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MARINERS and MASCULINITIES: GENDERING WORK, LEISURE, and NATION in the GERMAN-ATLANTIC TRADE, 1884-1914 DISSERTATION Presented I

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MARINERS and MASCULINITIES: GENDERING WORK, LEISURE, and NATION in the GERMAN-ATLANTIC TRADE, 1884-1914 DISSERTATION Presented I MARINERS AND MASCULINITIES: GENDERING WORK, LEISURE, AND NATION IN THE GERMAN-ATLANTIC TRADE, 1884-1914 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By David Brandon Dennis, M.A. Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2011 Dissertation Committee: Professor Alan Beyerchen, Advisor Professor Donna Guy Professor Robin Judd, Advisor Professor Birgitte Søland Copyright by David Brandon Dennis 2011 ABSTRACT In the decades around 1900, Wilhelmine Germany embarked on a quest for world power status. This endeavor included the acquisition of overseas colonies and a naval arms race with Great Britain, but it also encompassed a broader effort to achieve global presence and economic might through a rapidly expanding merchant fleet. Accordingly, many Germans began to view the maritime community as an extension of the nation and its empire on and over the seas. Based on original archival research, this study argues that, between the advent of German expansion in 1884 and the outbreak of world war in 1914, a variety of German groups reconceived merchant mariners as emblems of the nation at home, on the oceans, and overseas. Consequently, state authorities, liberal intellectuals, social reform organizations, Protestants, and nautical professionals deployed middle-class constructions of masculinity in their attempts to reform civilian sailors‘ portside leisure and shipboard labor for the nation. A broader ―crisis of masculinity‖ around 1900 informed this focus on mariners‘ bodies, sexualities, comportment, and character. Reform groups portrayed their efforts to mold model seamen as essential to the success of German overseas expansion and Weltpolitik. They created highly-gendered programs designed to channel mariners‘ transnational mobility into steady flows of national power, capital, and culture around the world. This investigation situates its analysis of archival documents, published primary sources, and secondary literature in a transnational framework. It follows merchant mariners on a journey across the Atlantic, where most German shipping was engaged, ii focusing on the ports of Hamburg, Bremen, New York, and Buenos Aires. This structure allows me to consider the tensions between sailors‘ urban leisure practices, both at home and overseas, and reformers‘ attempts to anchor these men in marriage, family, Volk, and Heimat. It also allows me to consider how masculinity and Weltpolitik shaped conflicts between traditional notions of skill, training, and command at sea and attempts to instill ―soldierly‖ values among civilian seamen in the context of maritime industrialization. Because a variety of groups and individuals participated in debates about the ―German seaman‖ before the First World War, this study draws upon documentary evidence from government sources (particularly consular records), shipping firms, journalists, social reformers, pastors, trade unionists, as well as sailors‘ personal accounts. In analyzing this evidence, the study employs theoretical insights of such scholars as Joan Scott and R.W. Connell about the intersection between gender and power in human history and societies. It is thus primarily concerned with how masculinity was both a product and a constituent of power dynamics in Wilhelmine Germany. Consequently, rather than providing a static list of ―masculine‖ characteristics this dissertation investigates how different groups and individuals used ideas, rhetoric, and representations of masculinity to further their specific political, socio-economic, or cultural aims and interests. It therefore contributes to the recent multidisciplinary project to ―give masculinity a history‖ rather than assuming the implicit universality of the male subject. Thus far, most work on the history of German masculinities has focused on martial contexts: soldiers, militaries, and warfare. The present study changes course to examine how masculinities interacted with Germany‘s growing global entanglements around 1900. It looks at the intertwining of masculine constructs and understandings of German economic might through a case study of the merchant marine. In doing so it asks iii how and why powerful groups attempted to choreograph mariners‘ performance of masculinity at home and on the world stage. iv Dedicated to Bryan. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The idea for this project took shape six years ago during my first visit to the Wasserkante, set against the contrasting backdrops of Hamburg‘s boisterous St. Pauli district and Bremerhaven‘s more tranquil waterfront. Somehow it seems fitting that, as I write these last few lines, I‘ve returned to the water and the sea (this time in Boston) to begin a new phase of career and life. The journey has been long, at times exhausting, but ultimately well worth it. Along the way, numerous institutions, archivists, colleagues, mentors, friends, and family have helped me navigate the capricious waters of researching and writing a dissertation. Generous financial assistance from the Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst allowed me to comb through archives in Berlin and along the German coasts for ten very exciting and productive months. I am also most grateful to the various branches and affiliates of The Ohio State University which provided funds for that preliminary trip to the Wasserkante, as well as for further research stays in Flensburg, Freiburg, Buenos Aires, and New York. These include the Department of History, the Graduate School, Mershon Center for International Security Studies, and the Office of International Affairs. The Graduate School deserves particular recognition for allowing me a final writing fellowship year away from teaching duties. I also wish to extend my appreciation to archivists at a number of institutions, including the Bundesarchiv Berlin-Lichterfelde, the Militärarchiv Freiburg, the Staatsarchiv Hamburg, the Staatsarchiv Bremen, the Evangelisches Zentralarchiv, the Archiv des Diakonischen Werkes, the National Archives in London, the New York and vi Hoboken Public Libraries, and the Biblioteca Nacional in Buenos Aires. I am especially indebted to Ursula Feldkamp, who graciously shared her transcriptions of seafaring accounts with me, and to the other staff members of the Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum. Klaus Pidde from Hapag-Lloyd was kind enough to allow me access to company records at the Staatsarchiv Hamburg. Captain Werner de Vries of the Flensburger Schiffergelag went above and beyond; not only did he share his own research with me, he also opened his home and let me experience a bit of seafaring culture. My work has also benefitted from lively intellectual exchange within the Academy. Ben Bryce, Dan Bullard, Lothar Killian, and Ed Snyder proved to be fantastic research companions at the archives and beyond. I also had the opportunity to present parts of my research at the 2009 Transatlantic Doctoral Seminar sponsored by the German Historical Institute/Georgetown University BMW Center for German and European Studies. The thoughtful and enthusiastic feedback I received from Roger Chickering, Jürgen Kocka, Helmut Smith, Coriana Treitel, Richard Wetzell, and my fellow graduate student presenters has added tremendously to this dissertation. Beyond the seminar, a number of ―external‖ faculty, including Sean Brady, Heide Gerstenberger, Isaac Land, Bernhard Rieger, and Stefan Rinke, have kindly taken time out of busy schedules to read, discuss, or comment on my work. Spending my graduate career in the History Department at Ohio State has been a delight. At various points along the way, conversations with Paula Baker, Kevin Boyle, Alice Conklin, Kate Epstein, Brian Feltman, Steve Hyland, Anna Peterson, and Matt Yates have helped me rethink my assumptions, ask new questions, and keep the big picture in focus. I am also incredibly grateful to Donna Guy and Birgitte Søland, who vii have mentored me as they would their own advisees. It is a wonderful pleasure to count them as members of my committee. Finally, my time at Ohio State has been most enriched by two extraordinary advisors. Eight years ago Alan Beyerchen took a chance on a disaffected mathematician, who loved history but knew practically nothing about it. I can only hope that this dissertation has borne out his faith in me as a scholar. He is a true Doktorvater, whose easy command of the intellectual currents of history is only matched by his compassion, patience, and dedication to students. From the beginning, I have also found a fantastic mentor and friend in Robin Judd. Robin taught me how to cut through an argument (and through long ―Germanic‖ sentences) thoroughly and quickly and to do so in a way that is always kind and encouraging. As I move into the next phase of career and life, she is my model for producing brilliant work, while juggling career, teaching, and family, and making it all look effortless. Finally, I would like to thank my friends and family for seeing me through this process. The Schreiter-Busch‘s—Katrin, Manfred, Susanne, Sabine, Michael, Andrea, Daniel, and Dennis—hosted me on multiple occasions while I was in Germany and made me feel like family each time. I also am enormously and massively grateful to Shelley Harten for transforming Berlin into ein Stück Heimat for me. Ray Ball, Jim Bennett, Lawrence Bowdish, Michael Carr, Erica Daher-Twersky, Kate Epstein, Brian and Carrie Feltman, Jason Gammon, Robert Garner, Ben Kessler, Greg Kupsky, Michelle Mann, Lindsey Patterson,
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