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Power, Culture, and Knowledge in the Contested Politics of Mining

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Power, Culture, and Knowledge in the Contested Politics of Mining Extracting Identities and Value from Nature: Power, Culture, and Knowledge in the Contested Politics of Mining A Dissertation SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Erik Kojola IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIERMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY David Pellow, Rachel Schurman July 2018 Copyright Erik Kojola 2018 Acknowledgements Completing my dissertation would not have been possible without the contributions and support of numerous people. My co-advisors David Pellow and Rachel Schurman provided valuable mentoring and feedback on drafts and proposals which has helped me develop my analysis and research skills. They gave critical comments that challenged my thinking and praise to keep me motivated and confident. My other committee members, Michael Goldman and Kate Derickson, also helped me design the project and pushed me to think in new ways and make theoretical claims. My fellow graduate students have been invaluable in shaping my intellectual development and been a great support through the stress of researching and writing a dissertation. All of this work would not have been possible without the emotional and financial support of my family and friends. Endless thanks to my partner Rebecca Cassler for helping me get through this process. My research was supported by the University of Minnesota and The Institute on the Environment through the Interdisciplinary Doctoral Fellowship program which gave me time to write and explore new ideas. The University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts also provided research funding through the Thesis Research Travel Grant and the Sociology Department’s Anna Welsch Bright Research Award provided essential funds for fieldwork and equipment. i Abstract Global capitalism’s accelerating consumption of natural resources and new technologies are driving development of new riskier forms and sites of extraction. These developments create conflicts around socio-ecological hazards and perceived trade-offs between economic growth and environmental protection. I take proposed copper-nickel mines in Northern Minnesota as an illustrative case study of the contentious politics that arise around ecological risks, environmental governance and land-use decisions. Northern Minnesota is an emblematic case of the tensions around resource use in a rural mining region, but also has a distinct history of progressive politics and militant unionism, American Indian sovereignty, and ethos of environmentalism. I examine how class and place-based identities and collective memories inform how people make sense of environmental hazards and construct different visions for the future. I investigate how social actors (unions, mining companies, environmentalists, American India Tribes and local politicians) legitimize their positions, create competing truth claims, and engage in environmental decision-making. I situate these discourses and actions within the particular socio-ecological histories of Northern Minnesota and broader relations of power and political-economic and ideological processes. I contribute to environmental and natural resource sociology by integrating interdisciplinary theories of political ecology to address the interconnections between class, race, and indigeneity in environmental governance. ii Table of Contents List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………..iv List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………..v Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 2: Legacy of Conflicts Over Extraction and Conservation in the Iron Range….39 Chapter 3: Who Speaks for the Land?: Place and Identity in Environmental Politics…..97 Chapter 4: Renewing Our Way of Life: Extractive Populism…………………………159 Chapter 5: Procedural Justice and Intersectional Dynamics of Power in Environmental Assessments………………………………………………………………...211 Chapter 6: Conclusion………………………………………………………………….241 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………256 iii List of Tables Table 1: Category and Number of Interviews ………………………………….254 Table 2: Voting Results in the Minnesota Iron Range …………………………254 iv List of Figures Figure 1: Newspaper Coverage of PolyMet Mine, 1999 to 2014…………………255 v Chapter 1 – Introduction Increased demand for natural resources, depletion of existing reserves, and development of new technologies are leading to new, and often riskier, sites and forms of resource extraction (Schaffartzik et al. 2016; Zheng et al. 2018). These new locations, types, and methods of extraction often pose risks to public health, biodiversity, clean water, and climate change as well as violating Indigenous rights and disrupting social relations in rural communities (Alario and Freudenburg 2003; Burns 2007; Finkel and Hays 2016). However, these projects also create the prospect of jobs and development in what are often rural regions struggling with economic and social dislocation from uneven development. Global mining corporations and investors see these new resource frontiers as a way to generate profits and provide materials for the global economy. Thus, development of resource extraction is a highly contested political issue driven by tensions between environmental protection and job creation, and capitalism and environmentalism. Decisions about where, or if, to extract natural resources raises complex problems of addressing global environmental issues of climate change and protecting clean water as well as how to supply society’s increasing resource demands and promote rural community development. I use the case of conflicts over proposed copper-nickel mines in the Iron Range – a rural mining region in Northeastern Minnesota – as a site to study the cultural and class politics of resource extraction. In Northeastern Minnesota, mining companies, investors, and local politicians envision a new resource boom around the supposedly “world-class” copper and nickel reserves in the region, and the ability of new technologies to economically and safely extract and process these ores. The Iron Range, like other rural 1 and mining regions, is dealing with a lack of jobs and economic opportunity and a shrinking and aging population. The copper-nickel mines are presented as a way to breathe life into these struggling communities by providing good paying jobs. However, opponents, including environmentalists, outdoor recreation groups, and American Indian Tribes, claim that the mines would threaten the environment, tourism, public health, and Indigenous rights. These would be the first copper-nickel mines in the state, which is a riskier form of mining than existing iron mines due to different chemicals in the rocks that could create hazardous water pollution.1 The proposed sites are also located near socially and ecologically important lakes and rivers, wilderness areas, and Native American lands. Thus, copper-nickel mining has become one of the most contentious political issues in Minnesota and a tension between two central aspects of Minnesotan identity: the land of 10,000 lakes and mining. The conflicts over copper-nickel mining are indicative of broader class, regional, and socio-political divisions around environmental issues, like climate change, that have contributed to political shifts and divisions in Minnesota and the U.S. Inquiries In my dissertation, I examine four interrelated issues: 1) why extractive development becomes a site of contestation; 2) how different communities, groups, and institutions assign meaning to nature and socio-environmental risks through identities, 1 Copper-nickel mining, and nonferrous (metals that do not contain iron) more generally, are in ore that contain sulfides which create acidic water and leach heavy metals when exposed to air and water. Chapter 2 provides detailed discussion about the risks of copper-nickel mining and differences with iron mining. 2 histories, and ideologies; 3) how different social actors participate in and struggle over environmental policy; 4) how conflicts over mining are enrolled in broader socio-political conflicts. Throughout, I assess dynamics of power shaped by processes of capitalism, racism, colonialism, and patriarchy, and the inequalities in who has legitimacy and authority in making environmental policy. I situate the contemporary politics of resource extraction in Minnesota across temporal scales by examining regional histories, collective memories, and visions of the future, and across spatial scales by assessing interconnected local, national, and transnational political-economic processes and discourses. I argue that socio-cultural dynamics of identity, memories, and future imaginaries influence how people interpret hazardous industrial development as a form of environmental justice or injustice and how the hegemony of extractive industries is reproduced and contested. I find that future resource extraction is interpreted through different class and regional cultural frameworks shaped by place-based identities, collective memories, and experiences of labor and outdoor recreation. Emotional appeals to place and nostalgia are powerful mobilizing frames used by a range of social actors including environmental movements, corporations, and right-wing politicians. How and why different discourses emerge and are effective depends on local histories and cultural narratives, broader ideologies, and political-economic conjunctures. Opponents and proponents assert different forms of legitimacy to speak for the place, and struggle over how the place is constructed and who has a right to make decisions. Dominant discourses and regulatory processes
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