SYRIA PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

Diana Darke | 336 pages | 15 Jun 2010 | BRADT TRAVEL GUIDES | 9781841623146 | English | Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom Syria | History, People, & Maps | Britannica

In January , Syrian Pres. Bashar al-Assad was asked in an interview with The Wall Street Journal if he expected the wave of popular protest then sweeping through the Arab world—which had already unseated authoritarian rulers in Tunisia and Egypt —to reach Syria. In reality, a variety of long-standing political and economic problems were pushing the country toward instability. When Assad succeeded his father in , he came to the presidency with a reputation as a modernizer and a reformer. On the eve of the uprising, then, Syrian society remained highly repressive, with increasingly conspicuous inequalities in wealth and privilege. Hundreds of thousands of farming families were reduced to poverty, causing a mass migration of rural people to urban shantytowns. A group of children had been arrested and tortured by the authorities for writing antiregime graffiti; incensed local people took to the street to demonstrate for political and economic reforms. Security forces responded harshly, conducting mass arrests and sometimes firing on demonstrators. Videos of security forces beating and firing at protesters—captured by witnesses on mobile phones—were circulated around the country and smuggled out to foreign media outlets. As the conflict progressed, however, sectarian divisions hardened. In his public statements, Assad sought to portray the opposition as Sunni Islamic extremists in the mold of al-Qaeda and as participants in foreign conspiracies against Syria. As the protests increased in strength and size, the regime responded with heavier force. In response, some groups of protesters began to take up arms against the security forces. Barack Obama and several European heads of state called for him to step down in August Article Contents. Print print Print. Table Of Contents. Facebook Twitter. Give Feedback External Websites. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article requires login. External Websites. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree See Article History. Bashar al-Assad has been president since and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad , [15] who was in office from to Throughout his rule, Syria and the ruling Ba'ath Party have been condemned and criticized for alleged various human rights abuses , including frequent executions of citizens and political prisoners , and massive censorship. As a result, a number of self-proclaimed political entities have emerged on Syrian territory, including the Syrian opposition , Rojava , Tahrir al-Sham and Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. Syria was ranked last on the Global Peace Index from to , [18] making it the most violent country in the world due to the war. The conflict has killed more than , people, [19] caused 7. The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between Arabia to the south and Asia Minor to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, Commagene , Sophene , and Adiabene. By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire but politically independent from each other : Judaea , later renamed Palaestina in AD the region corresponding to modern-day Israel , the Palestinian Territories, and Jordan in the extreme southwest; Phoenice established in AD corresponding to modern Lebanon, Damascus and Homs regions; Coele-Syria or "Hollow Syria" south of the Eleutheris river , and Iraq. Since approximately 10, BC, Syria was one of the centers of Neolithic culture known as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps and burnt lime Vaisselle blanche. Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilization in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla [29] near present-day Idlib , northern Syria. Ebla appears to have been founded around BC, [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] and gradually built its fortune through trade with the Mesopotamian states of Sumer , Assyria , and Akkad , as well as with the Hurrian and Hattian peoples to the northwest, in Asia Minor. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is a trading agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c. Recent classifications of the Eblaite language have shown that it was an East Semitic language , closely related to the Akkadian language. Ebla was weakened by a long war with Mari , and the whole of Syria became part of the Mesopotamian Akkadian Empire after Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram-Sin 's conquests ended Eblan domination over Syria in the first half of the 23rd century BC. By the 21st century BC, Hurrians settled the northern east parts of Syria while the rest of the region was dominated by the Amorites , Syria was called the Land of the Amurru Amorites by their Assyro-Babylonian neighbors. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages. Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa BC, close to modern Latakia. Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet , [42] considered to be the world's earliest known alphabet. The Ugaritic kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC in what was known as the Late Bronze Age Collapse which saw similar kingdoms and states witness the same destruction at the hand of the Sea Peoples. Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. The Egyptians initially occupied much of the south, while the Hittites, and the Mitanni, much of the north. However, Assyria eventually gained the upper hand, destroying the Mitanni Empire and annexing huge swathes of territory previously held by the Hittites and Babylon. Around the 14th century BC, various Semitic peoples appeared in the area, such as the semi-nomadic Suteans who came into an unsuccessful conflict with Babylonia to the east, and the West Semitic speaking Arameans who subsumed the earlier Amorites. They too were subjugated by Assyria and the Hittites for centuries. The Egyptians fought the Hittites for control over western Syria; the fighting reached its zenith in BC with the Battle of Kadesh. From this point, the region became known as Aramea or Aram. There was also a synthesis between the Semitic Arameans and the remnants of the Indo-European Hittites , with the founding of a number of Syro-Hittite states centered in north central Aram Syria and south central Asia Minor modern Turkey , including Palistin , Carchemish and Sam'al. From these coastal regions, they eventually spread their influence throughout the Mediterranean , including building colonies in Malta , Sicily, the Iberian peninsula modern Spain and Portugal , and the coasts of North Africa and most significantly, founding the major city state of Carthage in modern Tunisia in the 9th century BC, which was much later to become the center of a major empire, rivaling the Roman Empire. The Assyrians introduced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of their empire. This language was to remain dominant in Syria and the entire Near East until after the Arab Islamic conquest in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, and was to be a vehicle for the spread of Christianity. Assyrian domination ended after the Assyrians greatly weakened themselves in a series of brutal internal civil wars, followed by an attacks from; the Medes , Babylonians , Chaldeans , Persians , Scythians and Cimmerians. During the fall of Assyria, the Scythians ravaged and plundered much of Syria. During this period, Syria became a battle ground between Babylonia and another former Assyrian colony, that of Egypt. The Babylonians, like their Assyrian relations, were victorious over Egypt. Thus, it was the Greeks who introduced the name "Syria" to the region. Originally an Indo-European corruption of "Assyria" in northern Mesopotamia, the Greeks used this term to describe not only Assyria itself but also the lands to the west which had for centuries been under Assyrian dominion. Eventually parts of southern Seleucid Syria were taken by Judean Hasmoneans upon the slow disintegration of the Hellenistic Empire. Syria briefly came under Armenian control from 83 BC, with the conquests of the Armenian king Tigranes the Great , who was welcomed as a savior from the Seleucids and Romans by the Syrian people. However, Pompey the Great , a general of the Roman Empire rode to Syria, captured Antioch , its capital, and turned Syria into a Roman province in 64 BC, thus ending the Armenian control over the region which had lasted two decades. Syria prospered under Roman rule, being strategically located on the silk road which gave it massive wealth and importance, making it the battleground for the rivaling Romans and Persians. Palmyra , a rich and sometimes powerful native Aramaic -speaking kingdom arose in northern Syria in the 2nd century; the Palmyrene established a trade network that made the city one of the richest in the Roman empire. The Aramaic language has been found as far afield as Hadrians Wall in Ancient Britain, [57] with an inscription written by a Palmyrene emigrant at the site of Fort Arbeia. Control of Syria eventually passed from the Romans to the Byzantines , with the split in the Roman Empire. The largely Aramaic -speaking population of Syria during the heyday of the Byzantine Empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Prior to the Arab Islamic Conquest in the 7th century AD, the bulk of the population were Arameans , but Syria was also home to Greek and Roman ruling classes, Assyrians still dwelt in the north east, Phoenicians along the coasts, and Jewish and Armenian communities was also extant in major cities, with Nabateans and pre-Islamic Arabs such as the Lakhmids and Ghassanids dwelling in the deserts of southern Syria. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman and Byzantine provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. Syrians held considerable amounts of power during the Severan dynasty. The matriarch of the family and Empress of Rome as wife of emperor Septimius Severus was Julia Domna , a Syrian from the city of Emesa modern day Homs , whose family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the god El-Gabal. Her great nephews, also Arabs from Syria, would also become Roman Emperors, the first being Elagabalus and the second, his cousin Alexander Severus. He was emperor from to , [59] and ruled briefly during the Crisis of the Third Century. During his reign, he focused on his home town of Philippopolis modern day Shahba and began many construction projects to improve the city, most of which were halted after his death. Syria is significant in the history of Christianity ; Saulus of Tarsus, better known as the Apostle Paul , was converted on the Road to Damascus and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys. Acts — Muhammad 's first interaction with the people and tribes of Syria was during the Invasion of Dumatul Jandal in July [60] where he ordered his followers to invade Duma, because Muhammad received intelligence that some tribes there were involved in highway robbery and preparing to attack Medina itself. William Montgomery Watt claims that this was the most significant expedition Muhammad ordered at the time, even though it received little notice in the primary sources. Watt says "It is tempting to suppose that Muhammad was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death", and that the rapid march of his troops must have "impressed all those who heard of it". William Muir also believes that the expedition was important as Muhammad followed by men reached the confines of Syria, where distant tribes had now learnt his name, while the political horizon of Muhammad was extended. In the mid-7th century, the Umayyad dynasty , then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. The country's power declined during later Umayyad rule; this was mainly due to totalitarianism, corruption and the resulting revolutions. The Umayyad dynasty was then overthrown in by the Abbasid dynasty , which moved the capital of empire to Baghdad. Arabic — made official under Umayyad rule [63] — became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic of the Byzantine era. In , the Egypt-based Tulunids annexed Syria from the Abbasids, and were later replaced by once the Egypt-based Ikhshidids and still later by the Hamdanids originating in Aleppo founded by Sayf al- Dawla. Sections of Syria were held by French, English, Italian and German overlords between and AD during the Crusades and were known collectively as the Crusader states among which the primary one in Syria was the Principality of Antioch. The coastal mountainous region was also occupied in part by the Nizari Ismailis , the so-called Assassins , who had intermittent confrontations and truces with the Crusader States. Later in history when "the Nizaris faced renewed Frankish hostilities, they received timely assistance from the Ayyubids. After a century of Seljuk rule, Syria was largely conquered — by the Kurdish liberator Salah ad-Din , founder of the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt. Aleppo fell to the Mongols of Hulegu in January , and Damascus in March, but then Hulegu was forced to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute. The Mamluk leader, Baibars , made Damascus a provincial capital. When he died, power was taken by Qalawun. In the meantime, an emir named Sunqur al-Ashqar had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June , and fled to northern Syria. Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols. The Mongols of the Ilkhanate took the city, but Qalawun persuaded Al-Ashqar to join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October , in the Second Battle of Homs , which was won by the Mamluks. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand. Timur-Lenk also conducted specific massacres of the Aramean and Assyrian Christian populations, greatly reducing their numbers. In , the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt , conquering Syria, and incorporating it into its empire. The Ottoman system was not burdensome to Syrians because the Turks respected Arabic as the language of the Quran , and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus was made the major entrepot for Mecca , and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the beneficial results of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca. Ottoman administration followed a system that led to peaceful coexistence. His short-term rule over the domain attempted to change the demographics and social structure of the region: he brought thousands of Egyptian villagers to populate the plains of Southern Syria , rebuilt Jaffa and settled it with veteran Egyptian soldiers aiming to turn it into a regional capital, and he crushed peasant and Druze rebellions and deported non-loyal tribesmen. By , however, he had to surrender the area back to the Ottomans. From , Tanzimat reforms were applied on Ottoman Syria, carving out the provinces vilayets of Aleppo , Zor , Beirut and Damascus Vilayet ; Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon was created, as well, and soon after the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was given a separate status. During the conflict, genocide against indigenous Christian peoples was carried out by the Ottomans and their allies in the form of the Armenian Genocide and Assyrian Genocide , of which Deir ez-Zor , in Ottoman Syria, was the final destination of these death marches. Initially, the two territories were separated by a border that ran in an almost straight line from Jordan to Iran. However, the discovery of oil in the region of Mosul just before the end of the war led to yet another negotiation with France in to cede this region to the British zone of influence, which was to become Iraq. The fate of the intermediate province of Zor was left unclear; its occupation by Arab nationalists resulted in its attachment to Syria. This border was recognized internationally when Syria became a League of Nations mandate in [72] and has not changed to date. In , a short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria was established under Faisal I of the Hashemite family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate. General Gouraud had according to his secretary de Caix two options: "Either build a Syrian nation that does not exist De Caix added "I must say only the second option interests me". This is what Gouraud did. In , Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt that broke out in the Druze Mountain and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal, leading the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of The French sentenced Sultan al- Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in after the signing of the Syrian-French Treaty. Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September , and Hashim al-Atassi was the first president to be elected under the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British forced the French to evacuate their troops in April , leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate. Upheaval dominated Syrian politics from independence through the late s. In May , Syrian forces invaded Palestine , together with other Arab states, and immediately attacked Jewish settlements. Husni al-Za'im , described as the first military overthrow of the Arab World [79] since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthrow, by Col. Sami al-Hinnawi , who was himself quickly deposed by Col. Adib Shishakli , all within the same year. Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether, but was himself overthrown in a coup and the parliamentary system was restored. There was fertile ground for various Arab nationalist , Syrian nationalist , and socialist movements, which represented disaffected elements of society. Notably included were religious minorities, who demanded radical reform. This gave a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for military equipment. Only heated debates in the United Nations lessened the threat of war. On 1 February , Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Egypt's Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the United Arab Republic , and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities. Syria seceded from the union with Egypt on 28 September , after a coup. The ensuing instability following the coup culminated in the 8 March Ba'athist coup. The new Syrian cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members. On 23 February , the Military Committee carried out an intra-party overthrow , imprisoned President Amin Hafiz and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March. In the first half of , a low-key state of war existed between Syria and Israel. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in the Demilitarized Zone led to 7 April pre-war aerial clashes between Israel and Syria. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of the Golan Heights in under 48 hours. Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the " Black September " hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement. In the late s, an Islamist uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, leading security forces to also kill civilians in retaliatory strikes. The uprising had reached its climax in the Hama massacre , [89] when some 10, — 40, people were killed by regular Syrian Army troops. Syria participated in the multilateral Madrid Conference of , and during the s engaged in negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez al-Assad 's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June His son, Bashar al-Assad , was elected president in an election in which he ran unopposed. On 5 October , Israel bombed a site near Damascus , claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad. Signs of rioting were seen in the cities of Qamishli and Hasakeh. It began in as a chain of peaceful protests, followed by an alleged crackdown by the Syrian Army. The opposition is dominated by Sunni Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are generally associated with Alawites. According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to , people had been killed by June , [] [] [] including 11, children. On 11 June, Prime Minister Imad Khamis was dismissed by President Bashar al-Assad, amid anti-government protests over deteriorating economic conditions. Analysts noted that a resolution to the current banking crisis in Lebanon might be crucial to restoring stability in Syria. Some analysts began to raise concerns that Assad might be on the verge of losing power; but that any such collapse in the regime might cause conditions to worsen, as the result might be mass chaos, rather than an improvement in political or economic conditions. Analysts noted that the upcoming implementation of new heavy sanctions under the US Caesar Act could devastate the Syrian economy, ruin any chances of recovery, destroy regional stability, and do nothing but destabilize the entire region. The first new sanctions took effect on June 17th. There will be additional sanctions implemented in August, in three different groups. There are increasing reports that food is becoming difficult to find, the country's economy is under severe pressure, and the whole regime could collapse due to the sanctions. The climate varies from the humid Mediterranean coast, through a semiarid steppe zone, to arid desert in the east. The country consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. Al-Jazira in the northeast and Hawran in the south are important agricultural areas. The Euphrates , Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. Syria is one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called " cradle of civilization ". Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in Syria is formally a unitary republic. The current constitution of Syria , adopted in , effectively transformed the country into a semi-presidential republic due to the constitutional right for the election of individuals who do not form part of the National Progressive Front. The executive branch consists of the president, two vice presidents , the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers cabinet. The constitution requires the president to be a Muslim [] but does not make Islam the state religion. On 31 January , Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the President of Syria be a Muslim , leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama , Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the ulama. They labelled Assad the "enemy of Allah " and called for a jihad against his rule. The constitution gives the president the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and state of emergency , to issue laws which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council , to declare amnesty , to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel. Syria's legislative branch is the unicameral People's Council. Under the previous constitution, Syria did not hold multi-party elections for the legislature, [] with two-thirds of the seats automatically allocated to the ruling coalition. Seven new political parties took part in the elections, of which Popular Front for Change and Liberation was the largest opposition party. The armed anti-government rebels, however, chose not to field candidates and called on their supporters to boycott the elections. Outside of the coalition are 14 illegal Kurdish political parties. Islamic jurisprudence is a main source of legislation and Syria's judicial system has elements of Ottoman , French , and Islamic laws. Syria has three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. Religious courts handle questions of personal and family law. The Personal Status Law 59 of amended by Law 34 of is essentially a codified sharia. The Code of Personal Status is applied to Muslims by sharia courts. As a result of the ongoing civil war, various alternative governments were formed, including the Syrian Interim Government , the Democratic Union Party and localized regions governed by sharia law. Representatives of the Syrian Interim government were invited to take up Syria's seat at the Arab League on 28 March and [] was recognised as the "sole representative of the Syrian people" by several nations including the United States, United Kingdom and France. Parliamentary elections were held on 13 April in the government-controlled areas of Syria, for all seats of Syria's unicameral legislature, the Majlis al-Sha'ab, or the People's Council of Syria. The situation for human rights in Syria has long been a significant concern among independent organizations such as Human Rights Watch , who in referred to the country's record as "among the worst in the world. The authorities are accused of arresting democracy and human rights activists, censoring websites, detaining bloggers, and imposing travel bans. Arbitrary detention , torture , and disappearances are widespread. Moreover, it also grants leniency for so-called ' Honour killing '. In August , the government was suspected of using chemical weapons against its civilians. US Secretary of State John Kerry said it was "undeniable" that chemical weapons had been used in the country and that President Bashar al-Assad's forces had committed a "moral obscenity" against his own people. Nothing today is more serious, and nothing is receiving more serious scrutiny". The Emergency Law, effectively suspending most constitutional protections, was in effect from until 21 April In August , UN Human Rights chief Navi Pillay criticized the international community over its "paralysis" in dealing with the more than 3-year-old civil war gripping the country, which by 30 April , had resulted in , deaths with war crimes, according to Pillay, being committed with total impunity on all sides in the conflict. Minority Alawites and Christians are being increasingly targeted by Islamists and other groups fighting in the Syrian civil war. In April , the U. Navy carried out a missile attack against a Syrian air base [] which had allegedly been used to conduct a chemical weapons attack on Syrian civilians, according to the US government. The President of Syria is commander in chief of the Syrian armed forces, comprising some , troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve in the military upon reaching the age of The breakup of the Soviet Union—long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces—may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. In the early s, Scud -C missiles with a kilometre mile range were procured from North Korea , and Scud-D, with a range of up to kilometres miles , is allegedly being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and Iran , according to Zisser. Syria received significant financial aid from Arab states of the Persian Gulf as a result of its participation in the Persian Gulf War , with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending. Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and securing the return of the Golan Heights , have been the primary goals of Syria's foreign policy. At many points in its history, Syria has seen virulent tension with its geographically cultural neighbors, such as Turkey, Israel, Iraq, and Lebanon. Syria enjoyed an improvement in relations with several of the states in its region in the 21st century, prior to the Arab Spring and the Syrian Civil War. Since the ongoing civil war of , and associated killings and human rights abuses, Syria has been increasingly isolated from the countries in the region, and the wider international community. Syria's violence against civilians has also seen it suspended from the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in Syria continues to foster good relations with its traditional allies, Iran and Russia, who are among the few countries which have supported the Syrian government in its conflict with the Syrian opposition. In order to facilitate this, a faulty election was done in which ethnic Turks who were originally from the Sanjak but lived in Adana and other areas near the border in Turkey came to vote in the elections, shifting the election in favor of secession. Through this, the Hatay Province of Turkey was formed. The move by the French was very controversial in Syria, and only five years later Syria became independent. The western two-thirds of Syria's Golan Heights region are since occupied by Israel and were in effectively annexed by Israel , [] [] whereas the eastern third is controlled by Syria, with the UNDOF maintaining a buffer zone in between, to implement the ceasefire of the Purple Line. Israel's Golan annexation law is not recognized in international law. The UN Security Council condemned it in Resolution as "null and void and without international legal effect. In early , Syria entered Lebanon, beginning their twenty-nine-year military presence. Syria entered on the invitation of Suleiman Franjieh, the Maronite Christian president at the time to help aid the Lebanese Christian militias against the Palestinian militias. The Syrian military remained in Lebanon until April 26, in response to domestic and international pressure after the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister, Rafik Hariri. Another disputed territory is the Shebaa farms , located in the intersection of the Lebanese-Syrian border and the Israeli occupied Golan Heights. Yet after Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in , Hezbollah claimed that the withdrawal was not complete because Shebaa was on Lebanese — not Syrian — territory. Syria is divided into 14 governorates , which are sub-divided into 61 districts , which are further divided into sub-districts. Agrarian reform measures were introduced into Syria which consisted of three interrelated programs: Legislation regulation the relationship between agriculture laborers and landowners: legislation governing the ownership and use of private and state domain land and directing the economic organization of peasants; and measures reorganizing agricultural production under state control. The first law passed Law ; passed 4 September in response to concern about peasant mobilization and expanding peasants' rights. It also acknowledged the rights of landlords to form their own syndicates. Telecommunications in Syria are overseen by the Ministry of Communications and Technology. As of [update] , the Syrian economy relies upon inherently unreliable revenue sources such as dwindling customs and income taxes which are heavily bolstered by lines of credit from Iran. Oil reserves are expected to decrease in the coming years and Syria has already become a net oil importer. The economy is highly regulated by the government, which has increased subsidies and tightened trade controls to assuage protesters and protect foreign currency reserves. Syria's share in global exports has eroded gradually since The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange. Political instability poses a significant threat to future economic development. Syria's economy also remains hobbled by state bureaucracy, falling oil production, rising budget deficits, and inflation. Prior to the civil war in , the government hoped to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government began to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but those reforms were slow and ad hoc, and have been completely reversed since the outbreak of conflict in Syria's petroleum industry has been subject to sharp decline. Historically, the country produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late s. In the early s, light- grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Deir ez-Zor in eastern Syria. On 27 January , the Baniyas oil refinery of Syria was attacked by militants by the means of explosives on underwater pipelines. It was the third attack against Syria's oil and gas industry in less than a year, and aimed at preventing oil imports into the country. On 24 August , a gas pipeline between the suburbs of Al-Dumayr and Adra in the Damascus area came under an attack. The electricity minister Mohammad Kharboutli explained that the explosion led to an overnight blackout across Syria. Syria has four international airports Damascus, Aleppo, Lattakia and Kamishly , which serve as hubs for Syrian Air and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers. The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by Syrian Railways the Syrian railway company , which links up with Turkish State Railways the Turkish counterpart. For a relatively underdeveloped country, Syria's railway infrastructure is well maintained with many express services and modern trains. The road network in Syria is 69, kilometres 43, miles long, including 1, kilometres miles of expressways. The country also has kilometres miles of navigable but not economically significant waterways. Syria is a semiarid country with scarce water resources. The largest water consuming sector in Syria is agriculture. In the population of Syria was Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density in Syria is about 99 per square kilometre per square mile. According to the World Refugee Survey , published by the U. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 1,, The vast majority of this population was from Iraq 1,, , but sizeable populations from Palestine , and Somalia 5, also lived in the country. In what the UN has described as "the biggest humanitarian emergency of our era", [] about 9. Syrians are an overall indigenous Levantine people, closely related to their immediate neighbors, such as Lebanese , Palestinians , Jordanians and Jews. The indigenous Assyrians and Western Aramaic -speakers number around , people, [] with the Western Aramaic-speakers living mainly in the villages of Ma'loula , Jubb'adin and Bakh'a , while the Assyrians mainly reside in the north and northeast Homs, Aleppo, Qamishli, Hasakah. Many particularly the Assyrian group still retain several Neo-Aramaic dialects as spoken and written languages. The second-largest ethnic group in Syria are the Kurds. Most Kurds reside in the northeastern corner of Syria and most speak the Kurmanji variant of the Kurdish language. There are no reliable estimates of their total population, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand to 3. Syria holds the 7th largest Armenian population in the world. They are mainly gathered in Aleppo, Qamishli , Damascus and Kesab. There are also smaller ethnic minority groups, such as the Albanians , Bosnians , Georgians , Greeks , Persians , Pashtuns and Russians. Syria was once home to a substantial population of Jews , with large communities in Damascus, Aleppo, and Qamishii. Due to a combination of persecution in Syria and opportunities elsewhere, the Jews began to emigrate in the second half of the 19th century to Great Britain, the United States, and Israel. The process was completed with the establishment of the State of Israel in Today only a few Jews remain in Syria. The largest concentration of the Syrian diaspora outside the Arab world is in Brazil , which has millions of people of Arab and other Near Eastern ancestries. Religion in Syria est. Most Kurds 8. President Bashar al-Assad's family is Alawite and Alawites dominate the government of Syria and hold key military positions. Christians 1. Many Christian monasteries also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a high socio-economic class. Arabic is the official language of the country. Several modern Arabic dialects are used in everyday life, most notably Levantine in the west and Mesopotamian in the northeast. According to The Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics , in addition to Arabic, the following languages are spoken in the country, in order of the number of speakers: Kurdish , [] Turkish , [] Neo-Aramaic four dialects , [] Circassian , [] Chechen , [] Armenian , [] and finally Greek. Aramaic was the lingua franca of the region before the advent of Arabic , and is still spoken among Assyrians , and Classical Syriac is still used as the liturgical language of various Syriac Christian denominations. Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history. Syrians' taste for the traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the Dabkeh in all their variations, and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the births of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs. The literature of Syria has contributed to Arabic literature and has a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom migrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the nahda or Arab literary and cultural revival of the 19th century. Ba'ath Party rule, since the coup , has brought about renewed censorship. In this context, the genre of the historical novel, spearheaded by Nabil Sulayman , Fawwaz Haddad , Khyri al-Dhahabi and Nihad Siris , is sometimes used as a means of expressing dissent, critiquing the present through a depiction of the past. Syrian folk narrative , as a subgenre of historical fiction, is imbued with magical realism , and is also used as a means of veiled criticism of the present. Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses science fiction and futuristic utopiae Nuhad Sharif , Talib Umran , which may also serve as media of dissent. The Syrian music scene , in particular that of Damascus, has long been among the Arab world's most important, especially in the field of classical Arab music. The city of Aleppo is known for its muwashshah , a form of Andalous sung poetry popularized by Sabri Moudallal , as well as for popular stars like Sabah Fakhri. Television was introduced to Syria and Egypt in , when both were part of the United Arab Republic. It broadcast in black and white until Syrian soap operas have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world. Nearly all of Syria's media outlets are state-owned, and the Ba'ath Party controls nearly all newspapers. The most popular sports in Syria are football , basketball, swimming, and tennis. Damascus was home to the fifth and seventh Pan Arab Games. Syrian cuisine is rich and varied in its ingredients, linked to the regions of Syria where a specific dish has originated. Baklava is made of filo pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in honey. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as meze , before the main course. The Arabic flatbread khubz is always eaten together with meze. Drinks in Syria vary, depending on the time of day and the occasion. Arabic coffee is the most well-known hot drink, usually prepared in the morning at breakfast or in the evening. It is usually served for guests or after food. Arak , an alcoholic drink, is a well-known beverage, served mostly on special occasions. Other Syrian beverages include ayran , jallab , white coffee , and a locally manufactured beer called Al Shark. Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrollment at post-secondary schools is over , The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is Since , all schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision by the Ba'ath Party. There are 6 state universities in Syria [] and 15 private universities. There are also many higher institutes in Syria, like the Higher Institute of Business Administration , which offer undergraduate and graduate programs in business. According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities , the top-ranking universities in the country are Damascus University th worldwide , the University of Aleppo th and Tishreen University th. In , spending on healthcare accounted for 3. In , there were From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the modern state of Syria. For other uses, see Syria disambiguation. Country in the Middle East. Show map of Syria. Farouk al-Sharaa Najah al-Attar. Main article: Name of Syria. Main article: History of Syria. They are labeled "Chiefs of Retjenu ". Main article: Ottoman Syria. Controlled by Syrian Arab Republic. Controlled by Rojava SDF. Controlled jointly by Syrian Arab Republic and Rojava. Main article: Syrian Civil War. Main article: Geography of Syria. Main article: Politics of Syria. See also: Syrian Civil War. Main article: Human rights in Syria. Main article: Syrian Armed Forces. Main article: Foreign relations of Syria. Countries that support the Syrian government. Countries that support the Syrian rebels. See also: Turkish occupation of northern Syria and Israeli-occupied territories. Main articles: Governorates of Syria and Districts of Syria. Main article: Economy of Syria. See also: Tourism in Syria. Main article: Transport in Syria. Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Syria. Main article: Demographics of Syria. Main article: Syrians. Main articles: Religion in Syria and Islam in Syria. Main article: Languages of Syria. Largest cities or towns in Syria official census. Main article: Culture of Syria. Main article: literature of Syria. Main article: Syrian cuisine. Main article: Education in Syria. Main article: Health in Syria. Asia portal Middle East portal. International Labour Organization. Retrieved 31 August Retrieved 30 December Columbia University Gulf Retrieved 2 June Retrieved 25 January Archived from the original on 11 May International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 22 April World Bank. Retrieved 22 January United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 10 December The Caspian Region: The Caucasus. Syria | World | The Guardian

Volunteers in last rebel stronghold claim a Turkish private firm is signing up fighters. Published: 28 Sep US military increasingly using drone missile with flying blades in Syria. Published: 25 Sep Turkey issues arrest warrants for 82 over pro-Kurdish protests. Internal displacements reach 15m in with worst 'still to come' — report. Published: 23 Sep US deploys additional troops and armoured vehicles to eastern Syria. Published: 19 Sep UK judge halts Home Office flight to remove asylum seekers. Published: 16 Sep UK repatriates child orphaned in Syria after Isis collapse. Published: 13 Sep Syrian asylum seekers return to Calais nine days after UK flew them to Spain. Published: 12 Sep Conflicts since start of US 'war on terror' have displaced 37m people — report. Published: 9 Sep Australian women and children reportedly snatched from Syria's al-Hawl refugee camp. Published: 8 Sep In this special feature, Britannica provides a guide to the civil war and explores the historical context of the conflict. The war has been a source of significant instability in the Middle East since , and the resultant civilian displacement and refugee exodus constitute one of the worst humanitarian crises in modern history. From to Syria suffered its worst drought in modern history. The combined effects of the drought and preexisting economic disparities under the Assad regime contributed to the first nonviolent pro-reform protests, in , riding the wave of Arab Spring uprisings. There are several parties involved in the Syrian Civil War. He has received foreign support from Russia and Iran. These groups have been supported by Western powers such as the United States and Germany. Syria threatened to deploy chemical weapons against foreign aggressors but stressed that it would never use them on civilians. The deadliest occurred in in the Damascus suburb of Ghouta. The Syrian government strongly denies having used any chemical weapons. Since its start in , the Syrian Civil War has created the largest refugee population in the world, constituting over a third of the global refugee population. In the United Nations recorded 6. Most fled to Turkey and other regional allies, but hundreds of thousands have found asylum in Germany, the United States, and Canada. Within Syria itself, an estimated 6. Several human rights organizations have called the Syrian Civil War the worst humanitarian crisis of the 21st century. In January , Syrian Pres. Bashar al-Assad was asked in an interview with The Wall Street Journal if he expected the wave of popular protest then sweeping through the Arab world—which had already unseated authoritarian rulers in Tunisia and Egypt —to reach Syria. In reality, a variety of long-standing political and economic problems were pushing the country toward instability. When Assad succeeded his father in , he came to the presidency with a reputation as a modernizer and a reformer. On the eve of the uprising, then, Syrian society remained highly repressive, with increasingly conspicuous inequalities in wealth and privilege. Hundreds of thousands of farming families were reduced to poverty, causing a mass migration of rural people to urban shantytowns. A group of children had been arrested and tortured by the authorities for writing antiregime graffiti; incensed local people took to the street to demonstrate for political and economic reforms. Security forces responded harshly, conducting mass arrests and sometimes firing on demonstrators. Syria - HISTORY

Main article: Syrian Civil War. Main article: Geography of Syria. Main article: Politics of Syria. See also: Syrian Civil War. Main article: Human rights in Syria. Main article: Syrian Armed Forces. Main article: Foreign relations of Syria. Countries that support the Syrian government. Countries that support the Syrian rebels. See also: Turkish occupation of northern Syria and Israeli-occupied territories. Main articles: Governorates of Syria and Districts of Syria. Main article: Economy of Syria. See also: Tourism in Syria. Main article: Transport in Syria. Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Syria. Main article: Demographics of Syria. Main article: Syrians. Main articles: Religion in Syria and Islam in Syria. Main article: Languages of Syria. Largest cities or towns in Syria official census. Main article: Culture of Syria. Main article: literature of Syria. Main article: Syrian cuisine. Main article: Education in Syria. Main article: Health in Syria. 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This expedition receives scant notice in the sources, but in some ways it is the most significant so far. It is tempting to suppose that was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death. Met Museum. A Short History of the Ismailis. Edinburg University Press. Page Time-Life Books. Archived from the original on 28 April Retrieved 23 April Library of Congress Country Studies. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Naimark, Oxford University Press, , — Archived from the original PDF on 26 June Britain, France and the struggle that shaped the Middle East. Stearns; William Leonard Langer The Encyclopedia of World History. Houghton Mifflin Books. Toronto Sun. A Study of Crisis. University of Michigan Press. Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. Tessler A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Indiana University Press. New York City: Schocken Books. University of Oklahoma. 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Throughout the war in Syria, Lebanon had been used by Syrians as a reliable place to withdraw dollars. The U. Russia is increasing its presence in the wider Middle East and North Africa region through the deployment of its armed forces, the sale of arms and the establishment of new military bases. In recent weeks, it began negotiating the establishment of new concessions from the Syrian regime on its indefinite military presence in that country and has also become more directly involved in the civil war tearing Libya apart. June 9, Critics say legislation is being used for US strategy and could cause further problems for country and wider region. Martin Chulov, The Guardian, June 12, Schaeffer, Claude Articles 58—59". Articles 83—". Article 75 1 2 4 ". Article 77 2 ". Retrieved 22 October Peter Lang. Carnegie Endowment. Syrian Arab News Agency. Archived from the original on 28 March Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved 18 February Retrieved 28 August Financial Times. 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Archived from the original on 28 December Retrieved 1 September Retrieved 29 August American Journal of Human Genetics. National Geographic Magazine. October Today's Zaman. Assyrians are the fourth-largest ethnic group in Syria. Circassians are the fifth-largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 1. Syria joined with Egypt and became the United Arab Republic in , but the union split a few short years later in The s brought more military coups, revolts and riots. In , the Arab Socialist Baath Party, which was active throughout the Middle East since the late s, seized power of Syria in a coup known as the Baath Revolution. Conflict over this coveted area continued for years and is still ongoing. He remained in power as president for 30 years, until his death in Hafez al-Assad was part of the Islam Alawite, which is a minority Shiite sect. During his presidency, Hafez was credited with strengthening the Syrian military with the help of the Soviets. Syria and Egypt went to war with Israel in Shortly after this conflict, Syria also got involved in the civil war in Lebanon, where it has maintained a military presence ever since. In , the Muslim Brotherhood organized a rebellion against the Assad regime in the city of Hama, and Assad responded by arresting, torturing and executing political rebels. Estimates vary, but many experts believe the retaliation took the lives of about 20, civilians. The same year, Israel invaded Lebanon and attacked the Syrian army stationed there. But by , Israel and Lebanon announced that the hostility between the two countries was over. Toward the end of his life, Hafez attempted to make more peaceful relations with Israel and Iraq. After Bashar took power, the constitution was amended to reduce the minimum age of the president from 40 to At the start of his presidency, Bashar al- Assad released political prisoners, and Syrians were hopeful that their new leader would grant more freedoms and impose less oppression than his father. The Syrian government was also accused of being involved in the assassination of Rafic Hariri, the Lebanese prime minister, in After a few years of what seemed like potential diplomacy between Assad and other nations, the United States renewed sanctions against Syria in , saying that the regime supported terrorist groups. Many human rights groups reported that Assad regularly tortured, imprisoned and killed political adversaries throughout his presidency. In March of , a group of teens and children were arrested and tortured for writing anti-government graffiti that was thought to be inspired by the Arab Spring rebellion. Peaceful protests broke out in Syria after the graffiti incident and became widespread. Assad and the Syrian government responded by arresting and killing hundreds of protestors and their family members. These events combined with other circumstances, including a lagging economy, a severe drought, a lack of general freedoms and a tense religious atmosphere, led to civilian resistance and, ultimately, an uprising. But by , Syria was engulfed in a full-blown civil war. Estimates vary, but according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, at least , people have been killed since the start of the war or are missing. Hundreds of people were killed outside of Damascus in during a chemical weapons attack. The main ridge rises to a maximum height of 8, feet 2, metres near Al-Nabk, while the mean height is between 6, and 7, feet 1, to 2, metres. Smaller mountains are scattered about the country. The undulating plains occupying the rest of the country are known as the Syrian Desert. In general their elevation lies between and 1, feet and metres ; they are seldom less than feet metres above sea level. The Euphrates River is the most important water source and the only navigable river in Syria. It originates in Turkey and flows southeastward across the eastern part of Syria see Tigris-Euphrates river system. The reservoir behind the dam, Lake Al-Asad, began to fill in The Orontes is the principal river of the mountainous region. Scattered lakes are found in Syria. On the surface, impervious rocks—consisting of clay, marl clay, sand, or silt , and greensand—cover a relatively small area. Porous rocks cover about half of the country and are mainly sandstone or chalk. Highly porous rocks consist of basalt and limestone. Water penetrates the porous rocks, forming underground springs, rivers, or subterranean water sheets close to the surface. Although the springs are profuse, the water sheets are quickly exhausted and may turn saline in areas of low precipitation. Because of aridity, vegetation plays only a secondary role in soil composition. The most common soils are various clays and loams mixtures of clay, sand, and silt. Some are calcareous chalky ; others, especially in the area of the Euphrates valley, contain gypsum.

Syria - Wikipedia

Markets Home U. German police detain Syrian suspected of killing tourist. Jewish director sends message of hope in Pope Francis film. Turkey withdraws from base in northwest Syria, sources say. White House official went to Syria seeking Americans' release. Turkish minister criticises EU 'double standards' in testy meet with Swedish minister. Busy Damascus cemetery points to higher pandemic death toll in Syria. Syrian victims of chemical attacks file case with German prosecutors. Kurdish official says thousands of Syrians to leave crowded camp in northeast. View More. Analysis: China struggles to fill Trump's 'America First' leadership void. Between and , fighting from the Syrian civil war spilled over into Lebanon as opponents and supporters of the Syrian government traveled to Lebanon to fight and attack each other on Lebanese soil, with ISIL and Al- Nusra also engaging the Lebanese Army. Furthermore, while officially neutral, Israel has exchanged fire with Hezbollah and Iranian forces, whose presence in southwestern Syria it views as a threat. International organizations have criticized virtually all sides involved, including the Ba'athist Syrian government, ISIL, opposition rebel groups, Russia, [] Turkey, [] and the U. Over the course of the war, a number of peace initiatives have been launched, including the March Geneva peace talks on Syria led by the United Nations , but fighting has continued. For several years Syria went through additional coups and changes in leadership, [] until in March , Hafez al-Assad , an Alawite , declared himself President. The secular Syrian Regional Branch remained the dominant political authority in what had been a one-party state until the first multi- party election to the People's Council of Syria was held in Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria be a Muslim , leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama , Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the ulama. The government survived a series of armed revolts by Islamists , mainly members of the Muslim Brotherhood, from until Bashar and his wife Asma , a Sunni Muslim born and educated in Britain, [] initially inspired hopes for democratic reforms; however, according to his critics, Bashar failed to deliver on promised reforms. Socioeconomic inequality increased significantly after free market policies were initiated by Hafez al-Assad in his later years, and it accelerated after Bashar al-Assad came to power. With an emphasis on the service sector , these policies benefited a minority of the nation's population, mostly people who had connections with the government, and members of the Sunni merchant class of Damascus and Aleppo. The country also faced particularly high youth unemployment rates. This coincided with the most intense drought ever recorded in Syria, which lasted from to and resulted in widespread crop failure, an increase in food prices and a mass migration of farming families to urban centers. The human rights situation in Syria has long been the subject of harsh critique from global organizations. A Human Rights Watch report issued just before the beginning of the uprising stated that he had failed to substantially improve the state of human rights since taking power. Douma chemical attack; U. There are numerous factions, both foreign and domestic, involved in the Syrian civil war. These can be divided in four main groups. First, the Syrian Armed Forces and its allies. Syrian rebel groups received political, logistic and military support from the United States , [] [] Turkey , [] Saudi Arabia , [] Qatar , [] Britain, France, [] Israel , [] and the Netherlands. On August 06, , Saad Aljabri, in a complaint filed in a federal court in the Washington accused Mohammed Bin Salman of secretly inviting Russia to intervene in Syria at a time when Bashar al-Assad was close to falling in Fighting between rebels and government forces also spilled over into Lebanon on several occasions. There were repeated incidents of sectarian violence in the North Governorate of Lebanon between supporters and opponents of the Syrian government, as well as armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli. Sarin , mustard agent and chlorine gas have been used during the conflict. Numerous casualties led to an international reaction, especially the Ghouta attacks. A UN fact-finding mission was requested to investigate reported chemical weapons attacks. In four cases UN inspectors confirmed the use of sarin gas. The United States and the European Union have said the Syrian government has conducted several chemical attacks. Following the Ghouta attacks and international pressure, the destruction of Syria's chemical weapons began. In the UN mission disclosed previously undeclared traces of sarin compounds in a "military research site". He added that Bashar al-Assad has done more than any other to destabilize the region by "murdering his own people" and that both Russia and the Syrian government have shown no concern for the suffering of the Syrian people creating one of the "worst humanitarian tragedies in history". On April 15, the UN Security Council briefing was held on the findings of a global chemical weapons watchdog, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons OPCW , which claimed that the Syrian air force used sarin and chlorine for multiple attacks, in The close allies of Syria , Russia and European countries debated on the issue, where the claims were dismissed by Moscow and the Europeans called for accountability for government's actions. The information was also exposed in two UN-mandated investigations. Syria is not a party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions and does not recognize the ban on the use of cluster bombs. The Syrian Army is reported to have begun using cluster bombs in September Steve Goose, director of the Arms Division at Human Rights Watch said "Syria is expanding its relentless use of cluster munitions, a banned weapon, and civilians are paying the price with their lives and limbs", "The initial toll is only the beginning because cluster munitions often leave unexploded bomblets that kill and maim long afterward". Russian thermobaric weapons , also known as "fuel-air bombs", have been used by the government side during the war. On 2 December , The National Interest reported that Russia was deploying the TOS-1 Buratino multiple rocket launch system to Syria, which is "designed to launch massive thermobaric charges against infantry in confined spaces such as urban areas". Several types of anti-tank missiles are in use in Syria. Russia has sent 9M Kornet , third-generation anti-tank guided missiles to the Syrian Government whose forces have used them extensively against armour and other ground targets to fight Jihadists and rebels. The Syrian civil war is one of the most heavily documented wars in history, despite the extreme dangers that journalists face while in Syria. Foley was kidnapped in Syria in November by Shabiha militia. At least 70 journalists have been killed covering the Syrian war, and more than 80 kidnapped, according to the Committee to Protect Journalists. During the early period of the civil war, The Arab League , European Union , the United Nations, [] and many Western governments quickly condemned the Syrian government's violent response to the protests, and expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise free speech. Russia and China vetoed Western-drafted United Nations Security Council resolutions in and , which would have threatened the Syrian government with targeted sanctions if it continued military actions against protestors. The successive governments of Hafez and Bashar al-Assad have been closely associated with the country's minority Alawite religious group, [] an offshoot of Shia, whereas the majority of the population, and most of the opposition, is Sunni. A third of , Alawite men of military age have been killed fighting in the Syrian civil war. Many Syrian Christians reported that they had fled after they were targeted by the anti-government rebels. The Druze community in Syria has been divided by the civil war, and has experienced persecution by Islamist rebels, ISIL, the government and the government's Hezbollah allies. As militias and non-Syrian Shia—motivated by pro-Shia sentiment rather than loyalty to the Assad government—have taken over fighting the opposition from the weakened Syrian Army, fighting has taken on a more sectarian nature. One opposition leader has said that the Shia militias often "try to occupy and control the religious symbols in the Sunni community to achieve not just a territorial victory but a sectarian one as well" [] —reportedly occupying mosques and replacing Sunni icons with pictures of Shia leaders. As the conflict has expanded across Syria, many cities have been engulfed in a wave of crime as fighting caused the disintegration of much of the civilian state, and many police stations stopped functioning. Rates of theft increased, with criminals looting houses and stores. Rates of kidnappings increased as well. Rebel fighters were seen stealing cars and, in one instance, destroying a restaurant in Aleppo where Syrian soldiers had been seen eating. Local National Defense Forces commanders often engaged "in war profiteering through protection rackets, looting, and organized crime". NDF members were also implicated in "waves of murders, robberies, thefts, kidnappings, and extortions throughout government-held parts of Syria since the formation of the organization in ", as reported by the Institute for the Study of War. Criminal networks have been used by both the government and the opposition during the conflict. Facing international sanctions, the Syrian government relied on criminal organizations to smuggle goods and money in and out of the country. The economic downturn caused by the conflict and sanctions also led to lower wages for Shabiha members. In response, some Shabiha members began stealing civilian properties and engaging in kidnappings. Black market weapon prices in Syria's neighboring countries have significantly increased since the start of the conflict. To generate funds to purchase arms, some rebel groups have turned towards extortion, theft, and kidnapping. It was built by the Arameans in the first millennium BC. As of March , the war has affected heritage sites, severely damaged , and completely destroyed It is known that the Old City of Aleppo was heavily damaged during battles being fought within the district, while Palmyra and Krak des Chevaliers suffered minor damage. Illegal digging is said to be a grave danger, and hundreds of Syrian antiquities, including some from Palmyra, appeared in Lebanon. Three archeological museums are known to have been looted; in Raqqa some artifacts seem to have been destroyed by foreign Islamists due to religious objections. In and , following the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant , several sites in Syria were destroyed by the group as part of a deliberate destruction of cultural heritage sites. In Palmyra, the group destroyed many ancient statues, the Temples of Baalshamin and Bel , many tombs including the Tower of Elahbel , and part of the Monumental Arch. According to a September Syrian Network for Human Rights reports more than Christian churches have been destroyed or damaged in Syria since The war has inspired its own particular artwork, done by Syrians. A late summer exhibition in London at the P21 Gallery showed some of this work, which had to be smuggled out of Syria. Turkey has accepted 1,, Syrian refugees, half of whom are spread around cities and a dozen camps placed under the direct authority of the Turkish Government. Satellite images confirmed that the first Syrian camps appeared in Turkey in July , shortly after the towns of Deraa, Homs, and Hama were besieged. The Syrian refugee crisis has caused the "Jordan is Palestine" threat to be diminished due to the onslaught of new refugees in Jordan. The violence in Syria caused millions to flee their homes. As of March , Al-Jazeera estimate The recorded count of displaced children in the area has reached more than , since December On 2 January , the United Nations stated that 60, had been killed since the civil war began, with UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay saying "The number of casualties is much higher than we expected, and is truly shocking". Navi Pillay , UN high commissioner for human rights, stated that: "This is most likely a minimum casualty figure". The real toll was guessed to be over , One problem has been determining the number of "armed combatants" who have died, due to some sources counting rebel fighters who were not government defectors as civilians. Additionally, over detainees and political prisoners are known to have died under torture. On 20 August , a new U. On April 15, a convoy of buses carrying evacuees from the besieged Shia towns of al-Fu'ah and Kafriya , which were surrounded by the Army of Conquest , [] was attacked by a suicide bomber west of Aleppo, [] killing more than people, including at least 80 children. More than children were wounded or killed during the first three quarters of , and over 65 children fell victim to the war in December alone. Over , people were killed since the war in Syria started nine years ago, war monitor Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said on January 4, The death toll comprises civilians, government soldiers, militia members and foreign troops. In an airstrike by Russian forces loyal to the Syrian government, at least five civilians were killed, out of which four belonged to the same family. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights claimed that the death toll included three children following the attack in the Idlib region on January 18, On January 30, , Russian air strikes on a hospital and a bakery killed over 10 civilians in Syria's Idlib region. Moscow immediately rejected the allegation. On 23 June , Israeli raids killed seven fighters, including two Syrian in a central province. State media cited a military official as saying the attack targeted posts in rural areas of Hama province. According to various human rights organizations and United Nations, human rights violations have been committed by both the government and the rebels, with the "vast majority of the abuses having been committed by the Syrian government". According to three international lawyers, [] Syrian government officials could face war crimes charges in the light of a huge cache of evidence smuggled out of the country showing the "systematic killing" of about 11, detainees. Most of the victims were young men and many corpses were emaciated, bloodstained and bore signs of torture. Some had no eyes; others showed signs of strangulation or electrocution. The UN also reported in that " siege warfare is employed in a context of egregious human rights and international humanitarian law violations. The warring parties do not fear being held accountable for their acts". Armed forces of both sides of the conflict blocked access of humanitarian convoys, confiscated food, cut off water supplies and targeted farmers working their fields. The report pointed to four places besieged by the government forces: Muadamiyah, Daraya, Yarmouk camp and Old City of Homs, as well as two areas under siege of rebel groups: Aleppo and Hama. ISIS forces have been criticized by the UN of using public executions and killing of captives , amputations, and lashings in a campaign to instill fear. Enforced disappearances and arbitrary detentions have also been a feature since the Syrian uprising began. In February , Amnesty International published a report which stated the Syrian government murdered an estimated 13, persons, mostly civilians, at the Saydnaya military prison. They stated the killings began in and were still ongoing. Amnesty International described this as a "policy of deliberate extermination" and also stated that "These practices, which amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity, are authorised at the highest levels of the Syrian government". According to the U. By July , the human rights group Women Under Siege had documented over cases of rape and sexual assault during the conflict, with many of these crimes reported to have been perpetrated by the Shabiha and other pro-government militias. On September 11, , the UN investigators said that air strikes conducted by the US-led coalition in Syria have killed or wounded several civilians, denoting that necessary precautions were not taken leading to potential war crimes. In late , as the violence intensified in north-west Syria, thousands of women and children were reportedly kept under "inhumane conditions" in a remote camp, said UN-appointed investigators. According to a new report by U. While, boys have been put through torture and forcefully trained to execute killings in public. Children have been attacked by sharp shooters and lured by bargaining chips to pull out ransoms. On April 6, , the United Nations published its investigation into the attacks on humanitarian sites in Syria. The rights organization billed that Syrian regime decimated 44 civilians, including six children, during the unprecedented times of Covid It also said, Syrian forces held captive people, while committing a minimum of four attacks on vital civilian facilities. The report further recommended that the UN impose sanctions on the Bashar al-Assad regime, if it continues to commit human rights violation. On 21 July , forces of the Bashar al-Assad regime carried out an attack and killed two civilians with four Grad rockets in western al-Bab sub- district. Fighting makes it impossible to undertake the normal vaccination programs. The displaced refugees may also pose a disease risk to countries to which they have fled. Humanitarian aid reaches the camp only sporadically, sometimes taking three months between shipments. Formerly rare infectious diseases have spread in rebel-held areas brought on by poor sanitation and deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include measles , typhoid , hepatitis , dysentery , tuberculosis , diphtheria , whooping cough and the disfiguring skin disease leishmaniasis. Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling Poliomyelitis. As of late doctors and international public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before the uprising, it contributed to the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to vaccination , sanitation and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic". In June , the United Nations reported that after more than nine years of war, Syria was falling into an even deeper crisis and economic deterioration as a result of the coronavirus pandemic. As of June 26, a total of people were infected by Covid , out of which nine people lost their lives. Restrictions on the importation of medical supplies, limited access to essential equipment, reduced outside support and ongoing attacks on medical facilities left Syria's health infrastructure in peril, and unable to meet the needs of its population. Syrian communities were additionally facing an unprecedented levels of hunger crisis. The difficulty of delivering humanitarian aid to people is indicated by the statistics for January of the estimated , people during that month who were besieged by government or opposition forces, were reached with food. The United States has provided food aid, medical supplies, emergency and basic health care, shelter materials, clean water, hygiene education and supplies, and other relief supplies. Other countries in the region have also contributed various levels of aid. Iran has been exporting between and tonnes of flour daily to Syria. Israel also delivered heating fuel , diesel fuel , seven electric generators , water pipes, educational materials, flour for bakeries, baby food , diapers , shoes and clothing. Syrian refugees in Lebanon make up one quarter of Lebanon's population , mostly consisting of women and children. On April 9, , the UN dispatched 51 truckloads of humanitarian aid to Idlib. The organization said that the aid would be distributed among civilians stranded in the north- western part of the country. On April 30, , Human Rights Watch condemned the Syrian authorities for their longstanding restriction on the entry of aid supplies. The aid supplies, if allowed, will allow the Syrian population to protect themselves from contracting the COVID virus. Another aspect of the post war years will be how to repatriate the millions of refugees. The Syrian government has put forward a law commonly known as " law 10 ", which could strip refugees of property, such as damaged real estate. There are also fears among some refugees that if they return to claim this property they will face negative consequences, such as forced conscription or prison. The Syrian government has been criticized for using this law to reward those who have supported the government. However, the government said this statement was false and has expressed that it wants the return of refugees from Lebanon. Some people's pensions have also been cancelled. While the war still ongoing, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad said that Syria would be able to rebuild the war- torn country on its own. Assad said he is be able to loan this money from friendly countries, Syrian diaspora and the state treasury. It was reported that the biggest issue facing the rebuilding process is the lack of building material and a need to make sure the resources that do exist are managed efficiently. The rebuilding effort have so far remained at a limited capacity and has often been focused on certain areas of a city, thus ignoring other areas inhabited by disadvantaged people. According to a Syrian war monitor, over Churches have been damaged or demolished by all sides in Syrian war since Various efforts are proceeding to rebuild infrastructure in Syria. Russia also said it will build a railway to link Syria with the Persian Gulf. Syria announced it is in serious dialogue with China to join China's " Belt and Road Initiative " designed to foster investment in infrastructure in over one-hundred developing nations worldwide. During the course of the war, there have been several international peace initiatives, undertaken by the Arab League, the United Nations, and other actors. On 3 February , the UN Syria peace mediator suspended the talks. The Syrian government stated that discussion of Bashar-al-Assad's presidency "is a red line", however Syria's President Bashar al-Assad said he hoped peace talks in Geneva would lead to concrete results, and stressed the need for a political process in Syria. A new round of talks between the Syrian government and some groups of Syrian rebels concluded on 24 January 24, in Astana , Kazakhstan, with Russia, Iran and Turkey supporting the ceasefire agreement brokered in late December On September 18, , Russia stated the United States and Syrian rebels were obstructing the evacuation process of a refugee camp in southern Syria. On September 28, , Syria's top diplomat demanded the foreign forces, including that of US and Turkey, to immediately leave the country, saying that the Syrian government holds the right to protect its territory in all possible ways if they remain. In October , in response to the Turkish offensive, Russia arranged for negotiations between the Syrian government in Damascus and the Kurdish- led forces. Syrian President Assad expressed full support for the deal, as various terms of the agreement also applied to the Syrian government. The agreement reportedly included the following terms: [] [] [] [] [] []. Also the report found that refugees in camps in north-eastern Syria have tripled this year. Numerous refugees remain in local refugee camps. Conditions there are reported to be severe, especially with winter approaching. No organizations are assisting them other than the Kurdish Red Cross. Numerous camp residents have called for assistance from international groups. Refugees in Northeast Syria report they have received no help from international aid organizations. On December 30, , over 50 Syrian refugees, including 27 children, were welcomed in Ireland, where they started afresh in their new temporary homes at the Mosney Accommodation Centre in Co Meath. As of December , a diplomatic dispute is occurring at the UN over re-authorization of cross-border aid for refugees. China and Russia oppose the draft resolution that seeks to re-authorize crossing points in Turkey, Iraq, and Jordan; China and Russia, as allies of Assad, seek to close the two crossing points in Iraq and Jordan, and to leave only the two crossing points in Turkey active. All of the ten individuals representing the non- permanent members of the Security Council stood in the corridor outside of the chamber speaking to the press to state that all four crossing points are crucial and must be renewed. United Nations official Mark Lowcock is asking the UN to re-authorize cross-border aid to enable aid to continue to reach refugees in Syria. He says there is no other way to deliver the aid that is needed. He noted that four million refugees out of the over eleven million refugees who need assistance are being reached through four specific international crossing points. Russia, aided by China's support, has vetoed the resolution to retain all four border crossings. An alternate resolution also did not pass. These sanctions would penalize any entities lending support to the Syrian government, and any companies operating in Syria. Some activists welcomed this legislation. If they are imposed, they will indirectly harm the Syrian people, and if they are lifted, they will indirectly revive the Syrian regime;" he attributed the sanctions to "political considerations, as the United States does not have weapons and tools in the Syrian file, and sanctions are its only means. It seems that the US, having failed to change the regime in Syria by military force or by proxies, is tightening the economic screws and the main reason why the US is keeping hold of the production facilities in eastern Syria. So, the economic situation is becoming more and more serious and dire in Syria and it's a major reason why refugees are not going back. Under the Caesar Act, the latest sanctions were to be imposed on 39 individuals and entities, including Asma al-Assad , wife of the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. On June 17, , James F. Jeffrey, Special Representative for Syria Engagement has signalled that the UAE could soon be hit with sanctions if it pushes ahead with normalisation efforts with the Syrian regime, under Caesar Act. In late , a new Syrian Constitutional Committee began operating in order to discuss a new settlement and to draft a new constitution for Syria. It includes representatives of the Syrian government, opposition groups, and countries serving as guarantors of the process such as e. However, this committee has faced strong opposition from the Assad government. In December , the EU held an international conference which condemned any suppression of the Kurds, and called for the self-declared Automnomous Administration in Rojava to be preserved and to be reflected in any new Syrian Constitution. In March , the Syrian Information Minister announced that his government considered recognizing the Kurdish autonomy "within the law and constitution". An analysis released in June described the region's "relationship with the government fraught but functional" and a "semi-cooperative dynamic". From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Redirected from Syrian Civil War. Ongoing multi-sided civil war in Syria since Syria with spillovers in neighboring countries. Syrian Arab Republic. Interim Government Syrian opposition [b]. Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant [e] —present. Syrian Civil War. Civil uprising in Syria March—August Start of insurgency Sept. Homs —14 Homs offensive 1st Idlib Gov. Azaz 2nd Rastan 1st al- Qusayr 2nd Idlib Gov. UN ceasefire ; escalation May — Dec. Rise of the Islamists January — Sept. Russian intervention Sept. Aleppo escalation and Euphrates Shield March — April Rebels in retreat and Operation Olive Branch Nov. Idlib demilitarization Sep. Idlib demilitarization 5th Idlib inter-rebel conflict Sep. Syrian War spillover and international incidents. Foreign involvement in the Syrian Civil War. Regional organisations. Algeria pro-Iraq pro-Syria. Splinter groups. Related topics. Arab nationalism Arab socialism Nasserism Pan-Arabism. Politics portal Socialism portal. Main article: Modern history of Syria. See also: Al-Assad family and Bashar al-Assad. Main article: Demographics of Syria. Main article: Timeline of the Syrian Civil War. Main article: Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War. Main article: Early insurgency phase of the Syrian Civil War. Main article: Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria. Main article: —13 escalation of the Syrian Civil War. Main article: Inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian Civil War. Main articles: Khan Shaykhun chemical attack , Shayrat missile strike , and Hama offensive. Main article: Belligerents of the Syrian Civil War. Countries that support the Syrian government. Countries that support the Syrian rebels. Countries that are divided in their support. Main article: Spillover of the Syrian Civil War. See also: Equipment of the Syrian Army and List of military equipment used by Syrian opposition forces. Main article: Destruction of Syria's chemical weapons. See also: Syria and weapons of mass destruction and Syria chemical weapons program. Main article: Deir ez-Zor missile strike. Main article: Media coverage of the Syrian Civil War. Main article: International reactions to the Syrian Civil War. See also: Vetoed UN resolutions on Syria. Main article: Sectarianism and minorities in the Syrian Civil War. Main article: Refugees of the Syrian Civil War. Main article: Internally displaced persons in Syria. Main article: Casualties of the Syrian Civil War. See also: Casualty recording. Main article: Human rights violations during the Syrian Civil War. Main article: Humanitarian aid during the Syrian Civil War. Main article: Return of refugees of the Syrian Civil War. Main article: Syrian Constitutional Committee. Main article: Rojava. Asia portal Modern history portal War portal. Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on 12 August The Guardian. Returning from a summit in the Saudi capital last week, opposition leaders say they were told directly by the foreign minister, Adel al-Jubeir, that Riyadh was disengaging. Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 25 January The New York Times. 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Retrieved 14 May War on the Rocks. Retrieved 4 August Retrieved 18 September Business Insider. Wall Street Journal. Foreign Policy. Retrieved 18 February Asia Times. Asharq Al-Awsat. Retrieved 23 March Retrieved 6 June Retrieved 15 December The Soufan Group. Retrieved 17 September Retrieved 19 February Archived from the original on 30 March F crashes in Jordan". BBC News. ABC News. Syrian Observatory of Human Rights. The Washington Times. The Hill. Violations Documenting Center. Retrieved 23 February Special Operations forces begin new role alongside Turkish troops in Syria". Military Times. Retrieved 4 January Archived from the original on 30 April Retrieved 29 April Archived from the original on 22 June Retrieved 21 June Archived from the original on 21 June Retrieved 23 May Archived from the original on 21 July Retrieved 15 March Archived from the original on 21 September Retrieved 7 November Archived from the original on 1 April Retrieved 18 March Amnesty International. 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