose to give up. examined by estimating a series effect in that the proportion of This study is unique in that it of regression analyses. There was utterances attempting to elicit a label studied how parents categorize objects a significant effect of age on the increased with the age of the infant. for infants younger than one year of proportion of parental utterances So not only are parents providing age. It is also one of the only studies containing labels at the subordinate useful categorical information to their that attempted to study parental level (F (1, 35) = 4.6, p = .04). These infants, they are trying to facilitate influences on categorization in a more findings indicated that as the age of the infants’ own ability to categorize naturalistic setting. However, there the infant increased, the proportion objects. Obviously, the infants in our were also limitations to this study. Both of labels at the subordinate level studies were unable to label the object studies contained a small number of decreased. A trend in the proportion of themselves but as the infants got older participants (26 and 10, respectively). parents’ vocalizations of superordinate and closer to the age where they would In addition, the diversity of the subjects level labels was found (F (1, 35) = begin to speak, the parents more often may not be representative of the 2.47, p = 0.13) signifying that as the attempted to elicit a label from them. population of infants between 3 and age of the infant increased, so did the In both studies, the overwhelming 12 months of age. Future studies will proportion of superordinate labels. In majority of labels were at the basic include larger sample sizes with a more addition, a marginally significant effect level. In Study 1, while the proportion representative sample of the community. of age on parents’ attempts to elicit a label of superordinate labels increased, the

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 139 There are obvious and deliberate changes in parental speech to infants about object categories. Future studies will discern exactly what role parents play in the categorization abilities of infants and young children. In addition to perceptual features of the object observed directly by the infant, parental input could also have an effect on the infants’ ability to categorize the object. If this is indeed the case, the exact role of parents in the formation of object categories for infants warrants further study. To that end, in the future, we will continue to study the parents’ exact role in infant categorization. In addition, we plan to study parental categorization behavior when speaking with older children to determine if and how the labeling and categorization patterns of parents to children may change over a larger age range.

140 Infant age and parental vocalization Table 1. Potential category labels for object prompts in Study 1 Basket Materials Superordinate Label Basic Label Subordinate Label 1 Baby Clothes Clothes/clothing Onsie Baby Clothes Romper Outfi t Pajamas Jammies Shirt and Pants Top and Bottom Hat Baseball hat Cap Baseball cap Booties Boots Footies Mittens Sock(s) Slipper(s) Feets

2 Stuffed Toy Dogs Animal(s) Dog Proper name (e.g. Fido) Mammal(s) Puppy Breed (e.g. chocolate lab) Creature(s) Wolf Puppy dog Critter(s) Coyote Toy(s) Litter Living Thing(s)

3 Toy Fruit Fruit Apple Type (e.g. Macintosh) Food Pear Toy(s) Orange Ball Banana Nanna Inside of Banana Banana split

4 Yellow, Plastic Blocks Block(s) Square Name (e.g. Mr. Square) Toy(s) Cube Shape(s) Circle Piece(s) Cross Object(s) “X” Oval Egg-shape Triangle Plus [sign] Wheel Sun Star

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 141 Table 2. Potential category labels for object prompts in Study 2 Basket Materials Superordinate Label Basic Label Subordinate Label 1 Toy Vehicles Vehicle(s) Truck Dump truck Machine(s) Train Toy(s) Car Bulldozer

1 Toy Animals Animal(s) Hippopotamus Creature(s) Hippo Critter(s) Wolf Living Thing(s) Dog Toy(s) Coyote Bear Panda bear Alligator Crocodile

2 Toy People Animal(s) Woman Proper name Mammal(s) Girl Human(s) Mom Living Thing(s) Man People Boy Toy(s) Dad Guy

2 Toy Animals Animal(s) Elephant Proper Name (e.g. Mr. Pig) Mammal(s) Horse Living Thing(s) Pig Creature(s) Buffalo Critter(s) Bison Toy(s)

3 Toy Fruit Fruit Apple Type (e.g. Macintosh) Food Pear Toy(s) Orange Ball Banana Nanna Inside of Banana Banana split

4 Toy Boats Things that fl oat Boat(s) Tug Boat Things that go in the water Vehicle(s) Machine(s) Toy(s)

4 Toy Birds Animal(s) Bird(s) Rubber Duck Creature(s) Swan Critter(s) Duck Living Thing(s) Penguin Things that fl oat Things that go in the water Toy(s)

142 Infant age and parental vocalization References

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Behl-Chadha, G. (1996). Basic-level and superordinate-like categorical representations in early infancy. Cognition, 60, 105-141.

Blewitt, P. (1983). Dog versus collie: Vocabulary in speech to young children. Developmental Psychology, 19(4), 602-609.

Callanan, M. A. (1985). How parents label objects for young children: The role of input in the acquisition of category hierarchies. Child Development, 56, 508-523.

Callanan, M. A. (1990). Parents’ descriptions of objects: Potential data for children’s inferences about category principles. Cognitive Development, 5, 101-122.

Callanan, M. A. & Sabbagh, M. A. (2004). Multiple labels for objects in conversations with young children: Parents’ language and children’s developing expectations about word meanings. Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 746-763.

Jaswal, V.K. (2004). Don’t believe everything you hear: preschoolers’ sensitivity to speaker intent in category induction. Child Development, 75(6), 1871-1885.

Mareschal, D., Powell, D., & Volein, A. (2003). Basic-level category discrimination by 7- and 9-month-olds in an object examination task. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 86, 87-107.

Mareschal, D. & Quinn, P. C. (2001). Categorization in infancy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5(10), 443-450.

Poulin-Dubois, D., Graham, S., & Sippola, L. (1995). Early lexical development: the contribution of parental labeling and infants’ categorization abilities. Journal of Child Language, 22, 325-343.

Pauen, Sabina. (2002). Evidence for knowledge-based category discrimination in infancy. Child Development, 73(4), 1016-1033.

Quinn, P. C. (2002). Categorization. In A. Slater & M. Lewis (Eds.), Introduction to Infant Development (115-130). New York: Oxford University Press Inc.

Quinn, P. C. (2004). Development of subordinate-level categorization in 3- to 7-month-old infants. Child Development, 75(3), 886-899.

Quinn, P. C. & Eimas, P. D. (1996). Perceptual cues that permit categorical differentiation of animal species by infants. Journal Of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 189-211.

Rosch, E., Mervis, C.B., Gray, W.D., Johnson, D.M., & Boyes-Braem, P. (1976). Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology, 8, 382-439.

Sugimura, T. (1992). Effects of teaching strategies and existing knowledge on acquisition of basic and superordinate concepts. Psychologia, 35, 155-163.

Vidic, J. M. & Haaf, R. A. (2004). Four-month-old infants’ categorization of animals: does any body part hold privileged status? Psychological Record, 54(2), 187-197.

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GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 143 144 Fast Times at Ridgemont High and Porky’s: Gender perspective in the teen comedy

Abstract Teenage boys fantasizing about This study examines gender representation teenage girls—a normal and common in teen comedy with an emphasis on occurrence in everyday life, no doubt two films from the genre. Fast Times at about it, and a common subject in Ridgemont High (1982) was directed movies as well. Consider the following by a woman, Amy Heckerling. Porky’s scenarios from two teen comedies: (1981) was directed by a man, Bob Clark. In Fast Times at Ridgemont High This research reveals the different ways (1982), one boy, Brad, who has just male and female directors portray teenage returned home from his fast food job, girls and encourages a re-evaluation of the peeks out the bathroom window. His values conveyed to young viewers when younger sister’s friend, Linda, dives into the perspective represented in Hollywood the backyard pool. entertainment films is predominantly male. In Porky’s (1981), another boy, Tommy, who has just crawled under the school foundation with his buddies, peeps through a hole in the wall of the locker room. The girls’ gym team starts to shower. As Brad closes the window, his point Kerri VanderHoff of view (the object of his gaze) is framed McNair Scholar in the camera for the movie viewer. This framing signals that the narrative perspective has shifted into a subjective fantasy state. The film begins to move in slow motion and the soundtrack of The Cars “Moving in Stereo” begins thumping. Linda emerges from the pool, shimmering and beautiful, and says “Hi Brad, you know how cute I always thought you were.” With that, she seductively steps out of the pool and walks toward Brad, who is suddenly looking very successful in a business suit. She unclasps her bikini top and exposes her breasts to Brad, then reaches up to kiss him. Abruptly, the film cuts away from Brad’s fantasy point of view and replays the scene objectively. The music stops. Linda, bikini intact, emerges from the pool in search of a cotton swab to clean the water out of her ears. The view of the camera is now following Linda’s perspective as she goes into the house and down the hall to the bathroom. She opens the door without knocking and is Toni Perrine, Ph.D. completely taken aback by the sight of Faculty Mentor Brad masturbating. She slams the door closed and the sequence cuts to a shot of Linda’s horrified reaction. To say the least, a definite end to Brad’s fantasy!

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 145 Tommy, meanwhile, is enjoying the their privacy. The scenario is seamlessly demonstrate specifically what is not sight of the nude girls. The viewer cut into the movie as a whole and being represented when one gender watches the showering from the point portrayed as a normal course of action. lacks inclusion in the industry. Because of view of the boys. Tommy’s friend The narrative styles described above of the nature of the impressionable PeeWee is having trouble seeing past are not limited solely to teen comedies young audience, along with the window an obese girl who is standing in front of course. However, the examples do of opportunity for female directors in of the peephole and, in his frustration, raise important questions in terms of the low budget teen comedy genre, it is he inadvertently shouts out for her to the influence of the director, specifically a reasonable place to start the process. move. The boys’ presence is now known. with regard to the director’s gender and There are many factors involved in Two of the girls leave the shower room what is represented in films viewed movie production. It is a large-scale quickly, but the remaining girls laugh by teenagers. In the scenarios above, a collaborative effort and the many and move closer to the peephole to flirt woman (Amy Heckerling) directed the influences, from producer to writer to with the boys. The camera framing cuts first sequence about Brad. A man (Bob audience demand, must be examined. A back and forth from close-ups on the Clark) directed the second scenario logical first step is to analyze individual boys in the crawlspace to the view of the about Tommy. films to understand the formal elements girls. The teens enjoy themselves until In terms of prestige in the Hollywood and identify key areas for comparison. the gym coach breaks up the fun. The film industry, the teen comedy generally The purpose of this study is to film cuts to the next scene and the boys’ rests near the bottom of the list. The examine and identify the portrayal story continues. genre rarely attracts the A-list of of female characters and narrative At first glance, the fantasy sequences directors in the film business and teen perspective in two selected films. The seem similar enough, but a closer look comedies are usually produced on a difference in structure between the two reveals obvious differences. low to medium budget. Despite the films is a significant point of departure In the first scenario with Brad, the reputation of the films, the audience in context of the statistics concerning fantasy sequence is clearly indicated for them is a substantial block of the small number of women directors as such. Linda’s exhibitionist actions consumers. Whether or not critics in Hollywood. Evidence of a difference are placed in the context of Brad’s and parents approve of these films, in directing styles between men and imagination. The slow-motion film the young generation comes out to women will demonstrate that the female speed, the filters, the music, and the see them—and what is represented in perspective is compromised by lack of framing depict the fantasy scene and them. That the established directors films directed by women. contain it to Brad’s perspective. When in Hollywood are reluctant to work in Amy Heckerling’s Fast Times at the film shifts to Linda’s perspective, teen comedy has helped make possible Ridgemont High (Fast Times) and Bob the sequence takes on a much different the hiring of a small number of female Clark’s Porky’s are similar in terms of interpretation of the same set of events. directors over the years—still quite a the storyline and the year in which they There is a balanced perspective between rarity in mainstream cinema (Speed, were released. Fast Times and Porky’s male and female, fantasy and “reality.” par. 4). Does the director’s gender are teen comedies set in a high school In the second scenario with Tommy, make a difference in terms of character location and have a cast consisting of the sequence is not clearly represented representation to this young audience? students and teachers. as fantasy. The sequence is from the This essay argues that the gender of Lesley Speed has aptly labeled the male perspective from start to finish and the director does make a discernible subgenre of these two movies “low- the narrative is portrayed as realistic difference. Considering the ongoing comedy” (Speed, par. 10). This type of throughout. There are no indications criticism about the exclusion of women film tends to make repeated references that the scene is anything but a natural in the film business, it is important to functions of the lower body, with series of events. The male fantasy to focus attention on the differences plenty of toilet humor and sex jokes. version of the shower room scene, with that exist in form and content between Low-comedy is also the great equalizer; no female point of view, is unbalanced films which are directed by men and no matter what your class or social yet represented in this film as the male those directed by women. Structurally situation, lower body operations are and female perspective. The females in defined differences—that is, differences universal (Hollywood translation: wide the shower act how the boys would like based on the creative choices regarding audience appeal). Speed notes that this them to act, not necessarily how girls formal elements such as framing, camera subgenre has “a tendency to construct might typically respond to violations of angles, and mise-en-scene—would comic scenarios around themes such

146 Fast Times at Ridgemont High and Porky’s: Gender perspective in the teen comedy as masturbation, oral sex, and sexual assumptions so insistently embodied The first convention is the idea of fantasy” (Speed, par. 12). While both in and reinforced by the classical same-sex friendships, depicting two films employ this type of humor, Hollywood cinema” compiled a partial or more characters that generally portrayal of gender perspective is where list to “make conscious…concepts with develop throughout the course of the the differences are evident. which we are all perfectly familiar” movie and support each other. In In film criticism, text based analysis (Wood, par. 4). The list includes Porky’s, the female characters interact includes visual and auditory elements. capitalism, the work ethic, and minimally. The young gym teacher, The text is made up of the formal heterosexual romance and marriage. Miss Honeywell, and the older gym elements that comprise a shot or The patriarchal society, where men are teacher, Beulah Ballbricker have an sequence such as camera angles, active and women passive, is the status adversarial relationship. Cherry Forever, lighting, mise-en-scene, framing, and quo (Mulvey 39-41). Males are expected the exotic dancer visited by the boys, music (see appendix). Every one of to be assertive and females should be does not have a scene with another these formal elements is seriously submissive. In most Hollywood movie female. Wendy, the classmate who considered for every single shot and narratives, the boys get to play and the happily bears the brunt of practical together create the structure of the girls get to stand on the sidelines. jokes and is known for her willingness movie. Pre-production on a film is a While male and female directors work to have sex with anyone, is shown in very long process, where the script is within the same dominant ideology in groups of females from time to time, broken down into sequences and the mainstream cinema (otherwise the film but characters and friendships are not elements are deliberately planned to risks rejection by the majority and is apt developed. In the sequence where guide the audience in a certain direction, to be labeled feminist or experimental Wendy encourages a naïve young to come to a certain conclusion, to cinema), the way they express freshman girl to approach a group of follow the story the filmmaker is intent themselves within that framework is male friends, we see the treatment of the on telling. This is where the decisions noticeably different. same sex friendships in terms of how of the director can make a significant Robin Wood elaborates on the they differ in their formal elements. difference. How a director chooses to nature of low-comedy. The movie The sequence begins with a long shot use the formal elements, moderated by must incorporate “certain bottom- of the students in the schoolyard. The other influences (i.e. collaborations), will line generic conditions that must be camera follows the freshman Mindy, greatly influence the storyline and how satisfied for such a film to get made a bit character who appears only in the characters are represented. at all” (Wood qtd. in Speed, par. 12). this scene. The framing is distant and The pre-production set-up and Rachel Abramowitz, an author who wide as she is pushed along by Wendy subsequent editing are so seamless, interviewed several successful women and walks over to the group of boys however, that it’s designed not to be in the Hollywood film industry, reveals (the main characters who have been noticed as people sit in the theatre that Martha Coolidge, director of introduced previously). While Mindy enjoying a movie. The shots are cut the teen comedy Valley Girl (1983) addresses Meat, the athlete of the together to create a narrative flow that “responded to the producer’s demand bunch, the long shot cuts to a medium seems perfectly natural, and included that ‘we must have naked breasts in shot of the four boys on one side of the in the story is the dominant ideology this movie four times’ by devising fence and Mindy on the other. During that comes across as perfectly natural, scenarios in which the spectator is dialogue, the view of the camera is on unquestionable that the values and beliefs encouraged to identify with female Meat and Mindy’s conversation (Wendy (including the gender roles) are just characters” (Abramowitz qtd. in sent the girl over to find out how Meat the natural order of things. In fact, the Speed, par. 15). Female directors have acquired his nickname) until the athlete narrative is painstakingly constructed. found ways to “incorporate female glances over his shoulder. The viewer Annette Kuhn writes that text based perspectives into generic frameworks then sees Meat’s point of view as he analysis is “a form of reading which that were not traditionally thought to looks at Wendy standing with two starts out with the aim of uncovering be feminine” (Speed, par. 15). other unidentified girls in a medium processes and structures at work in Both Porky’s and Fast Times long shot with no dialogue. In a reverse a text that may not be immediately incorporate conventions of the teen angle medium shot of the four boys discernible” (82). Robin Wood, in comedy genre, yet closer examination and Mindy, we listen to Meat’s buddies his attempt to provide a definition of of form and content demonstrate the talk him out of taking advantage of American ideology and “the values and differences between the two. the naïve young freshman so that he

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 147 doesn’t risk losing a sport scholarship. There are subtle differences in the camera is at the student level, a low They are all in the frame and the focus portrayal of young females in this angle shot looking up at the authority is on the boys. Wendy, in the medium comparison. These less obvious choices of Mr. Hand, the viewer is encouraged long shot, again with no dialogue, is are important in training the critical to feel as if they are one of the young clearly disappointed that her sexual eye to identify the perspective and students in the classroom. As Mr. Hand prank on the naïve girl didn’t work and characters that are actively driving approaches Stacy, he is seen from her waves Mindy back away from the boys. the narrative. In Porky’s, the group of point of view. The sequence cuts to Mr. The sequence ends with the four male male friends is hanging outside the Hand looking down at Stacy, who is friends in a medium shot laughing and local diner. There are some girls sitting the central focus in medium close-up interacting. The friendships between around the car too, giggling at the boys framing. Again, the female characters are Wendy and other females are never but never speaking. The local cops drive portrayed as integral to the narrative and brought into the narrative, and her up and PeeWee gets out of the cruiser. actively involved in the storyline. prank on the young freshman shows her He was picked up after the cops found Of course, a low-comedy in the teen lack of camaraderie with Mindy. him running down the road without genre usually includes the first sexual In Fast Times, the friendship between clothes, the result of a practical joke by experiences. In Porky’s, viewers generally Stacy, the female lead, and Linda is his friends who tricked PeeWee into follow PeeWee throughout the movie developed over the course of the movie. thinking he was going to have sex with on his desperate quest to have sex. Each Viewers are introduced to them as they a prostitute. Instead, he ran into the time, he is foiled by some circumstance work in the mall, listen to them talk to woman’s angry “husband”, who was or another until the very end. Tommy, each other as they lounge poolside, and hired by his friends to scare him. As one of the lead characters, makes a see them eating lunch together at school. the sequence opens, our attention is on bet with Wendy that if the boys can In one particular sequence, Linda comes the boys cracking jokes and interacting. outsmart Porky, she will have sex with to the defense of Stacy after Damone The cruiser pulls up, and Meat walks PeeWee. In the culminating scene, backs out of the deal to pay half for an into the foreground of the frame, Wendy fulfills her part of the bargain in abortion. The camera stays on medium highlighting his importance in the good spirits and drags him onto a school close-ups of the two girls as they talk narrative. The camera turns and we see bus. All of PeeWee’s friends are outside on the phone, alternating between the the cruiser through Meat’s point of view. the bus, where the camera is placed two and giving them full screen time as When PeeWee gets out of the car, the as well. The whole group of boys (as Linda vows to get revenge for Damone’s framing is medium close-up as attention well as the viewer) cheers him on. The shirking of responsibility. In the following is paid to him speaking. Throughout focus is not on an individual or couple, series of shots, we see that Linda indeed the sequence, the boys’ dialogue is the but on the group as they celebrate a followed through for her friend and took focus of the camera. Their actions and teen ritual. Wendy’s character is never matters into her own hands. She publicly storyline is important to the film. As developed and we don’t get a clear idea humiliates Damone. As he leaves for the officers leave, one cop turns around why she would agree to participate in school in the morning, he finds “Prick” and says “See ya later, boys” even the practical jokes and sex favors. She spray painted on his car. Damone covers though clearly there are both girls and is one-dimensional, without a point it with taped cardboard, but the word boys hanging out at the car. The girls of view, and functions in the narrative is also marked across his locker when essentially are absent from the narrative solely to move the boys’ storyline along. he arrives at school. Female friendship in any real sense and are simply part of All the close-ups are predominantly on in this film is important to the narrative the mise-en-scene. the boys outside or on PeeWee shouting and is developed as loyal, supportive, In contrast, the classroom sequence out the bus window. and constant. Framing and editing in in Fast Times includes interaction with The sex scenes in Fast Times are the sequences directs our attention to both male and female students. Mr. different. Stacy is determined to the storyline involving the actions of the Hand walks around the room lecturing experiment with sex and relationships female characters. the class, and as he does, he directs his and her first encounter is in a baseball Another convention of the teen attention to boys and girls. When the dugout. The mise-en-scene is sparse comedy genre is the inclusion of some class is framed in a long shot, Stacy is and projects a feeling of alienation. type of authority figure. In Porky’s, it’s in the center of the frame. Our attention The location has harsh lighting from the cops; in Fast Times, it’s the history is directed to her as an important part a bare bulb and there is graffiti on the teacher, Mr. Hand. of the narrative in the scene. When the walls. The sequence does not make

148 Fast Times at Ridgemont High and Porky’s: Gender perspective in the teen comedy the act appear glamorous. It does not laughing at her issue as well. She leaves In Fast Times, the big issue is teenage give us the male’s perspective. The the office defeated, as the camera closes pregnancy as experienced by the female camera framing varies from an over-the- in on the men’s hysterical laughter lead. When Stacy approaches Damone at shoulder close-up on Stacy to watch and ends with a close-up of a smiling the high school track to inform him that her facial reaction, to her point of picture on the wall, a presidential she is pregnant, she pulls him aside and view as she looks at the grimy dugout portrait of Eisenhower. Intentionally speaks one-on-one. The camera holds ceiling during the event. The storyline placed into this sequence, the president the simple two shot on the characters. follows the female character from start becomes one of the men laughing Their dialogue is in standard over- to finish in the sequence; her actions Beulah out of the office as she attempts the-shoulder framing. The characters and reactions drive the narrative. We see to present her case to the proper are filmed similarly, representing an the very average and un-romanticized authorities. Porky’s is set in the historical equal, one-on-one feel. When Damone event from a female perspective that context of 1950s style patriarchy, the attempts to use old clichés to deny doesn’t wander into fantasy. The formal cultural assumption is that “father responsibility, such as accusing Stacy of elements of the scene don’t register it knows best” and “boys will be boys.” promiscuity, she stands her ground and as good or bad, celebratory or painful, The male authority figure is expected rationally negotiates a compromise to and there are no cheering crowds. It is to assess the validity of a situation and schedule and pay for half of an abortion. fairly early on in the film, as it becomes settle issues with an unquestioned final The perspective in this sequence part of Stacy’s adolescent experience on decision. Against these five laughing incorporates the emotions and actions a journey toward a better understanding men, from the president on down, of the young female character. While the of herself. Beulah didn’t stand a chance. There film doesn’t dwell long on the serious Social issues are another aspect would be no recourse for the peeping situation in the girl’s life and returns to of teen comedy. Porky’s incorporates tom issue. the comedic aspect shortly after, it also the peeping tom situation described In contrast, when a serious issue doesn’t dismiss or undermine the issue earlier where Tommy and his buddies arises in Porky’s that relates to the male while the sequence is taking place. are caught peeping in the girls’ gym perspective, comedy is set aside until it Certainly while discussing teen shower by Beulah Ballbricker. The is resolved. The character Brian, a Jewish comedy conventions, the “Final character of Beulah has been, up to this boy, is harassed and called a “kike” by Festival,” a term coined by Northrop point, portrayed as a sexually repressed another character, Tim. When Tim hurls Frye and described by Jon Lewis in woman who lacks a sense of humor. a basketball at Brian because he is a Jew, his book on teen culture, The Road to The girls in the shower, Wendy and a the coach reprimands Tim. No hysterical Romance & Ruin, cannot be overlooked. group of nameless characters, seem to banter surrounds this particular issue. Be it graduation or the county fair or enjoy having the boys peep in on their Finally, Brian decides he must defend the important game, a big event near privacy. When Beulah takes the issue himself and fights Tim in the schoolyard. the end of the film is standard for the to the principal’s office to attempt to No one laughs at the situation and genre “as a new order is installed” prosecute the offender, she is ridiculed Brian is not ridiculed for lacking a sense (Lewis 139). In Porky’s, the event is the out of the office. The formal elements of humor about the issue. Rather, he celebration in the middle of the night of this scene are unconventional. In a is respected for his fighting skills and at the county line. The whole town four-minute shot that remains static in standing up for himself. Supporters do comes out to support Tommy, PeeWee, framing, a rare choice in filmmaking, not flank Tim. President Eisenhower Meat, and the rest of the boys as they Beulah is on one side of the desk is not there to approve of a bullying seek revenge on Porky. The marching while the principal is on the other. situation. The creative choices of close- band is there, complete with twirling Three other men, the boys’ coaches, up framing that alternate on Brian and majorettes, and so are the local cops and flank him. As she pleads her rather Tim, in addition to back-story developed high school coaches. Earlier in the film, unusual case for positively identifying on both characters, gives them equal Porky tricked the underage boys out of the culprit, the coaches crack jokes importance in this sequence. Brian’s their money when they visited his strip and laugh at her attempts to stop the issue is legitimized and the other male club to hire prostitutes. The boys devise peeping tom. After the very long four characters (and viewer) sympathize with a plan to destroy the building and lure minutes in which the viewers watch his problem. The sequence ends on a Porky to their hometown county line Beulah outnumbered and humiliated, serious note with no distracting jokes or where the men and women, boys and the principal can’t hold back and starts camera play. girls wait to watch and celebrate the

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 149 boys’ victorious return and the defeat of female perspective is included as Stacy more often than the other. If men direct Porky. The sequence begins with a series talks to Linda in the bathroom. Linda the overwhelming majority of films, of long shots to convey the scope of the is upset because her college boyfriend and those directors choose to make celebration. When close-ups occur, they dumped her, and Stacy consoles her. movies with a predominantly male are of the lead male characters as they The mise-en-scene is the refuge of the perspective, a huge imbalance is created. celebrate. In this classic male fantasy ladies’ room. The close-up framing of Based on this study, further research is text, it is not necessary to explain why the two girls puts them in the action warranted to support the argument and the town, especially the females, would of the narrative, and the viewers watch bring awareness to the importance of want to come out in the middle of the as Stacy realizes that perhaps she representation in film. night to celebrate a group of high school needs to stop being in such a hurry to Porky’s, from start to finish, maintains boys’ right to hire prostitutes without grow up. It becomes apparent that the the perspective of the male fantasy film. repercussion. The townsfolk cheer seemingly experienced Linda perhaps It incorporates outlandish humor and them on as the boys destroy public doesn’t have all the answers. The dance situations in a narrative completely and private property on a grand scale. sequence, without a real climax, shows driven by the male characters. The To introduce reality into the narrative the students as they continue to navigate young female characters are marginally would undermine the intentions of the through adolescence and move on with represented. Fast Times, on the other film. The scene is satisfying as it allows their lives a little bit wiser. hand, devotes much of the storyline to the viewer, who has been encouraged Clearly there are differences in the the young female lead, Stacy, and her to become sympathetic and fond of the representation of young females between point of view. It includes comedy based group of boys over the course of the these two films. As demonstrated by on situations where male and female film, to vicariously live out a fantastic the examples in this essay, the structure characters interact and develops a revenge plan. The good guys win and of formal elements in a film is more narrative where the female characters are the bad guys get theirs in the end. than a sum of the parts. These aren’t represented as integral to the story. The “Final Festival” in Fast Times is just camera angles and close-ups we’re Awareness of these differences, and the end of school year dance. All the talking about, but the very building recognizing the discrepancy of gender requisite silliness ensues as the surfer blocks of narrative manipulation. The representation on a larger scale, is an dude character gets up and sings with point of this comparison is not to important step in the evolution of a the band, the nutty science professor make a value judgment over which more inclusive mainstream film industry. introduces his smashingly beautiful wife, perspective is better or worse than and we watch all the characters dance the other, but rather to argue that one like goofy teenagers. The noticeable perspective is systematically produced

150 Fast Times at Ridgemont High and Porky’s: Gender perspective in the teen comedy Appendix

The following is a glossary of film terms, compiled from the course information websites at http://spot.pcc.edu/~mdembrow/glossary.htm, http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chlit130/terms.html, and http://puffin.creighton.edu/fapa/aikin/Web-files/...glossary.htm:

Camera angle: The position of the frame in relation to the subject it shows: above it, looking down (high angle), straight on, or looking up (a low angle).

Conventions: Forms and symbols in language, art, and culture that have an agreed-upon meaning.

Cut: In the finished film, an instantaneous change from one framing to another.

Framing: The use of the edges of the film frame to select and to compose what will be visible onscreen.

Genres: Various types of films which audiences and filmmakers recognize by their familiar narrative conventions.

Ideology: A relatively coherent system of values, beliefs, or ideas shared by some social group and often taken for granted as natural or inherently true.

Mise-en-scene: Literally, “putting in the scene,” “staging the action”; a term that describes everything that the camera photographs, including acting, lighting, décor, locations, make-up, and other element within the shot itself, as opposed to effects created by cutting.

Shot: A take, in part or in its entirety that is used in the final edited version of the film.

Point of view (POV) shot: A shot taken with the camera placed approximately where the character’s eyes would be, showing what the character would see; usually cut in before or after a shot of the character looking.

Shot/reverse shot: Two or more shots edited together that alternate characters, typically in a conversation situation. Over-the- shoulder framings are common in this type of editing.

Long shot or extreme long shot: A framing in which the scale of the object shown is very small; a building, landscape, or crowd of people would fill the screen.

Medium long shot: A framing at a distance which makes an object about four or five feet high appear to fill most of the screen vertically (human figures are generally from the shins up).

Medium shot: A framing in which the scale of the object shown is of moderate size; a human figure seen from the waist up would fill most of the screen.

Two shot: Two people close together.

Medium close-up: A framing in which the scale of the object shown is fairly large; a human figure seen from the chest up would fill most of the screen.

Close-up: A framing in which the scale of the object shown is relatively large; most commonly a person’s head seen from the neck up, or an object of comparable size that fills most of the screen.

Extreme close-up: A framing in which the scale of the object shown is very large; most commonly a small object or part of the body.

GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 151 Works Cited

Abramowitz, Rachel. Is That a Gun in Your Pocket? Women’s Experience of Power in Hollywood. New York: Random House, 2000.

Cars, The. “Moving In Stereo,” on The Cars. Song writ. Ric Ocasek, Greg Hawkes. Elektra Entertainment, 1978.

Doane, Mary Ann, Patricia Mellencamp, and Linda Williams, eds. Re-Vision: Essays in Feminist Film Criticism. Frederick: University Publications of America, 1984.

Gatewood, Frances, and Murray Pomerance, eds. Sugar, Spice, and Everything Nice: Cinemas of Girlhood. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 2002.

Humm, Maggie. Feminism and Film. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1997.

Kaplan, E. Ann. Women & Film: Both Sides of the Camera. London; New York: Routledge, 1991.

Karalyn, Kathleen Rowe. “Too Close for Comfort: American Beauty and the Incest Motif.” Cinema Journal 44.1 (2000): 69-93.

Kuhn, Annette. Women’s Pictures: Feminism and Cinema. New York: Verso, 1994.

Lewis, Jon. The Road to Romance & Ruin: Teen Films and Youth Culture. New York: Routledge, 1992.

Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” Feminism and Film. Ed. E. Ann Kaplan. New York: Oxford UP, 2000. 34-47.

Pomerance, Murray, ed. Ladies and Gentlemen, Boys and Girls: Gender in Film at the End of the Twentieth Century. Albany: State U of New York P, 2001.

Speed, Lesley. “A World Ruled by Hilarity: Gender and Low Comedy in the Films of Amy Heckerling.” Sense of Cinema Sept. 2002. 30 June 2005

Wood, Robin. “Ideology, Genre, Auteur: ‘Shadow of a Doubt,’ Hitchcock’s Film Revisited.” Sarah B. Dobson, ed. 25 Aug 2005

Filmography

American Pie. Dir. Paul Weitz. Perf. Jason Biggs, Mena Suvari, and Eugene Levy. Universal Pictures, 1999.

Fast Times at Ridgemont High. Dir. Amy Heckerling. Perf. Sean Penn, Jennifer Jason Leigh, Phoebe Cates, and Ray Walston. Universal Pictures, 1982

Porky’s. Dir. Bob Clark. Perf. Kim Cattrall. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp., 1981.

Slums of Beverly Hills. Dir. Tamara Jenkins. Perf. Alan Arkin, Marisa Tomei, and Natasha Lyonne. 20th Century Fox, 1998.

Valley Girl. Dir. Martha Coolidge. Perf. Nicolage Cage. MGM, 1983.

Weird Science. Dir. John Hughes. Perf. Anthony Michael Hall and Kelly LeBrock. Universal Pictures, 1985.

152 Fast Times at Ridgemont High and Porky’s: Gender perspective in the teen comedy GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 9, 2005 153 About the TRiO Programs

To fight the war on poverty, our nation made a commitment to provide education for all Americans, regardless of background or economic circumstances. In support of this commitment, Congress established several programs in 1965 to help those from low-income backgrounds and families with no previous college graduates (first generation). The first three programs established were Talent Search, Upward Bound, and Student Support Services. Thus, they are known as the TRiO Programs. Since then, other programs have been added, including Upward Bound Math and Science, Educational Opportunity Center, The Training Authority, and in 1989, The Ronald E. McNair Post-baccalaureate Achievement Program. The goal of all of the programs is to provide educational opportunity for all. The Ronald E. McNair Post- baccalaureate Achievement Program is designed to prepare highly talented undergraduates to pursue doctoral degrees. In addition, the goal is to increase the number of students from low-income backgrounds, first generation college students, and under-represented minorities on college and university faculties.

Copyright This is the official journal of the Ronald E. McNair Post-baccalaureate Achievement Program, A TRiO Program, at Grand Valley State University. It is funded through the United States Department of Education (A TRiO Program) and Grand Valley State University. Copies of this publication may be obtained by contacting Advising Resources and Special Programs, TRiO McNair Scholars Program, Grand Valley State University, 1 Campus Drive, 230 Student Services Building, Allendale, MI 49401-9403; (616) 331-3441; e-mail [email protected]. The manuscripts are the property of Grand Valley State University and the Grand Valley State University McNair Scholars Program. All copyrights are owned by Grand Valley State University. Reproduction of this material is authorized provided that it is not sold, only used for educational purposes, and the source and author of the material is clearly acknowledged.

154 TRiO Programs