Guided- Non-Clafsroom Use (055) Training Appropriate

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AUTHOR LaFromboise, Teresa Davis , TITLE Assertion Training With AmericanIndians: Cultural/Behavioral Issues for Trainers. Education and Small INSTtTUTION ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural 'Schooks, Lap Cruces, N. Mex. SPONS AGENCY NatiorW. Inst. of Education(ED), Washington, DC. PUB DATE Dec 82 CONTRACT 400-78-0023 NOTE 123p. KIMILABLE FROMNew Mexico Center for RuralEducation, Publication Department C-1, Box 3-AP - NMSU,Las Cruces, NM 88003 ($11.25 each; price includeP postageand handling; 10 or more, 5% discount;20 or more, 10% discount). PUB TYPE Information Analyses ERIC Information Analysis Products (071) Guided- Non-Clafsroom Use(055) Branch Around (888)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. Indian Education; DESCRIPTORS *American Indian Culture; *American *Assertiveness; Behavior; BehavioralObjectives; *Communication (Thought Transfer);Cultural Influences; PostsecondaryEducation; *Role Perception; Role Playing; SecondaryEducation; Self Determination; Self Esteem

-ABSTAACT Assertiveness training, a currentpreferred method of training appropriate communicationskills, strives to teach a behavior which enablesa person toact in his/her wninterests, to rights expreds honest feeling§comfortably, Or to exercise one's own without denying the rights ofothers. Assertion trainingcould be envisioned as an intervention strategyfor Indians to create conditions for a new era inwhich their future is determinedby Indian acts and Indian decirdionsin pursuit of entitlement to services 'rather than theirneed for,services. Designed toaid educators, human developmentspecialists, and mental health professionals in developing assertiontraining programs with American Indian people, the manualdiscusses'assertive behavior; elementsof Indian culture and Indianthinking; a selected; assertiontraining model composed of instruction,modeling, behavior rehearsal and feedback; application of assertiontraining to express Indianrights and responsibilities; aspectsof communicating messagesinvolving combined influences, perceptions,and interpretations of mutualrole expectations of Indian and whiteand cultural differences.Other chapters discuss Indian non-verbalcommunications; assertion training with Indian adults; practical andethical considerations for trainers; and assessment ofIndian asskrtive behavior.Appendicéb for provide references,.a workshopagenda, and suggested exercises assertion training.(Author/ERB)

. , ... ********************************)*************************************** * the best that can be made Reproductions supplied brEbRS are * * from the original document.

***********************************************************************. . Assertionraining With AmericanIndians

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION f' ITLA-h()NA: RFSOURCES INFORMATION . i,ENTER ERIC Th,Ii,,mitt has been eeprnducodat; Thelietsi iior organization ;t iih,Ihges h,IQP neer, lull,' to nlprove rpr,), 41L.doty

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474044A:01 ASSERTION TRAINING WITH AMERICAN INDIANS: CULTURAL/BEHAVIORAL ISSUES FOR TRAINERS

TERESA DAVIS LaFROMBOISE University of Nebraska

Decem6er1982

Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) ClearinghouSe on Rural Education and Small Schools (CRESS) New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NewMexico 88003 The National III Institute of Education U.S. Department of Education Washington D.C. 207.OS

The ERIC Clearinghouse on RuralEducation and Small Schools is funded by the NationalInstitute of Education. The material in this publication waspreparedpursuant to contract Education, U. S. no. 400-78-0023with the National Institute of Department of Education. Contractors undertaking suchprojects under-government sponsorship areencouraged to express freely Prior to their judgment in professionaland technical matters. publication', the manuscript wascritically reviewed for determination of professional quality. Points of view or opinions, however, do not necessary representthe official view or opinions of either theClearinghousel's parent organization or the National Institute ofEducation.

Felipe Pueblo Cover designed by: Leroy Sandoval, member San Color enhancement by: .DebraAnn Guerrero

This document isavailable for $11.25

From the

New Mexico.Centerfor Rural Education Publications DepartmentC-1 Box 3AP, NMSU Las Cruces,NM 88003

and Prepayment or purchase orderrequired. Prices include postag title, 52; 20 or more of handling. Discount rates: 10 or more of each each title, 10%. --To Ceiszati.e. Lot Useand heft Gitandmoth en B e ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

participated in the development My heart goes out to myfellow Anishinabegs who of this training manual:

Native American Centerstaff, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma committee members, Bridge Between Two Worlds,Title IV, Part A, parent Grand Rapids,.Michiganand Benton Harbor, Michigan trainees, Sault Ste. Michigan Indian ChildWelfare Agency counselor Marie, Michigan committee members, Johnson O'Malley teachers,administrators, and parent Seneca Nation, Salamanca,New York Keshena, Wisconsin Unified Health Board.counselors, Menominee County, Lansing, Michigan Indian Homemaker Aides,Department of Social Services,

Wayne Rowe, Marlene Echohawk,and Phil Lujan, Oklahoma University, Norman, Oklahoma Raleigh, North Carolina Commission onIndian Affairs administrators, North Carolina Tribe, Mt. Indian Education Committeemembers, Saginaw Chippewa Pleasant, MicKigan Massachusetts Boston Indian Council parentcommittee members, Boston,

Mt. Pleasant, Michigan,who freely contributed .Saginaw Chippewa friends, typed and ideas and support, especiallyRuth Moses who laboriously compiled. Salamanca, New York,and Jeff Snow, Seneca NationGraphics Department, Nebraska Jose Sanchez, FreeLance Artist, Lincoln, models through video- Friends who unselfishlydemonstrated Indian role of this trainingmanual could be carrfed to taping so that the message Lujan, Cliff Winona Simms, Paul andLouise Dauphinais, Phil others: Julia Gibson,1 Barbara Shilling, Harold and LeslieBarse, Sharon Pipestem, Stewart Walkingstick, Chibon Marks, SusanWeryackeve, Scott and Cook, Linda Poolau, Tho pson Tonemah, Anita Chilsom,Tom De Haas, Alan Sifford, Leland arrow, Williams, Monroe Pohoscucut,Violet Tsosie, Rich and Anne Ballard.' American Women staff,aidvisory Valerie Shangreaux,Professionalization of boand and participants. Migwetch TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE CHAPTER

1 I. ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOR

1 An Nerview' , 2 What Is Assertiveness? 3 What Is Assertion Training? 4 Expectations of Training

6 II. INDIAN BEHAVIOR

6 Cultural Diversity Traditional Role Models 7 8 Extended Family System 9 Traditional Values

14 III. ASSERTION TRAINING MODEL. .

Group Formation and Composition 14 Training Rationale and Goals 15 Criteria for Trainee Selection 15 15 Instructions Types of Assertions 17 18 Modeling 20 Behavior Rehearsal Script Writing 21 Evaluation of Consequences 21 22 Role-Play Procedures Cognitive Restructuring Procedures 22 23 Feedback 26 Homework Assignments 28 IV. INDIAN RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Techniques for Sabotaging IndianRights 29 Developing an Assertive Belief System 32

35 V. MESSAGE MATCHING 37 Context Indian-White Language Comparison 38 40 Message 41 Sender 43 Target Person 47 VI. INDIAN NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION 48 Training Non-Verbal Componenttof Assertiveness CHAPTER PAGE

Non-Verbal Issues in Assertion Training 49 Perception Checks 54

56 VII. ASSERTION TRAINING WITH IfiDIAN ADULTS

Phases of Assertion Training with AmericanIndians. . 56 Workshop 58 Exercise 1. Intr ions 58 Exercise 2. Self-assessment of Assertiveness . . 59 Exercise 3. Consciousness Razors 60 Exercise 4. Stimulus Demonstration 60 Exercise 5. Indian Bill of Rights 61 Exercise 6. Testimonials of Indian Assertive Behavior 62 Exercise 7. Assertive, Aggressive and Nonassertive Definitions 62 Exercise 8. Behavior Attitude Cycle 63 Exercise 9. Expressing Positive Feelings 63 Exercise 10. I-Messages 64 Exercise 11. Group Awareness Profile 65 Exercise 12. Response Videotape 65 Exercise 13. Indian-White Language Comparison . . 66 Exercise 14. Message Matching 66 Exercise 15. Assertive Indian Messages 67 Exercise 16. Message Matching with FiveTargets . . 67 Exercise 17. Counter Assertions 68 Exercise 18. Wrap-up and Evaluation of Training . . 69 Supplementary Non-Verbal Exercises 70

73 VIII. PRACTICAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FORTRAINERS

Paraprofessionals 73 Non-Indian Trainers 75 Cultural Simulation 76 Ethical .Considerations 80

82 IX. ASSESSMENT OF INDIAN ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOR

In vivo Measures 84 Training Simulations 84 Self-report Measures 85 Summary 87

88 REFERENCES

APPENDICES

97 I. Behavior-Attitude Cycle PAGE APPENDICES 98 II. Indian Rights and Responsibilities 99 III. Survival Ladder 100 IV. Scripts for Indian BehaviorRehearsals 103 V. Assertion Training--ReinforcesOestionnaire 104 VI. Workshop Agenda 106 VII. Consciousness Razors 107 VIII. Definitions Activity--Role-PlayScript

Behaviors 108 IX. Verbal and Non-Verbal Assertive a 109 X. Group Awareness Profile 110 XI. Message Matching 111 XII. Workshop Evaluation Training 112 XIII: Presenting Problems for Assertion CHAPTER-I

ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOR

An Overview

aid educa- This Assertion Training withAmerid&I Indians manual is cisigned to professionals in develop- tors, human developmentspecialists, and mental health ing assertion training programswith American Indian people.

The . American Indians are the mostisolated minority group in this country. for all other Americans average life expectancyof the American Indian is 65 years; The average annual income ofthe Indian is 61% of thenational it is 71 years. with- average. Fifty thousand Indianfamilies live in sub-standard housing,.often (Josephy, 1971). out running water, electricity, oradequate sanitary facilities 1.9% (Comp- Indian infant mortality is 2.4% ascompared to the national average of adults troller General of the UnitedStates, 1974). The suicide rate of Indian American is 1.7 times higher than thenational average. Suicide among school-age In 1975, Indian Indians is three to five timesthe national average(Cahn, 1969). rate 37 females ages l5-34 were reporteddying of cirrhosis of the liver at a (National times greater than the rate forwhite females of the same age group These statistics on employment, Institute on Alcohol Abuse andAlcoholism, 1978). and sufferings income, education, 4nd health conveynothing of the human pressures Indian people experienced throughout generationsof injustices and oppression. problems as maintain the status of poorest ofthe poor and expfqlence numerous economic, and politicaloppressions a result of yearsof dealing with cultural, acculturate them. which were designed to eradicatethem, "civilize" them, or assimi- Indian people have withstood these pressuresand have not been readily the competitive lated because they are a veryadaptable people, and also because Although the popula- American value system was fundamentallyalien to Indian ways. improving, it is com- tion of American Indians is growingand their physical health that Indian people,appear tohave mon knowledgeby Indians and non-Indians alike society. Even though trouble effectively coping andcommunicating with the majority hostility or agression, manyIndian people there ore occasional outbursts of They frequently act in what would beconsidered a passive,non-assertive manner. uncomfortable situations andrefrain are often inclinedto remove themselves from Unfortunately, people who from expressing their ideas,feelings, and opinions. gain what is right- act non-assertively andnon-competitively may be unable to their chosen way fully theirs in American society. Indians must not only defend concerning ways of of life, but also assert theiropinions, ideas, and feelings For these reasons, it would seem improving and preserving Indian waysof living. American Inbians likely that assertion training would bepartcularly helpful to self-determination: in making the transformationfrom a state of oppression to skills is A current preferred method of trainingappropriate communication personal power- popularly known as assertivenesstraining. The recurring theme of is a basic lessness, reflected in Indian protestationsfor self-determination, teach a behavior tenet of assertivenesstraining. The goal of this training is to stand up for oneself which enables a person to act inhis or her own interests, to exercise one's without undue anxiety, to expresshonest feelings comfortably, or

is) -2-

denying the rights ofothers (Alberti & Emmons,1974). own rights without intervention strategy Assertion training could, therefore,be envisioned.as an with a heritage of centuries ofinjustice and for Indians to break decisively determined by Indian acts create conditions for a new erain which their future is rather than their need and Indian decisions in pursuitof entitlement to services for services. rather than 6o/L. in the title The author would like toemphasize the use of with tate o pkoviding a4z4..6= of this program, as a meansof indicating the piLe6eaked people as opposed to.that of an expertdispensing tanceto a self-determining what is "needed."

What Is Assertiveness?

rights Assertiveness, or ad.sentivebehavioA., involves standing up for personal honeist,6and appupaiate and expressing thoughts, feelings,and beliefs in ditect, rights (Jakubowski, 1977). ways which respect anddo not violate another person's socially Since assertive behavior involvesthe direct expression of feeling in a appropriate manmer,lit protects a personfrom manipulation by others. effect, and Assertive behavior differs fromaggressive behavior in the intent, trying social context in which it isperceived. When a person's intent is seen as and feelings to hurt or manipulate the receiverwith his or her ideas, opinions, The effect of rather than to simply express them,the behavior is aggressive. When the the assertion is based upon thereceiver's reaction to the assertion. but when the assertion is positively accepted,the behavior is deemed assertive Finally, only person takes offense tothe'assertion, it is judged as aggressive. in . when the behavior meets the expectationsof tfie culture and is appropriate social context is it considered to beas.sertive JaOlavior. Culturally, inappropriate assertions are mostjrequently seen asaggre§sion. and opinions in a Aggkezzivebehaviotinvolves the expres'sion of feelings without consider- punishing, dishonest, threatening,demanding, or hostile manner ation for the feelings of the other person(Albert & Emmons, 1970). Aggressive be- others and havior, whiCh is usually inappropriate,often violates the rights of for believing differ- conveys the messaye: "This is what I think, you are stupid ently," "This is what I want, what you wantish't important," "This is what Ifeel, belittling behavior your feelings don'tcount." The goat of this degrading and lose is often to dominate or win at all costswhile forcing the other person to (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976).

NonasseAtive behavion, involves failing to expressone's feelings, needs, opinions, and preferences or expressingthem in'an indirect orapologetic manner (Lange violating one's & Jakubowski, 1976). Nonassertions include denying, restrtcting, or expressed indirectly. The own personal rightssince they are not expressed or are basic message of nonassertions connotesa:lack of respect for one's needs aswell withstand disappointments as a lack of respectfor the other persoh's ability to and shoulder some of the responsibility. Self-disrespectual and self-effacing behavior conveys themes,sage: "I don't count, you cantake advantage of me," "my feelings don't matter, only yours do,""My thoughts aren'timportant, yours superior." The goat are the only onesworth listening to," "I'm nothing, you are of diffident, nonassertive behavior is to appeaseothers and to avoid conflict at all costs. -3-

is the By process of elimination, it maybe assumed that co4eAtive behaviot opinions direct, honest, and appropriatecommunication of one's needs, wants, and threatening, without experiencing unduepersonal anxiety and without punishing, or putting the other persondown. Assertiveness also involves confidently of the standing up for one's legitimaterights without violating the rights said without domin- other person in the process. The basic assertive me4isage, I think," ating, humiliating, or degradingthe other person, is "This is what "This is what I feel," "This is how I seethe situation." The goat. of assertive and rights communication is mutual respect, foroneself by expressing one's needs conflict and leaving room for negotiation whenthe rights of different persons (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976).

What Is Assertion Training?

yet to The most effective training procedurefor training assertion skills is which includes some varia- be agreed upon. A variety of techniques is utilized modeling, be- tion of the learning-based modelwhich consists of instructions, trainipg procedures havior rehearsal, and coaching. One reason for the variety of involves the variety of needs of thepeople who request assertion training. Assertion training with American Indians,Mexican-Americans, or Black Americans and target people is likely to deal with differentsituations, concerns, behaviors, ado- than assertion training with specialpopulations, such as women, children, lescents, elderly, college students, orpsychiatric patients,

Despite the lack of agreement on a givenset of training procedures appropriate across a variety of clientpopulations, there is a need todefine what trainees, or assertion training is. Regardless of the structure, techniques, trainers, assertion training involves thefollowing basic activities: (1) teach- nonassertion and ing the differences betweenassertionand aggression and between politeness; (2) identifying and accepting bothpersonal rights and the rights of others; (3) reducing existing obstaclesin thoughts and feelings to act as- assertive sertively, such as guilt, anger, and excessiveanxiety; and (4) developing skills through practice (Lange & Jakubowski,1976).

The tremendous growth of interest inassertion training is a natural out- rights movement growth of the human rights movementwhich evolved from the civil pervasive need to address of the 1960's. Assertion training meets a strong and of the social and cultural problems withinthis nation, to expand the range socially acceptable behaviors, and toenhance the value of personalrelation- society's ships now that it is difficult to achieveself-worth through the dominant Araditional sources (Lange & Jakubowski,1976). As the traditional means of achieving respect and power diminish, more and morepeople are becoming aware of their inability to stand up for themselves,act'in their own best interests, and exercise their rights responsibly. TI Expectations of Training

What reasonable expectations can trainers develop in regard. to assertion training?Researsh findings report that assertion training is useful in changing some specific bghaviors, decreasing anxiety, and enhancing the trainee's self- - concept over ashort period of time (Galassi,-Galassi, & Litz, 1974; Gutride, et al., 1974; Percell, Berwick, & Biegels, 1974; Rathus, 1972).

Assertion training may be viewed.as a three-level process of acquiring assertive skills in accordance with Shoemaker and Salterfield's (1977) tri-leVel

. model of broad-spectrum assertive training.

Tri-Level Model of AssertiOn Training. with American Indians

Level III BI-GULTURAL, ASSERTIVE LIFESTYLE

Level. II ASSERTIVE RESPONSE

STYLE .

The bottom level depicts what can be acquired in a one-:day assertion Work- , shop:-knowledge of certainctechniquea-,. awareness-of the perSonal needfor assertiveness, and perhaps the ability to reapondpsing basic orminimum astertions. This modest training has its place An a consciousness-raising perspective, but has limited tranfer outside of training.beyond thespecific situations addressed in the workshop-.

'The middle level contains the core substance of assertion training prid involves 4. more intensive training in athree-:to- four=chy workshop or preferably an -oh- going -grodp lasting apProximately eight weeks.Through intensive training, par- titipants should be able to discriminate among their own assertive,aggressive, and , nonassertive behaviors and-demelop a variety of assertive responses to specific

1 -5-

and non-verbal components of situations.. This includes k-nowledge of the verbal each behavior, different types ofassertive responses, as well as the social and interpersonal rights and consequencesof each behavior.

The toll level signifies thedevelopment of bicultural as'wtive lifestyle become as the ultimate goal of this program,the goal that American Indian people more comfortable and effectivein communicating inboth'cultures rather than be stranded between them or functional inonly one or the other. Extensive train, non-verbal preferences, message matching of Indian-white language differences, of 'ing, perception checks, acid counterassertions along with an understanding basiS for develop- Indian and non-Indian rights, values,and beliefs will provide the practices ing a bicultural assertive lifestyle. An individual qr tr'ibal group who this lifestyle is benevolently interestedin'the needs of the gf.oup, socially responsible to perpetuate a belief systemthat highly values personal rightsand - assertive the rights pf others, behavesself-confidently in situations requiring behavior, encourages tribal members to,beequally assertive, and makesconscious decisions to be assertive when it is necessaryand culturally appropriate to do so. CHAPTER II

INDIAN BEHAVIOR

Some frequently occurring behaviors of American Indians in traditional and acculturated ..ocial settings will be discussed in this chapter in an effort to substantiate the need for assertive behavior. A complete understanding of each American Indian tribe and its individual tribal members is impossible.Rather than make blanket characterizations of Indian behavior which would perpetuate negative Indian stereotypes and be incomprehensible to most Indian persons, it is hoped that the trainer will,appreciate Indian behavior by considering four elements of Indian culture and Indian thinking: (1) cultural diversity, (2) traditional role models, (3) the extended family system; and (4) traditional values.

Cultural Diversity

There are numerous elements within Indian culture which complicate an adequate depiction of Indian behavior. There are currently more than 400 different tribal groups in this country. Even though each tribe is composed of American Indians, each tribe is unique in its own right and there is great cultural diversity within. For instance, members of the Chippewa tribe in North Dakota live qujte differently than Chippewas in Michigan or Minnesota. The language of the American Indian is also diverse. There are about 25 different major Indian languages spoken in this country, many of which contain many variants. American Indians live on reservations or in other rural and urban areas. rre- quently intermarriages between tribes and with non-Indians occur. Offspring of such ancestry may look "Indian" in the phYsical sense of the word, but behave in a non-Indian manner or look like non-Indians physically and behave as many traditional fullbloods do. Many Indians are faced with the option to follow traditional customs or abandon them in,favor of adhering to the behavioral patterns of the dominant society. All of these divergent elements should make it clear that there is no such thing as an "Indian culture." It might be more accurate to acknowledge that there ere Indian.trihal cultures with widp_variations in_ideas_habits, and attitudes of the members inherent in each (Ross & Trimble, 1976).

Despite this diversity, American Indian tribes have shared a common experience in relationship to the United States government. The government wanted the tribal land; the tribe,resisted; the government insisted with'as much force as was necessary; a treaty was negotiated; the tribe moved onto the reservation, where every aspect of Indian life was under government control. Virtually every American Indian's life has somehow been affected by this governmental goal, mistakenly asimed at assimilating them into the general society of American life. Traditional Role Models-

of the .tribe was In traditional society,Indian behavior for each member social relations. often predetermined by assigningroles concerning different cultural under- American Indian reliance on rolemodels for the transmission of "We used to be standing is verified by VictorSarracino of the Languna tribe: behavior, and leaving a told that we would beestablishing a pattern by our, & Gilliam, 1972, p,66). trafl and tracks for ourchildren to follow" (Morey situations with com- Role models provided a frameof reference for meeting new placed particular parable elements and characteristics. Roles in Indian culture traditionalstatus, and heritage as a means emphasis on tribe, clan, farrtly, Roles also of defining one's individual'Uniquesnestwithin the cultural system. the/entire tribe. defined each person's relationship toother tribal members and to one's status, They provided cues for appropriatebehavior and clarification of privileges, and responsibilities. well as men Each tribe had its dwn systemfor assigning roles to women as The amount of social and the behavioral expectationswhich accompanied each role. by women or men depended uponwhether the tribe and governing control exhibited female roles which patriai-chial. A few examples of male and was matriarchial or Role variations, pertain to controlling behavior areexplained briefly below. the social structure ofeach as well as gendervariations, differed according to Native American tribal group.(Medicine,'1978). responsible for In the Sioux tribe, femalemembers of the father's clan were of woman in the tribe telling a young girl what wasdesired of her in the role (Moray & Gilliam, 1972). One and advising her on thevalue of belng virtuous father-in- specific sanction prohibited thedSughter-in-law from talking to her For Seneca women this roleinvolved being a wife, mother, law (lassrick, 1964). Seneca tribe healer, decision maker, and agriculturVt. The clan mother of the also responsible always had a say in the decision makingof the chiefs and was The social control for naming the children born intoher clan (Williams,1978). Chapter V. inherent in naming is discussed ingreater detail in important role in teach- In the Navajo tribe,the mother's brother played an (Worth & Adair, 1972). In ing the Navajo moral code to hissister's children and gave the child advice asto some clahs the unclemade wishes for the child Uncles were also publicrelations people. Since the how to better one's life. it was up to the uncle to child could not boast about his orher accomplishments, The offspring of the malemembers boast for the child (Morey & Gilliam,1972). called "Teasing Cousins." They were the ones who of the father's clan were They could provided a reality check against the claimsmade by the uncles: They ridicule their cousin on- inconsistent orinappropriate behavior in public. helped the cousin learn to live bythe clan's moral code(Morey &Gilliam, 1972). -8-

Extended Family System

American Indian cultural rolesand communications were based on a system 'of inequality and extended familialrelations. Many American Indians still be- treated lieve that to assume every tribalmember is equal and therefore should be equally demeans the individualityof the person. This inequality is displayed in Henry Old Coyote's descriptionof how relationships differed among members of his fami.ly and clan:

I can't pass in front of certain peoplelike the members of my father's clan unlessI get permission from them. There is no other way. If these older people of the clanhappen to be smoking,,I am not supposed tobe standing up;I am supposed to sit down until theyarethrough. If any of my clan folk are talking,I don't talk at the same time, even tOday. I wait until they are through. The same is true of my wife. If she wants to address'any of the membersof her father's clan and they are smoking,she keeps quiet. (Morey & Gilliam, 1972, p. 63)

The familial roles of infant, sop ordaughter, younger or elder, brOther or sister, husband or wife father ormother indicate mutual expectationsabout,the behaviors of a person as they progress throughseveral roles within alifetiMe. Some aspects remain constant; other aspects arealtered with time and events. An. Indian, just as a non-Indian, establisheshis or her identity as he or she moves this among roles during maturation. An Indian is unlike the non-Indian.in that identity is not established as separate fromhis or her own community, but IS a necessary link to totalfamily identity. Family structures and family obliga-, tions are major cultural differentials(Brislin, 1977).

In traditional and contemporary Indianculture, the family structure is.extended rather thannuclear. In traditional times people werehoused in camps and their primary obligation was towards theirfamily. Each person took on many roles within the extended family system, all of which werelearneeinitially through experiences in specific circumstances. Adherence to these roles was governed by disciplinary protedures such as ostracism, corporalpunishment, and occasional banjshment from the tribe. These social sanctions left little toquestion and a great deal of protocol to follow.

Since the family provided the model for socialrelationships, most relationships were based on patronage and thesharing of reciprocal Obligations. The sharing of information amOng extended familymembers is still conducted by"the informal, yet efficient and accurate "moccasintelegraph" (Attneaye, 1969). To this day, many Indian people are primarilymotivated by collective rather than individual aims. People raised in an extended family system often go togreat lengths to meet their family obligations, even tothe extent of incurring personal loss or danger-, -9-

Traditional Values

In traditional times, socially accepted behaviors werealso,guided by an Indian value system which centered around an intense respect forthe natural order of things. These values included: respect for nonscheduled living, a present time action, non-competitive deference to groupneeds, humility, adherence to ways of the old, sharing, and an acceptance ofothers on the basis of demonstrated personal integrity (Bryde, 1971; Dean, 1973; Hall 1976; Sparta)) 1971; Trimble, 1981). A comparison of generalizations abouttrAitional Indian values and modern American values is provided below to show examples of the,contrast in world views inherent in each system. Traditional values, which were transmitted through familiar social units, more often than not presupposed a strict adherence to emo- tional restraint. Modern American values, on the other hand, encourage a competitive, individual, and forceful posture. Currently, American Indians fall'at varying intervals along the continuum between traditional Indian and contemporary American values.

Modern American Values Indian Cultural Values

Competition Cooperation Technology Wisdom Manipulation of environment Protection of environment Accumulatfng Sharing Delajed gratification " "Present" rather than "future" oriented National interdependence Independence of tribal groups

Modernism ly Respect for tradition 4 -10-

Modern American, Values Indian Cultural Values Old age as a time of reverence Youth as the "golden age" Food gathering, hunting, fishing Industrialization Science Observation Close ties to homeland and the extended Mobility and the nuclear family family (inappropriate Striving for increased individual Group status actively pursued to work for individualstatus) status Punishment Restitution Confrontation Peace and politeness Individual achievement Happy human relationships Devotion of the "new" Endurance/stability relationships "Meaningful relationships" Intense and high personal Wealth or position as a source Character is a source of status of status exist for Many tribes still value rolemodeling today, but few opportunities of family members the transmission of modeledbehavior because of the relocation Family reunions at ceremonial encamp- to urban areas or other reservationareas. of extended ments and special occasions oftenprovide the setting for exchanges These occasions for cul- family modeling and instruction incultural traditions. which often leave tural exchange are few and farbetween the daily interactions cultural settings. contemporary Indians confused abouthow to react in different within the non- To compound the confusion, Indiansmust also take on roles centered Indian dominated, competitive largersociety, which espouses a work ethic for around the accumulation of property,titles or degrees, hobbies, and awards with adaptation of civic duties. Chance (1958) notes the stress which occurs roles requiring cognitively different orcomplex responses,,andinvolving dilemmas between the old and ideal or the alien andoperable values of present dayliving. Every Indian must reconcile for himself orherself which roles from the non- between Indian world he or she wants to take onin order to frame a synthesis cultures. the two cultures and functioneffectively in both Indian and white adhere to tradi- Indians must also decide,when and atwhat_time it is possible to tional roles or use contemporaryroles-appropriately within theIndian community. frequently In keeping with the bicultural aspect ofadaptation, American Indians select from contemporary as well as traditionallymodeled behaviors as guides in interacting in a variety of situations. Eliidence of strong Indianself-identity admist cultural pluralism has been reportedin urban Indians whoparticipate dually in white society while retainingIndian ways (Chadwick & Stauss,1975).

A timely example of the creative integrationof traditional roles concerns responsibility for child a contemporaryinterpretation of the Indian community's (Shore & Nicholls, 1975). care embodiedin the "whipper man" of the Plateau tribe The whipper man functioned in the role ofdisciplinarian. He was a tribal member, respected by elders and young alike, andselected for that roleby tribal leaders and relatives on the basis of personalintegrity. His function was to punish of children who displayed disrespect to. elders. Today this role of regulator control child welfare has been assigned to the tribein the increased community over the development,andplacement of Indian children. surviving despite the Important psychologicalaspects of Indian culture are For example, many Indian people adoption of western technology(Bigart, 1971). patterns of non-aggression andnon-interfer- still use the traditional response stifling of affectual informa- These responses weredesigned to cause the ence. stimuli, thereby promoting tion (fear, anger, hunger)and other stress-producing the cultural values ofrestraint and self-control. psychological suggestion This practice discourageddirect physical, verbal, or meddling. Some and coersion of any kind so as notto appear manipulative or Instead they often state Indians will not ask anyone to grantthem-a request. non-verbally and leave it up tothe other their needs or let theirneeds be known Even reasonable requests-maybe person to choose whether ornot to help them. tojrefuse un- viewed as interference sinceasking a favor forces the person causing discomfort andembarras'sment (Goodtracks, obligingly or agree unwillingly, "help" Non-interference is often used evenwith non-Indians who wish to 1973). is intrusive To tell the non-Indianthat his or her patronization the Indians'. she saw fit. would interfere with thenon-Indian's freedom to act as he or indirect Indian passive behavior may also bedisplayed ih natural forms of To request an item for communication such as hinting,teasing, and disclaiming. Indian child might hint at a special occasion,like a birthday or graduation, an "Hey, if I had a watch the item, rather than directlyask for it, by saying, received like that I could tell time realgood!" If that Indian child has just others May attempt to the watch and was noticeablyproud of this new possession, I'd think I came from tease him or her by chiding,"If I had a watch like that of this watch may wish Battle,Star Gallactica!" On the other hand, the recipient ain't good to play down or disclaim the newpossession by stating, "My watch good, but I think it might be sixo'clock." disclaiming are appro- It is essential to realize thathinting, teasing, and encountered by priate in this subcultural situatidn. Social uncertainties are for both parttes to a voluntary slip ordelicate probe which is subtle enough Disclaimers are avoid a permanent breach while alsodetermining what,jo expect. element used to signify one's opinion and verifyexperience while maintaining an of deference through humorous ordeprecating comments aboutoneself (Dauphinais, understand this indirect com- 1979). Unfortunately, many non-Indians do not munication and are often frustrated byit. involved in The use of indirect conversation isvalid as long as all parties Unfortunately, the communication areknowledgeable of the intent of the message. parties, and particularly so in cross-culturalinteractions, usually one of the has inside knowledge and understands the message,while the other person is confused and feels alienated. Many times an Indian'snon-directive behavior.is Frequently, a non- misinterpreted as passive according to non-Indianstandards. Indian who finds himself or herself in anunstructured anxiety-provoking situa- begin tion reacts with a great deal of activity. The non-Indian person will from action after action until he or she eitherstructures the situation, escapes place, have learned to re- it, or understands it. Many Indians, put in the same Inwardly, they main motionless and watch. Outwardly, they appear tofreeze. of them (Wax & Thomas, 1961). are usingobservation to discover what is expected An Indian usually responds once he or shehas picked up the cuesand feels rela- tively certain that he or she can accomplishwhat is expected. -12-

Passivity towards other Indians aswell as whites can arise out of respect for self-discipline and control. Both.of these attributes were trained at an early age. Non-Indian children learn at an early agethat their success in most areas of life depends upontheir skill as an influencer of others. Instead of practicing restraint, they practicedirecting other people very early in life Non- (Wax & Thomas, 1961). Indian children are trained in socialsensitivity. Indian children are trained in social influence.

Indian obedience is not blind obediencein a passive sense, but is rather a direct line of training toleadership. As a child, the Indian is obedient to his or her elders; as an adult, the Indian iSobedient to ideals (Morey & 1972). Unfortunately, with time the traditiopalbehaviors which discouraged the expression of strong or violent feelings(Attneave, 1969) and obedience to group ideas no longer satisfied the people who endureddisorientation, liquidation of homelands, discouragement of the use of theirnative language, removal of children from the family, and numerous other attempts atseparating the Indian from his or her context.

This is not meant to imply that Indianpeople.lack aggressive feelings. Rather, traditional culture allowed different waysof expressingqeggression no longer used today because of the fragmentation oftribes. As the traditional outlets for aggression became ho longer available forthe contemporary Indians wan, the alternative behaviors constructed by Indians took on a moreimpervious form of passivity, an intangible resistance against anyfurther impact of white standards on the Indian conscience,and a more passive-aggressive way of dismayingthe white expressed in the form of man. Oftentimes, aggressive feelings are more outwardly displaced aggresssion directed toward self, familymembers, and other tribal members.

The most effective means of minimizing frictionestablished by Indian people was and is the focus on groupidentity rather than individual identity. There appears to be factionali'sm and conflictamong,tribes until non-Indian forces threaten the welfare of Indian people. When thjs occurs a surprisingly strong, collective Indian unity emerges. Traditionally, American Indians experienced as much individual freedom as they wanted or needed aslong as they obeyed the rules concerning group relations.

Today, many Indians try to blend the adaptive values androles of both the culture in which they were noised and the culture bywhich they are surrounded. Many Indians follow the advice of Sitting Bull: "When you find anything good in the white man's road, pick it up. When you find something that is bad, or turns out bad, drop it and leave it alone!" Following the wisdom of Sitting Bull, Indians may utilize the natural powers which were granted tothem and behave openly, directly, and forcefully.when the occasion callsfor it,.particularly in the name of Indian people. Through effective communication, Indians can protect their heritage, reach compromises acCeptable to bothIndian and non-Indian cultures, and prosper through self-determination. Indian people can still be quiet and self-disciplined, using bravery (assertiveness)when necessary to stand up for the rights of all Indian people.

Today., the Indian behavior system is generally non-assertive inintent (how the Indian wants to express feeling), passive aggressivein effect (how the other -13- person perceives thebehavior)and non-interfering in social context(what the accumulation of in- sub-culture expects). For many Indians today, the saving or dividual feelings inhibits the feeling ofunity and power within the group, allowing the spirit of the circle to bebroken. The custom which forbids making a child do what he or she doesnot want to do was designed to fosterindependence and confidence, both assertive traits. The traditional norms which determined performance, acting or not acting, were based onassertive feelings ("I want to" or "I don't want to") not logicalreasoning -(Morey & Gilliam, 1972).

American Indians want more than survival. Pl'hey want to decide their own wants and needs and have the ability totake care of these needs themselves. Assertiveness goes far beyond following one's own inclination. Responsible assertiveness includes a respect for one's ownrights while simultaneously considering the rights of others (Alberti & Emmons,1974) and the power of others (Cheek, 1976). The goal of this assertion training program isthat Indians might progress beyond adaptive survival toinitiating and monitoring self-determination. By self-determination Indians mean: the right of Indians to decide programsand 'policies for themselves, to manage their own affairs,to govern themselves, and to control their land and its resources(Josephy, 1971). In the later 1960's and early 1970's the federal government began toacknowledge that Indians should have this right. Finally in 1973, Congeess officially adopted thepolicy of self- determination (P.L. 93-.638, 88 Stat. 2203).

Indians realize hat in order to build viable societiesfor themselves, they must recognize the limitations of beingsurrounded by non-Indians and they must accept the necessity of being able tocommunicate effectively with them. This is often difficult for some Indians to dobecause of cultural discriminations which ignore their right to be Indian and theirright to protection of lands through treaties. For some Indian people, the struggle is toretain rights to their land and resources; for some it is to gain employmentand economic security; for some it is the right of Indians to decide theplacement of their children in homes or schools of their choice.

The interest in assertion training with AmericanIndians is growing as evidenced by the number of Indian groups requestingthis type of training. In- terest is also sounded in the rhetoric of Indianpolitical statements which use the verbage of assertiveness: "Indian parent committees must be able to a44ent their legal rights and responsibilities and developwell-organized proposals" (Midge Between Two Dioted&, 1977). "It is not enough just to defend one's way of life. We must a4ent our rights and exercise our sovereignty"(Peaches, 1978).

This training.manual is an attempt to answer questions concerning appropriate methods of training American Indians in assertivecommunication skills. The content addresses issues which occur in cross'-culturalassertiveness and emphasizes that cultural variables may affect the appropriatenessof assertive behavior. 8y reviewing the historical,,cultural, ethical, andpractical implications of training American Indians in.assertion skills, it is hopedthat trainers can help American Indian traiVes meet the general demands of anassertive society, defend their special rignts as sovereign people, discriminatethe appropriateness of acting assertively within Indian cultures, and enact assertivemessage-mkching and counter-assertions in bicultural interchanges. CHAPTER III

AS.SERTION TRAINING MODEL

learning-based The model selected for thisassertion training program is a rehearsal', and feedback. This one composed ofinstruction, modeling, behavior conducted model has been proven to be moreeffective than assertion training Some critics through discussion groups alone(Percell, Berwick, & Biegels, 1974). led discussion group onlyprovides half a training situa- state that even the best and tion since it does not lead toaction. Reinforcement, self-observation, self-evaluation are also incorporatedin the feedback segment oftraining.

Group Formation and Composition

to ten par- The ideal size of an asSertiontraining group consists of seven for ticipants (Lange & Jakubowski,1976). This is ideal but may be unrealistic assertion training this population, since mostIndian organizations which sponsor with a select number sessions ogerate on limitedbudgets which prohibit training When this occurs, it is suggestedthat a trainer might hire of participants. exhibited paraprofessionals, who have previouslyattended assertion workshops and conducting group training skills, to assist incoaching, giving feedback, and preferably exercises during behavior rehearsal. The value of two trainers, number of role models a man and a womp, isrecognized since it increases the provided, and also available to tra'nees, increasesthe amount of information allows for a1rating leadershiproles. Although the literature recommends be necessary six to nine two-hour sessions(Lange & Jakubowski, 1976), it may schedules. that training with Indian groups beconducted during in-service training

Another recommendation, which may beunrealistic yet desirable toimplement, Screening could be accom- is the screening of participantsprior to training. trainer plished during a twenty-minute intakeinterview conducted by the assertion to begin train- with each interested individual oneweek before the target date the appropriateness ofindividuals ing. Trainers will have difficulty assessing of what will.take for assertion training unless theyhave a clear understanding place in an assertion group, goals ofthe group, and the rationalebehind federal, state, or reserva- assertion training. Where workshops are organized by tion program directors, elaborate screeningprocedures are difficult to implement. who Trainers should warn program directorsagainst subtly pressuring people display extremely nonassertive or extremelyaggressive behaviors to participate in the training.

I.) -15-

Training Rationale and Goals

The rationale of this programis based on the behavioral principlethat in a assertive behavior is learned;therefore, teaching one to be assertive variety of situations, whilesimultaneously reinforcing assertive responses, speaking reduces the anxiety associatedwith interpersonal situations involving only

The specific goals of thistraining program include: being able to defend and feel-- one's chosen way of life; beingable to assert one's opinions, ideas, ings about ways of improving andpreserving Indian culture; learning to communicate effectively in both Indianand non-Indian cultures; learningcommunica- against the tion skills which,enhanceself-determination; learning coping skills pressures of acculturation;and learning discrimination skillsconcerning the cultural appropriateness of assertivebehavior in the Indian community.

Criteria for Trainee Selection

Having these goals in mind, trainersshould consider the following indicators of appropriate behavior for choosingmembers of an assertion training group: conveys awillingness to try totalk openly and share ideas with others;has problems of an interpersonal nature; canidentify and describe several Ocidences of passiveness; is self-referred;wishes to act differently; and indicates a willingness to work at changing behavior. Behaviors of a person deemed inappropriate for assertion training may include: extremely nonassertive-br aggressive behaviors; an unwillingness to talk; problemsof a more severe nature than interpersonal difficulties; inability toidentify and describe incidences of nonassertion; and unawareness of the goals of anassertive training group. More specifically, behavioral indicators ofinappropriateness for assertion training long response latencies, groups include: rigid body posture, rigid hand movements, flat affect, and compliant verbal content(Sansbury, 1974). The effort and time involved in screening and pre-testing areencouraged by the.finding that screening and pre-testing alone (without assertiontraining) can improve assertive content and reduce anxiety (Galassi, Galassi,& Litz, 1974).

Instructions

Each phase of assertive training is introducedby a didactic or instructional segment intended to inform the traineesabout theoretical and practical elements of assertive behavior. Instructions generally followself-assessment and efforts to develop a group assertivebelief system. These theoretical and pracical elements of assertiveness are discussedbriefly and simply throughout training since the main emphasis in assertiontraining involves behayior rehearsal and feedback. There are a variety of books on assertionwhich are -16-

(Alberti & Emmons, 1974; excellent for homework'assignmentsand bibliotherapy 1977a; Lange & Jaku- Cheek, 1976; Colter & Guerra,1976; Galalki and Galksi, Some colleges offer coursesin assertion training for those bowski, 1976). assertiveness in more trainees who would like tounderstand the concepts of detail (Whitely & Flowers,1978).

to remember thepreviously stated goals of this It is importan't for trainers illustrations of situa- Assertion Training with AmericanIndians program and use people whenever possible tions which reflect the problemsand concerns of Indian imparts an understanding while giving instruipons. The first instructional area behavior, including of what constitutes assertive,aggressive, and nonassertive components of each (see theAssertive Behavior, Message the verbal and non-verbal Trainers should also \Matching, and Indian Non-verbalCommunication chapters). behavior is a learned behaviorand that there are keep in mind that assertive or is per- social consequences and beliefswhich influence whether a person acts ceived as acting assertively,aggressively, or nonassertively. situation-specific The key instructional elementin this program is the By situation-specific, itis meant that trainees in nature of assertiveness. apropriate settings this program must learn todiscriminate various culturally non-verbal behaviors in and the appropriateness ofcontent, para-language, and assertions. Trainers delivering assertive messages,particularly in inter-racial and with whom it is cul- must help traineeslearn to discriminate when,,where, turally appropriate to be assertive. One of the most importantdiscriminations with people involves "people appropriateness,"the implications of assertiveness differently from other cultures (Cheek,1976). Different people talk and think assertive trans- about the same phenomena. In order to effectively enact an possible perceptual dif- action, trainees must understandthe orientation and (see Chapter V). ferences which result from variousorientations of target people

Although many trainees are intuitively awareof the duality of contemporary in mainstream Indian behavior in work and traditionalsettings, Indian behavior Cultural society often conflicts with what isappropriate in Indian society. assumptions encapsulation perpetuates, build-inblinders, hidden and unstated Critical situations arise that control one's thoughts, feelings,and attitudes. and are when trainees encounter members ofanother culture, raise their young, forced to explain things to them, orsupport traditionalcultural institutions from the at question by the dominant society. Group discussions which arise ideas presented during the instructionalelement of the program often force Thus, trainees to look at the hidden structuresand meanimqls of Indian ways. discussions which occur during instruction'alsoprovide an opportunity for comparisons of Indian ways and mainstreamsociety's ways. for several Many authors on assertion trainingprovide discussion guides training: ex- content areas surrounding the threemajor focuses of assertion pressing positive feelings, expressingnegative feelings, andself-affi.rmation. for these content Galassi and Galassi (1977a) provideexcellent instructions beliefs about rights, conse- areas. They also discuss the counter-productive wIlich are associated quences of behavior, and how peopleshould appear to others with each of the following. -17-

Giving compliments; receiving Expeisis.big po,sitive6extingis. 1. like, love, and compliments; makingrequests; expressing affection; initiatingand maintaining conversation. Standing up far leOtimaterights; 2. See6-a66itmativn. opinions including refusing requests;expressing personal disagreement.

6eefingis. Expressing justified annoyance 3. Exp4e4z4.n9 negative and displeasure;expressing anger.

Types of Assertions

types of respond more acceptinglyto different levels or Different people program assertions have beenselected for this tr.ining assertions. Three types of basic relevance to Indian waysof living andcommunicating: on the basis of Jakubowski, assertions, and escalatingassertions (Lange & assertions, emphathic for personal are the simpleexpression, of standing up 1976). Bousic aziseAtionis intricate social opinions. They do not involve rights, beliefs, feelings, or The content of basicassertions skills but do involveexpressing honest feelings. self-affirmation, andexpressing-neyative involves e4ressingpositive feelings, Some examples of basicassertions are: "I feelings (Galassi & Galassi,1977a). hour to think it over,""I find your like you very much,""I'd like to have an constant interruptionsannoying." other used to convey empathyor sensitivity to the Empathid a,s4sWi.oni6 are They involve making a beAnid simply expressingone's feelings or needs. person person's feelings orposition statement whcch conveysunderstanding of the other the speaker's rights,in thesitua- and are also followed'by a statement supporting enjoytalking about For example, "I realizethat you really tion (Jakubowski,1977). that agreed to come bere with youwith the understanding the conference, but I The effects of empathic working on our classpresentation together." we would be respond to assertionswhen their feel- assertions are twofold: people more readily first; and the speaker moreclearly understands the ings have been recognize? responding to reflect uponthe other situation when he orshe takes time prior to generally helps settlethe impact of person's feelings. This type of assertion should not be when it must be conveyed. Empathic assertions negative information accepting bad neWs. used, however, tomanipulate a person into to reserved for timeswhen the receiver fails E4catatin2 azzeAtion4 are rights (Rimm assertion or continues toviolate the speakers respond to a basic assertive response. This type of assertionbegins with a minimal & Masters, 1974). assertion and does not respond orattend to the minimel When the'other person escalates the speaker's rights, thespeaker gradually continues to violate the which might be increasingly firm whileoffering statements assertion and becomes For example, in asitua- the onset of.theinterchange. inappropriate if used at she might use the ftllowing tion where a man'istrying o pick up a woman, procedure to escalate theassertion: -18-

"It is nice for youito offer'togive me a ride, but a friend is picking Filz up anyminyte." (Basic Assertion)

"No thank-you,'I ihtend.to waitfor.her." (Minimal

Assertion) ,

If the Rik' paisists to the point of annoyance,tha woman might say:

"This,is the third and last timeI'm going to tell you I don't want a ride. Please leave!" (scalatory Assertioh)

An additional aspect of escalatingassertionsis the "contract option" where is, in,the other person is.forewarned ofwhat the final assertion might be and therefore, given-an opportunity toalter,the behavior before a need for the final assertioo'arises (Lange & Jakubowski,1976).. A contract option for the situatlon above_might be to say, "If you don'tstop harassing me,I will take down your license number and report you to thapolice. I'd-rather-not do that, but I will in escalating if yOu don;t. leave me alone."The effect of the contract opt* If atated\i-n a highly emo- assertions depends upon-thespeaker's tone of voice. tional tone,the'meSsag-ais'receiVed 'as athreat, perhaps 'even a 6hallenge. If gives stated in a metter-of-faCt mannerand tone of Voice, the message,Simply the other person knowledge 'of theconsequencesfwkich will. odcur*if the speaker's rights continue to.beviolated-(Lange &Jakubowski, 1976).

Modeling

'Another important instructional componentin assertion training is the,use - The videotaped of live or wideotaped models todemonstrate assertive behavior. modeling in this program illustrates situationsIndians frequently encounter. The models also proyide typical reactions.ofcertain target people to Indian assertive behavior.' When trainees observe smodel's assertive statement and action and the conseque ces of-assertivebehavio ,,they learn assertive beha/ior vicariously, in much thk same way as ifthey,experienced the situation directly gives the trainees (Bandura, 1971). Observa ional learning via modeling also their fear unsaid permission to engagein.assertivebehavior and helps them reduce 'concerning individual or culturalpotentiality forlassertiveness(Lange & Jakubowski,61976).

, Formal ,modeling is provided Oy aseries of twenty-miputev,ideotapes created aldlArizona by the author, enacted by'Indian peoplefrom Oklahoma, North Dakota, enhancing (Rowe & LaFrtmboise, 1979). These videotapes'wilA be particularly for non-Indian trainers, since they attempt.tocompensate for the cultual difference between trainer and teainees thataffects trainees' motivatton,and participation in depth of self-exploration'. 'A noticeableincrease in trainee behavior rehearsal occurs once traineesvieW these videotapes. 1.nformation, Center, concerning availability may beobtained from the Instructional Services 73070. College of Eduption, -University of.0klahoma, Norman, Oklahoma -19-

V. "CanA,s4eAti.vcene.s4 Bene6.(1t Indian Peopec?" is a Stimulus videotape' designed to elitit StronTfeelingsin Indian people about their need to be assertive. These feelings are,evoked.by three scenesentitled and "One More Ti'me" in which . "School Board MeetIng," Job Interview," suffer negative consequences as a ' Indian people are nonassertive and result '(see Exercise 4,'p.58). t. 2. 'Tow Can We Tak to Make OtheuLizten?" is a testimonial vtdeotape involving three scenes in which'Indian'peoplediscuss times when they After - have been assertivearid good thir* came to them as a result. each testimonial ,-they demonstratehow they behaved as5ertively in.the situation. The scenes are entitled, "BigSister," "Work vs. S.taying Home," and "The Professor" (see Exercise 6, p.60).

3. "What Do We Mean byAA4eAtive?"'provides a variay 'of situations mode.- ing asSertive, nonassertive', and aggressivebehavior. A trainer may .use this yideotapa toillustrate the verbal and nonverbal components of each type of behavior or teachtraineesto begin to discriminate the difference and vinsequences of eachbehavior (see Exercise 7, p. 60);

6' 4. "Mesage Match-ing" illuStrates howIndians talk differently to Indians and Whites. Indian people model how they talk.assertivelyabout the same problem to five differentkinds of tauet people: conventional Whites, Whites with people'orientation, Indianswith non-Indian orientation, Indians with Indian orientation,and traditional Indisns. . The four segments of this videotalpe areentitled: "Right to Worship," "Right to be'Different," "R-ight to DetermineWho Is Indian," and "Self- Determination" (see Exercise 15, p. 64).

must 5. "Duat gota"." This videotape demonstrates how an Indian person assess what his or herrole is'in the situation in relation to the target person. Since contemporary roles and rights ofIndian people are either ill-defined or in a state of culturalflux, trainees must be able to detect differences as they move fromwork settings to cultural settings. Two scenes are enacted to illustratethe differences in cultually-appropriate behavior occurring on the joband it political and social interactions. Scene Finvolves an Indian womanconsultant andmale Indian program director in theoffice and then at a parent committee meeting. Scenb If involves a male tribal elderand younger male tribal planner in the office and thenattending a tribal council meeting (see Exercise 14, p. 64).

6. The right to self-determination isreenacted in the videotape entitled "Back-up Azzentions." This videotape demonstrates what to'do when negative reactions occur as a result ofassertive behavior. Back-up assertions are open inquiries as to howthe message was received for purposes of restatement orclarification (see Exercise 17, p.66).

7. ."DitiSeient Way4 to A44eAt Yowl_Right's" demonstrates basic,empathetic, and escalating assertions in scenesentitled "Fight vs. Movie" and"Car Trouble" (see Exercise 12, p. 63). -20-

provided by the trainer Informal live modeling ofalternative behaviors may be Group members can use mini-modeling of afew and trainees throughouttraining. experiences. Many assertion responses to demonstrate,rather than report assertive alSo involve trainee-to-trainee modeling .exercises and assertionsimulation games frequently used during behavior of assertive behaviors. Informal modeling is most choose to take the role of thesender or rehearsal. Trainers and trainees may Situation has been practiced to illustrate engage in role reversalafter a problem Trainers may decide alternative ways ofhandling the situation asserti'vely. whether or not to mode, a behavioraccording to the following criteria: the trainer's values on thesender? 1. Will the modeling impose from modeling or from the use of 2. Would the sender benefit more self-evaluation and trainer/traineefeedback (Lange & Jakubowski, 1970?

Behavior Rehearsal

Behavior rehearsal appears to bethe core procedure of assertiontraining refiearsal through (ShoemWer & Satterfield, 1977). A frequent use of behavior and refine their training provides an opportunityfor group members to practice rehearsal have been reported assertive skills. Several components of behavior role reversal, reinforce- in the training literature. In this program rehearsal, ment, self-assessment, andcoaching are emphasized. . rehearse a Behavioral rehearsal in assertiontraining rquires a person to (target person) of situation with other trainees who playthe role of receiver The sender learns primarilythrough discovery and self- the assertive meassage. could happen in real life. assessment while practicingsimulated situations which Practice affords a person a chance tothink through what he or she wants of its experiential,emotion-arousing to say. Practice is also effective because forces a person to learn as much nature. The work of worrying or anticipating for possible negative as event. It prepares the trainees as possib:le about an surprised by them. well as positive effects of assertivebehavior so as nOt to be he or she might do Anticipation also acts as a catalystfor one to envision what This intricate prepare-, if negative effects do occur(Brislin & Pedersen, 1976). develop a sense of tion reduces anxiety about thesituation and'helps trainees when appre- confidence in their ability to performthe practiced as,sertion even Both those actively involved in hensive (Booraem, Flowers; & Schwartz,1978). assertiveness from the role play and those who observethe role play learn about variety of alternative responses behavior rehearsal. They learn to prepare-for a from the.target person. practice pre- In the initial stages of assertivebehaviorvreheasal, trainees which detail each responsemade arranged situations. These are written scripts the role play situation by the target person and provideconcrete guides about involve expressing positive and nega- and intent of the sender. The content areas this nature, adapted from tive feelings and self-affirmation. Some role plays of for Indian Behavior the Natiye American AssertiveSimulator, entitled "Scripts -21- - r rehearsal (Native Rehearsals" are provided inAppendix IV for use in behavior They may also serve as examples for trainees American Learning Corporation,1978). Group members should practice thesesituations who wish to create their ownscripts. confidence, the lines of the target person maybe several times. As they develop varied to force the sender to reactspontaneously.

Script Writing

is Since assertiveneSs issituation-specific, the use of standard situations in real Limited since they onlytape someaspects of difficulty trainees encounter from the trainee's experience life situations. It is preferred to use situations because assertiveness has bgen found togeneralize only to behavioral situations similar to those used in training(Kirschner, 1976). To encourage generalization, trainees may_be asked to keep dailylogs of assertive behaviors in homeworkassign- (Galassi & ments, in prerghearsed interactions,and in recent real-life situations their own scripts about Galassi, 1977a). Trainees may also be asked to write differently personal situations they.haveencountered in which they wished to behave provided by.Bower or more assertively. Guidelines for constructing scripts are and Bower (1976). The context of the script shouldclearly define:

1. What problem is occurring; 2. Where the persons are; 3. Who the persons are (includingstatus and degree of external control of each); 4. When the event is occurring; 5. What the Sender's specific goal is; 6. What the sender's specific right is; 7. What the target person's specificright is; and 8: What the sender wishes to express(MacDonald, 1975).

Another helpful source of information fortrainees writing their own assertive scripts comes from observing others in similarroles practicing assertiveness and noticing the circumstances under which they wereassertive, their methods of being assertive, and how others react to theirassertion. This exposes group members to an awareness of a variety ofassertive styles and gives the trainerand trainees information about the cultural context andregional and tribal differences in which trainees are learning to be assertive. .

Evaluation of Consequences

Before the actual role.play, trainees mustfirst evaluate the situation in order to determine what assertive behavior is required(Galassi & Galassi, 1977a).- ,Trainees may do this by referring back toelements.included in the script,determining what-the probable short-term and long-term consequencesof various courses of action are, how they wish tobehave in the situation, and Whatresponsibilities accompany - and long-term the behavior., Some otherdimensions in the appraisal of short-term consequences of assertjveneS's include: -22-

the situation; 1. Degree of intimacy in present; 2. Intensity of emotion the target person,including sex and race; 3. Perceived status of the sender in thesituation; and 4. Perceived status of observers present(Cheek, 1976;-MacDonald, 5. Number and status of 1975).

Role Play Procedures

other trainees to roleplay with Trainees then choose asituation and select smaller segments inOrder to The total situationis broken down into them. the anxiety whichaccompanies Simplify the sender'sconcentration and reduce After one or two brieftransactions, the trainer lengthy behavior rehearsals. what they asks the observingtrainees to tell the sender stops the rehearsalipnd The sender is en- assertive about thecommunication. thought was particularly This type of whether he or she agreeswith the feedback. couraged to assess the final reinforcement and allowsthe sender to conduct feedback gives positive sender- accepted or rejected,the trainer asks the judgment. After feedback is role plays specific areas forimprovement and,the sender to identify one or two follow the role the sebment_of the scene oncemore. Feedback and self-assessment increases in assertivebehavior over the play again, with thetrainer emphasizing might suggesting one oe twoadditional changes the sender first role play and anxiety, the scene is Once the sen er actsassertively with little,or no try. is suceessfullyaccomplished. extended, practiced, andcoached until each segment assertively 4-4iie finalbehavior rehearsal. The entire scene is ekacted

Cognitive Restructuring'Procedures.

become proficient in Some additional techniqueswhich may help trainees include:. role reversals,modeling, assertively completingbehavior rehearsals of to negative reactions.At the end of each segment and practice in responding sender in disputing anycounter- the scene, the trainer mayalso work with the block action and lead torationalizations about being productive beliefs which fordtrainers which Galassi and Galassi (1979) haveoffered some cues nonassertive. during, be battling withcounterproductive beliefs indicate that a trainee may assertion training These cues areparticularly important in behavior rehearsal. and values differfrom those with American Indians sincetheir bellef systems held by members of thedominant society. and more anxious withrepated behavfor re- If a group member.becomes more This may be evidenced hearsals, he or she may beexperiencing internalconflict. hostile, or increasingly more- by the trainee becomingincreasingly aggressive or In this case thetrainer asks whether hesitant and displayingfaltering speech. anxiety can be behavior. The increase'in or not thetrainee was pleased with the before and trainee's self-reportedanxiiety levels assesse'd by compar'ing the simply stating, "I Other indicatorsinclude the memb r after each rehearsal. ehaving nonassertively. offering excuse.after excusefor can't deal with it," or intro uce cognitiverestructuring When internal conflict isidentified, trainers may -23-

. . procedures (Lange & Jakubowski,1976). Trainers may help group mem6ers with counterproductive beliefs by assisting themin learning to dispute the beliefs and helping them reverse theirperspective by asking how they would feel in the other person's position: Once the trainer hasdetected the counterproductive belief, he or she may ask the membet thefollowing questions:

1. Is,the belief true?

2. Why is it true?

3. What evidence supports thebelief? wanto feel? 4. Does the belief help you feel the way you

5. Does the.belief help you toachieve your goals without hurting .others?

6. Does the belief help you to avoidsignificant unpleasantness without simulataneously denyieg your ownrights?

Trainers may also ask opinions fromother group Members concerning thelikely impact and.consequences of the trainee'sfeared assertive behavior- In extreme cases the trainer may teachthe trainee thought-stoppidg procedures tointerrupt stubborn and frequently=occurringibeTiefs(Galassi & Galassi, 1977a) or may provide.relaxation training as a supplementaryhomework assignment.

Once successful behavior rehearsal occurs,trainees are encouraged to use increasingly/tdmplex situations in trying out theirnewly acquired assertive skills in real life settings, beginning withsituations-which would be least difficult and progressing to more difficult apdanxiety-provoking situations. For example, a trainee may wisn to refuse a requestto lend $200 to an acquaint- ance before refusing a request togive $200 to a relative to help paythe rent.

In summary, behavior rehearsal can be utilized not onlyfor practicing and of clarifying one's beliefs .- refining assertive responses, but also for purposes about rights and responsibilities.

Feedback

ThroughOut role plays, the trainer frequently stopsthe.rehearsal after one Feedback is a fdrm of self- or tem brieftransactions to provide tor feedback. disclosure in which a person relates to anotherinformation concerning how his or her performancehas affected the person.

Feedback in assertion training evolves from foursources--trainer, trainee, . and fellow trainees observing the behaviorrehearsal, and videotape (if avail- is the trainer's able). The crucial requirement in giving accurate feedback power of observation. Some people can form sharp impressionsof whatever is going on around them, in themselves, and in others. Many American Indians -24- maintain this attribute. The average person has no conception of how to observe facial expressions, the look of the eye, orthe tone of voice Which reveal the state ofcmind of the person. Observational skills must then be modeled by trainers to enhance the existing observational powersof trainees. Trainers should also. give group members opportunities tosystematically practice giving-feedback.

Guidelines for giving'feedback areprovided to help the trainer giye systematic he of,she felt s.elf-disclosure. Trainers should begin by asking the sender how immediately following the role play, whathe Or she liked or disliked about his or her performance, andhow anxious he or she felt during the role play. Trainers then point out any positive aspects of therole play performance. If it is difficult to find positive aspects, the trainer maysimply state, "I'm glad you made it tlfrough the scene" (Galassi & Galassi, 1979). Trainers then shape the desired response by reinforcingincrements of improved assertive behavior.

It is important that trainers be specific ingiving feedback concerning exactly which verbal and non-verbal behaviors are positive. A list of verbal and non-verbal behaktiors necessary for assertiveness is provided inAppendix IX. After all positive feedback has been given, the trainer offersdegative feedback by describing one or two behaviors which couldbe improved. The trainer suggests ideas for improving these behaviors and asks the trainee for his orher personalj.eactions to the suggestions. The sender may wish to accept, refuse,'ormodify the feedback suggestions.

Gaiassi and Galassi (1977a)_recommend using "criteria cards"which are 3" x 5" cards with the following information reprinted onthem.

How anxious or relaxed were you? . Suds score? Eye contact? Relaxed posture? Nervous_ laughter or joking? Excessive or unrelated head, hand, and body movements?

What did you say? Say what you really wanted to say? Comments concise, to the point, and appropriate? Comments definitive, specific, and firm? Perhaps a factual reason, but no long-winded explanation, excuses, or apologetic behavior?

How did yo6 say it? Almost immediately after the other person spoke? No hesitancy or stammering in your voice? Volume, tone, and inflection'approprtate? No whining, pleading, or sarcasm?

Thisiassertion training program encouragesnon-professional rather than pro- guiding trainees in giving fessional coaching. Criteria cards are most effective in feedback during behavior rehearsal. As the training progresses, coachingfrom a .variety of trainees (rather than solelyfrom the trainer) occurs naturally Ifthe -25-

It has been found that trainer encourages and reinforcesfeedback from trainees. trainees coached by other group membersdisplay less need for assistance in later assertions than those coached byprofessionals. The trainees who serve as cdaches participants who -also display superior performancein later,assertions than those Initially, feed- did not have the opportunity to coach(Flowers & Guerra, 1974). However, after back from trainees often is ndt veryspecific or constructive. session and been around the traiher has modeled giving feedback throughout the from group to each triad during role playsgiving feedback, more accurate feedback --, members occurs and theanxiety associated with givingnegative feedback diminishes. Thetrainermaywisntorefertocoinnunicationskillstraining manualsfor,activities in self-disclosure and giving feedback.

In Indian to white behavior rehearsals,the author recommends concentrating to feedback on eye contact and the contentof the message, since non-Indians attend content the words which are spoken more thanthey attend to the manner in which the tha author recommends conis delivered. During Indian to Indian interchanges, centrating feedback on non-verbalbehavior since the non-verbal components of a peRson's message may have more impact on theIndian receiver than the verbal components.

It is again emphasized that feedback is bilateral. Trainees may accept, refuse, The trainer can display or modify feedback suggestions(Lange & Jakillbowski, 1976). what . a nonjudgmental facilitativeattitude by saying, "What's your reaction to I've said?" or "What do you think?" or"Do you see it a lot differently than Ido?" Coaching differs from feedback in that it take the form of suggestions rather than imposed descriptions of what'constitutesappropriate assertive response.

Another type of bilateral feedback emploxed inthis program concerns interracial or interpersonal conflict on theparf of "the sender-during-behav-ior rehearsal. It is a common occurrence with Indianpeople to experience conflict from the competing values of Indian automomy versuscultural self-preservation and because of a continual fluctuation between Indianand white role expectations:. Trainers can help Indian trainees decide when andif assertiveness should be used by exploring the following questions: How important is the situation tome? How am - I likely to feel afterwards if I don't assertmyself in the situation?How much will it cost me to assert myself in thesituation (Lange & Jakubowski,1976)?

Feedback outside of assertion training comes from thetarget person, the trainee's internalized feelings about the event, andthe social reinforcement the trainee receives from his or her culturalenvironment. Assertive behaiior is expected to increase the likelihood of a personobtaining social rewards and s-upports (Adinolfi, McCourt, & Geoghegan,1976). Since the probability of Indian trainees receiving rewards from the dominantsociety for assertive behavior is low, trainees should be taught to select situationswith high probabilities that, assertiveness will be rewarded and also encouragedto meet with fellow group members after training to reinforce each other'sassertive behavior. (Sansbury,1974). is included A questionnaire entitled "AssertionTraining-ReinfOrcers Questionnaire" in Appendix V, which is designed to help trainees assesswhat natural reinforcers fOr assertive behavior reside in their owncommunities (David, 1972). -26-

Another type of feedback is videotape feedback.The advantage of this less personal method lies in the ability to isolate aspects of the communicator's difficulty through replays of the tape for more accurate, diagnostic feedback. Trainees have reportedly improved their performance more quickly with videotape feedback than from personal feedback from trainer and trainees. It is much easier to teach the essential component of display of affect in assertiveness using videotape feedback procedures (Eisler, Miller, & Hersen, 1973). -However, it has been suggested that the use of videotape during the initial stages of assertion training may have an overwhelming effect (Gormally et al., 1975). If trainers decide to use videotape, they should introduce the medium cautiously by allowing the trainees to experiment with using the equipment and become comfortable with it for a period of time. Although receiving feedback from videotapes may provide the strongest message, it may also have a most devastating effect if not accepted well by the trairiees.

Homework Assignments

Extensive assessment prior to training using the Adult Self-Expression Scale (Gay, Hollandsworth, & Galassi, 1975) will not only_fielp trainers plan the content of training but also identify recurring troub9P areas, behaviors, or ta people for planning homework assignments.

An initial homework assignment,might involve having group members tell people who are close to them that they are trying to change some aspects of their behavior. This prepares significant others for new behaviors on the part of the trainees. Another initial assignment involves asking trainees to observe a person who could be considered a good role model of culturally appropriate assertiveness and take note of specific yerbal and non-verbal behaviors which he or she displays. Group members should also be forewarned that Occasionally adverse reactions may occur from people who have a stake in their remaining nonassertive. These people may resist their efforts toward personal growth, since it might change the desired nature of the relationship. As previously stated, homework assignments may consist of keeping a daily log of assertive and nonassertive situations, identifying rights, recording thoughts and.feelings about Indian assertive behaviors, and other similar activities (Galassi & Galassi, 1977a; Sandmeyer, Ranck, & Chiswick, 1979).

Trainers may ask trainees to report what happened during homework assignments in order to encourage them to continue. As trainers check on the assignments, they should first find out whether the tasks were completed by asking for a specific description of the event, including the trainee's self-reported behavior as well as a description of how the trainee felt during and after the event.More difficult assignments should not be assigned until trainees feel comfortable both/before and after the 6-Vent.

If group members report having completed homework assignments, trainers should reinforce them for having done so. Traine;s may also wish to discuss similar situations in which equivalent assertionsiilay be judged appropriate or inappropriate. Trainers ask trainees how they feel about being assertive in certain situations and -27-

attitudes concerning their honest reinforce appropriatelyassertive verbalized and open feelings(MacDonald, 1975). assignments, they may become As trainees become moreaccustomed to homework choose to work collaborativelyin deciding upon their more self-directed or situations learned individual homework assignments. They may want to try out what behaviors they thinkthey that day in training, orthey may simply decide should work on until, the nexttr'aining sessioqo

design components oftraining which reflect the The author has attempted to people, preferred representationtalsystems of Indian inflUence of Indian culture, learning-based model by encouraging and culturally accepted waysof learning into the assertive behavior. For the cultural as well assituational appropriateness of discussion of culture-specificissues concerning American- this reason, a lengthy and non-verbal Indian behavior, rights andresponsibilities, message matching, the detailed trainingexercises communication in the nextfour chapters precedes of Chapter VII. CHAPTER IV

INDIAN RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

The assertion of Indian rights has comeabout because tribes at long last have begun totake their rights of self-government seriously and the courts are takingthem seriously too. (Senator Edward Kennedy, 1978, p. 1)

One of the basic goals of assertiontraining is to develop a positive belief system about the right to acthonestly and to express throughts, feelings,and describe this right as a -beliefs openly. To do so, current training programs "human right" (Alberti & Emmons, 1970;Lange & Jakubowski, 1976). This idea sug- imposed gests that all humans possessrights regardless of the cultural limitations on them by Westernvalue systems or regardless of theintolerance for.racial and religious differences inherent in theWestern concept of "universal humanbeings" training programs (Morey & Gilliam, 1972). The basic rights of many assertion honest reflect the theme of entitlement of peopleto act assertively and to express feelings, beliefs, and thoughts. Human rights imply that:

1. Peaple have the right to respectfrom others.

have these needs 2. People have the right to have leeds and to be a§ important as other people'sneeds.

feelings and to express these 3. People have the right to have feelings in ways which do not violate thedignity of others.

4. People have the right to decidewhether to meet others' expectations or to act in ways which fitthem as long as they act in a manner respectful of therights or others.

opinions and to express 5. People have the rioght to form their own these opinions. (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976)

Indian people are Very skeptical of theconcept of basic human rights since they have experienced numerous instancesin which their rights have been dE..ed due to the oppressive policies of theUnited States government (such as removal, of the poor"'is not allotment, termination). The Indian's survival as "poorest only a material poverty but a poverty ofreasonable choices, a lack of freedoms, and a poverty of spirit(Warrior, 1970).-

When Indian\trainees were asked whatthey thought of each of the FiveBaSlc these Rights in the program of Lange andJakubowski (1976), they indicated that (Rowe, Eoying, rights had little meaning forIndian ways of thinking and living than submission; & LaFromboise, 1977). The basic belief that assertion-7rather satisfying hostility, or manipulation--enricheslife and ultimately leads to more personal relationships with others maybe challenged by AmericanIndian trainees. -29-

They frequently question the appropriatenessof these beliefs in their cultures which value:

1. acquisition of respect throughsharing and honorabledeeds; 2. priority for group needs overindividual needs; 3. non-interference in the communication of thoughts andfeelings; 4. adherence to culture role expectations; 5. preference for the expression-of person opinions when called upon.

In assertion, training, it is necessary toconiider Indian rights for various reasons. Trainees will be more likely to stand up forthemselves against criticism once they have developed apositive belief.system which can justifyassertive situation once they know what ' actions. They will understand better how to act in a \\their individual and special 'rights are. They will find it-easier to stand up for themselves when they realize that they are also a5sertingthe rights of Indian people -61_general. Before they can experience these effects,they must become aware of existing techniques which have sabotagedIndian efforts to stand up for their rights.

Techniques for Sabotaging Indian Rights

by referring 1 Making an Indian feel as if he or she is a non-person to them as "pagan," "savages," and"drunkards" or by legally distinguishing between Indians and whites on the basisof the dehumanizing criterion of blood quantum. Human rights are for people.

2 Stealing human rights by obtaining thanksfrom the victims. Indians are often made to feel indebted andthat they should be appreciative for the numerous sacrifices and hardwork vested in solving the ",,Indian problem."

regain their 3. Instilling fear in Indians that their attempts to rights might jeopardize the rights theya]ready have. Indians/ are often told that things.could be worse and they should be grateful for the human rights they, have ratherthan complain about their loss of human rights.

4. Setting up the oppressors as the protectorsof the Indian's human rightS'so that the protectors canselectively act in ways which further their own interests whileostensibly acting on behalf of the Indians.

loss of human rights is for 5. Pretending that the reason for the some other reason than that a personis Indian (such as drinking, being late, nonconformity). -30-

Indians are 6. Pointing to the common good ofall people. presented as being selfish ifthey represent their wishes when there are competinginterests. For instance, Indians can not only thinkof their rights, they'mist also think of the other hunters orthe sporting goods industry.

7.. Removing rights so graduallythat Indians do Aot realize what has happened until itis too late. Another hunting rights example would be tofirst restrict the geographical area where huntingis permitted, then cut the seasonto certain times of the year,then insist on licensing; and then Indians will be on the samegrounds as non-Indian sportsmen.

8. Holding conferences on HUMANRIGHTS to allow Indians to blowoff steam and go home feelingthat things are well in hand (Waubageshig, 1970, pp.197-198). Nd These examples illustrate the kinds ofexperiences Indian people haveregularly with total encountered and which indicate thatthe majority society often acts disregard for the rights of Indian people.

This'assertioh program with Indian people attempts to presentrights in a well as responsible manner-by encouraging trainesto respect others' rights as rights for which they haveexpressed their own. Trainees first review the specific trainees when they are specific, for concern. These rights-have more meaning to riglit-to long example, the right to make mistakes,the right to be different, the to create their own listof rights (see hair. It is more meaningful for trainees Chapter VII) than to be handed a listof the Indian Bill of Rights exercise in paple five.basic rights or special Indianrights. The responsibilities of Indian these rights in and the responsibilities of theFederal government in carrying out rights a mutually respectful way are discussedthroughout in hopes that eventually ahd responsibility will no longer be used as weapons. To many Indian people, freedom and to run'their own come from the right todecide whRt is best for themselves affairs.

Few people realize that AmericanIndians comprise the only minority group States (Washburn, 1976). which possesses a speciallegal status withinthe United virtue oftheir Although they are citizens likeeverybOdy else, they are also, by special tribal affiliations, possessed ofspecial rights which emanate from the puzzled and legal status of "internal sovereignty." This concept has often negotiations between irritated white Americans. This status was attainedby treaty Americans now enjoy woUld Indians and whites whichestablished that the Indian land could live autonomously, be held in trust by t4eUnited $tates government if Indians and maintain their own authoritywithin the limits of free from external control, established by their own reservation lands. The special rights of Indians were and the United States executive orders and judicialdoctrines created between them (Zionitz, 1975). -31--

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Unfortunately, 'as individual Indians entered into a variety of association§ with whites, these relationships became characterized byineqaality and political separation (Washburn, 1976).It became evident that laws wouldoneed to be enacted 'to protect the Indian's individual rights.Consequently, legislation was passed: the Dawes Act of 1887 attempted to reconcile Indian Gtatus; Indians were chIclared U.S. citizens in 1924; the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 was created togive legal recognition to tribal governments distinct from federal, state andlocal governments; the Indian Claims Commission was created in 1946to hear disputes 'between Indians and the U.S. government.Most recently, the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 emphasized the rights of Indians as U.S. citizens, sothat the individual rights in the U.S. Constitution would be upheld in IndiancOmmunities over and above local constitutions (25. U.S.C. S.S. 1301-41 (1970)). To fully safeguard guidelines for federal courts in dealing with Indian sovereignty questions, Indians must stand up for their sovereign rights to:

-1. Function as governments with sovereign powers over their territory and people.

2. Maintain their ot;n values and concepts of fairness and justice tothe fullest extent. -32-

3. '44x1ntain respect for tribal self-governmentby demanding that courts recognize the tribes' owninstitutiqns of government, their constitutions, ordinances, and regulations.

4. Maintain a tribal society which isclosed or limited to outsiders, if i,t. choose'S, andjeject cultural pluealismin order to protect its"community character.

5. Maintain'the tribe's inherent right to determine its ownmembership.

6. Impress upon the courts the importance ofavoiding action which would undermine the authority of tribal courts over reservation affairs and, in turn, infringe on the rights of Indians to govern them- ' selves (William v. Lee, 358 U.S. 217 (1959)).

As Indian associations with whites continue, Indians continue to askthat their special history, status, and circumstances be allowed to be worked outwithin the framework'of their own rights and beliefs and in collaboration andharmony with .,..-those around them.

A detailed distmssion of the rights (Treaty'Rights, Rights toSelf-Government, jurisdiction, Exclusion, Leadership, Indian 15-11-6-Terence, Water Rights,etc.) commonly diSrussed V Indian people in assertion training workshops can be fouad in LaFromboise and LaFromboise (1982). Since almost all. interpersonal interactions or communications imply certain personal rights,it is important_that Indian people recognize what their rights are in order to know how tb stand up for them,how

- on them, and hoW not to deny them. Traihers may wish to acquaint themselves thoroughly with this information and provide trainees with aThandoutstating the legal decision which substantiates or questions each of the special rightsinherent in'tribal sovereignty (see Appendix II).

Developing an Assertive Belief System

Developing an assertive belief system is accomplished gradually overtraining as participants feel better aboutthemselves, through assertive actions and receiving social support for their assertive actions. Most training sessions deal with rights to some degree, but the early sessionsparticularly_emphasize rights from a consciousness-raisingperspective. The Indian Bill of Rights exercise and the StimulusDVideotape or Demonstration.(see Chapter VII) are designed to stimulate participants' feelings about injustices which occur to American Inians when they do not assert their rights:

The training group itself can provide trainees withinformation about the cultural appropriateness or Social necessity of assertingtheir rights ib particular situations occurring'in non-Indian as well as Indiansettings. When conflicts occur concerning cultural appropriateness, personalihtegrity, and the degree of tompro- -mise which is acceptable, usually at least onemember of the training group can lend information and support. The following example illustrates how groupmembers can provide a'persuasiverationale for aCcepting an assertive right: -33--

a'community agency stated that he In this case a militantmale staff member of According to John, if Indians did not believe American Indiansreally have rights. have to defend earlier treatynegotiations to non- really had rights'they would not legaT com- He also felt thatIndians should not h3ve to accept Indians constantly. series of cases promises concerning their rights. John then proceeded to present a 'negotiations. in whi.ch portions of11Nd were relinquished through legal in which tribal At this point group membersinterceded With accounts of experiences One group member reminded John thatequating rights had been upheld inHegaldisputes. accepting defeat in defense of rights with total lossof rights was extreme and that existence this area prohibited the securementof the remaining Indian rights in

at. this time. , modeling-equitable be- Trainers can help trainees developassertive beliefs by (1976) offer the following diverse ways haviors in the group. Lange and Jakubowski the right to have their in- that trainers can promote thebelief that everyone has dividual rights and feelings consideredand respected: and fairly handle conflicts"that 1. Encouraging trainees to openly occur during trainingsessions (i.e., time for breaks). - viewpoints to communicate 2. Helping trainees who hold conflicting with each other.

during training session. 3. Allowing everyone a chance to speak be assertive in a par- 4. Respecting a trainee's decision not to ticular situation.

and offering professional 5. Disagreeing with trainees' opinions views in a straightforward and nondefensivemanner.

leadership or the value 6. Being responsive to criticisms about your of particular assertive conceptsand exercises.

the rights of both 7. Helping trainees give due recognition to parties involved in the interactionwhen assertive conflicts are analyzed in training.

Indian people have come to realize thatfreedom inherent in theirindividual and special rights will beacquired only by constantly andresponsibly pursuing danger of trainees recognition of these rights. The literature warns of a possible becoming aggressive due to becomingoverly rights conscious (Lange& Jakubowski, IndAan trainees report a different effectafter experiencing therecognition 1976). observing mOdels in of special Indian rightsin the Indian Bill oT Rights exercise, their their rights With the Message-Matchingvideotape, and practicing standing up exercises (see Chapters V and a variety of,targetpeople in the Message-Matching help them reduce or controithe VII). They rep,Ørt that the combined experiences -34- negative emotions experienced in crucialinterpersonal situations. They also report that the training gives themconfidence to articulate and assert their'rights rather than demand thgm.

Another predicted danger of "rights consciousness"is the possibility of dead- end conflicts ariting in which both partiesadamantly stick to their positions, each adhering to their own rights'(Lange& Jakubowski, 1976). The author questions whether this iMpasse is any different thanPast Indian-White relations. To improve Much of on this stalemate, mutualresponsibility and compromise are emphasized. responsible assertiveness relies on an awarenessof the,consequences of assertive action and the willingness and ability tbreach mutually acceptable compromises. It is hoped that Indian people will have thefreedom to ctioose to be assertive concerning their rights based upon theirdetermination of how important the right is to them, how they are likely to feel if theydo not assert their rights, and how much it will cost them to assert theirrights in a particular situation (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976). It is also hoped that Indian traineeswill reassess the very 'nature of.their Values, ways of living, and beliefsabout mankind as they continually challenge America to keep her promise thatIndianlproperty, rights, and liberty no longer be abused. CHAPTER V

MESSAGE MATCHING

When we met with Indian elders in Denverin 1968, the point was made that the Indian and the white manad never understood one another, but it's the Indian whois.going to understand the white man before the white manunderstands the Indian. This is so becaue the Indian can think.with hiswhole heari,,whereas the white man thinks with his head, andthinking only with the head really doesn't help one to understand theother person. (Morey & Gilliam, 1972, p. 11)

These plain-spoken words of SylvesterMorey, while attending a conference concerning the traditional upbringing ofIndian children, emphasize three very important issues concerning Indian assertiveness: first, that Indians and non-Indians have neverunderstood each other's attemptsto.communicate; second, that the Indian is more capable of the understanding necessaryfor communication; and third, that words alone 4re not what makes the communicationof the language.

The confusion whjch arises duringatt6mpts.at Indian/non-Indian communication is a result of the divergentcultures from which each group of peopleoriginateS. Years ago, during less complex and fast movingtimes, the problem of mutual understanding was not so difficult. Most transactions were conducted withpeople, well- known to each.other and from similar.backgrounds. This was especially relevant the to cultures which were,deeplyepcapsulated or involved with each other like flowed freely, for each American Indian. Simple messages with deep meaning person knew the other well enoaghto realize what each was and was nottaking into account during verbalization.

E. T. Hall (1976) believes that certainIndian tribes (like the Navajo) think very differently from whitesand that much of that difference isinitially trace- the diyergent meanings able to their language. He supports this conjecture by citing for Hopi and for the non-Indian of asimple statement in'English such as "Itrained last night." The Hopi cannot think about the rainwithout signifying the nature of his or her relatedness to the event,be it first hand experience, inference, simply as an abstraction or hearsay. The non-Indian views this spoken statement involvement of an event whi.ch occurred in theenvironment apart from any personal in communication when , in natural events. This illustrates the semantic diversity people, who use the same language, take in somethings and are unaware of others because of cultural dissimilarity.

Communicative,behavibr can be described in terms ofelements: a sender, a mes- takes place. Any sage, a receiver, and, thecontext in which the communication messagecan-be translated. into the statement"I/am communicating something/to you/ be, in this situation" (Haley,1963, p. 31). Any element in this statement may communication the qualified by an affirmation or a denial. In most cross-cultural receiver denies some eleMents, and his orher denial ig interpreted asrejection and discrimination.- -36-

Before we get into the detailsof message matching, a concept developed by Donald Cheek (1976), let'Slook at how oneIndian person named Henry Old Coyote views musages:-

When most white men hear-that anIndian receives messages from various sources, they expect.an animal orbird or plant to have written a memo to him telling himwhati!.he should do, But that's not the way'it is, an Indian believesthere is a.message in every-. thing yob see. If a person is able to interpret thatmessage, then he is communicating.That's what we mean, when we,say we have ways of communicating with,nature, we haVe ways ofinterpreting nature. An animal or bird doetn't actually have to.talk to me,but it carries' a message if I know tiow to look for it. (Morey & Gilliam, 1972, p. 196)

Therefore, a message is viewed as more, than.words. It also includes an intuitive understanding which words- cannot express. Part of this understanding comes from a spirit of communication and sharing. If these elements are present, no guidance is needed for discussion to take place orfor people to'exchange ideas. It is just ;Ake a pow wow; if the spirit is notwith the drum, it won't be a good dance (Morey & Gilliam, 1972). Unfortunately, in Indian and non-Indian interchanges the spirit of sharing these internal eventsis often found wanting.

Perhaps this need for intuitive understandingbeyond the'spoken word alsoheld by Indian people comes from an intense respect for the power,of the word.

From thmoment a child begins to speak, he is taught torespect the word); he is taught how to use the word andhow not to use it.

The word is all-powerful, because it can build a man up,but it , can also tear him down. That's hoW powerful it is, (Morey & Gilliam, 1272, p. 50)

Indian people realize that one may use words to inform,insult, threaten, cajole, reconctle, conceal, move, frighten, talk to oneself,think, and deceive oneself.

They teach their people to use wordS selectively andsparingly while leaving a . major portion of ideas and thoughts left unsaid. In addition to the intense respect for the power of the word as justification for-the sparse useof words, there is also the nature of the Indian way of life which,found.littleneed to express abstract ideas or ,generaliied forhs*of expression.

Different modetof speech produce different modes of thoughtconcerning the: context in which the communication took place and thecommunication or mesAage from the viewpoint of the person communicatingor,zendet and the person-receiving the communication or tatget peuon. Message matching utilizes processes of tom,- munication to help the.Indian asserter techniCallymodify his or her message by selecting the most effective and appropriate message.from avariety of verbal lons:---in--order---t-o-decrease the likelihoodof misinterpretation and misunder-, standing (Cheek, 1976). Many American Indians alreadysubconsciously change their thinking in words to communicate with non-IndWs.A thorough look at each of these four aspects of communication will helpAndian trainees.develop an awareness of the need to vary their astertive messages tomatch the receptive capabilities of diverse Indians and non-Indiant. Context

Hall (1976) suggests,that the problem in cross-cultural communicationlies in the context which carries varying proportions of the meaningdepending upon how it is stored and how it flows in a given social system. The.cultures of American Indians, in which people are deeply involved with :vach other and in whichinforma- tion is w-idely shared, might be called high-context culturesbecause simple messages with deep meaning flow freely. A low-context culture, like the United States, is highly mechanistic and.individualized and depends largely upon superficialinvolve- ment with people.

A comparison of Indian and non-Indian cultures clearly illustratesthe differences between high and low contexts. Indians usually tell as much as possible about the circumstances surrounding an event by means of facts,hearsay, or sensory impressions in the spirit of exactness, whereas middle,classAmericans often relate the facts in.an abstracted and concise version of the event. Personal integrity prohibits discussion unless the Indtan.perSon is sure of accuracy(Spencer, 1959). On the other hand, the bonds which hold,Indian people together-are strong enough that there is a tendency to, allow for considerable bending of the system. , The bonds which tie people from a-low-context culture together are morefragile and formal; with responsibility diffused throughout the system making ttdifficult to pin down. -38-

American Indians make greater distinttions between insiders and outsiders than do other Americans, who basically adhere to the melting pot theory.of assimilation. An Indian, due to these strong bonds, expects the listener to.know what is bother- ing him or her. Indians display this_in the way in which they will talk around and around a point, putting all the pieces in place except the crucial one, leaving the keystone up to the listener (Hall, 1976). Whites often utilize linear thinkihg which allows for invOlvement in only one activity at a time. .Indian people, on the other hand, may be involved in more than one activity at a given time. For instance, a tribal council meeting might be viewed as an opportunity for social visiting as well as.official business transactions.

These divergent Contextual styles., in .addition to the'verbal habits of the twO cultural groups, highlight the contrasting differences between the content, style, and function of a routine topic of conversation. A look at the Indian-White Com- parison chart,adapted from the work of Donald Cheek (1976), may highlight the contrasting styles and points of emphasis which produce conflicts and interfere with 'communication.

Indian-White Language Comparison

Indian-Indian Indian-White

Content (what you talk about)

- Indian politics - Indians - About your family - Weather - About other Indians - Activities of interest to - Being Indian today whites (sports, hobbies, . - Past and future social and clubs) cultural events - The news, politics, current events - Mutual friends, romantic and - Mutual acquaintances personal activities,'gossip - School or work - School or work - Rarely about social events, - Job opportunities unless work-related - White people and their racist attitudes

1 Style (how you talk about it)

- Use of slang - Use of generalized and abstract - Use of Indian words throughout, or use forms of expression situational dialect as a restrictive - Little or occasional slang, humor code to designate the speaker as one - Awareness of grammar and correct who.belongs enunciation - Usually in a joking, teasing or hinting - Somewhat restrained way - Don't understand the humor - Begins talk with a disclaimer of one's - Adherence to professional positions humility, yet displays logic and and title as a,basis of authority wisdom throughout the conversation on the topics - Signifies the nature of his orher relatedness - A lot of questions and answers to an effent - Interject alternative opinions - .Assumed closeness and sharing and interruptions -39-

subtle pressure to reveal -Person speaking has the floor for as , - Applies long as he.or she has something to say secret knowledge of traditional ways

Function (why you talk-aboutit)

- Relaxation,enjoyment, and-recreation - To get ormaintain a position - Become.betteracquainted or maintain - TO be seen ascapable of getting along friendShiO - MutualintereSt and sharing' -Mutualinterest - Sometimesfor selfish motives - To be seen asdifferent - Obtain orkeeR business connection - Ulte iormotives, little sharing

Indian people who have experienced thisdualit. of speaking or responding differently to Whites than to Indians admitfrustration and confusion at times. Trainers can help eliminate part of the confusionby discussing four cultural elements of Indian rhetorIc which conflictwith assertiveness: disclaimers, length of response, interruptions, and latencyof response.

reference to one's humility 1. The use of hedging and disclaimers, or prior to expressing an opinion negates theassertive intent of the mesage from the very beginning. Although it is a custom in Indian society, disclaiming is inappropriate in-assertiveinter- Changes with non-Indians, just as boasting may be inappropriatewith hiany Indtan people..

For example, in a university classroom, anIndian student might preface her class participation wjth adisclaimer whereas a non- Indian student may begin with scholatic testimony:

Indian: '"I haven't had many history courses,but I believe . .

Non-Indian: "Research evidence cited in the text supports my

belief that . . ."

2. Another conflicting factor in dssertiveness isthe allegorical nature and length of an Indian person's response. When an Indian talks to another Indian person, he or she is expected tospeak his or her mind about the subject with rhetorical and allegoricalembellishment.This poses a problem, for lengthy responsesdetract from the assertive impact of the statement, particularly whenperceived by non:Indians.

For example, an Indian employee in a meetingof predominantly non- Indian staff members may notice impatientglances at watches as he describes his personal relatedness.to an issue. Non-Indian staff members frequently begin their turn,to speakwith a concise summary of the issue 'followed by supporting evidence. -40-

they have said their Indian people who are used'tohaving the floor until 3. target person's piece may be startled anddismayed by the non-Indian sender throughout apparent lack of respect forwords by interrupting the The longer period oftime it takes a person the assertive narration. of that to utter an assertive response,the less the assertive impact interjecting response and thegreater'the chances of another person conflicting ideas into thatconversation.

An excellent example of this behavior occursin the School Board Meeting People?" modeling tape scene of the "CanAssertiveness Benefit Indian member (see 13: 19).. During a schoolboard meeting an Indian board .Befpre' eloquently.,presents a petitiOn from theIndian parent committee:

board . he has had time to fully presentthe argLimentS'of the petition, becomes members interrupt him repeatedly. Eventually, the Indian 'speaker is tabled overwhelmed, ceases to debatethe criticism, and the petition

' for a future meeting. of-assertiveness is the latency 4. One of the non-verbal components Indian people often take a longeramount of time than response. spirit of non-Indians to assess the situationbefore responding in the from the assertive impact exactness. This responSe delay detracts of the statement.

Message

the communication itself. The second aspect ofcommuntcation is the message or perceptions, and inter- The message received representsthe combined influences, whites and cultural differences pretations of mutual roleexpectations of Indian and It is believed thatdiffering in technical aspects ofcommunicating messages. behavior may account for some messagespossjbly perceptions of Indian assertive assertion skills are being distorted by white receivers evenwhen technically sound Indians and whites perceive used (Minor, 1978). Some evidence suggests that 1978). Indian assertive behaviordifferently (La Fromboise,

;

4.J -41-

equation or Ingrained in a person's perceptualanalysis is a complex predictive behavior. This equation sizing-up process which isinvolved in any instance of simply what are the per- includes a person's assessmentof "what is out there" or attributes. ceived attributes of the other personin relation to 'one's personal her purposes, ability to Naturally the person's perceptionof self (i.e., his or .influences this assessment. act in certain ways, andrelationships with others) in a prognosis or "best This individual analysis of"self" and "others" culminates has been per- bet" as to the probAble consequencesof the total situation as it ceived (Kilpatrick, 1961).

according to . The differential perceptionsof Indian assertive behavior vary o'g-the target person with whom theIndian person the race and personal experiences interaction between an Indiansender is being assertive. A white persoa observing an infrequently perceives the behavior tobe assertive. and an Indian target person most An Indian person observing the sameIndian-to-Indian assertive interchange than does the white often judges the behavior asbeing more assertive or aggressive of assertiveness on the part ofIndian observer. The higher.rattarof degree the cultural background which preersnon- observers is understandable considering because interference and passivity to assertion. Indian40eople may have an advantage enacted infrequently assertive behavior causes a higherdegree of recognition when than if assertive expressions were.thenormal mode of communication. the manner in which The Indian cultural expectationof sharing often influences saying no to requests. Some an Indian person respondsin the assertive act of sales Indians become victims of salespersonswhen they respectfully listen to a reported pitch in spite of disinterestin the product. Many other Indians have realizing the naive acceptance of a "no" decisionfrom authority figures without refusing potential of an appeal to higherlevels. Indian trainees seldom reported expectations of requests from friends andrelatives because*of the cultural generosity and reciprocity (La Frmboise, 1983).

Sender

receiver of The previous discussionalludedprimarily to the perception of the of the the assertive message or target person. The third and most vital aspect Ideally communication process is the sender,the person initiating theassertion. with the assertive content of one would hope that theintention of the sender, along and the sender. the sender's messages, is similarlyperceived by the target person misunderstood in Unfortunately, the probability of eachof their intentions being which deter- cross-cultui.al situations increases sinceit is the social situation (Ruesch & Kies, 1956). mines the context and the nature of anycommunicative exchange values along with Messages are affected by the sender'sbeliefs, attitudes, and cross-cultural com- his or her experiefices andknowledge. People who engage in the group. This ethnic or munication often view reality fromthe collective eye of "Memories, becomes the vision by whichthe individual sees. group perspective often transferred to the aspirations, complaints; promises, andglories of the group are burden of the group" individual communicator, who oftenunconsciously bears the -42-

(Smith, 1973, P. 64). The sender's ethnic perspective is more than degree of blood as anthropologists, governmènts, agencies, and biologiststend to classify an individual's ethni identity. It involves a matter of feeling, emotion, and actual participation "and Involvement in cultural activities of that ethnic group. Every- thing we say either consciously or unconsciously comes from an ethnic perspective just as everything we hear enters by way of our ethnic perspective.

Another influencing agent on the sender is the inevitable consequences of his or her assertions. The trainees may wish to help the sender determine when and whether assertiveness should be used by. exploring the following questions:How important is the situation to me? How am I likely to feel afterwards if I don't assert myself in the situation? How much will it cost me to assert myself in the situation (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976)?The answer to the costs of consequences of assertiveness may be found in looking at one's survival ladder or positionin the social stratification process of sexism, classism, and racism.

Cheek (19761 devised a means of associating the status of the target person in relation to the sender's perception of survival or of "making it.".The survival ladder places people (or groups) in hierarchical order from those holding the least externalControl over the sender's goals (rupresented bylevel 1) to the most external control (represented by level 7). In addition toorganizing levels of survival and degrees of control, this process alsostratifies the level of stress associated with the delivery of assertive messages torole-members at each level of the ladder (see Appendix III). -43-

from sender become awareof the ethnic perspective The trainer may help the through.group values, experiences,and knowledge originate which his or her beliefs, The trainer implied messages duringassertive role plays. discussions and processing interpersonal sender in being awareof any interracial or may also assist the being assertive due toconflicting conflict which he or she isexperiencing when expectations throughvalues classification exercises, Indian and non-Indian role (see Lange & Jakubowski,1976). role reversals, and cognitiverestructuring procedures the sender how todiscriminate between culturally Finally, the trainer can teach by determining the consequences appropriate and inappropr'ate waysof being assertive of peers and fellowtrainees. of each assertive act andeliciting the feedback

Target Person

matchihg is an emphasis onthe various One of the main issues In message If an Indian is to communicatein an audiences one addresses indaily living. which is culturallyappropriate, he or she must assertive and effective manner the receiver or target give thought to the message orcommunication aS it "fits" then learn to speakassertively but differently person. The Indian trainee may category of people. The seriousness of matching or to members of each group or one's depends upon the consequencesof assertiveness on fitting assertive messages categories taken.from many current or future survival. The following five general targets for Indianassertive messages: (1) conventional types of people represent with non-Indian orientation, Whites; (2) Whites with peopleorientation; (3) Indians Indians. (4) Indians with Indianorientation; and (5) traditional

perceived attributes andcharacteristic behaviors of A brainstorming of the of the each categOry generallymakes Indian cdmmunicators aware persons grouped in the manner in which theyspeak various audiences tbeyaddress in daffy living and Some characteristics of assertively but differently tomembers of each group. participants are identified each of the categoriesdeveloped by Indian workshop The dangek o 'such catego4im petpetuatingAt eneotypeo ot bel ow. of brainstorming session genenatization4 Zs evident. Trainers leading this type direct the conversation (intended to aid in discriminationtraining) must be able to tendency of trainees to portray"traditional" away from stereotypicresponses or the bad. Indians as totally good and"conventional" Whites as totally

1. Conventional Whites

- middleclass orientation - veryorganized, scheduled and timeconscious - adhere torules and regulations -involved in cliques and organizations -educated yet narrow minded .-- competitive -materialistic consciousness -conventional dress and fashion -44-

2. Whites with people orientation

- liberal, openminded, and folksy thinking relationships over possession - preferencefor acquiring personal of learning and - patronizeminority people for purposes broadening personal experiences interested in Indian traditionand religion - informaland relaxed in manner superficial sincerity -non-conventional dress or appearance

3. Indians with non-Indian orientation

- sometimesreferred to as an "apple"Indian - usesIndians for personal gain predominantly white work - prefersbeing the token Indian in situatiOns Indians who "haven't -condescending attitudes toward other made it" - ,does notparticipate in Indian culturalactivities conventional whites -ascribes to the value system of Indians and tries to resolve - acceptsthe negative stereotyPes of this negative self-definition bybeing a 'good Indian" 4 - tries tomake other Indians shape-up into"good middleclass Americans"

4. Indians with Indian orientation

- thinksIndian - at timesfeels guilty about being thetoken Indian in predominantly white work situations culture to benefit - proudof-using knowledge of the dominant other Indians of schldules, times, rules, and ' 7frustrated by consciousness regulations - pressuredfor time to participa e in_traditional cultural activities - has somedoubts about traditional culturebut continues to affirm traditionalism mixture of - dressesaccording to current fashions with a Indian jewelry and clothing.

5. Traditional Indians

-"free-spirits" in thinking and doing -experiences the beauty of MotherEarth spirit of ancestral ways - strivesto maintain the beauty of -non-materialistic - presentttme orientation if they are non- -; respect for other ways of life even traditional -45-

- takes extreme carein the choice of words used - dresseshowver wishes,as the occasion arises, not as' fashion dictates - hair isoften long and natural for men and womenalike - adheres to aconsciousness of kinship over consciousness of the demanjs of the socioeconomic environment

A look at the different characteristics.suggestedof people-within each category may accentuate why an assertive messagedirected to a person from category three (Indians with non-Indian orientation) might be differentfrom an assettive message directed to a person in category one(conventional white). For instance, the two responses which follow concern anIndian's right to be different, to be Indianin attempted to a predominantly non-Indianworld. In each case, the target person has convince the Indian sender that he shouldgive up the battle, forget about the past, quite trying-to be Indian,and try.to make a better life for himselfand his family by financial and social suc.cess. The Indian send6r responds differently to the Indian and non-Indian target personin the following way:

To a conventional white:

Your culture is made up of the American dream. You can get rich if you work hard. Mine deals with respect for all living'things,giving each man his due. My success if not measured by how much money I can put in the bank,but=how.Ilive a good life.

To the non-Indian with non-Indian orientation:

Being an Indian and also an American citizen,I have a duty to serve both the White and Indian cultures. I don't have a right to disregard where I have come from. I don't care to please others to getahead if that gain is obtained by using my Indianness.

Knowledge of various types of target personsfacilitates the acquisition of assertiveness as a social skill. A person's choices and options forcommunicating honest feelings increase as that person beginsto.associate "what to say" and "how to say it" with theiatget person with whom he or she is talking. The trainer, on the other hand, must know who that target personis and what that target person represents in the eye of the Indian traineein order to provide knowledge of how these expressions may be perceived byconventional Whites or traditional Indians before they are initiated. 4

The target person is the key in the assertiveinterchanges, for it is the target person who actually decides ifthe message was assertive,non-assertive, or aggressive.- Unfortunately, in assertion training we areonly training one out of the two people We are not able to teach necessary fot effectivecommunication to occur--the sender. It the target person to distinguishbetween assertive and aggressive messages. will possibly be mis- may be assumed that assertiveand properly matched messages perceived by the target person due to differentethnic'perspectives in cross-' cultural interchanges. .-4

We can, however, teach Indians about critical aspectsof non-Indian cultures in order to anticipate.potential non-Indian expectationsof appropriate behavior. Trainees may then become, more cognizant,of theobstacles to interpersonal communication that interfere wieh assertive messages and cause them to bemistaken as aggressive. We can also-teach, trainees how to make anhonest and open inquiry as to what message was received. This inquiry is called a back-up or counter asserti-on andit provides restatement and clarification of the assertive responseto inure correct inter- pretation (Minor, 1978). The details of training,American Indians in message matching and counter'assertions are discussed in ChapterVII. Message matching is a promising means of training people fromdifferent cultural groups to Effectively and directly communicate respect for each other. ,

"fr"

-r CHAPTER VI

INDIAN NON-VERBAL COMMVNICATION

Non-verbal behavior or "silent language" is thelanguage of behavior that give-s one identity and.reveals one's culturalupbringing. ,Non-verbal communication is particularly important in masteringassertion skills since an assertive statement may be perceived as aggressive ornonasSertive according to how the non-verbal modi- fiers which accompany the verbal statement aredisplayed. A simple change in voice inflection, facial expression, or body movement can turn a sincerestatement into a question or sarcastic remark. Non-verbal behaviors which are considerediMportant qualifiers of assertion are: duration of looking at the other person, durationof speech, loudness of speech and affect inspeech (Eisler, Miller, & Hersen, 1973), other voice characteristics, handshake,touching, body space, body pqsture, facial expressions and timing.1 The way thesebehaviors are collecively usedtike up a _ person's style of communication.' Most people who areineffective in social interactions are iheffective because they lack a commandof style, either because they arewnsure of how to respond or arefearful to do so. It is very easy to tell someone to stand up for his or her rights, yet much morecomplicated to help someone work out the details of an effective and aculturally:appropriate message.

Non-verbal-Systems are,more spontaneous, closely tied to ethnicitydifferences, and therefore deserve particular treatment incommunication training programs for American Indians. Unfortunately, judgments of appropriate behavior are influenced by sex role expectations as well as cultural expectations. Just as some people persist in labeling women who enact assertivebehavior as "pushy," other people also believe that Indians do not have the right to beassertive about their wants and . needs bcause they are "stepping out of culture."This situation often places the Indian woman in a double bind as she is expected to adhere toboth the sex-role and cultural expectations of passivity. -4a-

The key emphasis' in.a.s4ettive behavioa is that thenon:verbal messages be congruent with verbal messages in order to addstrength and supporiVrather than to contradict what is peing said. The voice should be within a moderate or appropriately loud range according to the situation. Eye contact should be firm but not a stare, breaking way whenever it becomes uncomfortable. Body gestures which convey positive strengths should be used. The posture of an assertive sender shouldinclude facing up to another physically, leaning toward thetarget person and holding one's head erect. Speech patterns should be expressive, clear, and emphasize key wordswithout awkward hesitancies. The tone of voice should be level but clear. Hands and gestures should be used in a relaxed way. Smiles should Pe appropriate and not forced, tense,-or tight around the mouth (Lahge & Jakubowski,1976).

In nena4,sent4ive behavim, the voice tone may be overly soft or whining.The speech pattern and manner conveys hesitancy since it is filled with pausesand throat clearings. Eye contact appears evasive because the sender looks away, or down, sometimes turning the body and head away while in conversation withthe target person. The following body movements also portray.hesitancy, evasion, andlack of strength: hand wringing, clutching the other person, stepping back from the person as an assertive remark is made, hunching theshoulders, covering the mouth with a hand, maintaining a stiff body posture, and entering a room or a conversationonly when bidden. Anger may be masked indirectly by raised eyebrows, smiles, laughs, and winks (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976). Nonassertive gestures are meani: to soften the impact of a direct statement so as not to offend thetarget person. This con- t. sequently reduces the impact of the assertive content of the message.

Agyte,s,sive behavimz, on the ether hand, are meant to dominate or hurt the targepersone and are mOre,pdWerful in effect than an assertive behavior. AggresS'ive eye contact tries to dominate people by glaring attbem or staring them down. A voice tone which is too loud for the situation, with sarcastic orcondescending intonation, is often used. Body gestUres are apt to.be angryancLinclude excessive finger pointing, shaking one's fist, stamping one's foot too often, andbaroging into things.

Training Non-Verbal ComponentS of Assertiveness

In cross-cultural communication, trainers are especially requiTed to attend to non-verbal behaviors of trainees and teach them to attend to their own non-verbal behavior. Feedback provided throughout training should continually assess the impact of the trainee's non-verbal, behavior on the communication. This requires that the trainer be knowledgeable of how to conduct objective behavior assessments and be able to separate out significant non-verbal components in need of change. It also requires that the training go beyond offering feedback and teach more appropriate non:verbal behaviors by assisting trainees in each behavior separately(Serber, 1977), and helping trainees consider with.whom, by whom, when, and where the non-verbal

behavior should be enacted (LaFrance & Mayo, 1978): ,

Serber (1977) states that theMost favorable conditions for training non-verbal behaviors include a clearly defined situation which can be repeated in total or in part for several trials without significant alterations. After the initial role -49-

select the most deficientnon-verb'al element for-shaping. play, the trainer should number of non-verbal elementsand work It is important to concentrateon a limited component at a time. The trainer should payparticular with only one non-verbal trainee and model theappropriate component until the attention, give information, another component. 'The goal nt improvementbefore moving oh to displays signifi between verbal and non-verbal of non-verbal trai .ng is toestablish congruence components of assertivebehavior behavior and master theappropriate non-verbal which enhance a person'sassertive style.

Non-Verbal Issues inAssertion Training.

particularly revealing about Non-verbal components foundin Indian culture are feelings, ideas, and opinions. the way an Indian persondisplays his or her thoughts, look at someof the followingnon-verbal components of In this section, we will other person or eye mentioned: duration of looking at the assertiveness already body movement, and gesturesfound contact, duration ofspeech, timing, body space, in observations of Indianpeople.

Body Space culture to culture and canbe The personal distanceneeds of,people vary from misunderstandings and discomfort4Connally, 1974; Fast, 1977). the cause of racial "pushy" where dis*tance needs areshort will be perceived as People raised in cultures with long personal distance needs. On the other hand, people by those with longer standoffish by people with personal distance needs willbe seen as cold, aloof, or they cannot be reachedclosely enough a short personaldistance preference, since (Hall, 1963). for the other person to feelinvolved with them

Intrusion Distance American Indtans concerns Another area of interest inassertion training with the distance one has tomaintain from two peoplewho are intrusion distance; that is, It has been re- already talking in order not tointrude, yet get theirattention. even with a spouse or ported that when an Indianwishes to begin a conversation, other's line of vision. If relative, the Indian placeshimself or herself in the acknowledge his or her presence,that is a sign the target the target person does not (Wax & Thomas, and the Indian will waitpatiently or walk away person is preoccupied assertion skills of This information would be helpfulin learning the 1.961). already been started initiating a conversation or entering aconversation which has (Galassi & Galassi, 1977a).

Timing to discuss the timing When working-on assertive skills,it is very important has a temporal as well asspatial bf the interaction, sinceall situational behavior helped by discussingwhen and under dimensjon. Appropriate sense of timing may be -50-

'results for each what circumstances,one is likely toproduce the most favorable This can be practiced both withinthe assertive situation presented intraining. encounters in the followingsituations: when Indian community and in cross-cultural interrupting a sitdation to give a message,and to enter a three-way conversation; when to change the subject Of aconversation. involved in Another important aspect inassertiveness is the length of time does not meet the expecta- the particular transaction. When the duration of an event obstacle to communication tions of the target person,that time itself becomes' an (Verderber & Verderber, 1977). is handled. The character of life andculture is influenced by the way time duration of Most Americans are formally timebound by what is the appropriate how to treat time designators. an event, appropriate timeof day to carry on events, and Although the length of time it takes a personto respond as a measure ofassertive- cross-cultural assertive ness has been questione-d(Galassi, Galassi, & Litz, 1974), Indians. Since interactions with long responselatencies often work against American tend to take, more time time may be less tangible tothe Indian person, he or she may In a cross-cultural in a personal communication than anon-Indian desires-to spend. target person may assertive interchange when thesender is an Indian, the non-Indian time it takes become impatient with the Indian'slength of response or duration of (latency of response). to get around to the idea oropinion he or she is trying tO assert On the other hand, if the non-Indian personis the sender, the Indian target person Negative may be offended bythe sender's abruptness andstraightforwardness. duration of speech perceptions of the duration of time spentin the interchange and in either case may impede the intent ofthe assertive message.

Non-Indians are also monochronistic;that is, they do one thing at a time. There is a time for business and a timefor pleasure. Indians tend to incorporate by several things business with pleasure. Indian time systems are characterized completion of transactions happening at once. An involvement with people and a of Indians take precedence over preset schedules. Much of the official business at conferences is conducted outsideof the formal meeting rooms,just as"tribal each other council meetings might start late inorder to give people time to see not only be taught and visit beforehand. In assertiveness training, a person must fon when the time what to do but when to do it. This non-Indian sense of "waiting obligated is right" may be different forIndians. For this reason, traiDers are clearly understand to teach trainees aboutmonochronistic time so that they may more when it is app'ro- non-Indian behavior and be betterprepared to discriminate between priate and not appropriate to go byIndian time.

Body Movement

The success of any cross-cultural encounterdepends on the correct reading of each other's non-verbal bodymovement or kinetics. Body movements reveal when become aware people are biased against others. Trainers may help Indian trainees that subtle movements away from the target person,gestures, negative facial expressions, or no motion at all mayreveal dislike for non-Indians (Maclay, 1956). anything This certainly emphasizes the factthat a person really does not Reed to say -51-

to be understood. It is important to discussaS thoroughly as possible American non-verbal'cOmmunication in order to facilitateunderstanding between the two target grous.

Non-verbal body movements figure prominently inexpressing the inner state and emotions of a person since they escapevoluntary control. Self-confidence and cuszeAti.on are dplayed by sure body movements,gestures, and walking forward to emphasize a point (Fast, 1977). NoncoiseAtivene44 may be displayed when a person chooses to hold back, overintensify, mask orneutralize the non-verbal cues of emo- tionality (Verderber & Verderber, 1977). Depression may be signaled by slumped shoulders' ,nervousness by repetitive gestures;anxiety by sitting on the edge of the chairi tension by a clenched-fist andrigid stance; aggAzzision by a resistant posture which consists of arms foldedtightly across the chest, angry face,clenched teeth, and a tense body (Bosmajian, 1971).

Eye Contact

Eye contact, or looking at a person directly inthe eyes, is another assertive non-verbal component which differs in Indian usage. For non-Indians, avoiding eye coqact communicates recognition of theaUthority-subordinate relationship in a non- verbal way. However, maintaining direct eye contact is anatt of disrespect, hostility, or rudeness among somesouthwestern tribes (Allen, 1973).

Indian people may have difficulty maintaining direct eye contactbecause of tribal sanctions against eye contact, or it may also be aresult of intense anxiety over ptanding up for one's rights. With a non-Indian person, direct eyecontact declares /that a person is sincere in what he or she is 'saying. The sender's message is directed solely to the target person to assess his orher personal reaction to the message rather than to wander from the topic ofconversation (Alberti & Emmons, I 1970). When an Indian uses indirect eye contact,the non-Indian may perceive this, though this may not be the case to be a sign of nervousness anduncertainty even of the trainee to be able (Colter & Guerra, 1976). So it is in the best interest and to to distinguish when it is culturallyappropriate to use direct eye contact learn how to use it when necessary. -52-

looking directly Nonassertive eye contact behaviorused by Indians involves not trainee may exhibit at the other person. Since he or she not used to.doing so, the contact such as: other negative eye contact behaviorin attempting tO use direct eye excessively, or blinking the eyes rapidly, staringfixedly, shifting the head and eyes outlined a squinting the eyes (Bower & Bower,1976). Colter and Guerra (1976) have progressing in detailed procedure for graduallyshaping more direct eye contact by occasionally using small steps, constantly monitoringthe trainee's anxiety level, distracting stimuli, and moving at arather quick pace (see ChapterVII).

Actually, when the sender is more than four orfive feet away from the target the target person's person and looking anywherewithin a radius of six inches of not the sender is giving eyes, the target personwill be unable to tell whether or looking at the chin, fore- 'direct eye contact.Trainers may demonstrate this fact by tell where the head, or ear of someone across the roomand then asking that person to are.in a situation where gaze is being focused. Trainees may be warned that if they look down at the giving direct eye contact begins tomake them feel nervous, not to contact on ground or entirely away from the personbut, instead, to focus their eye direct dye contact the person's chin or forehead untilthey feel comfortable giving again.

Handshake

Another basic non-verbal behavior associatedwith assertiveness is a firm hand- clasped hands in concluding a treaty or shake. In the past,.American Indians only Today, Indians observe the custom ofshaking hands in dealing with making peace. different from con- Indians and non-Indians. Indian handshakes are distinctively hold only ventional handshakes, which apply pressure.inthe clasping of hands and the'hand while pumping it up and downfor some time. At times Ihis non-Indian hand- An Indian handshake shake is intimidating, both toIndian people and to others. -53-

simultaneously nodding involves gently clasping the handand shaking it once while non-Indian, the head to acknowledge respect. Again, this may cause problems because a nonassertive. may perceive an Indian'shandsKake as weak and therefore

Touching meaning- Touching iva significant assertivebehavior, for it is one of the most (Colter & Guerra, 1976). ful yet most neglected ways ofinteracting with another person Cultures This does not imply that everyinteraction should involve physical contact. give to differ in.the kind, amount, andduration of tactile experiences people unless it is used for purposes of infants. Touching rarely occurs among Indians have expressed dis- reassurance and strength. For this reason, Indian trainees and pleasure over public tactile displays ofaffection by their non-Indian friends in exercises which require physical spouses. They may also dislike participating contact.

Facial Expressions and Body Expressions Since .FAcial and body expressionS have beencalled "softer" non-verbal behavior. skilq they are more subtle, they are moi-edifficult to apprehend and require more in observation on the part of thetrainer. One of the most frequent problems in rather than ssertion training is the inappropriatenessof facial and body expression a verbal reprimandwith a the lack of either. People are often observed delivering and One goal of assertion training is.thateach trainee adopt body postures smile. wishes to facial expressions which correspondwith the feeling and message the trainee convey.

Some nonassertive facial expressionswhich may be looked for on videotapereplays tight-lipped mouth, or while practicing infront of a mirror include: a pursed or tensing and wrinkling of the forehead,swallowing repeatedly, excessive throatclearing, by continued and lip biting. Trainees may change these negative behaviors -54-

coaching in the self-observation and attention(Colter & Guerra, 1976), or through behavior rehearsal segment of training.

Voice Characteristics things are Para-language, or the study of voice characteristics,deals withhaw The main target areas of voicecharacteristics said, not the content or whatis said. inflection, speaking rate, andspeaking distance (Bower & are volume, tone and to Bower, 1976; Colter & Guerra,1976). Other speech characteristics important Many people who are nonassertiveness are duration of replyand latency of response. and affection as assertive typically talk the samewhen they are displaying warmth the voice pitch ot when they are extremely angry. Some non-Indians complain that 1961). Trainees Indians is softer or below ti.eirhearing threshold (Wax & Thomas, different voice charac- must learn to determine whichsituations require the use of Trainees are encouraged teristics and which situatiorsrequire a quicker response. This is contrary to discussions of to hasten their response withnon-Indians. increase training non-Indians in assertivenesswhich recommend training people to their response latency in order toconcentrate on appropriate assertivestatements (Galassi, Galassi, & Litz, 1974).Another rather than blurt outineffective responses to,pace trainee may time the latency period asfeedback for the trainee learning responses. of a person's voice. Vocal expressiveness isdetermined by the pitch and rhythm This negative stereotype It is often stated that Indiansspeak without expression. Boweeand.Bower (1976) suggest some perpetuates the image of the"stoic" Indian. and rhythmic variation excellent exercises for extendingthe pitch range, flexibility, sender speaks, the more accurately of one's speaking voice. The more expressively the the target person can read thesender's messages. The proper rate of speaking articulate words. depends on how complicated the message isand how clearly a person can

Perception Checks

Trainers and trainees in non-verbalcommunication may find it advantageous restatements in to use perception checks. These are much like paraphrasing or meaning of non-verbal verbal communication.' A perceptioncheck is used to clarify the messages and consists of averbal statement which tests thesender's understanding of how the target person feels(Verderber & Verderber, 1977).

Perception checks are phrased by first watchingthe behavior of the target Then choose the appropriate person and by asking "What doesthis behavior mean to me?" Before making the words for clarifying the meaningOf the non-verbal message. selected are perception check, trainees are warned tomake sure that the,, words been made, the non-judgmental and purely descriptive. After the perception check has It is target pemson may give feedbackconcerning the accuracy ofthe perception. person's recommended that trainers and trainees useperception checks whenever a non-verbal cues suggest that the person hasexperienced a change in mood. 4 -55-

An adequate understanding of non-verbalcommunication patterns in Indian culture is yet to come. Thus far, reports of Indian kinetics inthe literature are limited to Indian sign language, drum and dancerhythms, and whistle speech. In- vestigation of body movement displayed inthe videotapes of Indians being assertive, aggressive, and nonassertive may shed somelight on this dimly lit path. Training in non-verbal communication and perceptionchecks will help Indian 15eop1e discern the silent language which reflects theircultural upbringing and cultural orientation and affects the way they enact assertive messagematching. CHAPTER VII

ASSERTION TRAINING WITH INDIAN ADULTS

This assertion training program is oftenrequested by directors of helping- related programs which provide assistance toIndian people. Program directors usually prefer a workshop format rather than anon-going eight-week group assertion training format. The author believes that a three-day workshop grantsadequate time to introduce the essential elements ofthis program, allows trainees sufficient time to produce the skills-presented, as well asbegin to use assertion skills outside of training. The workshop format will be discussed in detail togive trainers some guidelines in organizing this assertion training program with Indianadults.* The auihor also recommends that program.directors be encouraged to requestfollow-up training sessions for'trainees*Ito refine the skillswhich were introduced in the initial training and increase confidence in theirability to be assertive.

In the workshop format, a ariety of grouptechniques and procedures is presented which follows the phases of the AssertionTraining with Prnerican Indians program. These phases include: developing an Indian assertive beliefsystem;/understanding assertive, aggressive, and nónassertive behavior;practicing basic assertion skills for self-determination; understanding messagematching;'practicing' message matching; and assessment. These phases are outlined below for planningconyenience.

Phases of Assertion Training with America,q Indians

I. Developing an Indian Assertive Belief System

A. Adult Self-Expression Scale (ASES) B. Indian Group Identity C. Consciousness Razors D. Stimulus Tape E. Indian Bill of Rights Exercise

II. Understanding Assertive, Aggressive, and NonassertiveBehavior

A. Definitions, Messages, and Goals B. Importance and Development of Assertive Behavior C. Verbal and Non-verbal Components

On-going group assertion traininb can bedesigned around a structured format for each meeting consisting of: 45 minutes for review of homeworkassignments and each trainee's interactions with others sincethe previous session; 30 minutes for discussion of new and continuing content areasand modeling by the trainer dr videotapes; and 45 minutes for behavior rehearsaland exercises. -57-

D. Group Awareness Profile E. Cultural Appropriateness Skills for Self-Determination III. Practicing Basic Assertion

Demonstration of Pre-arrangedSituations A. Feelings, Negative Feelings,and B. Role Play Expressing Positive Self-affirmation Counterproductive Beliefs C. Assessing Consequences and D. Coaching and Feedback

IV. Understanding Message Matching

A. Indian-White Language Comparison B. Five Categories of TargetPeople C. Assertive Indian Messages D. Counter Assertions E. Consequences of AssertiveMessages

V. Practicing Message Matching Person's Orientation A. Identification of Target B: Demonstration of MessageMatching and Target Person'sIdent4icationin C. Role Play Message Matching Triadic Format D. Coaching and Feedback forCultural Appropriateness Message Matching Format E. Role Play Situations Using Cultural Appropriateness F. Coaching and Feedback on

VI. Assessment ASES Scores A. Comparison of Pre- and-Post-training B. Behavioral Measures Report C. Self-report and Program Director's D. Evaluation of Training variety of applications in As trainers read this materialthey may think of a be helpful with Indianpeople. Some Indian adults, which assertion training may assertion training include: other than Ihdian programemployees, who may benefit from conflict or abuse; Indianpeople experiencing marital Indian women experiencing role into or drug dependency,'acculturation pressures, reentry conflict, alcoholism and those going away toschool the Indian community, reentryinto the world nf work; Indians encounter whereassertion or the militaryservice. Some situations which training might be helpfulinclude: materials whichovergeneralize 1. Challenging educators and curriculum or stereotypeIndians. other Indians atmeetings instead 2. Openly expressing disagreerlient with of complaining afterwards. like "Chief," "Injun,""Squaw," 3. Maintaining composure when called names or "Breve." -58-

federal ahd local programadministrators. 4. Standing up to the jargon -of interference which undermines groupefforts. 5. Stabilizing outside or white and 6. Refusing reOests from relativesand friends which are unreasonable beyond one's ability to grant.

she is being helpful, that he orshe 7. Telling someone who thinks he or .is in the way. social services, medical' care, orlegal 3. Obtaining housing, employment, aid.

Workqhop Format

agenda is provideCi in AppendixVI. The following A sample three-day-workshop suggestions, outcome detailed explanation of eachactivity on the agenda, training exercise are provided. goals, homework assignments,and time allotments for each assertiveness Supplementary activities for trainingthe non-verbal components of instructional It is recommended that trainersincorporate non-verbal are also included. particular component activities whenever trainees appear toneed improvement in a of non-verbal assertivebehavior.

Exercise 1. Introductions

people introduce Depending on the size of the group,it may be helpful to have people. If the, themselves and tell about the typeof work they do with their own More importantly, the.trainer trainees do not know each other, nametags are helpful. tribal affiliation should take some time to explainhis or her personal background, this workshop, and (if Indian), what tribal groups he or shehas worked with prior to Self-disclosure . some personal benefitsthe trainer hias experiencedby being assertive. throughout training. :is helpful since trainers areexpecting trainees td self-disclose clarify from the onset that thestatements made about Indian It is also important to experiences and are not culture and behavior arebased on the trainer's personal intended for generalization toall Indian people: at' the beginning of It,is very important to identifythe strengths of trainees To point out training to set a supportiveatmosphere, conducive to takingrisks. self-deprecating feelings". the trainees' weaknesses incommunicating would increase their and behaviors and would bedoing just what trainees fear.

Introductions are a logical way tobegin training and beginencouraging assertive making eye contact andintroducing herself to behavior. Ask a trainee to begin by respond. Simply exchanging someone across thetraining'group and ha,ve that person The person who received theintroduction (targetperson) then names ig fine. been introduced. introduces himself or herself toanother trainee who has not yet -59-

TM's exchange continues until each trainee hasresponded to an introduction and then introsiuced himself or herself to another trainee.

Lange and Jakubowski (1976) recommendthat the trainer then ask each trainee,. tell the introduCer something specific she - beginning with the first respondent, to liked about the way the person introducedherself (i.e., "Mona,I liked the way you smiled and your voice sounded so sincere.") Since little is actually'being said, the trainer should emphasize the non-verbalqualities of the introduction, using positive, behaviorally specific feedbackwhenever possible. Trainers might also give a few exarliples or types of non-verbalbehaviors they might focus on (i.e., voice qualities, ey.e contact) before initiatingtrainer and trainee feedback.

(1) to break.the , Outcome goats. -The purposes of this 10-minute exercise are: ice and encourage trainees' early involvementin thetrainingi (2) to help trainees begin recognizing those non-verbal behaviorswhich influence others; (3).to reduce tension by focusing on positive feedback; and(4) to initiate trainees to the process of,giving feedback.

gsertive Myths Overview of the Workshop: dose At the onset, trainers should briefly discussthe phases of the assertion training program and some reasonable expectationstrainees could'have as ,a result of being in . the workshop. Trainers should. also'dispel 6aedse az,sumption4about assertion training. Assertive behavior is not a panacea or cure-all forinterpersonal problems. Assert*e' behavior, despite the popularization of the term,is not pushy behavior. Being assertive does not always result in getting what youwant (Galassi & 1977a). Assertion training is presented as acommuncaton ,ski.etfor Indian self-determination, a copiag skiee against the pressuresto acculturate or give up one's ndianidentity, and a cb:sctiinLnat.cion 6U:a for the culturallyappropriate use of assertivbnqs within the Indian community.

Exercise 2. Self-assessment of Assertiveness

4 Before introducing the concept of assertiveness, itis recommended'that trainees. determine their present level of assertiveness byfilling out an assertion inventoiry.. such as the Adult Self-Expression Scale (Gay, Hollandsworth,& Galassi; 1975). Ttlis scale is selected from a consciousness-raisingperspective, since it measures a wide variety of different types ofassertive beha'vior. The questions in the scale may call to mind situations and content areastrainees had,not thought of recently but would like to change. The measure is designed for self-scoring sothat trainees may determine their score individually andprivately. Trainers may wish to report that the average score among Anglos is115-120 and the average score among Indians is 107-112 (La Fromboise, in press), for thepurpose ofpersonal comparison - (Galassi & Galassi, 1979). This scale is available by writingMelvin Gay, P. O. Box 4009, Charlotte, North Carolina 28204.

Outcome goaLs. Participants should (1) be more aware of the varietyof different types of target people and assertive behaviors;C2) be knowledgeable of their present, -60-

,Tevel of assertiveness; (3) be able to comparetheir score with,the average non,- ,Indians American adult; (4) understand thebehaviors and target .persons in need of attention during the 30-minute activity.

Developing an Assertive Belief System

Literature in the area of assertion trainingsupports the idea of developing an individual assertive belief system, contending thatuntil one's own needs are met, true concern for the.well-being of othersis unlikely to develoHAlberti & Emmons, 1974). The literature ano contends that once-peopleknow themselves well, accept who they are, and know what their rights are,they will engage in assertive behavior and continue to do so amidst criticism and pressureto act nonassertively. Indian 'culture, on the other hand, stresses a collectiveidentity, and group responsibility (Trimble, 1981). After- the needs of the family, clan, or tribe are met, anIndian person may become,concerned abouthis or her own well-being. A collective or wimp assertive belief system which iS concerned about the expressionand concerns of Indian people in general shouTd be emphasized.

Exercise 3. Consciousness Razors

An adaptation of Phelps and Austin's "ConscidlisnessRazorr exercise mith Indian people is provided in Appendix VII (Phelps & Austin,1977, p. 152). This is a series of questions designed to increaSe one's awarenesslevel and heighten perceptions about:assertiveness. One or two'of these questions may be presented tothe group for the purpose of initiating discussions aboutpersonal opportunities and experiences which were affected by their being Indian. During this.exercise, the trainer should, emphasize the limitations of trainees to meet the needsof others when their own needs have not been met.

Outcume goaLs. From this 10-minute exerciset-trainees should be-able torecognize socialization messages and inhibiting attttudes which Curtialassertiveness.

Exercise 4. Stimulus Demontration

Trainees are shownastimulus videotape entitled "Can A44eAtivene44 BeneW Indian Peopee?" This 20-minute'videotape is designed to stimulate the group member's feelings about injutices which occur torIndians when theyare nonassertive (see also modeling section in Chapter III).

An alternative to the presentation and discussion of thevideotape is the demonstration of Indian nonassertiveness by Indian co-trainefs or- programdirectors who IDOnsor the-training. If time allows, trainers may clish to lead a discussion concerning the negative feelings trainees experienced asthey observed the demonstration.

Owccome got.s. The goals of this 30-minute exercise are: (1) to stimulate trainees' feelings about the need to be assertive for Indianrights; (2) to identify the manipulative behaviors used by non-Indian andIndian people to curtail assertiveness; -61-

of authority,friendship,rand solo status in (3) to stimulate consideration handling each of interactions; and (4) to illicit ideasof alternative was of the situations in a more assertivemanner'.

Exe'rcise 5. Indian Bill of Rights

situations is because they The reason People often donot know how tk act in many nvolves having trainees break-up do not know what their rights are. The exercise human beings into small groups.and brainstormingthe rights In -Ian people have as der to write down the ideas. and as special citizens. Each group appoints a re (Allow approximately 15 minutes forbrainstorming.) by combining the lists The trainer thenhelps draw up their Indian Bill of Rights The trainer leads group membersin from the small groups anddiscussing each right. responsibility Indian people 'a discussion of* the legalbasis of each right and the Responsibilities chapter have in retaining each of theserights. The Indian Rights and rights and special rights. provides information concerningthe legality of both hump in assertion training An outline of the rights nostfrequently presented by Indians Appendix II. (This workshops and the legal basis for eachright is provided in discussion lasts approximately 30minutes.) the rights The trainer then asks the membersof the group to select one of in a group they had the most difficult timeaccepting. The trainer leads the trainees fantasy by instructions such as thefollowing:' -

Now imagine that you had the right yousele'cted from our Indian Imagine how life would change as you Bill of Rights ...... How do you accept this right. . . ., How would you act?

feel about yourself? : . . about other people?

This fantasy continut For the minutes, after whichthe trainer says:

. . . Imagine Now imagine that you no longer havethe right . how your life would change from whattt)was moments ago ...... and _How would you now act? . , . and feel aboutyourself? about other people? (Allow This fantasy continues for one mipute(Lange & Jakubowski, 1976, p.89). 10 minutes for groupfantasy.)

After the trainees form pairs, they areasked to discuss the followingquestions: the right, how each what rights they each selected, howeach felt when they accepted they learned from this acted differently when they had theright in fantasy, and what exercise. are: (1) to help trainees Outcome goat's. The goals of this 55-minute exercise . assertive right; become aware of how much freer they feelwhen they accept their (3) to identify (2)'to increase their awareness of how theydeny themselves the right; specific counter-messages they could useto help themselvesaccept the right 4".

t. -62-

between human rights and (Lange & Jakibowski, 1976); and ( ) to distinguish special Indian rights.

Testimonials of IndianASsertive Behavior . Exercise 6.

that OtheAz Wite Li4ten." Trainees view a videotapeentitled "How ta Taa 4o verbally reconstruct or givetestimonials of ways inwhich'they Here Indian people pmonstrate hew they were assertive have been successful inassertiveness and then Trainers can extend thisactivity by dis- with relatives and acollege professor. demonstrated in the videotape. cussing assertive verbaland non-verbal behaviors trainer (if Indian) and the An alternative to thevideotape might involve the thatthey were successfullyassertive program sponsors giving testimopialsto times assertiveness. It is helpful to and discussing the positiveconsequences of their in advance that their assistancein this segment is appreciated notify program sponsors demonstrations and testimonials..% so they have time to preparefor their involvement in activity are: (1) to develop Ouctome goats. The purposes of this 20-minute Indian,people are often assertivefor the sake of their trainees' expectations that assertiveness; and (3) toidentify a own people; (2) tomoirel culturally appropriate variety of assertive verbal.andnon-verbal responses.

Nonassertive Definitions Exercise 7. Assertive, Aggressive and

the message of each A discussion, of the definitionsof each response category, - gOal of each response is helpfulinMearning to discriminate .response, ana'the situations and responses among beKaviors(see Chapter I). The trainer may also present Indian"Behavior Rehearsals(Appendix IV), on video- or audiotapefrom the scripts'for as'sertive, aggressive; or and ask .trainees.to determinewhether the response is nonassertive. role-plak will be In this exercise the trainerinfqrms the trainees that a work late and an performed whtch involves a supervisorwho wants an employee to Definitions Activity'Role-play employee who 'has a.birthdaydinner that evening (see the role play for both verbal Script in Appendix VIII). Participants should observe After the role-play has beep completed,the trainer writes and non-verbal behavior. Sub- "nonassertive behavior" at the head ofeither a blackboard orflip chart. definitfon, verbal behavior, non-verbalbehaviors, and pay-offs and headings' include: the trainer writes a basic From 1i discussion ofthese side-headings, consequences. Trainees are then definition which encoMpasses thesuggested characteristics. GrouP participation should requested to describe the verbalbehaViors they observed. responses, and making sug- be 'encouraged, with thetrainer reinforcing appropriate .have been listed, gestions or additions when necessary._When verbal behaviors Repeat this same taskwith both aggressive continue.by lisingnon-verbal-behaviors. and assertive behaviors. 1- (1) to create a list Outtome goa44. The goals of this 30-minuteexercise are: assertive behaviors;(2) to of workable definitions ofnonasSertive, aggressive, and -63-

identify trainees' misunderstandings aboutassertie, aggressive, and nonassertive behaviors and help them correct theirmisunderstandings; and (3) to distinguish the differences in verbal and non-verbal componentsof assertive, aggressive, and nonassertive behaviors.

, Exercise1660._Behavior Attitude Cycle

Alberti and Emmons (1970) presentedthe concept that assertive, nonassertive, or aggressive behaviors tend to perpetuatethemselves in a cycle (see Appendix I). For example, persons who behave nonassertively oraggressively usually think poorly of usually responded to with avoid- themselves. Such persons' behaviors with others are ance or disdain whichconfirms their low self-evaluations. As persons continue this sionassertive or aggressive behavior, the cycleis repeated: the sender's inadequate behavior, the target person's negativefeedback, the sender's attitude of self- deprecation, and the sender's continued inadequatebehavior. Trainers may briefly discuss this cycle emphasizing Indian holisticworld views which would consider the necessary behavior as well asthe sender's attitude, the target person'sattitude, and feedback from the targel person.

Outcome goatz. The purpose of this 10-minutediscussion is to emphasize the reciprocal nature of behavior and attitudechanges for the sender as well as the target person and the social environment.

Verbal and Mon-verbal Components ofAssertiveness

Any/Of the scenes from the videotapes may beviewed to teach trainees how to give feedback on the verbal and/or non-verbalcomponents of the assertive, aggressive, of giving ornonassertive behavior. After having experienced non-threatening ways feedback, trainees often'begin to offer feedback morefrequently and more con- structively as training progresses. (Reproduce Appendix IX in handcut form for trainee's feedback.)

Exercise 9. Expressing Positive Feelings

The content areas in expressing positive feelingsinclude: giving compliments; receiving compliments; making requests;expressing.liking, love, and affection; initiating and maintaining conversations. There are a variety of exercises in this ,area (Galassi & Galassi, 1977a; Lange& Jakubowski, 1976).

It may also be hell)ful to have trainees,discusstheir traditional ways of expressing positive feelings, whether or not thos6 ways arestill practiced, and how positive feelings may be expressed appropriatelywithin the Indian community today. FOr example, the act of initiating a conversationor-asking questions while a person is talking to someone else is viewed as gross,interference and met with resentment among some tribes. Trainers may convey that it isappropriate when one wishes to begin a conversation to place 'himself or herself inthe line of vision of the party and wait until his or her presence is acknowledgedbefore entering the conversation. -64-

Often when people learn to refuse requests, they become more comfortable making requests. Lange and JAkubowski (1976) have incorporated this principle in their Making and Refusing Requests Exercise (pp. 102-103). After explaining that making and refusing requests effectively is a form of assertive behavior, the trainer groups trainees in pairs. Let the pairs create their own role-play situations with instructions for one person to make a reasonable request and the other person to respond by simply saying, "No." They then switch roles. The discussion which follows usually indicates that saying "No" is not all they wish to communicate. OtherAliformation they wish the requester to know includes why they are refusing and their willingness to comply in a different way or at a different time.

Ne4, have the pair make and,Lefuse requests, intentionally offering excuses that avoidthe real issues. A numW of questions miOt arise concerning how, to deal with the person who feels hurby a refusal, which person and situations are inappropriate to make or refuse req ests, and how to deal with persistent persons who ask why they were refused.

Trainees can also ask trainees to discuss the thoughts or beliefs that led them to avoid making requests and direct the discussion in terms of the perspnal or special rights and counterproductive beliefs they engage in.

Finally, the trainer has the pairs make and refuse requests in an honest and direct manner using, "I don't want to," or "I won't" instead of "I can't" and excuSes.

Outcome goabs. The purpoSes of this 30-minute exercise are: (1) to recognize how.beliefs regarding rights and cultural expectations influence behaviors.; (2) to have trainees assess4their effettiveness in making requests; (3) to provide in- . formation about the direct expression of requests; and (4) to practice discriminating between effective and ineffective requests.

Exercise 10. I-Messages

I-messages are based on the work of Gordon (1970) and are useful guides in heraping people assertively express,positive and negative feelings, Since describing one's feelings may be inappropriate to some tribes, the author recommends" that the trainers substitute" the phrases "I am . . ." or "I seem to be . . for "I feel . . .

Expressi4boneself:

I feel (state how you feel) because/when (behavior that caused

the feeling) . Next time I would like (describe what you want to occur in the future)

Example:

I was quite upset because you didn't come ov ast night and you said you would. Next time call and e know you changed_your plans.

Li -65-

Lange and Jakubowski (1976) suggestthat the "Next time I would like" part with a less be optional, realizing khat itsomission leaves the target person greater oppor- clear idea of what the sender wouldlike to see happen but also a Trainers may tunity to offer his or her ideasfor compromising thesituation. oneself. demonstrate "I-messages" and refer traineesto the formula for expressing

The trainer then asks trainees to pairoff and practice giving andreceiving I-messages.

Outcome goats. The purpose of this trief10-minute exercise is to encourage beliefs, and ideas trainees to accept personalresponsibility for their feelings, rather than shifting the blame ontothe target person.

Exercise 11. Group Awareness Profile

in An adaptation of Cheek's(1976) Group Awareness Profile is provided tool or stimulus for group dis- Appendix X. Trainers may use this as a diagnostic profile and be prepared to discuss ideas cussion. Ask trainees to fill out the 7 that come to mind as they fill it out. Cheek (1976) suggests that questions to and 8 indicate the need forassertion training and that dissimilar answers questions 9-12 indicate a potential sourceof problems if trainees do not under- to various items Stand dual role behavior. A discussion of trainees' responses about beliefs or fears on this measure providesideas for a fruitful discussion trainees may have about being assertive. (1) help trainees Outcome goats. This 20-minut tivity is designed to: (2) understand attend to the different ways they acttoward Indians and Whites; (3) help the distinction they make between Indianand White target people; and trainers detect potential role conflicts amongtrainees.

Exercise 12. Response Videotape

As trainees view the "What Do WeMean by A4seraive?" videotape,they.are and aggressive exposed to additional instances ofIndian assertive, nonassertive, Trainees are asked to view the videotapeand take note: concerning the behavior. After the verbal and km-verbal components ofassertiveness (use AppendixIX). *ainer plays each role-play trainees are asked toidentify mhether the responses or nonassertive. Those trainees who misidentify the were assertive, aggressive, The trainer responses are questione-d todiscover the source ofmisunderstandings. short-term con- then leads them into a discussionof possible longaterm and sequences otassertiye,aggressive, and nonassertivebehavior. (1) to practice Outcome goats. The goals of this 30-minuteexercise are: and discriminating between nonassertiveness,assertiVeness, and aggressiveness; of behaviors. (2) to learn to assess the immediateand long-term consequences -66--

Exercise 13. Indian-White Language Comparison

4. The adaptatron of Cheek's (1976) language comparison is an effective way of having trainees focus upon what they do instinctively, that is, talkdiffer- ently to Indians and to Whites. Rather than provide the comparison (see Chapter V), trainees are asked to take notes or record brainstotmed ideas about what, how, and why Indians talk to Indians and Whites differently.

Outcome gocte,6.° The purposes of this 20-minute activity are: (1) to recognize that different modes of speech produce different modes of thought; (2) torealize that different styles-of speech with the same or similar terms may) represent entirely different meanings depending upon the ethnicity and degree of familiarity with the speaker; and (3) to increase trainees' appreciation for the values, perceptions, and speech patterns of Whites and American Indians.

Exercise 14. Message Matching

Donald Cheek (1976), who originated the concept of message matching in assertive training, suggests five key ideas in developing an assertive-training program for Blacks. They are adapted for Indians as follows:

.1. Determination of the degree to which Black communication style will.contribute in spontaneous interaction.

2. Establishment of the intent of the message as perceived by the sender.

3. Awareness of the type of target person to whom the message is directed.'

4. Assessment of the ability to judge the quality of "matching."

5. Provision of a frame of reference for comparing the assertive message by comparing it to the sender's expression of the same content using passive and aggressive modes of respohses.

Trainers should briefly discuss the concepts of mesSage matching (see Chapter V). It helps to refer trainees to the handout entitled "Message Matching" (see Appendix XI). Trainers should emphasize that assertiveness and the manner'in which one chooses to be assertive depends upon the situation and the person. The terms sender, message, and target person are expTained.To illustrate the concept that people talk and think differently about the same phenomenon, trainers are asked to select a familiar symbol like an'eagle and ask each persdh to write down what the word "eagle" means to them. As, trainees share their responses, the trainer should emphasize the variety of responses among trainees for the same phenomenon. Trainers also emphasize that the goal of this program is that group members become dual-oriented peoplewho are able to communicate effectively from a variety of viewpointsand ethnic perspectives.

17 -67-

Outcome goatz. The purposes of this 20-minute activity are: (1) to introduce didactic concepts of message matching; (2) to teach trainees about assertive issues concerning the sender, message, and target person; and(3) to emphasize the divergence in thinking about the samephenomenomand its application to assertiveness. 4

Exercise 15. Assertive Indian Messages

The trainer jntroduces the five categories of target people Indiansfre- quently encounter by having the message matching illustration put on an overhead transparency.,The trainer leads group mempers in brainstorming and then discussing the verbal and non-verbal or vi/sual cues whichdifferentiate members of each of the five general categories of target persons from each other. It is vital that trainers introduce this'discussion by stating that these are broad-categories requiring that generalizations about individuals be made. Trainers should Wahn thainee4 o6 the darigek in a4.6tuning negative

4teheotype4 such as "All conventional Whites are . . . ," The trainer writes the members' responses on a chalkboard or large paper where they may remain in view during behavior rehearsals\and encourages trainees to take notes on the handout provided. Trainees mayfind it helpful to go over the cues in preparing for their roles in the mesage matching behavior rehearsal. Trainees then view the "Message Matching" vidotape or live demonstraton which illustrates how an assertive message can be varid in content and delivery to match the orientation of the target person.

Trainees are then asked to choose \one of the Indian rights from the Indiam Bill of Rights exercise and think of h6w they would defend that.right with a person from each of the five categories,, keeping inmind'the intentions of their assertive message and the possible perception of their assertion on the part of each category of target people.

Outcome goats. The purposes of this 50-minute exercise are: (1) to group a variety of target people into categories to aid indiscrimination training, (2) to warn against the tendency to stereotype; (3) to identify the verbal and visual cues associated with people from different target categories; (4) to practice varying assertive responses; (5) to increase the likelihood that a target person from a different orientation than the sender may be effectively assertive or most easily understood; and (6) to model appropriately-matched assertive messages.

Exercise 16. Message Matching with Five Targets'

In.practicing assertive Indian message matching, trainees are instructed to practice defending an Indian right in an assertive andnon-aggressive manner with a target persori from a category they feel least comfortable interacting\ \\ - with. This rehearsal is conducted in triadic format involving a sender, a 41 target person, and a cross-cultural coach. This procedure was adopted from Pedersoes idea of an "anti-counselor" in the cross-cultural coalitionmodel

f7 0 -68- for miCro-counseling (Ivey & Authier,1978). By acting as a "cross-cultural coach." trainees, who represent different levels ofacculturation and experiences with Indians and non-Indian people, can provide valuablefeedback concerning their perceptions of the behavior of people who come. from thesefive categories. After trainees have displayed proficiency rehearsing in triadic format,role-plays are expanded into a message matching format whichinvolves a sender, five target persons, and a cross-cultural coach.

The "cross-cultural coach" should understand and be able to express viewpoints similar to those of each target person fromthe categories with whom the sender is learning to be assertive. Throughout the role-play, the coach acts as an alter-ego of each target person by providing constant,immediate feedback concerning the conscious and unconscious cultural biases and perceptionsof the target persons. The "cross- cultural coach" alsb provides additional suggestionsand ideas which may help the sender change his or her perceptional-emotionalviewpoints that hinder cross- cultural assertiveness.

Outcome gout's. The purposes of this exercise aref (1) to practice assertive message matching with all fivecategories of target people; (2) to receive immediate feedback from the coach concerning the target'sperson's perceptions of the trainees' assertive message matching; and (3) to learnthat the content of the message remains basically the same, whereas the manner of delivery changesaccording to the target person.

Exercise 17. Counter Assertions

\Back-up.assertions or counter assertions are restatements orclariftcations of the original assertive message to insure correctinterpretation when the sender suspects that the target person may have misperceivedthe intent of the message (Minor, 1978). 0

assertions, that person , Before a sender can clarify the intent of his or her must be able to detect whether confusion,distortion, or dissopance is occurring on the part of the target person. One way to determide if dissonfince exists would be for the sender tolearn to'assess the impressionsof the target person's response to his or her assertive statement to see what the target personperforms in saying whatever he or she says. Haley (1963) suggests that people communication cues which provide additional information about the content theyverbalize. If a person says, "No,I don't have the money to lend you" while standing firmand looking you in the eye, the physical constancy amplifies the verbal statementand affirms the message. If that same person says,"No,I don't have the money to lend you" and shifts from foot to foot while moving the hands in his or her pockets,the squeamish behayior qualifies the verbal statement incongruently and confusesthe statement.

Difficulties in interpersonal relationships arise Aen a statement is made which indicates one type of relationship and is qualified by a statementwhich denies the relationship. For example, the assertive intent of a person is often negatedwhen accompanied by nervous laughter'or slight upward inflection on aword qualifying it -69- as a question rather than an assertion. Subtle qualifiers to look for in assertive tnterchanges might.be: a slight smile, body movement away from the asserter, the absence Of any message or response to the assertion, ahesitation or pause, absence of any movement, or anargumentative tone of voice.

farget person is confused . In situations requiring counc assertions, the and has basically rejected the conteht of the sender's message.The target person may dwell on the 'confusing or negativereactions to the initial message at the expense of accurately perceiving the contentof the counter assertion unless the sender does something to break through the communication barrier. It is recommended that the sender preface the counter assertion with the targetperson's name and also capitalize on the content ofthe original assertive statement which'seemed most important to the target Orson (Moray, 1959).

Once the trainer has discussed counter a`sertions and qualifiers,trainees are guided about what to do-when the targetpe4-son has a negative reaction to a trainee's message:

1. Look at your behavior to decide whether it wasapprOpriate or aggressive.

2. If your behavior was appropriate, ask forlarification. If your behavior appeared negative, apologize.

3. Restate your position by using a counter assertion.

4. If the person persists in his or her negative reactioiir" ignore it rather than allow it to escalate into a battle.

Outcome goat's. The purposes of this 30-minute exercise are: (1) to instruct trainees about counter assertiah procedures; (2) to stimulate traineessensitivity to negative reactions of the target person, Such as-confusion, anger,and distortion; (3) to understand the impact of verbal and non-verbal qualifers on assertiveness; and (4) to practice counter assertions and receive feedback concerningtheir effectiveness.

Exercise 18. Wrap-up and Evaluation of Training

The trainer summarizes what has occurred during training andspeculates on areas for future assertion training sessions. If people request further training in this area, More time may be spent in refining theassertive skills presented in the workshop ard paying particular attention toreoccurring problem situations of the sponsoring agency. Trainees may also be taught to write their own scripts usingsituations in their personal lives and work-environments which they wish to sigibrove (Bower & Bower, 1976; Galassi & Galassi,1977a). Trainees should be encouraged to practiceS these situations extensively inrole-plays with peers and co-workers after training. -70-

The "whip exercise" is an excellentexercise to gtve everyone an opportunity to participate at the close of training(Lange & Jakubowski, 1976). Trainees simply finish statements like "Today Ilearned that . . .," "An assetive person

. . ." Each person is able to leaVe the training is . . . .," "Right now I feel session with the feeling that he or she hasparticipated. (It takes about five minutes since each person makes a statement,but no discussion takeS place.)

A copy of the Workshop Evaluation is provided inAppendix XII. Before trainers leave they should distribute these forms andask participants to fill them out to aid in improving the performance ofboth the trainer and the prOgram. Trainers may ask them to turn theevaluaXions in to the program director wno sponsored the training, who will return them to the trainer orread the evOuation prior to giving them to the sponsoring agency.

Outcome. goats. The purposes of this brief exercise and workshopevaluation are: (1) to help close with a supportive atmosphere whereall trt.ainees participate and experience success; (2) to maximallyutilize the cognitive, affective, and behavioral contributions of all trainees rather thanemphasize t,he trainer's contributions; (3) to set the expectancy that assertivebehavior' will continue after assertion training; and (4) to receivefeedback concerning; the content and // delivery of this assertion training program.

Supplementary Non-verbal Exercises

Distance Exercise

Body, space and its meaning among Indian people werepreviously discussed in the Indian Non-verbal Communication chapter. Trainers shouldlstress thai each trainee is unique and may have individualpreferences concerning what is a comfortable distance to stand near another person. Trainees cal assess their , individual comfort zones by having a trainee stand up,walk ver to someone else them to take a and begin talking. While the two people are talking, ask ea h of step closer to _each other and notice.ifthefr level of anxie y increases. Then ask each trainee to take two steps backwardand determine whether their anxiety level decreases (Colter & Guerre, 1976). If Indians and non-Indians are involved in training, it is suggested thattrainees try this exercise with peopleofthe same ethnicity first, andthen with members of another culture tO seeif there are any differences incomfort zones.- Trainees may bediseracted during the conversation (which means they are too farapart) or they inayfind themselves (they are too close together tryingto turn away or terminate the conversation or off to the side). 1

Outcome goat. The goal of this exercise is tofacilitete better cross- cultural interactions through the discovery ofmutually comfortable territory.

Direct _Eye Contact Exercise

This activity is provided for trainees whohave difficOty maintaining direct "Subjective Units of eye contact. (Note: The term "SUDS" is an acronym for z

-71--

Discomfort Scale," rated as O. = no discomfort to.100 - maximumpbssible discomfort. Howeyer, any previously agreed-upon scheme to communicatethe trainees' perceived level of anxiety could be used withthis procedure.)

Trainees should first select another trainee that he orshe would feel somewhat comfortable with. Then go over and sit in' front of that person at a comfortabledistance and Veep eyes on the groUnd.

0 "With your vision focused on the ground, I.would like you to rate your SUDS at this moment. (Pause) OK, take a couple of

nice deep breaths, let the air out of your lungssloWly, and . again rate your SUDS. (Pause) What I am going to do is teach you how to become more comfortablegiving another person direct eye contact. I will do this by having yoU look at different areas while at the same time trying tokeep your anxiety level low. Just listen to my directions, and folrow what Iask you to do. If any time your SUDS gets abdve 50, just raise your hand soI will know to-slow down."

"Once again, with your eyes on the ground, rate yourSUDS. (Pause) Fine, now look at the other person's ankles. (Pause) Look back down to.the grourib. (Pause) Now look at the person's ankles again. (Pause) Good. Now look at the person's knees. (Pause) Now look at the person's stomach. (Pause) Rate your SUDS. Look at the person's left shoulder." (At this point, the client is apt to hesitate until he or she figures outwhich is the left shoulder. This is intentional in that thinking through a problem is incompatible withanxiety.) "SUDS. Look back down at the ground. (Pause) Now look at the right shoulder. (Pause) Now look over the person's head about two feet. (Pause) SUDS. Good."

"Now look at the person's waist. (Pause). Look at the person's chin. (Pause) SUDS. Look at the person's left ear. (Pause) SUDS. Look back down to the ground. (Pause) Look at the person's forehead. (Pause) Look now at the right ear, you had to pass the eyes. Look back at the ground., (Pause) Rate your SUDS. Look at the person's eyes. (Brief pause) Excellent. Now look at the ground. (Pause) SUDS. Look at both eyes. (Pause) SUDS. Now look over the.person's head about sixinches. (Pause) Now back" to the eyes and hold that eye contact. (Pause) Good. Now loqk back at the chin. (Pause) Now at the forehead. (Pause) Now at the eyes again. (Pause) SUDS. Look back at the ground. (Pause) Rate your SUDS. Look back at the person's eyes and thistime give the person a smile. (Pause) SUDS. Now look up here for a moment." (Colter & Guerra, 1976, pp. 106-107) (1) shape Outcome goats. The purposes of this 15-minute activity areto: assertive direct eye contact; and (2) to monitoranxiety level duringthe shaping process foe those who havedifficulty maintaining direct eye contact. -72-

Voice Characteristics Exercise coached to exaggerate To practice appropriatelevels of volume, the trainee is that he or she will this behavior and test thelimits of a loud vdice tone so hearing one's speech in that tone ofvoice. This become less apprehensive when microphone while moving it farther can be done byhaving the trainee speak into a trainee otove to an outer room and farther away. Or it can be tone by having the door (Colter and rry on a conversationwith another trainee through a closed & Guerra, 1976).

Trainees may also need to practicedetermining the proper rate ofspeaking. main- This may entail speeding up responseswith non-Indian target persons yet They,may wish to taining a more relaxed\rate of responsewith fellow Indians. rates with practice their assertive responsesinto a tape recorder at different different categories of target persons todetermine the most effective rate of speaking in accordance with the target person. Oftentimes nonas/sertive people "you know," use dysfluencies such as"ah," "anda," or fillers like "okay," self-monitor.the dysfluencies and "well." Trainees can use these responses or found in the tape recording. (1) to practice Outcome goa.ez. The purposes of this 5-minute,exercise are: (2) to eliminate and refine voice characteristics inassertive interchanges; and fillers and speech dysfluencies. CHAPTER VIII

PRACTICAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR TRAINERS

This chapter discusses the role of the trainer in teachingassertion skills to Indian people. It should be emphasized that a trainer's effectiveness depends upon his or her effectiveness as a person. Training skills are interwoven with the trainer's personality--what the trainer perceives, how the trainer reacts to his or her perceptions, and how the trainer translates these reactions into behavior (Nylen, Mitchell, & Stout, 1967). Knowledge, self-avdrenes,, and skill development go hand in hand in building,the trainer. One's professional growth as a trainer cannot be separated from one's personal and cultural growth asjan individual.

Paraprofessidnals

One of the complications of selecting trainers for this program surrounds the issues of race and availability.The most effective asserjon trainer would be one representing the same race and-fultural experiences of the trainees(Carkhuff & Pierce, 1967). Unfortunately, the number of Indian professionals in helping- related, professions is limited and the need for assertion training among American IndianS is great. A possible remedy for this deficiency might be to extend the availability of assertion trajning through the use of Indian paraprofessionals as trainers of assertiveness.

A paraprofessional is defined as a person who is selected, trained, and given responsibility.for performing functions generally performed by professionals (Delworth, 1974). They do not possess the requisite education or credentials to be considered professionals, but display adequate ability in the field in which they are working. In reference to this program, Indian paraprofessional trainers would display knowledge of the professional literature on assertiveness, enthusiasm and assertiveness as a group leader, supportiveness, directness, non-demeaning criticalness, and comfortableness in relating to Indian trainees.

There has been extensive evidence of the efficiency of papaprofessional counselors in community and anti-poverty programs in the literature (Gartner, 1969).The use of- praprofessional counselors avoids the frequently experienced inadequacies of traditional delivery services which often rely upon professionals who do nbt understand tbe needs bf minority people. Indian paraprofesOnals have successfully served as liaisons among professional counselors, with community members, and traditional healers in their role as helpers such as community health representatives, homemaker aides, and social service workers. Utilizing paraprofessionals is a means of recognizing the strength of competent helpers withoutprofessional status and a means of encouraging Indian self-determination.Paraprofessional assertion trainers may also be effective co-trainers with minimal training because they possess the community background and understanding which outweighsformal training -74-

evident when Anglo and (Carkhuff & Truax, 1965). This becomes particularly what they understand asracism or prejudicewithin Indian dto-trainers focus on the nuances of feelingswhich emerge the training sessionsand discuss and process perspectives (Thomas &Yates, 1974). from their different be observed in acceptingthe reports that the However, some caution.should is an effective,acceptable, and adaptable pro- use ofparaprofessional helpers durin.g behavioral The use ofparaprofessionals in coaching cedure (Brown, 1974). professional coaching inassertion rehearsals has beenfound to be superior to benefit clients -(Flowers &Guerra, 1974). An additional training with non-disturbed who has the "double chaRgephenomenon" wherein a person from this procedure is client who has never to learn assertiontechniques better than a been a coach is found A real coach (Flowers & Guerra,1974; Guerney, 1969). had the opportunity to will is that often in assertiongroups, trainees concern ofspecialists in the area for in-depth psychological problems which aremore appropriate reveal a number of It is feared thatparaprofessional trainers therapy (Lange &Jakubowski, 1976). between the need for assertiontraining and the may not be ableto discriminate (Shoemaker, 1977). If need for referral to morein-depth counseling..procedures co-train with professionaltrainers or are supervised :ndian paraprofessionals be minimized. A list of closely by professionaltrainers, this concern may Problems for AssertionTraining," is presenting problemsentitled, "Presenting XIII which may be used tohelp sensitivetrainers,discriminate provided in Appendix problems would appropriate for assertiontraining and which which problems may be have been grouped handled individually. Even though trainees be more appropriatly unusual for trainees to 'homogeneously according tothese criteria, it is not behavior change. When this experience critical emotionsand conflict over a is inadequate andthe professional occurs, a strictskills-acquisition apRroach trainer's therapeutic skillsmust be called upon. paraprofes- involves the amount andkjnd of training for A further concern requires assertion training.Trainirig in this program sionals in the area of Paraprofessional trainers significant knowledge ofIndian daily expetiences. stereotypes andmethods ofeliminating.them should be exposed to racial extensive human relationstrafn- (Shaughnessy, 1978). They should also receive communication skills. Skills in ing which focuses onrelationship building and for referral toprofessional agencies, group dynamics,knowledge of the criteria and organizationalskills are also awareness of reourcesand referral sources, (Thomas & Yates, 1974). helpful for their effectivenessas a trainer in assertiveness shouldinclude their participation Extensive training in recommended that para- workshop. It is also an introductoryassertion training trainers which emphasizes professional persor_dl attend anassertion workshop for and shaping successive skills in conduCting behavioralrehearsals, coaching, supervised applicationof approximations of goals. They should experience training group underthe supervision of a pro- tNining by leading an assertion of an assertiontraining fessional assert:on trainer orthe periodic co-leading (Whitely & Flowers,1978). Video- group with a. professionalassertion trainer . supervising paraprofesionals taping is also an excellentmedium for preparing and traift*ng which couldbe stimulated throughout in assertiveness. Some problems of complicated by the trainers involve situations the, training Of paraprofessional -75-

(Sandmeyer, reticent group member, the power strug e, and the irrelevant-comment Ranck, & Chiswick, 1979). Again, it is\recommended thata.learning-based model which assumes that having knowledge, viewingothers demonstrate training skills, practicing leadership skills, and,receivingfeedback be used in training paraprofessional assertion trainers.

Selection of paraprofessional trainers maybean on-going process by struc- turing periodic evaluations throughoutphases of training. The final selection the criteria should be based upon theappliCant's motivation for involvementjn role program, ability to communicateopenly and directly, and_effectiveness as a model and trainer of culturally appropriateassertiveness (Sandmeyer, Ranck, & Chiswick, 1979). Specific concepts andskills practiced in training paraprofessionals involve:defining-assertive,,passive,-and-aggressive behavior; recognizing and clarifying belief systemsrelated to assertive and nonassertive behavior; identifying thoughts and feelingsabout assertive and nonassertive behavior; identifying behavioral componentsof assertiveness; demonstrating assertive skills; and giving and receivingfeedback about assertive behavior.

Non-Indian Trainers.

One of the most effective ways-tolearn about oneself is by taking seriously the cultures of others. It forces you to pay attention to those details of life whichdifferentiate them from you. (Hall, 1959, p. 54)

Since it is unlikely that most trainersof this Assertion Training with , II . 6 6 .11 I 11 I II 1d a srofcsional counselor, this section is written for the non-Indian trainerwho works with American Indians or have been asked to conduct training. Ethically, it is important that those who offer mental health services to personsof culturally different backgrounds be competent in the understanding of the cultureof those groups.(American Psycho- logical Conference, 1973). For this reason, cross,culturalorientation training is gaining importance-on the counseling field,since most of the people in this area are limited to the normsof the majority-culture. Anglo trainers may simply be unable to understand cOmmunicationba'sed on a.set of norms unlike their own. Even the label "non-Indian" may bedisrupting to professional identity, for the slight detail of a,label which indicates non-groupmembership can challenge one's identity.

Often, unintentional misunderstandings occurwhen Indian and non-Indian people start working together since they eachremain,within the grip of their own cultural identification. For this reason, it is recommended thatnon-Indian trainers engage in cross-cultural training prior tb working withIndian. people. Cross-cultural communication training allows non-Indian trainersthe opportunity to identify those .problems which arise throughout trainingbecause of their own culture- shaped responses rather than the trainee'sshortcomings. By coMparing the simiflarities and differences of dultural coherence,giving limited information trainers about Indians, self-examinatioh,'and testing of typothetical stereotypes, can learn something about their ownidentity. They learn how their thoughts 2 and behavior are grounded in cultural assumptions, values, and beliefs, and how their feelings are based on cultural values, all of which affect their relationships with trainees and are possible sources of misunderstanding (Brislin & Pedersen, 1976).

The ability'to recognize cultural influences in cognitions is defined.as cultural self-awareness (Katz; 1978). With this awareness, trainers can make deliberate rather than accidental decisions about whether'they want to retain their opinions and frame of reference, or use transpection, the process of putting oneself in the mind of another person (Lee, 1966). They should become more knowledgeable about their own limitations in facilitating behavioral change with people from a cultuee unlike their own. Each of the following cultural differences affects how trainees perceive and carry out assertive behavior: the details of language pronunciation; the way people move (tempo and rhyth4, the way they use their senses (representational systems), how close they get to each other (the types of bonds they form), how they show and experience their emotions, their image of what constitutes maleness and femaleness, hoW hierarchiCal relationships are handled, and the flow of infoination in sooial systems (Hall, 1976).

The results of cultural self-awareness and awareness of the elements of cultural coherence are immense. Trainee's become aware of certain phases of ethnic identity which they experience as they develop "an understanding of Indian behavior." This awareness is invaluable in providing ,Indiamtrainees with information concerning the possible confused negative reactions non-Indians may experience towards Indian assertiveness. This non-Indian feedback also improves trainees' skills at diagnosing difficulties in inttrcultural communications. The goals of intercultbral communication applied to trainers of assertiveness include increasing non-Indian trainers' awareness of: their.impact on other people, their own patterns of handling interpersonal conflict, and their own motives in interactions with others' (Haigh, 1966): Trainers also learn tb suspend judgment wheR confronted with a behavior which seems uniquely different. Hope- fully, as trainers become increasingly aware of their ignorance of the vast differences among Indian cultural groups, their motivation to.learn about diverse ways will correspondingly increase. Finaly, non-Indian trainers may also become aware of areas of Indian communication which may be modified to be more congruent - with non-Indian communication.

Cultural Simulation-

A complete description of cross-cultural communication programs js beyond the scope of this maffual. A very valuable'8pect of cross-cultural orientation proves is cultural simulation. Simulation of issues on assertion training may help non-Indian trainers better understand the unspoken cultural system of learning and behaving inherent in Indian ways of communicating. 5imulation is necessary since the people who live by the system canverbalize little about the laws in operation or the way the system works. Behavioral guides sponsord by cross-xultural research are also available. American Indians avoid verbalizing -)e -77-

them for their basic modeS df tnteractingwith each other since they take that remain. Indian granted, and also becausethey wish to preserve what unique ways the cultural system people usually only telltrainers whether they are using They will not tell trainershow to use the cultural system. . correctly or not. the ways of Therefore, to understand therealities of this culture and accept Cultural uniqueness this culture is not somethingthaeis learned academically. must be lived(i.e.; simulation) rather thanreasoned. Situations Written cultural simulatorsgenerally consist of a series of cross-cultural contacts. depicting interpersonal.conflicts often,encountered in Which help non-Indian trainerslearn.to deal with Indian Two existing simulators 1978), _trainees are the Qaunaet Ott.z(Native American Learning Corporation, Both are designed for non- and The CuttuAatSmutatork,(Ross & Trimble, 1976). Indian trainerS to learn moreabput Indian.culture.

o wr'ite theirowsirnula- In the event thatnon-Indian-trainers would like recolllm,nded for inclu- tions of problem situations,the following components are (1) a common occurrence in which anIndian and a non- sion in each scenario: conflicting or,puzzling Indian interact, (2) a situationwhich Anglo culture finds interpreted in and is likely to misinterpret,.and(3) a situation which can be about the culture. The a fairly unequivocal mannergiven sufficient knowledge non-understandable in situation created may be pleasant,unpTeasant, or simply terms of interpersonal attitudes,values, and customs. difftrences: Most cultural conflicts occurwithin the following areas of modalitx of perception of self and the individual,perception of the world, activity motivation, modality of relations toothers, and dominant form of modafities and the value of adapting (Stewart, 1966). To illustrate these five orsynthesis address modes of training, the followingtopics for simulation the Assertion. potential problems which non-Indiantrainers may encounter during the situations created in this simula- Training with American Indians program. experience. tion demonstrate aAariety of trainingproblems which non-Indians may trainer who is interested 1 Autumn Jackson is a very conscientious about - in learning about Indian culturleand eliciting discussion typical Indian behavior from trainees. This is her first workshop with Indians, yet she has previouslyworked with a few Indian discussion ofindian behavior, clients. As she is beginning the credibility as a one of the traineesdecides to challenge her trainer with Indian people sinceshe is noticeably non-Indian. under- The trainee implies by innuendo that she.cannot possibly herself has stand Indian difficulties inassertiveness since she never experienced prejudiceand racism(pvt.c.eptLogs o6.zet6).

Ronnie snow was a previous peace corpsvolunteer. He has been 2. decides to inYolved extensively incross-cultural information-and Chicanos write a proposal to bringAmerican Indians, Blacks,'and When together for a cross-cultural assertiontraining program. he gets he enthusiastically discussesthi5 idea with trainees, Indian people are not no support. He cannot understand why -78-

interested in working with other minorities toshare ideas , . and help each other. He decides tb find out ohy rn the next tra;ning session (petception4 o6 the wottd): ,

3. Clarence Jor*s has been conducting assertiontraining groups for several years and is-about to conduct his first sessionwith American Indians. He is excited about all the material there is to cover in just two days and he arrives ready totrain at 9:00 a.m. Trainees begin wandering in late. He has printed out certificates of training and no one acts happy to receivethem. He assigns a homework assignment of written materials andfew peo)le read them. He leaves the training very frustrated (modcaity o6 movitation).

4. Mary Thomas has just finished conducting a two-day,training session. She feels that the training went well. She enjoyed the time spent in training as well as the time spentoutside of training visiting and meeting people onr the reservation. After collecting the evaluation forms and wrapping up the session,she ays goodbye and expresses herappreciation for their input. She.waits around awhile wishing that someone'would give herverbal No one does. As she leaves, a couple , feedback about training. of the traineet shake her hand and let her know thattheir pow wow is the first week in June. She leaves feeling copfused (modatZty o6 neta,Uon to othen4).1

5. Jim David has conducted six assertion trainingsessions with trainees . 4 Indian trainees which he feels were successful because participated openly in group discussions and beCameinvolved in 'the behavior rehearsals. This was very positive for him because he relied primarily on trainee input in'designinghis training. In this particular workshop, he detects that something isdiffer- ent. When he leads the discussion on Assertive IndianMessages, particularly the Indian.with Indian orientation categoryand the Traditional Indian category, the traineesremain quiet and do not offer their ideas. Becoming frustrated with their apparent lack of in.tarest, he calls a break. During the break-a trainee politely-tells the trainer that one of the workshop participants is traditional and the other trainees are reluctant todiscuss cultural issues since this person has notvolunteered (dominant ,.., 6oAm o6 activ4.ty). Nk.k. . What is Xost important in simulations, then, is- Aat actuallyhappens during the encounter not the correctness of the interactionalchoices. What happened cin be processed dynamically in terms of ractions and perceptions of the re-' actions of the people involved, in,the sim ations,those observing the simulations, and,the feelings participantshavWfor one another as they explore the implications of,their behavior. Prliessing has a dual function--it precepitates an emdkionaT loosening and sets the stagefor the acquisitionof new cognitive frames of reference(Stewart, 1966). Once the non-Indian.trainer -79-

the goes beyond the initialreaction of uncertainty, doubt, and anxiety, trainer learns, how to deal with new conflictswhich occur during training. A goal for" non-Indian trainers is culturaltolerance (empathy) and suspended apprecia- cultural judgment. Ideally, cross-cultural involvement should mean .tion of culture beyond empathicunderstanding, allowing a person to incorporate those values of other cultures whichhave meaning into his or her own life.

Some specific suggestions for trainersof assertiveness are presentedas a guide toward becomingculturally experienced individuals:

personal 1. AVoid discussing,Indian on the basis of your beliefs. Instead, elicit information from trainees abouttheir beliefs by asking probing questions in a respectful manner.

2. Learn all you can about the culture of the particulartribal group with wham you plan to train. This will provide some insight concerning preferred behavior and possiblebeliefs which conflict with assertion. You may simple ask thase who contact you for training to send youhistorical and cultural information in.advance.

3 When becoming acquainted with group members,practice sincerity and humility by admitting that you do notknow their ways, but would like to learn as much about their culture asthey care to volunteer.

Indian 4 Remember that insincerity cannot be feigned for verylong. people are sensitive to your actions and may sensewhen you are trying to fool them. .0ne detection of insincerity mayundo everything you have accomplished previously.

few people who cari do ,5. Do not try to act Indian. -There are very this successfully without causing resentment. You can display understanding and respect for Indian ways withoutpretending to be something you are not (Powers, 1965).

There 6. Do not become overly curioas about Indiantraditional ways. are certain sacred aspectsof Indian culture which are not desired to be shared with non-Indians. Prying into those areas builds resentment.

model appropriate assertive 7. As a trainer your responsibility is to 'behavior which is culturally appropriate withinthe Indian community and also effective in Anglo cult re. .

8. Develop patience and self-control. If what you desire in the ways of reactions orbehaviors is not immediately forthcoming, take your time. Learn to build relationships withtrainees in keeping with their pace of living..

,Mistakes are human and the 9. Do not be.afraid to make mistakes. person making them is oftenrespected for being able to rleal with -80-

them humorously rather than egocentrically. Being able to find humor in Anglo ways also helps"break the ice" when discussing racial differences between you and themembers of the group.

10. The literaturereporAs that Indians perceive the world holistically (Berry, 1966; Dinges & Hollenbeck, 1978). Whenever possible, illustrate instructional components withvisual aids since the more sense modalitieS'involvedin learning, the greater the

, enthusiasm and retention.

Ethical Considerations

people from The issue of non-Indian trainersbeing unprepared for work with being unprepared to a culture unlike their ownand paraprofessional trainers work with people whose problems requirein-depth counseling procedures, rather Lange and than assertive training, was previouslydiscussed in this chapter.. jakubbwski (1976) have reported several othercritical ethical issues for during training, trainers of .assertivenes (confidentiality, training behavior definition competency of trainers", legitimatebehavior during training, legitimate etc.). It is of assertive training, appropriate issuesfor an assertion group, recommended that trainers review .piee EthicalConsideration chapter of this book, (1976). in addition to the ethical considerationsprovided by Lange and JakUbowski Indian peopie in Some particular ethical issuesregarding the training of 4.3 that o6 teaciu:ng a assertiveness warrant discussion. A PAemozt coacenn and communica,ting. behavipm which L. atien to tndiantAad.i.tionae ways o6 behav.ing Indians to Critics often generalize that assertiontraining will cause American -81-

lose some of the most valuable aspectsof Indian culture: peace, tranquility, and passivity. It is feared that American Indianswill become competitive, perhaps even agressive, after exposureto asserktion training. This criticism emphasizes nature of the global nature of assertivenessrather than the situation-specific Indian peopleare responsibility assertive behavior., It also ignores the fact that and are recognizing the need for assertion skillsif they are to be self-determining actively requesting'this type oftraining themselves'. Indians realize that if their own they are going to decide pro'grams andpolicies for themselves, manage affairs, govern themselves, andcontrol their landarid natural reso,Tces, they need that to be able to communicateeffectively with non-Indian$ as well as Indians so their ideas, opinions, and feelingswill be both heard and understood.

Trainees who adhere to a professional,informational mode of notifying Indian unwarranted claims groups about assertiontraining, who exercise caution in making about the effects of assertion training, andwho train ulJon the request of Indian people themselves, should feel thatthey are providing a valuable serviceto aid Indians in their quest for self-determination. If professionals are contacted by non-Indian employees, then the motivesfor training and concern over whosebest interest is-being represented is in question. Training of d voluntary nature participants can be guaranteed by conductingscreening interviews with potential that they and conveying to them that theirparticipation must be their choice and trainer should not feel forced into training. If screening is impractical, the train- should emphasize to the sponsoring agencythat people who are pressured into .ing will most likely be resistant and have anegative influence on other trainees personal concern (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976). The trainer might also express a that having someone in the training withouttheir personal commitment violates the very definition of assertiveness and isperceived as interference rather than respect for an individual's sense ofbeing.

Trainers should also assess their personalgoals for doing assertive training seeks personal ful- with American Indians. Everyone who leads training obviously fillment through such work. If the nature of this fulfillment isto be recognized as an activist for the Indian cause orto patronizingly "help"Indian people, For it is likely these personal reasons may have anegative effect on training. instance, a trainer may place undue emphasis onrights without looking at the responsibilities involved or risk advice-givingin the instruction segment of trainirig at the expense.of behavior rehearsal. respond Again, it ts emphasized that trainersof this program should be able to to trainees' concerns about the consequencesof their assertiveness, helptrainees to discriminate between culturallyappropriate and inappropriateassertiveness, be available for consultation or referralsfor extended family members andfriends who feel uneasy about the trainees' newbehavi rs, and help trainees deal with the fears they might have about being pereived as assertive by Indian Trainers must and non-Indian people. These issues are of pa ticular concern. recognize they are morking with people who arebeginning to exert control over, the potential rather than merely adapt to, a dominantcultural system in which for negative reactions to Indianassertiveness is great.

ame CHAPTER IX

ASSESSMENT OF INDIAN ASSERTIVEBEHAVIOR

Indians program face Trainers who conduct this AssertionTraining with American whether potential three essential assessment tasks:(1) screening.or determining (2) monitoring changes trainees would benefit from thiskind of.assertion training; of training; and(3) determining the efficacy during training sessions or outside training is finishedfor of training End designating themaintenance of gains after The first task follow-up (Galassi & Galassi, 1979;Jakubowski & Lacks,1978). and motivation fgr involves screening or assessingtrainees' potential acceptance following SciLeeiving is usually designed todetermine answers to the training. 0 questions prior to training: which Within the potential trainee'sparticular cultural context, complex of verbal, non-verbal,and.paralanguage behaviors does infrequently, she or her either havedifficulty expressing or express to what target person, andin what situations? which Withfn the potential trainee'sparticular cultural context, manner, ' complex of behaviors does she orhe express in an agreessive to what target persons,and in what situations? trainee's ability What are the variablescontrolling the potential coping strategy)? to be assertive (lackof information, beliefs, or

(Modeling, behavior rehearsal,cognitive What training components these restructuring, etc.) would helpthe potential trainee overcome obstacles in an assertion trainingprogram (Galassi&,Galassi, 1977b)? , through behavioral observa- The first two questions canbe adequately answered assertive behaviors in reallife or in simulated role- tion of trainees' attempted Details of each of play situatiOns recorded bytrainers or'trained observers. this chapter. The purpose of these assessment methods willbe dicussed later in baseline of the trainees'behavAws and the trainees' simulation's is to secure a componets of assertiveness deficits in the verbal,non-verbal, and paralangUage Adequate training necessitatetthis asses% ent since it has,_ before training. generalize to untrained forms been.found that assertiontraining does not always for each trainee to have of assertive behavior. It is therefore important experience with each of thesituations he or she isexperiencing some training include precisioq, difficulty with in real life. The advantages of such measures to reality than self- for behavioral measuresachieve closer approximations weaknesses i-n self-expression;and ethics, for problems reports Dfs*rengths and avoided when trainees are aware implied in the principle ofinformed consent are of being observed. observation'in this program The disadvantages of sctReeningusing behavioral Reliance solely opbehavioral observation for may outweighthe.advantages. screening be impractical inUght of the difficulty of pre-training assessment may k 9, large groups of potential trainees from distances often far away from thetrainer or training site. Amerqan Indian trainees may also be resistant to such measurement because of their historical heritage of uniquenesswhich frequently attracts anthropologists, sociologists, and psychologists whooften prefer to disseminate cultural information Indian groups would like to maintain.

The third goal of screening, to deterine the conditions and reason's for fOthe potential trainee's difficulties in dsplaying-assertive behavior, may be ascertained in the, screening interview byquestions like the following: How are you most likely to actin this situaton? If that failed, what would you do? What would you like to be able to say? Wat stops you from acting the way you would like? How can yo.d tell whether you have acted nonassertively oraggressively in this situation? What methods do yod use to lower your anxiety (stay calm) in this situation (Lange & Jakubowski, 1977, p. 272)?It is recommended that trdiners realize that the purpos'e of screening interviews is to get some sense of the main causes of nonassertive and aggressive modes of responses tobetter plan the components of training, not conduct a full analysis of thepotential trainee's difficulty in acting assertively. The vccess of this medium with potential American Indian trainees will depend upon maintaining a tentativerather than exact manner during screening. This information, in addition to answers to questions like: How do you think you learn best? What kinds of activities have you liked and benefited from in previous training sessions?,will help the trainer determine whether skill acquisition, consciousness raising,self- awareness activities, etc. should be emphasizedduring the training program.

The second and thir4,tasks in the assessment of assertive behavior,monitoring changes during training id determining the efficacy or generalizability of training, can be viewed from three vantage points: behaviors within the group, behaviors outside the group during training, and behaviors outside the group after training (Sanbury, 1974). The methods by which these behaviors are evaluated include measured behavioral performance in natural settings, contrivedbehavioral performance in training setting, and paper and pencil, self-report measures.

Assessment for this training program is plagued with numerous methodological problems in both cross-cultural assessment and the assessment of assertiontraining in general. The outcome of ass'sTtion training is titre difficult to evaluate than some other behavioral approaches because of thebroad range of problem behaviors covered, the wide variety of treatment approaches, and the lackof statistical evaluations of many of these treatment apprOaches, as well as the additional difficulties associated with developing reliable, relevant, and valid cross- cultural assessment techniques. Keeping the unrefined nature of these means of assessment in mind, the following discussion will review somereal life measures, trOning simulations, and self-report devices for assessing assertivebehavior. The author wishes to emphasize the desirability ofmultiple measures of assertive- `ness so that the weaknesses pf one (difference betweenself-report questionnaires and acival behavior) can be offset by the strengthsof another as in the case of real life measures' advantage of unobtrusivgnessinto people's everyday routine. -84-

In vivo Measures

In vivo measures are contrived measures of a trainee's behavior which occurs in the natural environment rather than in training settings. Although trainees are / aware of being evaluated, they experience less anxiety than they wouldenactilig the behavior in a training setting. This means of assessment is stated to be a potentially stronger test of assertion training than laboratory assessment. // Trainers could devise target situations of common aSsertion problems shared by group members such as asking for clerical assistance, taking orders from more than one supervisor, requesting time off, etc. Once these situations are decided upon the trainer developis the situations in role-play form and asks the cooperation from the trainee's program supervisors, significant others, and co-workers to enact the role- plays and rate the trainee's behavior according to verbal and non-verbal guidelines in Chapter VI and Appendix IX. Various contrived problem situations could be . presented to trainees during training to assess progress throughout training and also be presented some time within months after training to,assess the generalization of training over time.

Another, real life measure of trainees' assertive performance in educational settings could be recorded by interested teachers or professors. Students identified as trainees in this program could be monitored before and after trainingo determine the frequency and amount of questions asked, number of participants in cl&s, -numha.p of conferences requested with the instructor, or requests for individual help. It would also be interesting to see if there were any consequent changes in grade point average as a result of changes in assertive behavior.

If permission ts given, conversational sampling of trainee's tape-recorded discussions at conferences or meetings could be analyzed according to the linguistic and paralinguistic components of assertive verbal behavior (Eisler, Miller, & Hersen, 19)3). It is suggested that conversation samples from a variety of'situations peers vs. supervisors, Indian vs. non-Indian) be meaSured separately andcompared. One obviOus limitation to conversation sampling concerns audible recorded conversation. Speech whichis muttered, mumbled, or left unsaid may contain significantly . different content than loud and clear speech. On the simplest level of analysis it is hoped that the proportion of clear and distinct .peech will increase in post- training speech samples. f

Training Simulations

A second method of assessment involves behavioral measure in training settings. This evaluation method can be tailor-made for individuals ih sifigle case,studies or designed to measure the same behavior across all trainees in as tion training groups through in-class role-play procedures. This procedure involves the trainer creating six to ten real-life situations which can be simulated through role-play and require the kind of behaviors assertion training is designed to,increase or decrease (see Appendix IV). -85-

Although situations common to Anglo assertion problems are alreadyreported in the literature and could be employed, it is retommended that trainers/createtheir own situations relevant to Indian needs. Trainers could select problem situations vhich Indians reported:ly encounter that are discussed throughoutthis training manual rici situations expressed in pre-training screenilig. interviews, usingthe following

1. Is this a,situ:ation with which most of the target population have difficulty?

2. Is there reason to believe that this is an important situation for the group members to learn to deal with? /

3. _Is this situation one which would be comparatively easy to set up in role play (Lange & Jakuboviski, i976, p.285)?

A tape recording or person reading a descriptive statement,usually sets the content of the situation in training simulations.' A role-playingconfederate then role plays the situationwjth the trainer while the trainee's behavior isaudiotaped, videotaped, or observed directly. The various verbal and non-verbal behaviors are then rated on the basis of whether assertiveblhtivior occurred or nat (Eisler, Miller, & Hersen, 1973) or variations in level of assertiveness (Rim etal., 1974). One advantage of this method overii vivo measures is that nearly identicalrelevant re- occurring situations can be constructed and replayed unlike their intermittentand sporadic occurrence in real life. Also, videotaped role playing can qe used as a teaching device, as well as assessment device, for the instruction.ofnon-verbal components of assertive behavior.

The use of behavioral assessment in assertiveness is sonewthat no one battery has the qualities of an ideal procedure nor availabledefinitive reliability and validity data. The most promising behavioral assessment procedurereported in the literature which complements this training program deals with theinfluence of various social-interpersonal tontexts on assertive behavior(Eisler et al., 1975). An adaptation of this behavioral measure could'assess theexpression of positive and negative feelings and self-affirmation byvarying thesocio-cultural, situatiohal factors (category, status,'and familiarity of the target person;setting; level of survival, etc.) with the behavior. It is also suggeSted that trainers only deal with some of the situations measured on behavioral pre-and post-tests during training so that the remaining untrained situationscould be used to provide alfleasure of the extent to which trainees generalize their newly acquiredassertive skill to untrained situation (Jakubowski & Lacks, 1978).

Self-report Measdres

Besides behavioral role-play measures nd real life measures,the mosi economical, quantifiable, and popular.form of assessment of assertivenessis, the paper'nd self-report inventory. Its popularity lies with the ease inwhich patterns of nonassertive behavior, kinds of situations, and conditionswherein trainees are likely to act nonassertively or aggressively can be recognized. One very essential advantage -86-

to paper and pencil measures is their.use as a further measureof the generalizability of training (Hollatidsworth, Galassi, & Gay, 1977).

The limitations of the paper and pencif approach with AmeritanIndians are First, existing self-report questionnaires do not tap each trainee's j. numerous. idiosyncratic areas of nonassertion since they only deal with common socialsitua- ,tions. Since these instruments are either unstandardized or standardized onrela- tively homogeneous (predominantly Anglo) college populations, they containitems which are culturally inappropriatTand considered aggressive ineffect within an American Indian cultural tontext. For example, items which ask how often a person expresses justified feelings of anger to varents or whether it is difficult to refuse unreasonable requests from parents, may unduly penalize an Indian person'soverall assertion score since,either.of these.behaviors would show disrespect forone's elders within the American Indian way of living.

Another disadvantage Of self-report measures is the contradictory findings concerning-the 4rrelation between self-report and behavioral measures ofassertion 'reported in thettterature. Some studies have-reported substantial relationships (McFall & LilleSand, 1971) while others have reported loW relationships(frigbman,, 1971). Sometimes trainees change their overt beahvior but do not significantly change on self-report measures of assertion,(Hersen, Eisler, Miller,Johnson, & Pinkston, 1973) or display chaRge on paper and pencil measures but do notdisplay significant changes in observable behavior (McFall & Marston, 1970).

The final djsadvantage involves the wide range of test-taking abilities and interests of Indian trainees. Unfortunately, most paper and pencil measures have been developed for people who have had collage level training exp.eriences. Coupled with the wide range of trainee abilities is the general distrust among manyAmerican Indians of unethical, distasteful, or involuntary research studies previously conducted with instruments similar in appearance to assertion questionnaires.

!Inlight ot these disadvantages, it is difficult to select an instrumentwhich effectively assesses Indian assertive behavior and applies a within-culture frame of reference. For example, an ;nvestigation of the validity of the College Self- Expression Scale with Mexican-American male college students (Hall &Beil-Warner, 197$) revealed that Mexican-Americans were rated lower in overall asser,tiveness than Anglos on the ASES due to their responses on three of the sevensituatiOrts/question4 which reflected socialization practices in Mexican-American culture.

At the present time, the Adult Self-Expression Scale (Gay, Hollandsworth & Galassi, 1975) appears to be the instrument of choice for the trainees of this program. The scale appears to be methodologically sound, significantly correlated with scales of the Adjective Check List (Gough & Heilbrun, ln65) which correspond to the definition of assertiveness, and valid with adults ingeneral,(Gay, Hollands- worth, & Galassi, 1975). The ASES'also appears to measure a wide variety of different types of assertive behaviors (Lange & Jakubowski, 1976). If trainers decide to use the ASES, it is recommended that they consider the educationlevel of trainees and simplify the language of the scale if necessary. Further details of the difference in factor structure of the ASES with American Indians (LaFromboise, inpress) and non-Indians (Gay, Hollandsworth, & Galassi, 1975) may provide trainees insightinto the salience of various types of assertive behavior for each target group. -87-

Summary

Finally, an evaluation form for the assessment of the trainer'spresentation and content of training is provided inAppendix XII. Trainees may wish to provide feedback concerning their opinion of the trainer, content, andpractical.applicability of the materials presented in this form. The overall purpose of assessing Indian assertive behavior is twofold: planning and evaluation. Assessment prior to training can be used for selecting the appropriate peopl.e for trainingand planning the components of an assertion training program whichwould be most beneficial to a given group of people. Assessmept during trairling provides diagnostic information of the curront effects of training and also of commonproblem situaTions and target persons trainees have difficulty with when being assertive. With this information trainees with similar problems may practicetogether in small groups during behavior rehearsals and trainers may concentrate on problemsprevalent to most trainees in the instructional segment of training.The evaluative aspects of pre- and post-training assessmentinvolve whether or-not trainees profited from this program beyond experiencing an enjoyable workshop orpleasant groups, in terms of the 4tated goaXis 06 th4:4 t)t.aining pugAam: that Indiantrainees be able to meet the general demands of an assertive society, defend theirspecial rights as sovereign people, discriminate the appropriateness ofactingassertively within the Indian community, and enact assertive message-matching in biculturalinterchanges. REFERENCES

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LaFromboise,T.A factorial validity investigation ofthe Adult Self-Expression Scale of American Indians. Jou/Ewa o6 Educationa4Nychotogy 6 Med&ctements, 1983.

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Lee, J. A cultural analysis in overseas operation, Hatvatd Scizines4 Review,. 1966,

. 444 106-114.

Leon, R. L..' Maladaptive interaction betweenBureaC) of Indian Afflirs staff and Andian clients. Arnetiean Joanna, o6 0AthOp4Eichiatt1j, 1965,_35,723-728,

Lindstrom, V. Constitutional law: Santa Ctata PuebZo v. Mafttinez: Tribal membership and the Indian Civil'Rights Act. Law Review, 1978, 6, 205-216:

tVcDoriald, M. Teaching assertion: A paradigm'for therapeutic intervention, '.Nychathetapy: Themy, Re/sea/teh and PAactide, 1975,12, 60-67.

McDonald, O. R. Native American fishing/hunting rights: An annotated bibliography.- Indian HLstokian, 1978,.11, 57-62. -93-

McFall, M., & Lillesand, D. B. Behavioral rehearsal with modeling and coaching fn.:assertive training. Joutnat o Abnoltmat NychoZogy, 1971, 77, 313-323.

McFall, R. M., & Martson, A. R. An experimental investigation of behavior rehearsal in assertiveness training. JouAnat o6 Abnokmat Nychotogy, 1970, 76, 295-303.

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Mallone, F. J. America Indian_tribal selfgovernment in the-federal system: In.- herent right for congressional license?Notte Dame Lawya, 1976, 51, 600-635.

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Minor, B. J. A perspective for assertiveness training for Blacks. J me Non-White Conceknis, 1978, 6, 63-70.

Moray, N. Attention to dichotiC listening: Affectual cues in the influence of instructions. Quatteney JouAnat o6 Expvt-imentat Nychotogy, 1959, 11, 56-60.

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Thomas, L. E., & Yates, R. T. Paraprofessionals in minority programs. Petsonnei and Guidance Joutnae, 1974, 53, 285-288.

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Zimpfer, D. S. (Ed.). Pakapto6e44ionatsin coun,seUngguirLvIce, utdpeAisonnee 4euice4 (APGA Reprint Series No. 5). Washington, B.C.: APGA Press, 1974.

Zionitz, A. J. In defense of tribal sovereignty: An analysis of judicial error in contruction of the Indian Civil Rights Act. South Dakota Utah-Review, 1975, 20, 1-58. SENDER'S ATTITUDE C. 'SEE,LI, I KNEW t WAS NO GOOD''PEOPLE TAKE ADVANTAGE OF a. 'PEOPLE TREAT ME AS IF IMA WORTHWHILEME. PERSON" 1.

03133dS311 3A111I1TWINVII-FION'TIV313'S.NOSS3d1A1I1WISOJS3U lAISSVcIOV31/ ST30 3111 16(111 lb/ S130 31Of MOIR INOI13111131NI ONR1 R IDITBORMAN NO, silionolunu S.U3AI3D3U S130 03133d531/ I. - 98-

,3 APPENDIX II

INDIAN RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

I. Right to Tribal Sovereignty Watiam v. Lee, 358 U.S. 217 (1959)

II. Right to Self-Government Wittiam v. Lee 358 U.S. 217 (1959)

III. Treat Rights Wittiam v. Lee 358 U.S. 217 (1959)

Right to Jurisdiction, Choate.v. TAapp, 224 U.S.665, 575 (1912) OZiphant v. SuquamiA Indian Tnibe (1978)

Right to Exclusion State v. Fox, 82 'Wash. 2d 289, 510P. 2nd 230 (1973)

Rfght to Leadership Indian Reorganization Act of 1934

*VII. Right to Indian Preference MoAton v. Mancati, 417 U.S. 535(1974)

0 VIII. Right to Determine Membership . Cocoa o Appeats 06 New S/0Ak üz Patteluson v.Counc,it o:c SenecaNation, 245 N.Y. 433, 157 N.E. 734, 736(1927) Santa CtalcaPtcebt.o v. Mettineg, 98 S. Ct.167040978)

IX. Right to Self-Determination , P.L. 93-368, 88 Stat. 2203/

X. Right to Hunt', Fish, Trap ()Agonized Vittage 06 Kake,'etc. v. Egan, etc. 369. U.S.60, 82 S. Ct., 562, 7 L.Ed. 2d 573 (1962) Poottur.,TAibe0v. DepatiMent 06 Game, 391 U.S. 392.88 S.Ct. 1925, 20 L.Ed. 2d-,689 (1968)

XI. Water Rights WinteAz v, United Stateis, 207 U.S. 564, 574, 28 S.Ct. 207, 52 LEd. 340 (1908)

XII. Right to Health Care Wittirunv. Lee, 358 U.S. 217 (1959)251J.5.C. s 13, 42, U.S.C.s. 2001

XIII. Right to be Different

XIV. Right to Worship American Indian Religious Freedom Act,P. L. 95-341 (1978)

XV. Right to an Education Indian Education Act, P.L. 92-318 (1972) -99-

APPENDIX III

SURVIVAL LADDER

Levels of Survival and Degree of Roles as Targets for External Control Assertive Behavior Sample Problems

, Bank Teller Producing two photo I.D.'s 1. Daity Routine Waiter Receiving "Small-tip Service" Checkout Clerk Comments on what a good food-stamp shopper you are

2. "Leizurte/ Bartencr Tells you to watch out for the firewater Reeteation Peers-acquaintances Too many "Chiefs" and "Indians" Parties Time to,solVe problems

In-Laws Toleration Conflict with "to be seen and not 3. Home Children heard" upbringing Friends Need $5 till payday

Tribal Council Unemployed directing the employed Being saved (becoming Christian) 4. Community . Church EVERY Sunday . Invotvement Committees All-Conference Indian

Teacher Uses "Dick and Jane" analogies 5. SchpoZ/ Administ ator Weshow no favoritism Education Boarding school School of last "resort" student

Supervisor Monitors your breaks, comp time, etc. o. Job/PAo6e4ision Clerical Reads same old-guidelines when confronted about policies Female Employee Equal minority status

7. Aging/Inztitu- Social Worker College graduated and impersonal tionatizoLtion Probation Officer One time problem-solving agent Physician Specialist on leave at THIS .hospital , APPEND'IX IV

SCRIPTS FOR INDIAN BEHAVIOR, REHEARSALS*

1..You are workingiin an Indian program in a small community. The minister of 'the church in that community, who has contr.ibuted to your program in the past, asks you-to give a talk on beadwork. You have little knowledge or interest ,in the subject but would rather make a presentation to hisgroupabout smile 'aspectof Indian cUlture you are interested in. Here comes the minister now.

, Minister: The peopte in ota Sunday ctazzes have exptes.sed an inte)Lest in Zeatning about Indian beadwoida. Woued you coma and give a ptezentation on Indian beadwotk to the membcts o6 my chwtch? k 'Minister: 1 Azatey don't knaumany Indian pedpe.e atound hcte who cou0- 4ek az uae. ce-s you do.

Minister: We can pay yqu 6ot yoult.tiMe.

Minister: it.4eem6 to me-that yuu teatty don't want us to ileatnalbout

youx cuttuite.. -Izn't that it? 1

Minister: .1 thought cat IndianJs knew 4ometiiJg about bead:ix:Lk, a eaSt moto6 the Indianz'in atea.

2. You go to a pow-wow with yo6r,husband and he leaves, for a forty-nine altnight without you. You 31-.6 hurt because you missed. the'forty.-nine and you want to tell your hubanl that you are disappointed aboutbeing left behind: ' You also want to aSk him why he did not take you. It is.the'next day when your husband returns.

ReaRy good times..,Qut thtte. Husband: Wow,, what a7 ' -nine!

Husband: Saw a. rt voca cocusins owtcmound thed;tum.'

Husband: 1coweCin't you' to. heiiit waz?ii.n.e to take o

Husband: You atioayz enjoy vxlz,i.ting With the ionz:6a:dz. at camp'anyway.

Husband: Remembet ad the tizeZ I've azked ycu to go cuul youzaid you' want.to 4t4out U ni.ght?

You and'your Indian.friends have worked hard on aphgram proposal all day. You-,.,stop by the local bar for a drink..When you walk in-the door, 4 non- ,Indian'stranger,cups his 'hand Over his mouth and goes"woo-woO" Hollywood war-hoop style. You want_to tell ,him that his behavior offehds youand that you would like him to stop. You Are standing face-to-face withthat ttranger now.

*Trairiees practice structured role plays byresponding4to edch respons.e of the tdrget person indicated above until the entire.script isenacted; - 1 0 1 -

Stranger: I didn't mean anything, byit.

Steanger: .Can't you take a joke? You IncUans ate aelvays -on the waApath.' N Stranger: It'4 a Ptee countAy..I can Orack any kind o6 joe I wok to. ought Stranger: Oh, hene rne PLank uLith pun dAinks_anyway; the iiiitewateA. to caem you down.

You 4. You have been working for weeks on thefirst decent job you have ever had. like your boss and the peeple youwOrk with but one of the popular employees always calls you "Chief" You do not like to be called "Chier and would - like to tell him or her'

Employee: Hey, Chie6, how's your,L puject comingato4?

Employee: Yep, I to4d the 6oas at the OlNice howeasy-go-ing you ake and how haAd you wonk,

Employee: My Indiantiend in the seAvicewent by"Chie6" a'a the time; said he tiked the name.

Employee: I 6iguke it's a comptiment. A6ten att, not ait Indians get to be "Ch."

Employee: You Aeatty ahe touchy, how about "&tave"then?

community but there are two 5. Your organization does a good job for your Indian people who alWays try to undermine the group efforts. You and some others in'your group realize this and decide to have a privatemeeting-with the two individuals. The meeting has just begun and you want to tellthem how much it upsets you to see them do this to the organization.

Member 1: Look who L.hete tonight. It's aeways the same hakd wortheAs Zike co that show up -tegutakey.

Member 2; We'iLe away4 the ones to be cAiticized bythose who just sit and watch.

'Member 1: Let those who comptain aboat us tat theincomptaints in peuon.

Member 2: Oh, ain't it! We need to stAaighten.up.

Member 1: SOunds tike youlu4t want to get xid oi ua.

A friend borrowed some money from.you seVeral months ago. She told you that she was goiiig to have the money in aweek. ,YoU feel- disappointed and you wouldlike . to request that she pay you back. flere'comes your friend now. * Friend: Hey, how you dOing? Longne 6ince we'vehad a dtink togethen. kow about it?

Friend: Oh come on. I'Le buy,, 102

Friend: You don't ttust my woad. Zeave it up to you to pay mewhen Friend: 16 1. tent yOu the money, I'd you coUtd.

Friend: What kind o6 "white tatk" .Z4this? then? Friend: You'Ae teatty tight. How about two weeks 6tom now The You are the local chairperson of yourTitle 1y, Indian Education Program. 7. special school superi,ntendent -always tells groupshow well the school provides the programs for Indian children.when you go to conferences; you believe opposite to be-true; you decide to saynothing in public, but discuss this and.the with her in the car on the way home. you are in the caeriding home time is ,right to talk to her aboutthese things.

poticiez conceAning. Indian education 'Superintendent: I think out ptogtams and .ate-6at advanced-when compated otha schoot systemS.

and change tJLe. . Superintendent:' -I takes time to impeement att the ideas attitudes o6 peopte.

pcitents which i4 next Superintendent: To do that, we need the 4uppott'o6 to imposzibZe to get. t. Zook a,s though we ake Superintendent: WeDmwst be eoeciatty cake6ut not to giving Ptelietentiat tneatment to outIndLut studuts.

Superintendent: You Indians ake neve& satis6ied.

predominantly white male work environment. Often 8: you are a staff member in a --when you consult with supervisors theconversation shifts from the purpose of and the meeting to compliments about yourturquoise jewelry, attractiveness, professional attire. iYou Tealize thatreferences to physical attributes,smoke- want ta keep screen your competence. A conference has just begun and you the conversation oh the topic-athand.

it!,3 zo nice that you needed to see metoda-y. Supervisor: Hato, what can I do 6ot you?

1 4uppo4e you tike. Supervisor: My, you atways weak such nicejewaty. tv keep up an Indian-image.

di66etentey, mote etegantty. than we Supervisor: you cettainey dt04 expected when we hined you.

Supervisor: Bet you have tots o6admineAs.. ,

1.1.0441111.11.111111 40,50.11.11041ffirmoft...... tet . -103-

APPENDIX V

"ASSERTION TRAINING--REINFORCERSQUESTIONNAk.

Rein6o4ceAz are the results of behavior which serve toincrease the.frequency For example, when a childbegins.to talk (behavior . or intensity of a behavior. people talk to the child and pay attention tohim or her (reinforcement), thus .

. encouraging thechild to talk again.

1. What are your main sources of reinforcementWithin the Indian community?

2. What are some events thathainot yet happened which could.act as possible reinforcers?

3. Is there anything that you hope might happen inbeing aSsertive with non- Indians and other Indians?

4. Which of these present and possible reinforters areavailable.within the Indian community?

5. Which of these events whichoccur in the Indian community can be used as reinforcers during training?

6. What events are punishing orunpleasant when Indians behavenonassertively in the Indian community?

7. What 6-ents concerning assertiveness have a possible punishingOr unpleasant effect?

8. Which of these punishing or unpleasant,Avents.are apt tobe experienced outside the Indian community?

9. Which of these punishers or unpleasant events can bechanged or eliminated?

10. Which of these,disagreeable experiences can beavoided?

!: -104-

APPENDIX VI

4ASERTIONTRAINING'WITH AMERICANINDIANS WORKSHOP AGENDA

Day. I

9:30-10:30 Introductions Overview of the workshop Self-assessment of present levelof assertiveness Developing an assertive belief system:

r Consciousness Razors exercise Stimulus videotape ordemOnstration

10:30-10:45 Break

10:45-12:00 Developing an assertive belief system: - IndianBill.of Rights exercise .- Discussionof Indian rights and responsibilities

12:06- 1:30 Lunch

'1:30- 2:45 Assertive behav.i.Or: Testimonials of Indian assertive behavior Aisertive, aggressive, and nonassertive responses Verbal and non-verbal components ofassertiveness Expressing positive feelings I-messages

2:45- 3:00 Break

3:00-'4:45 Small group brainstorming of pertonalsituations where assertiveness might be helpfUl Large group discussions of theconsequences, rights, and responsibilities of various situation6 Demonstration of an assertive role play Behavior rehearsal of personal problemsituations

4:45- 5:00 Wrap up Homework assignment--Group AwarenessProfile

Day II

non-verbal coMponents of 9:00-10:30 Review of definitions, verbal and assertive, aggressive, and nonassertive responses Small group discutsion of Group AwarenessProfile and cultural appropriateness

10:30-10:45 Break. -1057

10:45-12:00 Indian-White language comparison Message matching Role play talking differently to Indians and non-Indians

12:00- 1:00 Lunch

1:30- 2:45 Asserrtive Indian messages Rehearsai of asertive Indian messages in triadic format

2:45- 3:00 Break

3:00- 4:30 Basic, empathic, and escalatory assertiolis: discussion, demonstration, and role play

t 4:30- 5:00 Review rights and responsibilities observed throughout DaylI Wrap up Homework assignment: Write a script for a problem situation ,with the target person you have the most difficulty being assertive with.

Day, III

9:00-10:30 Review message matching, basic, enpathic, and escalatory assertions Rehearse homework assignment Counter assertions

10:30-10:45 Break

10:45-12:00 Rehearse counter assertions Rehearse expressing -ne4atiVe feelingSor Self-affiivation

12:00- 1:30- Lunch

1:30-2:45 Behavior rehearsal in expressing positive*feelings, negative feelings, and self-affirmation in message matching format

2:45- 3:00 Break'

3:00- 4:00 Continue behavior rehearsal using a message matching forma.t.

4:00- 4:30 Small .group discussion of follow-up

4:30- 5:00 Wrap-up

1 -106-

APPENDIX VII

CONSCIOUSNESS RAZORS*

, The followingis a list of.razors. Each razor, as the name implies, has a sharp edge to,help you cut through someattitudes which may inhibit Your assertiveness. Try to answer each item as honestly asjpossible. After responding to each item, review your comments carefully.

- Have you ever felt different from otherpeople?

Have you ever felt you were sold out by other Indians?

Were you treated differently from other children as you were growing up?

- Do you ever feel dumb?

- Do you ever want to beinvisible?

- What was yourrelationship to your extended family members?

- What was your parents'relationship to you?

-- How was your education affectedby your being Indian?

- How was your career choiceaffected by your being Indian?

- Whalegofl have you wanted most toachieve in your life?

- What, if anything, has stopped youfrom achieving this goal?

- How do you relate to authority ftgues? (BIA, doctor, police, ett.)

- Have you ever felt powerful?

- Have you ever punished yourself?When? -How?

- Vivi do you feel about your body?

Do ydu often feel a sense of aloneness or loneliness?

- Do you have some attitudesthat could inhibit your being more assertive?

Adapted from Phelps-, S., & Austin; N. The assertive woman: Developing an assertive attitude. In R. Alberti (Ed.), Assentiveness: Innovations, appticationis, ,i44ues. San Luis Obispo, California: Impact Press, 1977.

115 -107-

APPENDIX VIII

DEFINITIONS ACTIVITYROLE-PLAY. SCRIPT

his grandchild is sick. With PROGRAM DIRECTOR: Mary, Joe just left early because due this all these new rcommendations forthe Title IV proposal that is . tonight and help Friday, we're really bogged down. I'd like you to stay late with this proposal.

41, I. PASSIVE BEHAVIOR Cti66 and I had p&tns to do 4ome_thingwith' EMPLOYEE: Wete . . . /, uh . . . the17-i44tonight.

cate him and Aee PROGRAM DIRECTOR: Why don't you uAe the phone in my o66ice to chitdaen i6-you can Atay. I teatey need yout aAA,i4tance. Think o6'at2 the you mat be heeping i6th.6 pkopoAae getA on time and i4 accepted.- I- guezA.we coued wokk 'something OUt 40 EMPLOYEE: Wat . . . I don't know. that I cowed Atay. PROGRAM DIRECTOR: Gdod!

II. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR when thiA'kind o6 thing , EMPLOYEE: Why do-you atway4 pick on me to Atay (NM. tonight and I don't happen!. . . . , Cti66, the kids, and I haVe big peans intend to change them! Why don't you pick on zomeone-etse eike Ben OA .8etty.6ot a change! PROGRAM DIRECTOR: Maty, you,don't,,have toget mad about it! I am the dikecton 06 thiA ptogkam, 'and I keatey don't cake6ot youk hoiatity and ta± 06 conAidekation. EMPLOYEE:- Wat--you can juAt take thiAjob and shove it!

III. ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOR EMPLOYEE: I Aee that we've been /teat buAytately and that you've been undek a tot 06 pne.AAuke to get.tiviA ptopoAat in on time; howevek, I won't be abte to wonk tonight becau4e. Cei,66 and Ihave atteady madeZnpon,tant ptan4 with the ehadnen. cate him and PROGRAM DIRECTOR: Why don't you udse the phone in my o66ice to zee i6 you can Atay. I veaLey need youk aAsistance. Think 06 ate the chitchen-you. wite be helpingi4 thiA pkopoAal gets in on time and id

, accepted. 3 EMPLOYEE: I can't change out peanA. I can stay 6ot an eata hae6 houk you'd "Like to check with Ben ok Batyto Aee i6 they woad Atay and keep , you. They might Like to emn 4ome extkaca4h. comideted PROGRAM DIRECTOR: ankA--that'A a good idea." I matey hand't asking any o6 the othet 4ta64 membms. I'Ll do that.

1 -108-

APPENDIX IX

ASSERTIVE VERBAL AND NON-VERBALBEHAVIORS

Non-verbal Behaviors

lk 1. What eye contact present?

2. Was the speaker's voicelevel appropriately loud?

3. Was the statement filled withpauses?'

4. Did the speaker look confident?

5. Was the statement flat orexpressive?

6. Was the speech too rapid ortoo sloW?

7. Was the facial expressionappropriate?

8. Was the body postureappropriate? appropriate? 9. Was the distance from the target person distracting behaviors, such as nervous 10. Were there any extraneous gestures or inappropriatelaughter?

Verbal BehaViors to the point? 1. Was the statement direct and

2. Was the statement firm but nothostile? consideration, respect, or recognition 3. Did the statement show some for the other person?

reflect the speale'rls goals? 4 Did the statement accurately for escalation? 5. Did the statement leave room 4,1 explanation, was it concise rather 6. If the statement included an than a series of excuses? pleading, or whining? 7. Did the statement include sarcasm, the speaker's feelings? 8. Did the statement blamethe other,person for

1. ___------' -109-

APPENDIX X

GROUP AWARENESS PROFILE

1. I think most Whites Aggressive Not Sure see me as - Passive Assertive

.";.; 2. I think most Indians Aggressive Not Sure see me as Passive Assertive

3. I think most White Not Sure people are Passive Assertive Aggressive

4. I think most Indian Not Sure people,are Passive Assertive Aggressive

S. I would like most White people to see me as Passive Assertive Aggressive Not Sure

6. I would like most Indian people to see me as Passive Assertive Aggressive Not Sure

Not Sure 7. I think I usually look Passive Assertive Aggressive Not Sure 8. I think I usually act Passive Assertive Aggressive

9. With an Indian person it. is easy for me to.be Passive Assertive Aggressive Not Sure

10. With a White person it is easy for me to be Passive AssertiVe Aggressive Not Sure

11. With an Indian person it is hard for me to be Passive Assertive Aggressive Not Sure

12. With a White person it is hard for me to be Passive Assertive Aggressive Not Sure APPENDIX XI

MESSAGE MATCHING

TARGET PERSON

Conventional Whites

Whites with People Orientation

Indians with Non-Indian Orientation

Indians with Indian Orientation

Traditional Indian

11 APPENDIXXiI

WORKSHOP EVALUATION

lik/ WORKSHOt) LEADER: WORKSHOP TITLE: , Check one: male female Age Tribe curiosity Primary reason for attending-the workshopu personal growth profegsional growth class requirements other i/ referral ___ .- Please circle items (1-8) by code: POOR WEAK FAIR GOOD OUTSTANDING' 5 1 2 3 4

1. Group leader's presentation of 3 4 5 the subject matter was 1 2 2 3 4 5 2. Group leader's helpfulness was 1 3. Appropriateness of the material 3 4 5 to Indian culture was 1 2 . 4. Quality.of the materials presented. 4 5 in the grbup was 1 2 3 5. How relevant was the group to 3 4 5 your work situation? 1 2 6. Opportunity for input, interaction, 3 4 5 and involvement in the program was 1 2 7. Your overall feeling of the ex- 3 4 5 perience,was 1 2 8. Possible usefulness of the work- 3 4 shop was 1 - 2

from attending this group? (Check-as 9. What was the main help you received many as you wish) Helped confirm some, of your ideas Presented new ideaS, and approaches Acquainted you with problems and solutionsfrom other people Gave you a chance to look atyourself and your job Taught you a new skill or technique Gave you a chance tt practice newskills with feedback Other benefits: most useful to you? 10. What parts of the workshop were

leastuseful to you? 11. What parts of the workShop were

Yes No 12. Would you recommendthis workshop to others? just right too simple 13. Was the-level ofOresentation toO advanced for future workshops, I welcome yourideas. 14. If you have any suggestions Write your'suggestionS, on theback 0 this evaluation form,please. -112-

APPENDIX XIII

PRESENTING pROBLEMS FOR ASSERTION TRAINING

In the foiloWing exercise, determine which of the followingpotential trainee. problems wOuld prObably be'appropriate for assertion training. Check (V) only those statements which represent problems which may need assertivetraining. Feedback is provided in the key on the following page.

1. A wife comes to e training session complainingthat her husband takes her .fór granted, ut she i afraid to confront him.

,. A potential trainee who is encouraging her husband to.spend more time listening and taking with her consults you.

3. A high schoOl senior is caught up pushing dope and doesn'tknow how to get out of doing it.

4. An older retired worker comes to n interviewstating'that he would like to re-marry, but is waiting to do so because of his daughter's opposition to the idea.

5. A trainee discusses his or her,dissatisfaction withcertain aspects of his or her marriage.

6. A disabled trainee who.has recently lost his leg revealsthat he often responds to over-solicitous people by telling them he is able to maneuver himself.

7. The trainee iS a student who reports difficulty inparticipating in claSs discussions.

8. The trainee is a young woman who have difficultydescribing herself and her ideas in job interviews.

jobs.because of 9. The trainee reports he has been fired from three swearing at co-workers.

10. The trainee expresses anxiety in expressingopinions in meeting with large groups of people or in sOcial situationsw" h strangers.

11. The trainee has been referred to you by the programdirector because of initiating constant fights with Co-workerswhen drinking on the job.

12. A studenttrainee arranges a conference with his program director and his supervisor because he feels that thesupervisor has unjustly 'accused him of'misusing his compensation time. -113-

KEY TO PRESENTING PROBLEMS FOR ASSERTION TRAINING

In this exercise, trainees 1, 4, 7, 8,9, and 10 could be appropriate candidates for assertive training.Trainees in problems 2, 6, and 12 are already assertive.Trainees in 3, 5, and 11 need more extensive counsel ng. ;NSERTIONTIRAININGWITH AMERICANINDIANS: CULTURAL/BEHAVIORAL ISSUE, FOR TRAINER'S

TERESA DAVIS LaFROMbOISE Unkiersity of Nebraska

DeceMber 1982

,Etcptional Resopfces Infol-mation Center (ERIC) Cl ear i nghOus,e on Rural Education andSi-nal l Schools -(CRESS) . New Mexico State University las Crucd NeW Mexico 88903