PALAEONTOLOGICAL SPECIALIST STUDY: DESKTOP ASSESSMENT

Proposed Ruig tevallei – Dreunberg 132 kV transmission line, Gariep Local Municipality, Eastern Cape

John E. Almond PhD (Cantab.) Natura Viva cc, PO Box 12410 Mill Stree t, Cape Town 8010, RSA [email protected]

October 2011

PALAEONTOLOGICAL HERITAGE IMPACT STATEMENT

Eskom are proposing to construct a new 132 kV transmission line of approximately 90 km length between the existing Ruigtevallei Substation, situated about 40 km east-northeast of Colesberg, and the existing Dreunberg Substation some 20 km northwest of Burgersdorp, Gariep Local Municipality, Eastern Cape. Three alternative routes for the new transmission line, known as O ptions 1 to 3, are under consideration.

All three transmission line route options traverse the outcrop areas of several different rock units of contrasting palaeontological sensitivity:

• Late Permian to earliest Triassic fluvial sediments of the Lower Beaufort Group (= Adelaide Subgroup) that contain important assemblages of terrestrial vertebrates (reptiles, mammal-like reptiles, amphibians etc), plants and trace fossils (e.g. burrows) recording the major End Permian Mass Extinction Event on the supercontinent Gondwana (Palaeontological sensitivity = generally HIGH, locally VERY HIGH);

• Early to Middle Triassic fluvial and lacustrine sediments of the Katberg and Burgersdorp Formations (Upper Beaufort Group = Tarkastad Subgroup) that contain important terrestrial assemblages of vertebrates, plants and traces documenting the gradual recovery of terrestrial life from the End Permian Mass Extinction Event (Palaeontological sensitivity = generally MO DERATE TO HIGH, locally VERY HIGH);

• Early Jurassic dolerite intrusions that are unfossiliferous (Palaeontological sensitivity = ZER0);

• Quaternary to Recent superficial deposit s – river alluvium, colluvium (scree and other slope deposits), calcretes etc formed over the past c. 2.5 million years (Palaeontological sensitivity generally LOW, but may be locally HIGH to VERY HIGH).

Numerous palaeontologically important rock exposures and Karoo vertebrate fossil localities of Late Permian to Middle Triassic age have already been recorded close to the Orange River betwee n C olesberg, Burgersdorp and A liwal North. These include, for example, one of the most informative fossiliferous sections across the P ermo-Triassic mass extinction boundary in the Bethulie region, just north of the Gariep Dam, several key fossil sites in the Katberg Formation between Aliwal North and the Gariep Dam, and the rich Triassic vertebrate faunas of the Winnarsbaken and Burgersdorp a reas (Burgersdorp Formation).

During the construction phase of the transmission line any fossils exposed at the ground surface or at shallow depths below this are vulnerable to disturbance, damage or destruction within the 6m wide strip to be cleared along the entire route. Bedrock excavations for pylon footings (up to 3m deep) and any new access roads may also expose, damage or destroy previously buried fossil material. Significant further impacts on local fossil heritage are not anticipated during the operational phase of the tra nsmission line development. 1 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc Because (1) the Karoo Supergroup geological formations concerned are all ranked as high in terms of overall palaeontological sensitivity, and (2) a sizeable number of important vertebrate fossil localities are already recorded within the broader study region close to the Gariep Dam, the impact significance of the proposed transmission line development on fossil heritage is potentially MEDIUM to HIGH.

There is no substantial difference between the three route options in terms of overall palaeontological sensitivity or impact significance at the desktop level of analysis. Because it follows an existing transmission line route for much of its length, Option 3 will require a shorter length of new access road, and will therefore have a lower impact in this respect.

A realistic palaeontological heritage impact assessment for this project, with recommendations for any mitigation necessary, is only possible once the transmission line corridors have been surveyed in the field by a professional palaeontologist. It is recommended that such a field survey be carried out at the earliest opportunity so that any significant palaeontological heritage issues may be addressed in the project design. It should be noted that the most likely outcome of such a field study is that most sectors of the alternative transmission line corridors prove to be insensitive in practice because of a thick superficial sediment cover, high degree or near-surface weathering, or sparse fossil content. However, short sectors of high palaeontological sensitivity, with a concentration of near-surface fossil material, might also be identified and mapped. These sectors may require mitigation.

The recommended palaeontological field survey should focus on areas of good bedrock exposure along or close to the three transmission line route options. The focus of the study should be o n:

• Identifying those sectors of the three route options (if any) that are recorded as, or inferred to be, of high palaeontological sensitivity;

• Comparing the three route options in terms of overall palaeontological impact significance;

• Making detailed recommendations regarding mitigation of impacts within route sectors of high palaeontological sensitivity (if any) during the pre-construction or construction phases. These mitigation recommendations should be incorporated into the EMP for the transmission line development.

2 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION p4

2. GEO LOGY OF THE STUDY AREA p9

3. P ALAEO NTOLOGICAL HERITA GE p16

4. A SSESSMENT OF IMPACTS ON FOSSIL HERITA GE p25

5. RECOMMENDATIONS p25

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS p26

7. REFERENCES p27

8. Q UALIFICATIO NS & EXPERIENCE OF THE AUTHOR p34

3 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Outline and location of the proposed development

Eskom are proposing to construct a new 132 kV transmission line of approximately 90 km length betwee n the existing Ruigtevallei Substation, situated about 40 km east-northeast of Colesberg, and the existing Dreunberg Substation some 10 km northwest of Burgersdorp. Three alternative routes, kno wn as O ptions 1 to 3, for the new transmission line are under consideration, all of which run to the south of the Gariep (previously Hendrik Verwoe rd) Dam and approximately parallel to the R58 tar road between Colesberg and Burgersdorp vi a Venterstad, bypassing Venterstad to the south. The approximate outline of the broader study area for palaeontological basic assessment purposes is depicted in Figs. 1 and 2 below. The routes for O ptions 1 to 3 are approximately shown in Figs. 5 and 6, superimposed on the relevant geological maps.

The following generic outline for the 132 kV transmission line development has been provided by Arcus Gibb Engineering and Science, East London, who have been appointed by Eskom to undertake a Basic Assessment for this project:

For the proposed overhead power lines, an area with a strip width of 6m will be cleared along the entire route . Holes will be drilled or blasting may be employed fo r the support poles [monopoles]. A blast area of 1.5 x 1.5 x 2.5 m will be required for each supporting pole. Small amounts of concrete is mixed for the site stabilizing towers (± 0.5 cubes per strain tower / 1 every 1.5 km). The internal towers will generally be placed on pre-cast foundation (± 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 m). An 8-ton crane truck is usually used to erect the structures. No access routes are required where the proposed powerline follows an existing road, or is alongside an existing powerline, as access routes are already available.

Based on similar transmission line projects, excavations for the 132 kV transmission pylons may be up to 2-3 m deep, depending on substrate conditions.

4 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc Ruigtevallei Substation

c. 10 km

Fig. 1: Extract from 1: 250 000 topographical map 3024 Colesberg (Court esy of the Chief Directorate of Surveys & Mapping, Mowbray). The outline of the broader st udy area south of the Gariep Dam for the proposed 132 kV transmission line between Ruigtevallei and Dreunberg Substations, Eastern Cape Province, is show n by t he dark blue lines (See also following figure for eastern extension). The t hree transmission line route options are shown in more detail in Figs. 5 and 6. 5 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc Dreunberg Substation

c. 10 km

Fig. 2: Extract from 1: 250 000 topographical map 3026 Aliwal North (Courtesy of the Chief Directorate of Surveys & Mapping, Mowbray). The outline of the broader study area southeast of the Gariep Dam for the proposed 132 kV transmission line between Ruigtevallei and Dreunberg Substations, Eastern Cape Province, is shown by t he dark blue lines (See also preceding figure for western extension). Burgersdorp lies near t he sout hern edge of the map. The three transmission line route options are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. 6 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc 1.2. Approach to the study

The present desktop report, commissioned by Ethembeni C ultural Heritage, Pietermaritzburg on behalf of Arcus Gibb Engineering and Science, East London, forms part of the Basic Assessment for the proposed 132 kV transmission line project and it will also inform the EIA and Environmental M anagement Plan for the project. This development falls under Section 38 (Heritage Resources Management) of the Sout h A frican Heritage Resources Act (Act No. 25 of 1999). The various categories of heritage resources recognised as part of the National Estate in Section 3 of the Heritage Resources Act include, among others:

• geological sites of scientific or cultural importance • palaeontological sites • palaeontological objects and material, meteorites and rare geological specimens

Minimum standards for the palaeontological component of heritage impact assessment reports are currently being developed by SAHRA. The latest version of the SA HRA guidelines is dated May 2007.

This palaeontological specialist report provides an assessment of the observed or inferred palaeontological heritage within the study area, with recommendations for further specialist palaeontological input where this is considered necessary. Information sources used in compiling this desktop report are outlined in Section 1.5 below.

In preparing a palaeontological desktop study the potentially fossiliferous rock units (groups, formations etc) represented within the study a rea are dete rmined from geological maps. The known fossil heritage within each rock unit is inventoried from the published scientific literature, previous palaeontological impact studies in the same region, and the author’s field experience (Consultation with professional colleagues as well as examination of institutional fossil collections may play a role here, or later following field assessment during the compilation of the final report). This data is then used to assess the palaeontological sensitivity of each rock unit to development (Provisional tabulations of palaeontological sensitivity of all formations in the Western, Eastern and Northern C ape have already been compiled by J. A lmond and colleagues; e.g. Almond et al. 2008). The likely impact of the proposed development on local fossil heritage is then determined on the basis of (1) the palaeontological sensitivity of the rock units concerned and (2) the nature and scale of the development itself, most significantly the extent of fresh bedrock excavation envisaged. When rock units of moderate to high palaeontological sensitivity are present within the development footprint, a Phase 1 field assessment study by a professional palaeontologist is usually warranted to identify any palaeontological hotspots and make specific recommendations for any mitigation required before or during the construction phase of the development.

On the basis of the desktop and Phase 1 field assessment studies, the likely impact of the proposed development on local fossil heritage and any need for specialist mitigation are then determined. A dverse palaeontological impacts normally occur during the construction rather than the operational or decommissioning phase. Phase 2 mitigation by a professional palaeontologist – normally involving the recording and sampling of fossil material and associated geological information (e.g. sedimentological data) may be required (a ) in the pre- construction phase where important fossils are already exposed at or near the land surface and / or (b) during the construction phase when fresh fossiliferous bedrock has been exposed by excavations. To carry out mitigation, the palaeontologist involved will need to apply for a palaeontological collection permit from the relevant heritage management authority (e.g. SAHRA for the Eastern C ape). It should be emphasized that, providing appropri ate mitigati on is carried out , the majority of developments involving bedrock excavation can make a positive contribution to our understanding o f local palaeontological heritage.

7 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc 1.3. Terms of reference

The author has been commissioned by Ethembeni Cultural Heritage to provide specialist palaeontological input for the Basic Assessment of the proposed 132 kV transmission line in the form of a desktop report in accordance with the project description provided by Arcus Gibb.

1.4. Assumptions & limitations

The accuracy and reliability of palaeontological specialist studies as components of heritage impact assessments are generally limited by the follo wing constraints:

1. Inadequate database for fossil heritage for much of the RSA , given the large size of the country and the small number of professional palaeontologists carrying out fieldwork here. M ost development study areas have never been surveyed by a palaeontologist.

2. Variable accuracy of geological maps which underpin these desktop studies. For large areas of terrain these maps are largely based on aerial photographs alone, witho ut ground-truthing. The maps generally depict only significant (“mappable”) bedrock units as well as major areas of superficial “drift ” deposits (alluvium, colluvium) but for most regions give little or no idea of the level of bedrock outcrop, depth of superficial cover (soil etc), degree of bedrock weathering o r levels of small-scale tectonic deformation, such as cleavage. All of these factors may have a major influence on the impact significance of a given development on fossil heritage and can only be reliably assessed in the field.

3. Inadequate sheet explanations for geological maps, with little or no attention paid to palaeontological issues in many cases, including poor locality information;

4. The extensive relevant palaeontological “grey literature” - in the form of unpublished university theses, impact studies and other reports (e.g. of commercial mining companies) - that is not readily available fo r desktop studies;

5. Absence of a comprehensive computerized database of fossil collections in major RSA institutions which can be consulted for impact studies. A Karoo fossil vertebrate database is now accessible for impact study work.

In the case of palaeontological desktop studies without supporting Phase 1 field assessments these limitations may variously lead to either:

(a) underestimation of the palaeontological significance of a given study area due to ignorance of significant recorded or unrecorded fossils preserved there, or

(b) overestimati on of the palaeontological sensitivity of a study area, for example when originally rich fossil assemblages inferred from geological maps have in fact been destroyed by tectonism or weathering, or are buried beneat h a thick mantle of unfossiliferous “drift” (soil, alluvium etc).

Since most areas of the RSA have not been studied palaeontologically, a palaeontological desktop study usually entails inferring the presence of buried fossil heritage within the study area from relevant fossil data collected from similar or the same rock units elsewhere, sometimes at localities far away. Where substantial exposures of bedrocks or potentially fossiliferous superficial sediments are present in the study area, the reliability of a palaeontological impact assessment may be significantly enhanced through field assessment by a professional palaeontologist.

8 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc 1.5. Information sources

The information used in this desktop study was based on the following:

1. A short project outline as well as detailed maps provided by A rcus Gibb Engineering and Science, East London;

2. A review of the relevant scientific literature, including published geological maps and accompanying sheet explanations;

3. The author’s previous field experience with the formations concerned and their palaeontological heritage;

4. A review of Eastern C ape fossil heritage produced for SA HRA by Almond et al. (2008).

2. GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

The main geological units represented within t he broa der Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg study a rea betwee n C olesberg and Burgersdorp are briefly described here, paying special attention to those formations that may be of palaeontological heritage significance.

2.1. Outline of geological setting

The Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg study area is situated on the northern margins of the Eastern Cape Province, just south of the O range River and the Gariep Dam, between the towns of Colesberg and Burgersdorp. M ost of this hilly, semi-arid region lies at elevations between 1250 and 1450 m amsl and is extensively dissected by episodically flowing, south bank tributaries of the O range River drainage system, such as the Suurbergspruit, Brakspruit and Oudagspruit, that are associated with substantial alluvial deposits. The greater part of the study area is underlain by recessive-weathering sedimentary rocks of the Beaufo rt Group (Karoo Supergroup) while more resistant-weathering dolerite intrusions build several koppies and ridges, many of which stand out as dark brown areas on satellite images. Unfortunately, Google Earth satellite imagery of the eastern part of the study area is still rather poor.

The geology of the Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg study area is shown on the 1: 250 000 geology sheets 3024 C olesberg and 3026 Aliwal North published by the C ouncil for Geoscience, Pretoria (Le Roux 1993, Bruce et al. 1983) (Figs. 5 and 6). The Aliwal North sheet is currently out of print and is only available as a poor digitized copy. The detailed sheet explanation for the Middelburg area to the south of the present study area by C ole et al. (2004) provides a useful additional resource.

2.1.1. Beaufort Group

The continental (mainly fluvial and lacustrine) sediments of the Beaufort Group range in age from Late P ermian to Early Triassic, generally decreasing in age across the study area as one moves from the west towards the east. Hardly any bedding dips are indicated on the Colesberg and Aliwal North sheets, reflecting the fact that the Beaufort Group here is largely flat-lying and undeformed. A useful overview of this internationally famous rock succession has been given by Johnson et al. (2006). The oldest rocks, in the north- western sector of the study area to the south and southeast of Ruigtevallei substation, comprise Late P ermian fluvial sediments of the Lower Beaufort Group (Adelaide Subgroup; P a in geological map Fig. 5). Due to the absence of unambiguous sandstone marker horizons, the A delaide Subgroup is not subdivided into individual formations on the Colesberg sheet (Le Roux 1993). It is apparent from biostratigraphic (i.e. fossil-based) mapping, howeve r, that only the upper, Late P ermian to Early Triassic, portion of the Adelaide Subgroup is present within the study area, 9 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc corresponding to the Cistecephalus, Dicynodon and lowermost Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zones (Rubidge 2005, V an der Walt in press; see also Fig. 4 and Section 3.1 below). The succession here is therefore broadly equivalent to the Balfour Formation that is recognised at the top of the Adelaide Subgroup succession further south within the M ain Karoo Basin to the east of 24º East (Rubidge 2005).

Geological and palaeoenvironmental analyses of the Lower Beaufort Group sediments in the Great Karoo region have been conducted by a number of workers. Key references within an extensive scientific literature include various papers by Roger Smith (e.g. Smith 1979, 1980, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1993a, 1993b) and Stear (1978, 1980), as well as several informative field guides (e.g. Smith et al . 2002, Cole & Smith 2008). In brief, these thick successions of clastic sediments were laid down by a series of large, meandering rivers within a subsiding basin over a period of some ten or more million years within the Late Permian Period (c. 265-251 Ma). Sinuous sandstone bodies of lenticular cross-section represent ancient channel infills, while thin (<1.5m), laterally-extensive sandstone beds were deposited by crevasse splays during occasional overbank floods. The bulk of the Beaufort sediments are greyish-green to reddish-bro wn or purplish mudrocks (“mudstones” = fine-graine d claystones and slightly coarser siltstones) that were deposited over the floodplains during major floods. Thin-bedded, fine-grained playa lake deposits also accumulated locally where water ponded-up in floodplain depressions and are associated with distinctive fossil assemblages (e.g. fish, amphibians, coprolites or fossil droppings, arthropod, vertebrate and other trace fossils).

Frequent development of fine-grained pedogenic (soil) limestone or calcrete as nodules and more continuous banks indicates that semi-arid, highly seasonal climates prevailed in the Late Permian Karoo. This is also indicated by the frequent occurrence of sand-infilled mudcracks and silicified gypsum “desert roses” (Smith 1980, 1990, 1993a, 1993b). Highly continental climates can be expected from the palaeogeographic setting of the Karoo Basin at the time – embedded deep within the interior of the Supercontinent Pangaea and in the rainshadow of the developing Gondwanide Mountain Belt. Fluctuating water tables and redox processes in the alluvial plain soil and subsoil are indicated by interbedded mudrock horizons of contrasting colours. Reddish-brown to purplish mudrocks probably developed during drier, more oxidising conditions associated with lowered wate r tables, while greenish-grey mudrocks reflect reducing conditions in waterlogged soils during periods of raised water tables. However, diagenetic (post-burial) processes also greatly influence predominant mudrock colour (Smith 1990).

Most of the proposed transmission line routes, from c. 20 km west of V enterstad eastwards, are underlain by Early Triassic continental sediments of the Tarkastad Subgroup (= Upper Beaufort Group; Trt). A lthough this thick unit is not subdivided on the 1: 250 000 geological maps, there are in fact two successive “red bed” formations represented here. A stratigraphically lower, sandstone-dominated Katberg Formation is overlain towards the east by a yo unger, mudrock-dominated Burgersdorp Formation (Fig. 4).

Useful geological descriptions of the Katberg Formation are given by Johnson (1976), Hancox (2000), Johnson et al. (2006), Smith et al. (2002) and for the M iddelburg sheet area in particular by C ole et al. (2004). The more detailed sedimentological accounts by Stavrakis (1980), Hiller and Stavrakis (1980, 1984), Haycock et al. (1994), Groenewald (1996) and Neveling (1998) are also relevant. The Katberg Formation forms the regionally extensive, sandstone-rich lower portion of the Tarkastad Subgroup (Upper Beaufort Group) that can be traced throughout large areas of the Main Karoo Basin. In the Middelburg sheet area it reaches a maximum thickness of some 400m, but close to Noupoort thicknesses of 240-260m are more usual. The predominant sediments are (a) prominent-weat hering, pale buff to greyish, tabular or ribbon-shaped sandstones up to 60m thick that are interbedded with (b) recessive-weathering, reddish or occasionally green-grey mudrocks. Up to four discrete sandstone packages can be identified within the succession. In the Noupoort area the overall sandstone:mudrock ratio is close to 1:1. Katberg channel sandstones are typically rich in feldspar and lithic grains (i.e. lithofeldspathic). They build laterally extensive, multistorey units with an erosional base that is often marked by intraformational conglomerates up to one meter thick consisting of mudrock pebbles, reworked calcrete nodules and occasional rolled fragments of bone and petrified wood. The basal Katberg succession is often marked by a major cliff-forming sandstone unit. Internally the moderately well-sorted sandstones are 10 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc variously massive, horizontally-laminated or cross-bedded and heavy mineral laminae occur frequently. Sphaeroidal carbonate concretions up to 10 cm across are common. The predominantly reddish Katberg mudrocks are typically massive with horizons of pedocrete nodules (calcretes), and mudcracks. Mudrock exposure within the study area is limited by extensive mantling of these recessive-weathering rocks by superficial sediments.

Sandstone deposition in the Katberg Formation was mainly due to intermittently flooding, low- sinuosity braided river systems flowing nort hwards from the rising C ape Fold Belt mountains in the south into the subsiding Main Karoo Basin (Fig. 3). M udrocks were largely laid down by suspension settling within overbank areas following episodic inundation events, while other fine-grained sediments are associated with lakes and temporary playas in lower-lying areas on the arid floodplain, especially in the northern Katberg outcrop area and its lateral correlatives in the Burgersdorp Formation. P alaeoclimates inferred for the Early Triassic P eriod in the Main Karoo Basin were arid with highly seasonal rainfall and extensive periods of drought . This is suggested by the abundant oxidised (“rusty red”) mudrocks, desiccation cracks, and palaeosols associated with well-developed calcretes. A rid settings are also supported by taphonomic and behavioural evidence such as pervasive carbonate encrustation of fossil bones, mummification of postcrania, bone-bed death assemblages associated with water holes and the frequency of burro wing habits among tetrapods, including large dicynodonts like Lystrosaurus (Groe newald 1991, Smith & Botha 2005).

Fig. 3: Reconstruction of the south-east ern part of t he Main Karoo Basin in Early Triassic times showing the deposition of the sandy Katberg Formation near t he mountainous source area in the south. The mudrock-dominated Burgersdorp Formation was deposit ed on t he distal floodplain where numerous playa lakes are also found (From Hiller & Stavrakis 1984).

11 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc The Burgersdorp Formation is the youngest subunit of the P ermo-Triassic Beaufort Group (Karoo Supergroup, Tarkastad Subgroup) a nd is paraconformably overlain by the Molteno and Elliot Formations of the Stormberg Group. It is a mudrock-rich succession of Early to Middle Triassic age with a total thickness of some 900-1000m in its southern outcrop area near Queenstown (Johnson et al. 2006). Kitching (1995) quotes a thickness of 600m in the type area for this formation betwee n Q ueenstown and Lady Frere, well to the southeast of the present study area. Brief geological descriptions of the Burgersdorp Formation are given by Karpeta and Johnson (1979), Dingle et al . (1983), Johnson (1976, 1984), Hiller & Stavrakis (1984), Johnson & Hiller (1990), Kitching (1995) and Hancox (2000; see also extensive references therein).

The Burgersdorp rocks were laid down within t he Main Karoo Basin by northwestwards-flowing meandering rivers during a warm, arid to semi-arid climatic interval (Fig. 3). They comprise isolated, lenticular, feldspathic channel sandstones, abundant crevasse splay sandstones, and typically greyish-red to dusky red overbank mudrocks, forming upwards-fining cycles of a fe w meters to tens of meters in thickness. Intraformational mudflake breccio-conglomerates are common at the base of the sandstone units. The mudrocks are generally massive (unbedded) but occasionally display sand-infilled mudcracks and clastic dykes. Well-laminated reddish mudrocks with pedocrete horizons are interpreted as playa lake deposits. Lacustrine palaeoenvironments predominated in the northern part of the Karoo Basin at this time and these lake deposits have recently received considerable palaeontological attention (e.g. Free State; Welman et al. 1991, Hancox et al. 2010 and refs therein).

2.1.2. Karoo Dolerite Suit e

The Permo-Triassic Beaufort Group sediments across the study area are extensively intruded and thermally metamorphosed (baked) by subhorizontal sills and steeply inclined dykes of the Karoo Dolerite Suite (Jd). These Early Jurassic (c. 183 Ma) basic intrusions were emplaced during crustal doming and stretching that preceded the break-up of Gondwana (Duncan and Marsh 2006). The hot dolerite magma baked adjacent Beaufort Group mudrocks and sandstones to form splintery hornfels and quartzites respectively. Blocky colluvium and corestones released by weathering and erosion of the dolerites blanket many mountain slopes, often o bscuring the underlying fossiliferous Beaufort Group sediments.

2.1.3. Superficial deposits

Various types of superficial deposit s (“drift”) o f Late Caenozoic (largely Q uaternary to Recent) age occur widely throughout the Karoo region, including in the study area. They include pedocretes (e.g. calcretes or soil limestones), colluvial slope deposits (sandstone and dolerite scree, downwasted gravels etc), sheet wash, river channel alluvium and terrace gravels, as well as spring and pan sediments (Johnson & Keyser 1979, Le Roux & Keyser 1988, Cole et al., 2004, Partridge et al. 2006). Only the larger tracts of Q uaternary to Recent alluvium overlying the Beaufort Group bedrock that are associated with the larger drainage courses feeding into the O range River system to the north are shown on the 1: 250 000 geological maps. The levels of potentially fossiliferous bedrock outcrop versus superficial sediment cover within the study area cannot be accurately estimated on the basis of the poor satellite images available; they can only be determined t hrough fieldwork.

12 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc

Fig. 4: Chart showing t he lithostratigraphic (rock-based) and biost ratigraphic (fossil-based) subdivisions of the Beaufort Group with rock units and fossil assemblage zones relevant to the present st udy outlined in red (Modified from Rubidge 1995). Note that t hese include subdivisions of the Adelaide and Tarkast ad Subgroups and range in age from Late Permian t o Middle Triassic.

Fig. 5 (Page 14): Extract from 1: 250 000 geology sheet 3024 Colesberg (Council for Geoscience, Pretoria) showing approximate routes of the three transmission line options (N.B. Option 1 in blue is the preferred option).

Fig. 6 (Page 15): Extract from 1: 250 000 geology sheet 3026 Aliwal North (Council for Geoscience, Pret oria) showing appr oximate routes of the three transmission line options (N.B. Option 1 in blue is t he preferred option).

13 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc

Ruigtevallei Substation

Option 1 (blue)

Option 2 (red)

Option 3 (green) GEOLOGY KEY: Pa (grey-green) – Adelaide Subgroup Trt (apple-green) – Tarkastad Subgroup Jd (pink) – Kar oo Dolerite Suite Pale yellow – Quaternary to Recent alluvium

14 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc

Dreunberg Substation

GEOLOGY KEY:

Trt (apple-green) – Tarkastad Subgroup Jd (red) – Kar oo Dolerite Suite Pale yellow – Quaternary to Recent alluvium

15 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc

3. PALAEONTOLOGICAL HERITAGE

A brief review of the fossil assemblages recorded from the various major geological formations that are represented within the broader Reugtevallei – Dreunberg study area is given here. A recent plot of Beaufort Group fossil sites recorded within the Main Karoo Basin by Nicolas (2007) shows a concentration of localities along the border bet wee n the Eastern Cape and the Free State (Fig. 7 herein). This pattern probably reflects, at least in part, the higher levels of landscape denudation by river incision either side of the ancient Orange River. As a result, extensive sections of potentially fossiliferous bedrock are exposed here.

It is notable for the purposes of the present palaeontological impact study that since the late nineteenth century numerous scientifically important rock sections and Karoo vertebrate fossil localities from a number of Late P ermian to Middle Triassic formations have been recognised either side of the O range River betwee n C olesberg, Burgersdorp and Aliwal North. These include, for example, one o f the most informative fossiliferous sections across the P ermo- Triassic mass extinction boundary in the Bethulie region, just north of the Gariep Dam (upper Adelaide Subgroup; e.g. Ward et al. 2000, Retallack et al. 2003, 2006, Smith & Botha 2005, Botha & Smith 2006, 2007, Gastaldo et al . 2009, and refs therein), several key fossil sites in the Katberg Formation between Aliwal North and the Gariep Dam (Neveling et al . 1999), and the rich Triassic vertebrate faunas of the Winnarsbaken and Burgersdorp areas (Burgersdorp Formation; Smith et al. 2002 and references therein). M any, but not the more recent, of these fossil localities are listed according to their assemblage zone by Kitching (1977). A mong them are numerous sites within the Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone near O viston, V enterstad,

16 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc

Bethulie and Burgersdorp, as well as Cynognat hus Assemblage Zone fossils near Aliwal North, Burgersdorp a nd Rouxville.

Fig. 7: Plot of known Beaufort Group fossil localities within the broader study area (red rectangle) along t he northern margins of t he Eastern Cape between Colesberg, Burgersdorp and Aliwal Nort h (Modified from Nicolas 2007). A concentration of sit es close to t he Orange River in part reflects higher levels of bedrock exposure in t his region due to protracted landscape denudation by st ream erosion. Fossil taxa recorded f rom many of these sites are listed by Kitching (1977).

3.1. Fossils within the A delaide Subgroup

The overall palaeontological sensitivity of the Beaufort Group sediments is high to very high (Almond et al . 2008). These continental sediments have yielded one of the richest fossil records of land-dwelling plants and animals of Permo-Triassic age anywhe re in t he world (MacRae 1999, Rubidge 2005, McCarthy & Rubidge 2005). Bones and teeth of Late Permian tetrapods have been collected in the Great Karoo region since at least the 1820s and this region remains a ma jor focus of palaeontological research in South A frica.

Middle Permian to earliest Triassic vertebrate fossil assemblages of the lower Beaufort Group are dominated by a variety of small to large true reptiles and – more especially – by a wide range of therapsids. This last group of animals are also commonly, but misleadingly, known as “mammal-like reptiles” or protomammals (e.g. Cluver 1978, Rubidge 1995, M acRae 1999). By far the most abundant group among the Late Permian therapsids are the dicynodonts, an extinct group of two-tusked herbivorous therapsids. O ther important therapsid subgroups are the dinocephalians, gorgonopsians, therocephalians and cynodonts. A quatic animals include large, crocodile-like temnospondyl amphibians and various primitive bony fish (palaeoniscoids).

A high proportion of the tetrapod (i .e. four-limbed, te rrestrial vertebrate) fossils from the Beaufort Group are found within t he overbank mudrocks. They are very commonly encased within calcrete or pedogenic limestone that often obscures their anatomy and makes such

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fossils difficult to recognise in the field, even for experienced palaeontologists (Smith 1993a,b). Rarer fossil specimens preserved within the Beaufort Group sandstones are usually disarticulated and fragmentary due to extensive, pre-burial transport. Occasionally vertebrate fossils are found embedded within baked (thermally metamorphosed) mudrocks or hornfels in the vicinity of dolerite intrusions. However, such fossils are extremely difficult to prepare out in the laboratory and so are generally of limited scientific value.

Key studies on the taphonomy (pre-burial history) of Late P ermian vertebrate remains in the Great Karoo have been carried out in the Beaufort West area and have yielded a wealth of fascinating data on Late Permian terrestrial wildlife and palaeoenvironments (e.g. Smith 1980, 1993a). Therapsid fossils are most abundant and best preserved (well-articulated) within muddy and silty overbank sediments deposited on the proximal floodplain (i .e. close to the river channel). Here they are often associated with scoured surfaces and mature palaeosols (ancient soils), these last indicated by abundant calcrete nodules. In the distal floodplain sediments, far from water courses, fossils are rarer and mostly disarticulated. C hannel bank sediments usually contain few fossils, mostly disarticulated, but occasionally rich concentrations of calcrete-encrusted remains, some well-articulated, are found. These dense bone assemblages may have accumulated in swale fills or chute channels which served as persistent water holes after floo ds (Smith 1993a). Such detailed interdisciplinary field studies re-emphasise how essential it is that fossil collecting be undertaken by experienced professionals with a good grasp of relevant sedimentology as well as palaeontology, lest invaluable scientific data be lost in the process.

Plant fossils in the lower Beaufo rt Group are poo rly represented and ofte n very fragmenta ry (cf. Anderson & A nderson 1985, dealing primarily with material from the eastern Karoo Basin, Gastaldo et al. 2005, dealing with Permo-Triassic boundary floras in the Main Karoo Basin). They belong to the Glossopt eris Flora that is typical of Permian Gondwana and include reedy sphenophytes or “horsetails” (Arthrophyta, now recognised as a fern subgroup) and distinctive tongue-shaped leaves of the primitive, tree-sized gymnosperm Glossopteris. Well-preserved petrified wood (“Dadoxylon”) occurs widely and may prove of biostratigraphic and palaeoecological value in future (e.g. Bamford 1999, 2004) Elongate plant root casts or rhizoliths are frequently found associated with calcrete nodule horizons. Transported plant debris preserved within channel sandstones is often associated with secondary iron (“koffieklip”) and uranium mineralization (C ole & Smith 2008 and refs. therein).

Mid to Late P ermian invertebrate fossils from the western Karoo Basin comprise almost exclusively relatively featureless, thin-shelled freshwater bivalves, while fairly low diversity insect faunas are recorded from plant-rich horizons further east. The most prominent vertebrate trace fossils in the Lower Beaufort Group a re well-preserved tetrapod trackways attributed to various groups of reptiles and therapsids (Smith 1993a), as well as substantial, inclined to helical scratch burrows that were probably constructed by smaller therapsids as an adaptation to the highly seasonal, and occasionally extreme, continental climates at high palaeolatitudes of 60-70º S. (Smith 1987). Invertebrate trace fossils from the Karoo National Park at Beaufort West include the locally abundant scratch burrows of the ichnogenus Scoyenia that are generally attributed to infaunal arthropods such as insects or even earthworms. Diverse freshwater ichnofaunas (trace fossil assemblages) with trails, burrows and trackways generated by fish, snails, arthropods, worms and other animals have been recorded by Smith (1993a, Smith & A lmond 1998).

A chronological series of mappable fossil biozones or assemblage zones (AZ), defined mainly on their characteristic tetrapod faunas, has been established for the Main Karoo Basin of South Africa (Rubidge 1995, 2005) (Fig. 4). M aps showing the distribution of the Beaufo rt assemblage zones within the Main Karoo Basin have been provided by Kitching (1977), Keyser and Smith (1977-78) and Rubidge (1995, 2005). An updated version based on a comprehensive GIS fossil database is currently in press (Nicolas 2007, V an der Walt et al. in press).

Three successive Late Permian to Early Triassic assemblage zones are represented within t he Adeliade Subgroup outcrop area within the Reugtevallei – Dreunberg study area. These are the Cistecephalus, Dicynodon and Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zones. The last of these plays a more 18 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc

important role in the lowermost Tarkastad Subgroup (Katberg Formation) and is therefo re treated in Section 3.2.1 below. According the most recent Karoo Supergroup biozone map (Van der Walt, in press), only a small portion of the study region - at Reugtevallei and immediately to the south - is assigned to the Cistecephalus Assemblage Zone. The outcrop area of the Dicynodon A ssemblage Zone is also very narrow on the southwestern side of the Gariep Dam, while palaeontologically important exposures are found just north o f t he O range River around Bethulie (Section 3.1.2).

As a consequence of their proximity to large dolerite intrusions, the Beaufort Group sediments have often been thermally metamorphosed or “baked” (ie. recrystallised, impregnated with secondary minerals). Embedded fossil material of phosphatic composition, such as bones and teeth, is frequently altered by baking and may be very difficult to extract from the hard matrix by mechanical preparation (Smith & Keyser, p. 23 in Rubidge 1995). Thermal metamorphism by dolerite intrusions therefore tends to reduce the palaeontological heritage potential of Beaufort Group sediments.

3.1.1. The Cistecephalus A ssemblage Zone

The following major fossil groups have been recorded within the Late Permian (Lopingian / Wuchiapingian) Cistecephalus Assemblage Zone of the Main Karoo Basin (Keyser & Smith 1977-78, A nderson & Anderson 1985, Hill 1993, Smith & Keyser 1995b, M acRae 1999, C ole et al., 2004, A lmond et al. 2008, Nicolas & Rubidge 2010):

• isolated petrified bones as well as rare articulated skeletons of terrestrial vertebrates such as true reptiles (notably the large herbivorous Parei asaurus and small insectivorous owenettids) and therapsids or “mammal-like reptiles” (e.g. diverse herbivorous dicynodonts such as Cistecephalus, Diict odon and Oudenodon, rare flesh- eating gorgonopsians like Gorgonops and Prorubidgea, and insectivorous therocephalians such as Ictidosuchoides) (Fig. 8)

• aquatic vertebrates such as large temnospondyl amphibians (Rhinesuchus, usually disarticulated), and palaeoniscoid bony fish (Atherstonia, Namaichthys, often represented by scattered scales rather than intact fish)

• freshwater bivalves (Palaeomutela)

• trace fossils such as worm, arthropod and tetrapod burrows and trackways, coprolites (fossil droppings)

• vascular plant remains including leaves, twigs, roots and petrified woods (“Dadoxylon”) of the Glossopteris Flora (usually sparse, fragmentary), especially glossopterid trees and art hrophytes (horsetails).

This biota is very well represented in fossil collections in South Africa. M any of the fossil specimens have been found along the Great Escarpment Zone (Nicolas & Rubidge 2009). The best preserved tetrapod fossils are usually found within overbank mudrocks, whereas fossils preserved within channel sandstones tend to be fragmentary and water-worn (Smith & Keyser 1995b). M any fossils are preserved within calcrete nodules in association with ancient soils (palaeosol horizons). The small burrowing dicynodont Cistecephalus occurs in great abundance towards the to p o f the biozo ne in the southern Ka roo.

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Fig. 8: Skulls of characteristic fossil vertebrates from the Cistecephalus Assemblage Zone (From Keyser & Smith 1977-78). Pareiasaurus, a large herbivore, and Owenetta, a small insectivore, are t rue reptiles. The remainder are therapsids or “mammal-like reptiles”. Of these, Gorgon ops and Dinogorg on are large flesh-eating gorgonopsians, Ictid osu choides is an insectivorous therocephalian, w hile t he remainder are small – t o large-bodied herbivorous dicynodonts.

3.1.2. The Di cynodon A ssemblage Zone

A narrow zone of Lower Beaufort sediments close to the Katberg sandstone contact to the southwest of the Gariep Dam can be assigned to the Balfour Formation, the greater part of is characterised by Late P ermian fossil biotas of the Dicyn odon Assemblage Zone. This biozone has been assigned to the C hanghsingian Stage (= Late Tartarian) right at the end of the Permian Period, with an approximate age range of 253.8-251.4 million years (Rubidge 1995, 2005). Good accounts, with detailed faunal lists, of the fossil biotas of the Dicynodon Assemblage Zone have been given by Kitching (in Rubidge 1995) and by Cole et al. (2004). See also the reviews by C luver (1978), MacRae (1999), McC arthy & Rubidge (2005) and Almond et al . (2008). In general, the following broa d categories of fossils might be expected within the Balfour Formation near t he Gariep Dam:

• isolated petrified bones as well as articulated skeletons of terrestrial vertebrates such as true reptiles (notably large pareiasaurs, small millerettids) and therapsids (diverse dicynodonts such as Dicynodon and the much smaller Diictodon, gorgonopsians, therocephalians such as Theriognathus, primitive cynodonts like Procynosuchus, and biarmosuchians) (See Fig. 9 herein);

• aquatic vertebrates such as large temnospondyl amphibians like Rhinesuchus (usually disarticulated), and palaeoniscoid bony fish (Atherst onia, Namaicht hys);

• freshwater bivalves;

• trace fossils such as worm, arthropod and tetrapod burrows and trackways, coprolites; 20 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc

• vascular plant remains including leaves, twigs, roots and petrified woods (“Dadoxyl on”) of the Glossopteris Flora (usually sparse, fragmentary ), especially glossopterids and arthrophytes (horsetails).

From a palaeontological viewpoint, these diverse Dicynodon Assemblage Zone biotas are of extraordinary interest in that they provide some of the best available evidence for the last flowering of ecologically-complex terrestrial ecosystems immediately preceding the catastrophic end-P ermian mass extinction (e.g. Smith & Ward, 2001, Rubidge 2005, Retallack et al ., 2006, Smith & Botha 2005, Botha & Smith 2006, 2007).

As far as the biostratigraphically important tetrapod remains are concerned, the best fossil material is generally found within overbank mudrocks, whereas fossils preserved within channel sandstones tend to be fragmentary and water-worn (Rubidge 1995, Smith 1993). Many fossils are found in association with ancient soils (palaeosol horizons) that can usually be recognised by bedding-parallel concentrations of calcrete nodules. The abundance and variety of fossils within the Dicynodon A ssemblage Zone decreases towards the top of the succession (Cole et al ., 2004).

Fig.9: Skulls of key therapsids (“mammal-like reptiles”) from t he Late Permian Dicynodon Assemblage Zone: t he dicynodont Dicyn odon and the therocephalian Theriognathus (From Kitching in Rubidge 1995).

3.2. Fossils within the Tarkastad Subgroup

Both the Katberg and Burgersdorp Formations of the Main Karoo Basin have yielded important Triassic continental fossil assemblages, including a range of vertebrates, plants and trace fossils. These biotas are of special palaeontological significance in that they document the recovery phase of terrestrial ecosystems on Gondwana follo wing the catastrophic end-Permian Mass Extinction of 251.4 million years ago (e.g. Benton 2003, Smith & Botha 2005, Botha & Smith 2007 and refs. therein). They also provide interesting insights into the adaptations and taphonomy of terrestrial animals and plants during a particularly stressful, arid phase of Earth history in the Early Triassic.

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The biostratigraphy of the Early–Mid Triassic sediments of the Karoo Supergroup (Tarkastad Subgroup) has been the focus of considerable palaeontological research in recent years, and the subdivision of the Cynognat hus Assemblage Zone into three subunits has been proposed by several authors (See Hancox et al., 1995, Hancox 2000, Neveling et al., 2005, Rubidge 2005, A bdala et al . 2005, and refs therein). Recent research has also emphasized the rapidity of faunal turnover during the transition bet ween the sand-dominated Katberg Formation (Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone) and the overlying mudrock-dominated Burgersdorp Formation (Neveling et al., 1999, 2005). In the proximal (southern) part of the basin the abrupt faunal t urnove r occurs in the uppermost sandstones of the Katberg Formation a nd t he lowermost sandstones of the B urgersdorp Formation (ibid., p.83 and Neveling 2004). This recent work shows that t he Cynognathus Assemblage Zone correlates with the entire Burgersdorp Formation; previous authors had proposed that t he lo wermost Burgersdorp beds belonged to the Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone (e.g. Keyser & Smith 1977-78, Johnson & Hiller 1990, Kitching 1995).

3.2.1. Fossils in t he Katberg Formation

The Katberg Formation is known to host a low-diversity but palaeontologically important terrestrial fossil biota of Early Triassic (Scythian / Induan - Early Olenekian) age, i.e. around 250 million years old (Groenewald & Kitching 1995, Rubidge 2005). Useful illustrated accounts of Katberg fossils are given by Kitching (1977), Keyser and Smith (1977-1978), Groenewald and Kitching (1995), MacRae (1999), Hancox (2000), Smith et al. (2002), C ole et al. (2004), Rubidge (2005 plus refs therein) and Damiani et al. (2003a), among others. The biota is dominated by a small range of therapsids (“mammal-like reptiles”), amphibians and other tetrapods, with rare vascular plants and trace fossils, and has been assigned to the Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone (LA Z). This impoverished fossil assemblage characterizes Early Triassic successions of the upper part o f the Palingkloof M ember (Adelaide Subgroup) as well as the Katberg Formation and - according to some earlier authors – the lowermost Burgersdorp Formations of the Tarkstad Subgroup. It should also be noted that the dicynodont Lystrosaurus has now been recorded from the uppermost beds of the Latest Permian Dicynodon A ssemblage Zone but only becomes super-abundant in Early Triassic times (e.g. Smith & Botha 2005, Botha & Smith 2007 and refs. therein).

Key tetrapods in the Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone biota are various species of the medium- sized, shovel-snouted dicynodont Lystrosaurus (by far the commonest fossil form in this biozone. contributing up to 95% of fossils found), the small captorhinid parareptile Procolophon, the crocodile-like early archosaur Proterosuchus, and a wide range of small to large armour-plated “labyrinthodont” amphibians such as Lydekkerina (Fig. 10). Botha and Smith (2007) have charted the ranges of several discrete Lystrosaurus species either side of the Permo-Triassic boundary. A lso present in the LAZ are several genera of small-bodied true reptiles (e.g. owenettids), therocephalians, and early cynodonts (e.g. Galesaurus, Thrinaxodon). Animal burrows are attributable to various aquatic and land-living invertebrates, including arthropods (e.g. Scoyenia scratch burrows), as well as several subgroups of fossorial tetrapods such as cynodonts, procolophonids and even Lystros aurus itself (e.g. Groenewald 1991, Damiani et al. 2003b, Abdala et al . 2006, M odesto & Brink 2010, Bordy et al. 2009, 2011). Vascular plant fossils are generally rare and include petrified wood (“Dadoxyl on”) as well as leaves of glossopterid progymnosperms and arthrophyte ferns (Schizoneura, Phyll otheca). A n important, albeit poo rly-preserved, basal Katberg palaeoflora has recently been documented from the Noupoort area (Carlton Heights) by Gastaldo et al. (2005). Plant taxa here include sphenopsid axes, dispersed fern pinnules and possible peltasperm (seed fern) reproductive structures. P ebbles of reworked silicified wood of possible post-Devonian age occur within the Katberg sandstones (Hiller & Stavrakis 1980). Between typical fossil assemblages of the Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus Assemblage Zones lies a possible Procolophon Acme Zone characterized by abundant material of procolophonids and of the amphibian Kestrosaurus but lacking both Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus (Hancox 2000 and refs. the rein).

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Most Katberg vertebrate fossils are found in the mudrock facies rather than channel sandstones. Articulated skeletons enclosed by calcareous pedogenic nodules are locally common, while intact procolophonids, dicynodonts and cynodonts have been recorded from burrow infills (Groenewald and Kitching, 1995). Fragmentary rolled bone is found in t he intraformational conglomerates at the base of some the channel sandstones.

Figure 10: Skulls of two key tetrapod genera from the Early Triassic Lystr osaurus Assemblage Zone of the Main Karoo Basin: t he pig-sized dicynodont Lystr osaurus (A) and t he small primitive reptile Pr ocolophon (B) (From Groenewald and Kitching, 1995).

3.2.1. Fossils in t he Burgersdorp Formation

The Burgersdorp Formation is characterized by a diverse continental fossil biota of Early to Mid Triassic (O lenekian to Anisian) age, some 249 to 237 milllion years old (Kitching 1995, Rubidge 2005, Neveling et al. 2005). The Burgersdorp fauna is dominated by a wide variety of tetrapod taxa, notably a range of amphibians, reptiles and therapsids (“mammal-like reptiles”). This distinctive biota is referred to the Cynognathus Assemblage Zone (= Kannemeyeria – Diademodon A ssemblage Zone of earlier authors; see Keyser & Smith 1977- 78, Kitching 1995). C omparable Triassic faunas have been described from various parts of the ancient supercontinent Pangaea, including Russia, China, India, Argentina, Australia and Antarctica.

Useful accounts of the palaeontological heritage of this stratigraphic unit – which has recently being recognised as one of the richest Early-Mid Triassic biotas worldwide – are given by Kitching (1977, 1995), Keyser and Smith (1977-78), MacRae (1999), Hancox (2000; see also many references therein), C ole et al. (2004) and Rubidge (2005). The Burgersdorp biotas include a rich freshwater ve rtebrate fauna, with a range of fish groups (e.g. sharks, lungfish, coelacanths, ray-finned bony fish such as palaeoniscoids) as well as large capitosaurid and trematosuchid amphibians. The latter are of considerable important for long-range

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biostratigraphic correlation. The interesting reptile fauna includes lizard-like sphenodontids, beaked rhynchosaurs, and various primitive archosaurs (distant relatives of the dinosaurs) such as the crocodile-like erythrosuchids, some of which reached body lengths of 5m, as well as the more gracile Euparkeria (Fig. 11). The therapsid fauna contains large herbivorous dicynodonts like Kannemeyeria (Fig. 12), which may have lived in herds, plus several small to medium-sized carnivorous or herbivorous therocephalians (e.g. Bauria) and advanced cynodonts. The most famous cynodont here is probably the powerful-jawed genus Cynognathus (Fig. 12), but remains of the omnivorous Di ademodon are much commoner. Tetrapods are also represented by several fossil trackways while large Cruzi ana–like burro w systems with coarsely scratched ventral walls are attributed to burrowing vertebrates (cf Shone 1978). Locally abundant vertebrate burrows have been attributed to small procolophonid reptiles (Groenewald et al. 2001). Important new studies on lacustrine biotas in the nort hern Burgersdorp outcrop area have yielded rich microvertebrate fa unas as well as vertebrate coprolites; sites such as Driefontein in the Free State are now among the best- documented non-marine occurrences of Early Triassic age anywhere in the world (Bender & Hancox 2003, 2004, Hancox et al. 2010, O rtiz et al . 2010 and refs. therein).

Fig. 11: Reconstruction of the small (c. 0.5m long) bipedal reptile Eupar keria, a primitive member of t he archosaur group from which dinosaurs evolved later in t he Triassic Period.

Contemporary invertebrate faunas are still very poorly known. Freshwater unionid molluscs are rare, while the chitinous exoskeletons of the once-abundant terrestrial arthropods do not preserve well in the highly oxidising arid-climate sediments found here ; arthropod trace fossils are known but so far no fossil insects. Likewise fossil plants of the characteristic Triassic Dicroidium Flora are poo rly represented and low in diversity. They include lycophytes (club mosses), ferns (including horsetails such as Schizoneura), “seed ferns” (e.g. Dicroidium) and several gymnospermous groups (conifers, ginkgos, cycads etc) (Anderson & Anderson, 1985, Bamford 2004). A small range of silicified gymnospermous fossil woods are also present including Agat hoxylon, Podocarpoxyl on and Mesembri oxyl on (Bamfo rd 1999, 2004).

According to Kitching (1963, 1995) isolated, dispersed fossil bones, as well as some well- articulated skeletons, are associated with “thin localised lenses of silty sandstone” within the Burgersdorp Formation. P edogenic, brown-weathering calcrete concretions occasionally contain complete fossil skeletons, while transported “rolled” bone is associated with intraformational conglomeratic facies at the base of channel sandstones. Fossil diversity decreases upwards through the succession. C omplete tetrapod specimens are commoner lower down a nd amphibian remains higher up (Kitching 1995).

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Fig. 12. Reconstruction of typical t herapsids of the Early Triassic Cynognathus Assemblage Zone - t he large tusked herbivorous dicynodont Kannem eyeria and t he predat ory, bear-sized cynodont Cynognathus. The inset shows t he heavily-built skull of Cynognathus (c. 30cm long) in lateral view.

3.3. Fossils in t he Karoo Dolerite Suite

Dolerite outcrops within the study area are in themselves of no palaeontological significance since these are high temperature igneous rocks emplaced at depth within the Earth’s crust. However, as a consequence of their proximity to large dolerite intrusions in the Great Escarpment zone the adjacent Lower Beaufo rt Group sediments have often been thermally metamorphosed or “baked” (i .e. recrystallised, impregnated with secondary minerals). Embedded fossil material of phosphatic composition, such as bones and teeth, was frequently altered by baking. Bones may become blackened and they can be very difficult to extract from the hard matrix by mechanical preparation (Smith & Keyser 1995b). Thermal metamorphism by dolerite intrusions therefore tends to reduce the palaeontological heritage potential of adjacent Beaufort Gro up sediments.

3.4. Fossils in Lat e Caenozoic superficial sediment s

The Karoo “drift” deposits have been comparatively neglected in palaeontological terms for the most part. However, they may occasionally contain important fossil biotas, notably the bones, teeth and horn cores of mammals (e.g. Pleistocene mammal faunas at Florisbad, Cornelia and Erfkroon, Free State and elsewhere; Wells & Cooke 1942, Cooke 1974, Skead 1980, Klein 1984, Brink, J.S. 1987, Bousman et al. 1988, Bender & Brink 1992, Brink et al. 1995, M acRae 1999, C hurchill et al . 2000 P artridge & Scott 2000) including skeletal remains of early humans (Grine et al. 2007). Other late Caenozoic fossil biotas from these superficial deposits include non-marine molluscs (bivalves, gastropods), ostrich egg shells, trace fossils (e.g. calcretised termitaria, coprolites), and plant remains such as palynomorphs in organic-rich alluvial horizons (Scott 2000) and diatoms in pan sediments. 25 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc

4. ASSESSMENT OF IMPA CTS ON FOSSIL HERITAGE

The proposed new 132 kV transmission line traverses the outcrop area of several sedimentary formations of the Beaufort Group that are known to contain important fossil heritage – notably Late Permian to Middle Triassic vertebrate, plant and trace fossil remains. During the construction phase any fossils exposed at the ground surface or at shallow depths below this are vulnerable to disturbance, damage or destruction within the 6m wide strip to be cleared along the entire route . Bedrock excavations for pylon footings (up to 3m deep) and any ne w access roads may also expose, damage or destroy previously buried fossil material.

Because (1) the Karoo Supergroup geological formations concerned are all ranked as high in terms of overall palaeontological sensitivity (Almond et al. 2008), and (2) a sizeable number of important vertebrate fossil localities are already recorded within the broader study region close to the Gariep Dam, the impact of the proposed transmission line development on fossil heritage is potentially MEDIUM to HIGH.

A desktop comparison of the three route options for the Ruigtevallei – Dreeunberg transmission line with respect to the rock formations traversed, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, shows that there is no substantial difference between the three route options in terms of overall palaeontological sensitivity at this level of analysis. Because it follows an existing transmission line route for much of its length, O ption 3 will require a shorter length of new access roads, and will therefo re have a lower impact in this respect.

Significant further impacts on local fossil heritage are not anticipated during the operational phase of the transmission line development.

Confidence levels for t his desktop assessment are only moderate because of:

• the low stratigraphic resolution of the available 1: 250 000 geological maps (e.g. Lower and Upper Beaufo rt Group formations are not differentiated); • uncertainties regarding the level of bedrock exposure within the study region (e.g. poor satellite imagery, lack of field data).

5. RECOMMENDATIONS

The present desktop study of the Ruigtevallei – Dreunberg transmission line development suggests that its impact on local fossil heritage may be moderate to high. However, a realistic palaeontological heritage impact assessment for this project, with recommendations for a ny mitigation necessary, is only possible once the transmission line corridors have been surveyed in the field by a professional palaeontologist. It is recommended that such a field survey be carried out at the earliest opportunity so that any significant palaeontological heritage issues may be addressed in the project design.

It should be noted that the most likely outcome of such a field study is that most sectors of the transmission line corridors prove to be insensitive in practice because of a thick superficial sediment cover, high degree or near-surface weathering, or sparse fossil content. However, short sectors of high palaeontological sensitivity, with a concentration of near-surface fossil material, might also be identified and mapped.

The recommended palaeontological field survey would focus on areas of good bedrock exposure along or close to the three transmission line route options. The focus of the study should be o n:

• Identifying those sectors of the three route options (if any) that are recorded as, or inferred to be, of high palaeontological sensitivity;

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• Comparing the three route options in terms of overall palaeontological impact significance;

• Making detailed recommendations regarding mitigation of impacts within route sectors of high palaeontological sensitivity (if any) during the preconstruction or construction phases. These mitigation recommendations should be incorporated into the EMP for the transmission line development.

It is unlikely that any changes in the transmission line route or pylon positions will be necessary on palaeontological grounds since professional mitigation is usually the preferred option. This mitigation would involve recording and judicious sampling of surface or near- surface fossil material either (a) before construction commences or (b) during excavations for pylon emplacements or ancillary infrastructure (e.g. new roa ds).

Provided that the recommended mitigation measures are carried through, it is likely that any potentially negative impacts of the proposed development on local fossil resources will be substantially reduced and, furthermore, they will partially offset by the positive impact represented by increased understanding of the palaeontological heritage of the region.

Please note that:

• All South A frican fossil heritage is protected by law (South African Heritage Resources Act, 1999) and fossils cannot be collected, damaged or disturbed without a permit from SAHRA or the relevant Provincial Heritage Resources Agency;

• The palaeontologist concerned with mitigation work will need a valid collection permit from SA HRA;

• All palaeontological specialist work would have to conform to international best practice for palaeontolo gical fieldwork a nd the study (e.g. data recording fossil collection and curation, final report ) should adhere as far as possible to the minimum standards for Phase 1 and 2 palaeontological studies currently being developed by SA HRA.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank M r Len van Schalkwyk and Ms Elizabeth Wahl of eThembeni Cultural Heritage, P ietermaritzburg, for commissioning this desktop study. Ms Mary-A nne C rocker kindly provided the necessary transmission line maps, and I am also grateful for discussions with her and her colleague M s Nadia Grobbelaar at Arcus Gibb, East London, concerning palaeontological heritage assessments of transmission line projects.

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7. REFERENCES

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8. QUALIFICATIONS & EXPERIENCE OF THE AUTHOR

Dr John A lmond has an Honours Degree in Natural Sciences (Zoology) as well as a P hD in Palaeontology from the University of Cambridge, UK. He has been awarded post-doctoral research fellowships at Cambridge University and in Germany, and has carried out palaeontological research in Europe, North A merica, the M iddle East as well as North and South A frica. For eight years he was a scientific officer (palaeontologist) for the Geological Survey / C ouncil for Geoscience in the RSA. His current palaeontological research focuses on fossil record of the P recambrian - Cambrian boundary and t he C ape Supergroup of South Africa. He has recently written palaeontological reviews for several 1: 250 000 geological maps published by the Council for Geoscience and has contributed educational material on fossils and evolution for new school textbooks in the RSA .

Since 2002 Dr Almond has also carried out palaeontological impact assessments for developments and conservation areas in the Western, Eastern and Northern Cape under the aegis of his Cape Town-based company Natura Viva cc. He is a long-standing member of the Archaeology, P alaeontology and Meteorites Committee for Heritage Western C ape (HWC ) and an advisor on palaeontological conservation and management issues for the Palaeontological Society of South A frica (PSSA), HWC and SAHRA. He is currently compiling technical reports on the provincial palaeontological heritage of Western, Northern and Eastern Cape for SAHRA and HWC . Dr Almond is an accredited member of P SSA and APHAP (Association of Professional Heritage Assessment P ractitioners – Western Cape).

Declaration of Independence

I, John E. Almond, declare that I am an independent consultant and have no business, financial, personal or other interest in the proposed transmission line development project, application or appeal in respect of which I was appointed other than fair remuneration for work performed in connection with the activity, application or appeal. There are no circumstances that compromise the objectivity of my performing such work .

Dr John E. Almond Palaeontologist Natura Viva cc

35 John E. Almond (2011) Natura Viva cc