Management of Judo Federations: a Comparative Analysis

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How to cite this thesis

Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Index?site_name=Research%20Output (Accessed: Date). MANAGEMENT OF JUDO FEDERATIONS: A

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

PETRUS LOUIS NOLTE

Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY

SPORT MANAGEMENT

in the

FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: Prof C Burnett

Co-supervisor: Prof WJ Hollander

JANUARY 2018 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Writing this PhD thesis has been part of an extraordinary journey that would not have been possible without tremendous support. For their guidance in completing this research, I would like to thank:

• My Heavenly Father for granting me the wisdom and strength to complete my studies. • My supervisor, Prof Cora Burnett, for her energetic guidance, sharing of knowledge, and numerous late nights spent working. • My co-supervisor, Prof Wim Hollander, for his insight and guidance related to the management aspects of this study. • My parents, Dirk and Mariette, for their endless support in my academic endeavours. • My wife, Suzanne, for her support during countless hours of working on this thesis. • Dr Mike Callan from Judo Space for his assistance and hospitality in arranging my research in England. • Juergen Klinger from Bath University, and Ian Johns and Matthew Purssey from the British Judo Centre of Excellence, for accommodating my research in England. • Tanja de Leeuw, Angelique van Wegberg and John van der Meer for accommodating my research in the Netherlands. • The National Research Foundation for granting a substantial financial contribution for this PhD research, without which this study would not have been possible.

I dedicate this study to Judo in South Africa

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DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this dissertation is my own original work and that I have not previously submitted it in its entirety or in part at any university for a degree.

17 January 2018

Signature Date of final submission

iv ABSTRACT

Globally, the success of elite athletes at international competitions attracts the attention of governments due to the potential sociocultural, political and economic benefits. Underpinned by a systems theory framework, governments invest a substantial amount of resources into the professionalisation of elite sport systems. The mere existence of elite sport systems can no longer predict success. Rather, Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) plans can only have effect through optimal management that facilitates the development of athletes in their sporting careers. Although judo is relatively less lucrative for professional judokas, it is one of the most widespread Olympic sports, and requires sound governance to ensure credibility, secure resources and achieve success. This thesis firstly reflects on the professionalisation of sport at the global level from a figurational sociological perspective and in the three sample countries. Secondly, elite sport systems are discussed and applied to judo in the countries under study. Thirdly, results provide strategic insights for improving existing high performance judo practices through the management of judokas and the governance of the sport federations. Two internationally successful judo countries (The Netherlands and England) were selected for this comparative case study analysis with South Africa. A purposive sample of elite judokas from South Africa (n=37), the Netherlands (n=38) and England (n=29), as well as elite judo coaches (n=26) and executive members (n=2) from the respective countries participated in this study. The research found that more successful elite judo systems have comprehensive policies that create an enabling environment through facilitating access to resources and forming key strategic alliances. Coach education, performance pathways and access to high performance training facilities are essential mechanisms that contribute to successful elite sport performances. A contextualised approach to discuss governance principles and the articulation of different systems that incorporate macro-level considerations, is suggested. These outcomes are affected by circumstances and power relations inherent in society and within the sport fraternity.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE TITLE PAGE I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Ii DEDICATION Iii DECLARATION Iv ABSTRACT V TABLE OF CONTENTS Vi LIST OF TABLES Xi LIST OF FIGURES Xii LIST OF REFERENCES Xii ANNEXURES Xii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction, problem statement, aim, objectives, design and scope

1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Problem statement and aim 2 1.3 Objectives 3 1.4 Main research question 3 1.5 Research design and methodology 3 1.6 Sample 4 1.7 Delimitations 4 1.8 Limitations 4 1.9 Key concepts 5 1.10 Significance and envisaged output 5 1.11 Structure 6

CHAPTER 2 Figurational sociology and its application to the development of sport and sport management

2.1 Figurational sociology as theoretical approach 7 2.2 Critique against figurational sociology 9 2.3 Colonialism 11 2.4 Development of sport 12 2.5 Sportisation and globalisation 13 2.6 Phases of sportisation 14 2.7 The development of judo: A figurational approach 17 2.7.1 Sportification and global expansion of judo 18 2.7.2 International shifts and the establishment of judo federations 21 2.7.3 Commercialisation of judo 23 2.7.4 The diffusion of judo in the UK 27 2.7.5 The diffusion of judo in the Netherlands 28 2.7.6 The diffusion of judo in South Africa 29 2.8 Judo development: Gender 30 2.9 Systems theory 32 2.10 Figurational and systems theory: A theoretical framework 36 2.11 Summary 37

CHAPTER 3 Management of high performance sport

3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Sectors of the sport management environment 40 3.2.1 Political sector 41 3.2.2 Socio-economic sector 43 3.2.3 Technology sector 46 3.2.4 Legal sector 46 3.3 Professionalisation of sport organisations 47 3.4 Models of sport participation 48

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3.5 High performance sport systems 50 3.5.1 Characteristics of high performance sport systems 51 3.5.2 Management of high performance sport systems 55 3.6 Strategic performance management 58 3.7 Integrated model of sport performance management 61 3.7.1 Strategic performance mix 61 3.7.2 Multilevel systems of governance 61 3.7.3 Models of governance 61 3.7.4 Quality of the operating network 62 3.7.5 Position of an NGB in the industry 63 3.7.6 Operational performance mix 64 3.8 Sport policies 69 3.8.1 Macro-level 69 3.8.2 Meso-level 69 3.8.3 Micro-level 70 3.8.4 SPLISS model 70 3.9 Summary 77

CHAPTER 4 Research methodology

4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Research design and methodology 80 4.3 Population 82 4.4 Sample 82 4.5 Researcher 84 4.6 Procedures 84 4.6.1 Pilot study 84 4.6.2 Data collection 85 4.7 Methods 86 4.7.1 Focus groups and semi-structured interviews 86 4.7.2 Qualitative data analysis 87 4.7.2.1 Coding of focus groups and interviews 87 4.7.3 Trustworthiness of qualitative data 88

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4.7.4 Quantitative data analysis 88 4.7.5 Quantitative research tools 89 4.7.5.1 Self-designed questionnaire for coaches and 89 judokas 4.7.5.2 Reliability and psychometric properties of the self- 89 designed questionnaires 4.8 Ethical considerations 93 4.9 Summary 94

CHAPTER 5 Sport systems of the UK, Netherlands and South Africa

5.1 UK Sport structure 95 5.1.1 Governance and leadership 96 5.1.2 Financial investment 96 5.1.3 Talent and performance pathways 98 5.1.4 Human resource capacity building and support services 100 5.1.5 International collaboration 100 5.2 British Judo Association (BJA) 101 5.2.1 Governance and leadership 102 5.2.2 Financial investment 102 5.2.3 Talent and performance pathways 103 5.2.4 Human resource capacity building and support services 104 5.2.5 International collaboration 105 5.3 The Netherlands sport structure 105 5.3.1 Governance and leadership 106 5.3.2 Financial investment 107 5.3.3 Talent and performance pathways 108 5.3.4 Human resource capacity building and support services 109 5.3.5 Access to facilities 110 5.3.6 International collaboration 110 5.4 Judo Bond Nederland (Netherlands Judo Association) 111 5.4.1 Governance and leadership 111 5.4.2 Financial investment 111

5.4.3 Talent and performance pathways 111 5.4.4 Human resource capacity building and support services 113 5.4.5 International collaboration 114 5.5 The South African sport structure 114 5.5.1 Governance and leadership 115 5.5.2 Financial investment 116 5.5.3 Talent and performance pathways 118 5.5.4 Human resource capacity building and support services 119 5.5.5 Access to facilities 120 5.5.6 International collaboration 120 5.6 Judo South Africa (JSA) 121 5.6.1 Governnance and leadership 122 5.6.2 Coaching and education 122 5.6.3 International collaboration 123 5.7 Summary 123

CHAPTER 6 Results and discussion

6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 Descriptive statistics 125 6.2.1 Biographical information of the judokas’ sample 125 6.2.2 Biographical information of the coaches’ sample 128 6.3 Inter-country comparisons from the perspective of elite coaches and executive 129 members 6.3.1 Strategic alliances 129 6.3.2 Management 133 6.3.3 Human resources 136 6.3.4 Capacity building initiatives 138 6.3.5 Communication 141 6.3.6 Marketing, commercialisation and sponsorship 143 6.3.7 Information technology 146 6.3.8 Facilities 147 6.3.9 Scientific support 147

6.3.10 Athlete preparation initiatives 150 6.4 Inter-country comparisons from the perspective of elite judokas 150 6.4.1 Full-time and part-time coaches 150 6.4.2 Strength and conditioning coaches 152 6.4.3 Coach-athlete relationship 153 6.5 Analyses of variance 155 6.5.1 Facilities and technology 155 6.5.2 Athlete support 157 6.5.2.1 Career and financial incentives 157 6.5.2.2 Local and international finances 158 6.5.3 Overall athlete support 159 6.5.4 Programme design and performance analysis 160 6.6 Management of LTAD models 162 6.7 Summary 167

CHAPTER 7 The main findings and conclusion

7.1 Introduction 168 7.2 Contribution to theory 168 7.2.1 Context and systems 168 7.2.2 Framework and criteria 170 7.2.2.1 Context 172 7.2.2.2 Strategic positioning 172 7.2.2.3 Strategic alliances 172 7.2.2.4 Continuous development 172 7.2.2.5 Competition 173 7.2.2.6 Sustainable funding 173 7.2.2.7 Knowledge and skills capacity 173 7.2.2.8 Training facilities 173 7.3 Contribution to method 174 7.3.1 Theoretical design 174 7.3.2 A layered approach 176 7.4 Contribution to practice 176

7.4.1 Principles related to high performance sport systems 176 7.4.1.1 Improvement of practices at the national level 176 7.5 Achievement of objectives 178 7.6 Future research 178 7.7 Limitations 179 7.8 Summary 179

LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Commercial information of Olympic judo 25 Table 2.2 Commercial comparison of Olympic judo and taekwondo 26 Table 3.1 Centralised and decentralised systems 75 Table 4.1 Sample 82 Table 4.2 Psychometric properties of the judokas’ questionnaire 90 Table 4.19 Summary item statistics of coaches’ questionnaire 92 Table 6.1 Biographical information of elite judokas 126 Table 6.2 Biographical information of coaches 128 Table 6.3 Intercountry comparisons: Coaches’ questionnaire 149 Table 6.4 Chi-square tests: Judokas’ questionnaire 155 Table 6.5 ANOVA facilities and technology 157 Table 6.6 ANOVA career and financial incentives 158 Table 6.7 ANOVA local and international finances 158 Table 6.8 ANOVA overall athlete support 159 Table 6.9 ANOVA programme design and performance 162 analysis Table 6.10 Comparison of LTAD models 163

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Athlete development triangle 49 Figure 2 Performance environment of NPSOs 60 Figure 3 SPLISS model 77 Figure 4 UK Sport funding 98 Figure 5 Performance pathways 99 Figure 6 Programme budgets SRSA 2015-2020 117

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Figure 7 Framework 171

LIST OF REFERENCES 180

ANNEXURES Annexure A Tables 4.3 – 4.18 210 Annexure B Letter of informed consent: Questionnaire 214 Annexure C Parent consent form 215 Annexure D Participant information and child assent 216 Annexure E Judokas questionnaire 219 Annexure F Management and coaches’ questionnaire 226 Annexure G Letter of endorsement: Judo South Africa 232 Annexure H Letter of endorsement: England and the 233 Netherlands

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION, PROBLEM STATEMENT, AIM, OBJECTIVES, MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION, DESIGN AND SCOPE

1.1 Introduction

With the advent of modern sport in the 19th century and the enhanced emphasis on the advantages of success in competition over other countries at societal and political level, governments are increasingly professionalising sport systems that could contribute to the success of their elite athletes. The success of such systems indicate that a structured and organised system of high performance athlete support could result in the systematic development of medallists at the Olympic Games (De Bosscher, Shibli, van Bottenburg, De Knop & Truyens 2010).

Traditionally, sport psychologists have extensively investigated the coach-athlete relationship and the related effects on athlete performance, however the effect of performance leadership and management has been significantly overlooked (Fletcher & Arnold, 2011; Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009). As a result of the significant investment of resources in the provision of elite training facilities, extensive athlete support services, and direct financial support of elite athletes, the systems that manage elite athletes are receiving greater attention (Andersen, Houlihan & Ronglan, 2015).

Whilst a number of factors at macro-level, such as population and gross domestic product (GDP) have contributed significantly to the outcome of international sporting events, authors such as Stamm and Lamprecht (2001), De Bosscher, De Knop, van Bottenburg and Shibli (2006), and Shibli, Gratton and Bingham (2012) indicate that sophisticated long-term strategies to create effective policies at meso-level, are receiving greater attention. The success of athletes and teams is increasingly dependent upon the capacity and effective utilisation of resources to contribute to a holistic sport system that is to the benefit of elite sport performance (De Bosscher et al., 2006). The effectiveness of performance management should contribute to the performance of such an elite sport system (Northouse, 2010).

The management of an elite sport system comprises numerous elements. Such elements include, for example, the management of financial resources, governance and policy development, talent identification and performance pathways, and athlete support in terms of priority access to elite sport facilities, sport sciences support, and strategic alliances with government institutions (Böhlke and Robinson, 2009; De Bosscher et al., 2006; Houlihan & Green, 2008). These systems are supported by enhanced efforts to capitalise on the commercial aspects of sport, and the use of advanced information technology in training and development (Sandner, 2013). One model that incorporates the considerations related to athlete development from recreational to elite level, is long-term athlete development (LTAD) (Balyi, Way, Higgs, Norris & Cardinal, 2016).

In contemporary society, Olympic athletes compete in a global, professional sporting environment. Successful performance depends on the management of a complex environment, comprising a magnitude of resources. Within this environment, athletes and coaches are positioned as clients and consumers of services offered by sport federations (Sam, 2015). Elite athletes are responsible for the management and optimisation of their own performance environments, whilst coaches contribute to the management of athletes and teams, strategic decision-making, planning, communication and teaching of technical and tactical skills (Macquet & Skalej, 2015; Stone & Gray, 2010). This study addresses a comparative analysis of the management of three elite sport systems from the perspective of executives of federations, and the lived realities of elite coaches and athletes in the sport system of judo, particularly in a contemporary, globalised society. Judo is a sport consisting of more than 200 international member federations, making judo one of the most widespread Olympic sports in history (Ohlenkamp, 2006).

1.2 Problem statement and aim

A thorough review of literature revealed that South Africa has never won a medal at senior World Judo Championships or the Olympic Games. Literature indicates that managerial factors of elite sport systems could result in successful athletic performances (Böhlke & Robinson, 2009). Limited literature on the effect of management on elite sport performance is available in South Africa, but an online review of literature further revealed that similar studies existed that could be applied to judo.

The aim of this research is to investigate and critically reflect on the management of elite judo systems of England, the Netherlands and South Africa in context.

1.3 Objectives

The aim of the comparative case studies translates into the following objectives, namely to:

• Critically reflect on global sport configurations in alignment with amateur and professional sporting practices, structures and policy frameworks; • Critically interrogate effective elite sport systems management as it relates to multilevel stakeholders and constituencies (e.g. federations, social institutions and partnerships); and • Develop criteria that will enable national federations to reflect and evaluate the performance of sport federations at high performance level, as well as providing a framework for organisational capacity building.

1.4 Main research question

How do the management of high performance judo systems in England, South Africa and the Netherlands compare?

1.5 Research design and methodology

Mixed-methods international comparative case studies between three countries (England, South Africa and the Netherlands) were conducted to assess the management of high performance sport systems. Quantitative data was gathered from questionnaires submitted to judokas and coaches in the target group. Qualitative data was gathered from interviews done with executive members of the national federations, elite judo coaches, and focus groups with elite judokas (See Chapter 4, p.79, for a complete discussion of the research design used in this study). A substantial number of the coaches that participated in this study were also part of the management of their national federations at the time of participation.

1.6 Sample

Three countries were selected by way of purposive sampling. A purposive sample is based on the knowledge of a population and the purpose of the study (Crossman, 2014). Based on their sporting success in general and specifically in judo, the Netherlands (Dutch Judo Federation) and England (British Judo Association) were selected for a comparative case study with South Africa (Judo South Africa). The Netherlands is currently ranked sixteenth on the overall summer Olympics medal Table, and sixth on the overall judo medal Table (SR/Olympic Sports, 2016). Great Britain is currently fourth on the overall summer Olympics medal Table and tenth on the overall medal Table for judo (SR/Olympic Sports, 2016). In total, one hundred and four (n=104) elite judokas of a population of 273, 26 elite judo coaches from Judo South Africa (n=14), the Dutch Judo Federation (n=6) and England (n=6), and one executive member each from the British Judo Association and Judo South Africa, participated in this study (See 4.4, p.82, for a detailed discussion of the sample in this study).

1.7 Delimitations

This study focussed on executive members of national federations, elite coaches (identified as coaches of national teams), and elite judokas (identified by their inclusion in national squads and national teams). Due to the focus on elite judokas, the age categories targeted were juniors (u/21 years) and seniors (21 years and older).

1.8 Limitations

The most effective method of reaching the target audience was at training. In Europe, many judokas were dependent on public transport. As a result, some judokas had to leave directly after training, due to the fact that training generally took place until late in the evenings, and they could thus not complete the questionnaires. In South Africa, transport challenges also existed, with some judokas being dependent on the transport of others. Four South African judokas (n=4) submitted their questionnaires online. Another challenge with British and Dutch judokas was due to the fact that some were abroad at an international training camp. Due to this, three Dutch (n=3) and four British (n=4) judokas submitted their questionnaires online. With regard to coaches, the only challenge was the fact that training finished late. As a result, three British (n=3) and three Dutch (n=3) coaches, as well as seven South African coaches (n=7) submitted their questionnaires online. Challenges with executive members were experienced in order to

4 conduct interviews, as some of them did not respond timeously, and did not want to participate in the research.

1.9 Key concepts

The diffusion of sport and the development of sport management comprise processes and concepts involved in the development and diffusion of sport, from a figurational perspective. This theoretical perspective provides the historical and societal frameworks for the current trend of commercialisation and professionalism in sport – the trend of ‘sportification’ and ‘globalisation’ (See Chapter 2, p.7). The management of high performance sport involves factors that influence the management of high performance sport at micro, meso, and macro-level (See Chapter 3, p.39).

1.10 Significance and envisaged output

A literature search related to a comparative study on the effect of management on elite judo performance revealed that that no study of this nature existed. Furthermore, the only other study regarding the optimisation of the performance of South African judokas, was a Master’s degree thesis on the effect of variable environmental factors on sport performance, conducted by Nolte (2013), and which was applied to sport science. Hence, this study is expected to fill the existing knowledge void, and contribute to a more thorough understanding of the effect that the system of management has on the performance of elite judokas. The results have significant implications for national federations seeking to deliver successful performances at international level. In addition, this study could allow for:

• A paper to be presented at the European Science of Judo symposium; • The publishing of two research articles in peer reviewed, research journals; and • Dissemination of information to sport federations regarding the effect of management on elite sport performance.

1.11 Structure

The introduction of the problem, aim, objectives, and methodology of this dissertation in Chapter 1, is followed by a comprehensive literature review on the development of society and sport from a figurational sociological perspective in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 follows with a discussion of the factors related to the management of high performance sport, and describes what constitutes the management of high performance sport systems. In Chapter 4, a detailed explanation of the research methodology is provided. Chapter 5 discusses the sport systems of the UK, the Netherlands and South Africa. The results of the data from this study are reported in Chapter 6, and interpreted in relation to the dissertation. Chapter 7 concludes with the contribution of this thesis to theory, method and practice, as well as suggestions for future studies.

CHAPTER 2

FIGURATIONAL SOCIOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORT AND SPORT MANAGEMENT

2.1 Figurational sociology as theoretical approach

The figurational sociological theory underpins the description of structures that are formed as a result of mutual relationships between people, and reflect on how structures and relationships are transformed due to the increase or decrease of their interdependency and power relations (Quintaneiro, 2005). In addition to the focus on the civilising process, figurational sociologists also describe processes of state formation (Featherstone, 1987). Elias suggests a novel characterisation of social reality in the shape of the concept of figuration. He described figurations as a concept designed to establish a balance in traditional sociology that often distinguished the individual above society or vice versa.

In essence, figurations are networks of interdependent individuals, characterised by fluid balances of tension that shift along a continuum of cooperation or conflict (Elias, 1978). Figurational sociology provides a framework that transcends the concept of social reality. Figurations are more object-adequate for the study of social phenomena and by implication have greater explanatory power. As a result, figurational sociology addresses false problems and false dichotomies that exist with conventional approaches (Murphy, Sheard & Waddington, 2000). Dunning (1999), Elias (2001) and Van Krieken (2007) describe civilisation in a plural and singular form. In plural form reference is made to the concept of interdependent collectives and individuals in the form of social, cultural, moral, political, institutional and economic institutions, and the historical emergence of civilisations as a result of the interrelationships and interdependencies among the institutions. In singular form, the concept of civilisation refers to the embedded power and authority that results from impersonal rules and structures such as education, that are necessary elements of peaceful and productive societies, and the concept of individual as an entity shaped and formed by mutually interdependent individuals.

Elias basis his critique of conventional sociological approaches partly on Whorf’s (1956) hypothesis of linguistic relativity in which he contends that the use of language in different

7 societies results in varying cognitive assimilations of reality, and epistemologically about the nature of social science as opposed to physical science. On the one hand, Elias contends that his critique of conventional sociological approaches relates to the creation of senseless distinctions and false dichotomies such as individual and society, and change and stability. As a result of the use and understanding of language, these terms are reduced to static and self-sufficient categories that distinguish the individual as a separate, isolated and depersonalised entity in relation to society. One the other hand, the nature of social science as shaped by the language of sociological functionalism, psychology and psychiatry are criticised for reducing the nature of social reality to an atomistic description of behavior that views participants as separate from broad social structures.

In essence, figurational sociology regards people as inseparable from the broad interwoven constructs of society, which is in contrast to the sociological holism and psychological atomism that engage in process reduction to understand society. Elias is critical of the fact that terminology is monopolised in order to explain concepts such as logic, reason, science, the state, the economy and the individual as discoveries in the nature of things, rather than concepts that emerge through a long-term process of development as a result of power struggles between interdependent groups (Featherstone, 1987; Mennell, 1994). As a result, juxtaposition exists, depicting a reductionist approach of individual psychology against figurational sociology.

Elias associates the Humean regulatory theory of causation in classical positivism with isolated and static phenomena, of which the cause and effect is explained by equally isolated and static phenomena. For example, figurational sociology maintains that external social controls initially instituted to stop people from engaging in forbidden actions and deeds, have increasingly become internal self-regulated actions, however external social controls have not diminished (Wouters & Mennell, 2015). Essentially, individuals regulate their behaviour in an increasingly differentiated, even and stable manner that leads to uniformity in specific situations (Elias, 2012; Wouters & Mennell, 2015).

It is essential to understand civilising processes in order to grasp the context of the development of sport in society, as sport constitutes a compex, dynamic and spontaneous field of social constructions at individual and collective levels. This is especially relevant as figurational sociology describes the process, and not an end in itself, and regards it as an inaccurate

8 description of social life when human constructs are described as static entities (Malcolm & Mansfield, 2013; Murphy et al., 2000).

When equating the figurational approach with sport, Featherstone (1987) indicates that it is evident that the concept of playing a game is not reified by the figuration, as the game does not exist independently of the players and vice versa. Evidently, figurations avoid a mechanical concept of causality and do not attempt to describe social reality as a more concrete form, as similarly to the game social reality does not exist separately from its players. Combined with varying power relations within figurations of sport and interactions between people, the result is the emergence of clubs, organisations and global governing bodies such as the International Olympic Committee (Dunning & Hughes, 2013).

The theory underpins the discussion of key figurations within nation-states that are globally connected through elite sport competitions, where national sport bodies collaborate and compete under the auspices of international sport powerhouses like the International Olympic Committee (IOC) (Maguire, 2000). One international sport that was shaped by figurations based on civilising and decivilising trends is judo (Sánchez-Garciá, 2016) (see 2.7 The development of judo: A figurational approach, p. 17).

2.2 Critique against figurational sociology

Layder (1986) argues that there are a number of pitfalls with Elias’ figurational sociology. Firstly, the concept of figuration does not transcend other approaches as it lacks major aspects of the explanatory powers of other approaches, nor does figurational sociology make an attempt to improve on existing theoretical frameworks. By criticising the nature of psychiatry and social psychology as anatomical in nature, the figurational approach makes use of generalisations without taking into account numerous theoretical premises that are underlying to these approaches. Elias is also overcritical of modern sociologists, often resulting in misrepresentations and misunderstandings of their work (Layder, 1986).

Furthermore, the concepts of interdependence, process and power relations are present in other humanistic schools, although in varying degrees. Therefore, figurational sociology does not

9 present itself as a superior field of thought, but rather attempts to superimpose an overarching understanding over other approaches. It is precisely as a result of the compatibility with other humanistic fields that figurational sociology lacks the explanatory power of schools such as structuralism.

It is evident that the concept of figuration explicitly denies the existence of mental constructs both epistemologically and ontologically, such as the existence of a game outside of the activity that individuals perform (Dunning & Hughes, 2013). The figurational approach fails to interpret the use of objectivist language such structure, function, role, organisation, economy and culture appropriately. These terms are used in objectivist fields as methods to create object-adequacy by employing language that is not egocentric. As a result, it is argued that Elias should have allowed for dialogue with objectivist modes of thought, in order to bridge the gap in the epistemology and ontology that will allow for the acceptance of the existence of structures and systems (Horne & Jary, 1985; Layder, 1986).

In keeping with the tendency of rejecting especially objectivism, Elias indicates that figurations explain the development of all aspects of society as constant and continual long-term processes of change that strive to achieve equilibrium within that particular sphere. Therefore, relatively independent short-term changes are almost completely ignored. The description of social phenomena in figurations takes place only from the perspective of the development of society through unequal power relations, and the resultant absence of the production of anything, leads to an inability to produce strong explanatory power (Dépelteau, Passiani & Mariano, 2013; Layder, 1986).

Therefore, based on the theoretical underpinning of figurational sociology from a descriptive point of view, the following section discusses selected figurations related to the development of sport that are applicable to this study. The section concludes by applying the selected figurations to the development of judo.

2.3 Colonialism

Dunn (2010) describes a number of elements that characterise colonial rule. Firstly, there is the process of forceful takeover of land by a colonial (political) power, with ownership of business and government passed to colonial settlers. Secondly, the colonial government rules by decree with practically no element of democracy, and the constant threat to suppress potential uprising against colonial power. Thirdly, forced practice of the colonial power’s religion, culture and legal systems is implemented, with often the banning of indigenous practices, enslaving of indigenous nations, or even genocide. Fourthly, the removal of natural resources such as ores, minerals and timber to support the home economy takes place. Finally, the conversion of land into crops to support the home economy, which is detrimental to the prosperity of the colonised economy, is enforced.

Elias (2000) describes the ‘West’ – referring to Western European countries, as countries that regarded themselves as morally superior to other countries. Bowden (2012) indicates that the West regarded themselves as civilised and therefore obligated to expand to other continents and countries in order to civilise the indigenous nations of those countries, thus spreading Western civilisation globally. It is particularly relevant to note that the term civilisation emerged almost simultaneously with the modern understanding of the term, progress (Starobinski, 1993).

Therefore, in the process of colonisation, Western concepts of civilisation related to art, science, politics, society, sport and human achievement were enforced upon colonised nations. The greatest of the Western colonial superpowers was the British Empire (Alcock, 2016), which at its most powerful comprised of 57 colonies, dominions, territories or directorates, constituting approximately 20 per cent of the world’s population and almost 25 per cent of the world’s land mass (Halloran, 2014). According to Alcock (2016), the British Empire was so vast that it was described as the Empire on which the sun never sets, as it consisted of territories in every continent, time-line and ocean in the world.

When relating sport and leisure to the process of colonisation, Malcolm and Mansfield (2013) postulate that figurational sociology provides a sociological theoretical framework that contributes to the understanding of sport and leisure as phenomena in their own right, as well as a method of providing key information on aspects of human existence. By way of the figurational sociological framework, they (Malcolm & Mansfield, 2013) explain that it

11 distinguishes the development of English society as civilised through distinguishable configurations, and places emphasis on the role sport played in the formation of societal development in England, and as a tool of colonisation. The concept of the figurational sociology framework has been applied to figurations in sport by sociologists such as Norbert Elias and Eric Dunning (Malcolm & Mansfield, 2013). Hence the discussion of the application of figurations to sport that follows.

2.4 Development of sport

Figurational sociologists identified three stages in the construction of identifiable social figurations relating to sport and leisure (Malcolm & Mansfield, 2013). The emergence of figurational sociology of sport and leisure was captured mainly within the domain of society’s tolerance of violence and aggression within the boundaries of sport participation. Elias (1971) described the progression of sport from Ancient Greece with relatively informal rules and a warrior ethos, to the development of modern sport with more institutionalised rules and a fair play ethos. Elias (1971) contextualised the relatively violent nature of sport in Ancient Greece with the nature of social life in Ancient Greek society. In comparison was the simultaneous emergence of parliamentarisation and modern sport in England during the 18th century (Elias, 1986). During this period in the 18th century, the gentlemen of England and British Aristocracy socially constructed their spare or leisure time (Jarvie, 2006). Such civilised methods of spending free time were increasingly regarded as a display of great sophistication.

According to Maguire (2013) leisure includes three characteristics, namely sociability, motility and imagination. There is no situation where sport is completely removed from these three elements, and in general two of the three elements combine in varying degrees of intensity. Furthermore, Maguire (2013) indicates that sport embodies the characteristics of battles carried out by rival groups, and developed as a pacified method for people to compete in an enjoyable, pleasure-seeking context, with little risk of mortality. Similar to Maguire, Liston (2011) indicates that during the period of the 18th century, a distinction began to appear between routine activities and deroutinised activities within the leisure activity framework. It became apparent that whilst all leisure activities were spare time activities, all spare time activities (such as personal routines that included worklike characteristics) were not necessarily leisure activities.

Deroutinised activities were highlighted by less social compulsion and mainly directed at achieving high levels of self and emotional satisfaction (such as attending a social event). The tension of maintaining a balance between routinised and deroutinised activities soon introduced the element in spare time activities of wanting to experience high levels of adrenaline, which was possible through sport, in a relatively safe environment (Elias & Dunning, 2008).

Sport emerged as a valuable recognised cultural form in the 18th century that could be exchanged between multiple continents, countries and cultures. Modern sport was implemented by the colonisers as a tool in restructuring the sociopolitical realities of the colonised. This was significant due to the fact that countries doing business with colonial powers such as Great Britain recognised the potential of sport and adopted similar sports and institutions (Bairner, 2001).

2.5 Sportisation and globalisation

Whilst sport was originally viewed as physical activities beyond the work sphere, regardless of the presence of competitive activity, the emergence of a modern concept of sport necessitated a clear description. Elias and Dunning (2008) developed such a concept of modern sport to refer specifically to a collection of a group of competitive physical activities with especially modern elements (Liston, 2011). The progression to modern sport is termed sportisation and Elias (in: Gratton, Liu, Ramchandani & Wilson, 2012: 2) defines this process as follows:

…a process in the course of which the rules of sports came more and more to be written down, nationally (subsequently internationally) standardised, more explicit, more precise, more comprehensive, orientated around an ethos of ‘fair play’ and providing equal chances for all participants to win, and with reducing and/or more strictly controlling opportunities for violent physical conduct.

Modern sport should also be viewed in the light of the developmental role that it plays in delivering pleasurable outcomes (Liston, 2011). More specifically, Liston (2011) indicates that the role of social constraint placing responsibility on society in terms of stricter exercise, self- control over feelings, and control over behaviour, in terms of modern sport, is vital to understand. In particular, research by Elias, Dunning and the Leicester School created a unique perspective in that they claimed that knowledge of sport is knowledge of society (Liston, 2011), a concept which has become particularly prominent in the globalisation of sport.

Maguire (2008) indicates that sport has become a multidimensional global phenomenon of various uneven power relations. The first dimension includes the movement of people such as tourists and workers. The second dimension involves technology and is created by interaction between governments and government agencies. The third dimension is the economy, and is created by the flow of money at global level. The media dimension is characterised by the sharing of images and information via sources such as television, radio and newspapers, and the ideological dimension is linked to the values associated to the various states and state institutions. Maguire (1999: 75-94) illustrated five overlapping phases of development related to global sportisation that are discussed in the following section.

2.6 Phases of sportisation

Phase I (1550 – 1750) refers to the initial sportisation period during which the growth and establishment of national communities emerged together with sport as a form of physical combat in England.

Phase II (1750 – 1870) is characterised by the emergence of voluntary sport clubs and sport associations. During this phase the pacification of sport participation and hence a relative decline of violence in sport was highlighted by an inclination towards a modern perspective of male achievement in sport and a relative decrease in participation in folk games (Jarvie, 2006). During this period, sport was seen as one of the most ideal grounds for the training of sportsmen that could embody and reinforce the civilised culture of the British Empire in less civilised colonies (Levett, 2014).

According to Levett (2014), the qualities of the British culture such as moral uprightness, stoicism, physical courage and putting the team’s interest before your own, was used to create unity amongst colonial countries with the British homeland. These values found traction in the public-school system in Britain and were particularly enforced in the field of competitive sport for boys. Countries such as Ireland, Scotland and Wales soon followed suit, introducing similar schooling models. The result was the formation of sports clubs and organisations that gave impetus to the emergence of a new phase.

Phase III (1870 – 1920) is characterised by the diffusion of England’s sports and pastimes with the amateur ethos of fair play to continental Europe. The ethos combined with already existing

European forms of achievement sport and contributed to the global spread of sport, the establishment of international sport organisations, the acceptance of universal rules and the enforcement of these rules on colonies, and the growth of competitions between various countries (Jarvie, 2006). During this period, also signifying the greatest expansion of the British Empire, sport outside of Europe spread to Australasia, Africa, Asia and America (Marshall, 2001).

The significance of colonisation by the British Empire is visible in the sports world today, with large sporting events such as the Commonwealth Games (originally the British Empire Games in 1930), and the existence of significant global sports such as cricket, rugby and soccer (Alcock, 2016). At the 2014 Glasgow Commonwealth Games, almost 5 000 athletes from 71 countries, and all continents, participated in 17 sports and 261 events (Commonwealth Games Federation, 2014). It is still the motto of the Commonwealth Games Federation today to unite the Commonwealth family through sport (Commonwealth Games Federation, 2014).

Phase IV (1920 – 1960) is characterised by a period of domination by Anglo-Americans, the resistance and reinventing of Western sport in non-Western countries, and the increasing challenge by non-Western countries to the domination of Western countries (Jarvie, 2006).

Phase V (1960 – 1990) is characterised by a number of global events that indicated a shift in global power relations such as the collapse of the Berlin wall and the fragmentation of the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Such events resulted in diminishing east-west political dimensions. Traditionally, West German sport organisations and clubs were characterised by their independence from state, and run largely by volunteer staff, with financial support given by the state and the business sector (which in turn received tax incentives). However, as a result of the reunification with communist East Germany, West Germany gradually embraced and implemented a system of state-sponsored and state-controlled sport similar to that of the East Germans (Krüger, Becker & Nielsen, 2015). East Germany had won the third most medals behind the USSR and the USA, despite a considerably smaller population between 1968 and 1988 (Janofsky, 1989).

The fragmentation of the USSR was also significant, as the USSR was the most dominant force in the Olympic Games in six of eight events between 1952 and 1988 in comparison to other successful countries such as the USA (Benson, n.d.). The fragmentation and gradual opening up

15 to the Western world allowed insight into the state-controlled sport system of the USSR, how they managed to achieve the success they did, and how communist political agendas were advanced through the use of sporting images of their tremendous success (Howell, 1975). The acknowledgement of the success of East Germany and the USSR resulted in the global recognition of the potential advantages of such systems.

The increased changes further recognised female participation in sport, and the emergence of feminism as a result of the empirical focus on violence and male-dominated sport (Malcolm & Marshall, 2013). Feminists approached sport with praxis to change society. Praxis is a ‘dialectical process of reflection and action that is motivated by one’s commitment to transformation’ (Bredemeier, 2001: 412). An enhanced recognition of the study of gender in sport took place in the 70s as a result of the culmination of numerous factors such as an increase in the number of female scholars (especially in the field of sport), an increase in female participation in sport, and the development of critical theories linked to feminism, such as the Marxist theory and Marxian approaches (Bandy, 2014).

Other major events include the fact that former colonies were defeating their colonisers at their own sports. Some of these examples were mentioned earlier, such as the West Indies and Australia beating England at cricket. A revival of the practice of indigenous/folk games in numerous continental European countries took place, which can be seen by the formation of organisations such as the European Traditional Sports and Games Association which has as its aim to promote and guard the traditional games and sports of Europe, establish networking and interaction amongst different countries and federations with similar aims, and create educational material for future research (Jugaje, 2016).

In light of the previous discussion regarding the globalisation of sport, judo has been socially constructed within broader sociocultural and political trends. The following section applies the figurations of sportisation to judo at global level, followed by a discussion of the diffusion of judo to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and South Africa.

2.7 The development of judo: A figurational approach

The development of martial arts into sports such as judo can be traced back to the evolvement of the Japanese Samurai. From a figurational perspective, three broad periods can be identified that account for the progression of wartime martial arts in Japan to more sophisticated modern sports such as judo (Kiku, 2004). Firstly, Kiku (2004) identifies the Kamakura period (1190 – 1333) during which the Samurai were the dominant sector of a semi-centralised government. The samurais proceeded to establish a hegemony in which the leader became commander-in-chief, however, the centralised power system collapsed during the 15th and 16th century (Sengoku period). During this time, Japanese feudal lords governed each district independently. It was during the following Tokugawa period (1683 – 1867) that a pacifying approach was adopted, and the military functions of the Samurai became increasingly symbolic in nature.

Kiku (2004) further indicates that the Samurai acquired vast amounts of land during the Kamakura period, but due to shifting power relations, submitted to greater regional authorities to ensure control of the land. The result was a gradual domestication of the Samurai, and the establishment of an honour culture. The difference existed in that the military class (Samurai) enforced the process of domestication in Japan, and therefore society was controlled through violence. Subsequently, Western civilisation continued to reject the martial arts as violent and barbaric in nature. The martial arts clearly required pacification to become acceptable in a modernised society, a process that was initiated by Jigoro Kano.

New ideas regarding combat activities resulted from a time of change in Japan during the 19th century as the Meiji restoration opened up the country to foreign influences and the aristocrats frowned upon what they regarded as the barbaric nature of jujutsu, the then dominant form of martial art practised in Japan (Callan, 2000).

It is significant to note that the Meiji restoration and the establishment of judo as an official martial art in the 19th century, coincides with Maguire’s (1999) identification of a period whereby sport underwent rapid globalisation via the British Empire. The Meiji Restoration (1868 – 1912) was a significant period in Japan, characterised by the overthrowing of a two-century old military rule, and the rapid capitalist industrialisation of Japan to such an extent that Japan was the only country outside of North America and Europe to emerge as a major economic and political power (Cohen, 2014).

Jigoro Kano is regarded as one of Japan’s great modern educators, and became headmaster of Gakushuin (traditionally a school for children of the Imperial family and upper-class citizens) at the age of only 25. He was also headmaster of the Tokyo Teachers Training School (now the Tokyo University of Education), and is regarded as one of the main role players in laying the basis of modern education in Japan (Adams, 1970). In 1882, Jigoro Kano opened a training hall (the Kodokan) in Tokyo, Japan, founding and teaching a new form of martial art that combined techniques from Japan’s traditional martial art, jujutsu, and various techniques from Western martial arts (Sato, 2013).

Kano believed that whilst jujutsu offered a superior method of mental and physical training in comparison to sports practised in other countries, it should be practised in combination with a philosophy that associated it with the contemporary society. Such transformation would create a form of practise that would be accessible to the majority of the global population, and would contribute to the holistic improvement of physical, mental and moral characteristics (Kano, 2005).

Hence, Kano created judo to incorporate philosophical values relating to education, ultimately aiming to make the most efficient use of mental and physical energies. Thereby, a competitive sport and way of life were established that physically embodied his ideas regarding education (Callan, 2008). Brousse and Matsumoto (1999) described judo as a dynamic sport incorporating physical prowess and great mental discipline.

2.7.1 Sportification and global expansion of judo

During the period from 1889 and 1938, Sato (2013) identified three elements of judo that contributed to its globalisation and modernisation and enabled judo to embody characteristics of what is recognised as a modernised sport. The first of these elements include the categorisation of techniques into distinctive and understandable syllabi, both in terms of physical technique and the terminology.

Secondly, Kano established set rules for the practising of judo and thirdly, Kano strived towards the globalisation of judo from the outset by visiting and promoting judo on 12 foreign trips throughout Europe, Asia, Africa and North America. Countries included the USA, England, France, Germany, China, Singapore, Romania, Poland, Greece, Egypt, Austria, Italy, Belgium,

Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, the Czech Republic and the Netherlands. By 1912 Kano had made multiple trips abroad, and many foreigners, mainly sailors and merchants, were practising judo at the Kodokan (literally meaning ‘place to study the way’) (Adams, 1970). Befu and Guichard-Anguis (2003) indicated that the expansion of judo was a concerted effort by Professor Kano to expand judo’s territorial presence in other nations. This territorialisation of judo necessarily established elements of Japanese culture throughout the Western world.

In total, Kano undertook 13 official overseas voyages, reporting mainly on systems of education, specifically physical education in the West, whilst simultaneously promoting Kodokan judo by means of demonstrations, lectures and media interviews (Watson, 2008). Kano’s contribution to sport was not limited to judo. This was evident in his being elected as the first chairman, and one of the founders of the Japan Athletics Association. He also became the first Asian to be elected to the IOC in 1912 at the Stockholm Olympics, and was regarded as instrumental in introducing the Olympic Games to Japanese citizens, as well as securing (Sato, 2013; Stevens, 2013; Callan, 2008; Watson, 2008; Adams, 1970). In combination with his efforts to globalise judo and the magnitude of the Olympic movement, this contributed to the further promotion of Kodokan judo.

Stevens (2013) describes some of Kano’s travelling, which was instrumental in the globalisation of judo. These included his first visit to the USA after the Stockholm Olympics in 1912, which included a lecture and judo demonstration, as well as visits to the Honolulu and Hawaii dojos (a place where judo is practised) established in 1909. Kano visited the USA on two more occasions, in 1920 and 1938, as well as the Japanese Olympic delegation to the 1920 Antwerp Olympic Games.

However, his most significant involvement in the Olympic Movement came when Japan decided to launch a bid to host the 1940 Olympic Games in Tokyo. He actively promoted the bid in the days before and after the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics throughout the USA, and between 1934 and 1936, regularly met with top officials throughout almost every country in Europe preceding the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games. Eventually, despite significant opposition to Japan’s bid as a result of their instigation of war with China in 1937, the Olympic Games were awarded to Japan in 1938 at an IOC meeting held in Cairo, Egypt (Stevens, 2013).

Due to Kano’s foreign promotion of judo and the globalisation of the sport, it resulted that some of Kano’s students crossed international borders. Japanese judo coaches in the early twentieth

19 century were teaching judo in Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Turkey, Egypt, Canada and the United States of America (Sato, 2013).

Another factor, arguably one of the most important contributors to the globalisation of judo, was the fact that the philosophy of judo, namely perfecting oneself physically, mentally and morally for the good of society (Kano, 2005), correlated significantly with the Western goals of decreasing violence in sport, promoting amateur ethos of fair play, and at least philosophically promoting the British ideals of masculine Christianity. Kano (2005) included two main Japanese concepts in his philosophy of judo, namely jita kyoei referring to mutual prosperity and seiryoku zenyo referring to the maximum use of one’s energy; concepts that combined the principles of physical education and moral education, and presented a bond between the principles of Christianity, Confucianism and Buddhism.

Whilst Kano mostly referred to judo as being a competitive exercise and a form of athletic competition, in 1930 he did compare the accessibility and recognition other sports gained to that of judo, indicating that he may have regarded judo as a modern sport (Sato, 2013). Interestingly, Kano never lobbied to include judo as a sport at the Olympic Games, stating that it would promote only one aspect of judo and negate judo as a form of mental and moral training, but conceded that if foreign countries wanted to include judo, he would not oppose the application (Stevens, 2013).

In support of factors identified by Sato (2013) that define judo as a form of modern sport, Callan (2008) indicates that the original elements included by Jigoro Kano in judo training, support a model and definition of modern sport. Callan (2008) and Daigo (2005) indicate that the definition of sport as developed by Haywood (1989), incorporates four elements similar to those of judo, namely:

• Symbolic test of physical or psychomotor skills.

• Competitive framework.

• Specific codified rules that constitute the activity.

• Continuity over time, i.e. a tradition of past practices.

Jigoro Kano explained that the three foundations of judo were kata, shiai and randori, of which shiai is the Japanese term referring to the competitive framework as described by Haywood (1989).

The codification of judo emerged as early as four years after the founding of Kano’s judo school when his school competed against one of the major ju-jitsu schools (Yoshin-Ryu) in 1886 (Callan, 2008). Kano’s team won 13 of 15 bouts, with the other two finishing as draws, and this signifies the beginning of the recognition of judo as being a superior fighting form due to the convincing victory.

Arguably, Kano’s position as Japan’s sporting ambassador and his regular travels abroad, led to a period of drastic modernisation of sport in Japan, earning him the recognition as the father of modern sport in Japan (Sato, 2013). As mentioned before, the period (1932 – 1940) culminated in the awarding of the Olympic Games to Tokyo, Japan in 1940. Unfortunately, due to the Second World War (1939 – 1945) and Japan’s involvement in fighting against Western countries, the Games were suspended. Judo was eventually included as a sport for the first time at the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games, when Kano had already passed away.

As a result of its Olympic success, judo was introduced to the Commonwealth Games in 1990 (Commonwealth Games Federation, 2014). It has since been included as being one of the six core sports of the Commonwealth Games from 2022 onwards (British Judo Association, 2015). The Commonwealth Games are made up of core sports and sports selected by the host nation.

2.7.2 International shifts and the establishment of judo federations

Following the end of the Second World War, the Supreme Commander Allied Powers (SCAP) banned all activities and persons in Japan who promoted militaristic and ultranationalistic ideology from 1945-1950 (Svinth, 2001). Furthermore, Svinth (2001) indicates that martial arts were used by the Japanese government as a primary method of teaching combat skills specific for use in the World War.

Due to the emphasis on using martial arts as a method for enhancing combat skills, they were subject to the ruling of the SCAP. Judo in schools was banned accordingly, although neighbourhood club judo was permitted to continue (Kage, 2011). Whilst the decision impacted 21 negatively on judo in Japan, judo thrived in Europe, resulting in the formation of the British Judo Association on the 24th of July 1948 and the European Judo Union (EJU) on the 26th of July 1948 with Britain, Switzerland, Italy and Holland attending the meeting (Sato, 2013). The establishment of the EJU resulted in the recognition of a need for an international representative body for judo. Following the Second World War, The EJU was dissolved in 1951 in order to establish the International Judo Federation (IJF) with representatives from Italy, Britain, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Argentina and Switzerland on the 12th of July 1951. Japan was invited to join the IJF and officially affiliated with the IJF in 1952.

Together with the relative recovery of the Japanese economy, the first two judo world championships were hosted by Japan in 1956 and 1958, followed by the first Olympic Games that included judo in Tokyo, Japan, in 1964 (Sato, 2013; Ohlenkamp, n.d.). Despite not being part of the original formation, the International Judo Federation recognised the contest rules of Kodokan Judo, thereby preserving its Japanese origins as the only Japanese sport practised globally (Sato, 2013; Callan, 2008). It is important to note that Genji Koizumi, a Japanese jujitsu and judo expert, was president of the British Judo Association. The original Board of the IJF composed of members from the countries represented at the first IJF meeting in 1951. Risei Kano, grandson of Jigoro Kano, became president of the IJF in 1952, and held the position until 1965 (International Judo Federation, 2017).

Besides the competition rules, Callan (2008) indicates that there was a need for the standardisation of judo referee rules and terminology prior to the first World Championships in 1956 and judo’s debut at the 1964 Olympic Games. The need for standardisation emerged as a result of the recognition for safe control of contests and the application of techniques, and for the correct understanding and interpretation of techniques in order to ensure conformity in the evaluation of contests (Hargrave, 1998). Carr (1993) indicates that the growth of judo had resulted in the introduction of more codified rules to ensure standardisation amongst all competing nations, an enhanced international orientation, and increasing forms of organisational complexity. Some of these changes included written rulebooks since 1960, and the introduction of multiple score levels and penalty scores to enhance spectator value.

Another significant factor that contributed to the trend of globalisation of judo followed in 1967 when the IJF adopted its own set of competition and refereeing rules. This resulted in a dual system that still exists today, with the Kodokan remaining dedicated to the original rules of judo

(Sato, 2013). The rule changes resulted in the fact that Japan could no longer exercise monopoly in adapting judo rules, and had a major impact on the institutional sportification of judo (Sato, 2013). The rule changes incorporated the introduction of weight classes in competition, with three classes introduced in addition to the open weight class by the 1964 Olympics, eight by the 1980 Olympics, and eventually seven male and seven female categories by the 1992 Games (Hargrave, 1998, Ohlenkamp, n.d.). From 1992, the open weight class was abandoned, largely due to risk of injury.

Such was the growth of judo following the Second World War that judo was the fastest growing sport in the world (Carr, 1993). Since the formation of the IJF in 1951, there are now 200 national member federations from all continents. The 200 members consist of 49 from Africa, 43 from America, 39 from Asia, 51 from Europe and 18 from Oceania (Olympic.org, 2016a).

2.7.3 Commercialisation of judo

Besides the rule changes that were necessitated by the sportification of judo, a very significant change in judo came as a result of Anton Geesink’s suggestion at a 1986 IJF congress that judokas competing against each other should wear different colour judo suits (one opponent wears blue and the other white) (Sato, 2013). This was a significant challenge to Japanese heritage as the white judogi (judo suits) embodied tradition and culture, and therefore a concession on the colour of judogis was a major decision for the Japanese judo fraternity (Sato, 2013).

The IJF eventually adopted the proposal of a white and blue judo suit to enhance spectator value (Black Belt, 1998), and distinguish between competitors for easier decision-making by referees. Numerous other rule changes related to gripping strategies and non-combativeness have been made, for example leading to the 2012 London Olympic Games, in order to encourage excitement for spectators (Ohlenkamp, n.d.). One of the major motivations at present for the IJF is enhancing spectator, sponsorship and revenue value, as the IJF has declared judo a spectator sport (International Olympic Committee, 2013). This declaration indicates a significant shift towards consumerism and the entertainment value of judo, as compared to Jigoro Kano’s original vision of judo as an amateur sport.

Giddens (1990) and Villamon, Brown, Espartero and Gutiérrez (2004) indicated that a key consequence of the institutionalisation of judo is a continual adaptation and codification of rules, with the main aim being to promote judo as a more appealing product to secure a greater stake in Western spectatorship and sponsorship (Sekot, 2009). This is due to judo being a traditionally complex technical sport that does not offer significant spectator value to individuals outside of the judo community (Carr, 1993). Carr (1993) indicates that rule changes have contributed positively to the overall spectator value of judo.

The increasingly commercial drive to expand judo is not new to sport. Other sports have experienced similar trends of commodification, resulting in events such as the global migration of athletes, proliferation of merchandising, adaptation of rules to attract new customers, and reconstruction of the ethos and competitive structures of sport, which coincide with medialisation (in some cases billions of viewers), and increasing professionalisation of sport (Agarwal, 2009; Sekot, 2009; Walsh & Giulianotti, 2001). Increased sportification, modernisation and professionalisation of judo are also visible at tournaments, with prize money being introduced to major judo tournaments such as Grand Prix events, a suggestion that was first proposed by the current IJF president, Marius Vizer. One of the most recent IJF Grand Prix judo tournaments held in October 2016 boasted a total prize money of $100 000 (R1 398 740) for males and females combined, with gold medal winners in each weight division receiving $3000 ($2400 for the athlete and $600 for the coach), silver medal winners $2000 (R27 974) ($1600 for the athlete and $400 for the coach), and two bronze medal winners $1000 (R13 987) ($800 for the athlete and $200 for the coach) (International Judo Federation, 2016).

In summary, Sato (2013) indicated that judo has progressed through four stages that have culminated to form a modern sport. The stages include the codification of judo techniques into words and set rules, an increased emphasis on competition, and recognition of the importance of spectators, indicating a shift towards entertainment and commercialism. An example of the latter demonstrated by the IJF owning a broadcasting company, and selling television broadcast rights of judo events to various major sport television channels.

The evolution of judo at a global scale has resulted in an expansion of the IJF systems, structures and projects in recent years. In a document (Olympic.org, 2016a) profiling the various international sport federations involved in the Brazil 2016 Olympic Games, the IJF indicates that the various initiatives have been undertaken in departments relating to the Olympic Games, in

24 order to commercialise the sport and further contribute to its global expansion (see Table 2.1). The information in the following table was derived from the International Olympic Committee (2013).

Table 2.1: Commercial information of Olympic judo Olympic Games Judo Category 2008 2012 Tickets available 66 432 99 235 Tickets sold 65 955 97 897 Number of articles published 238 1 928 Number of pageviews 142 000 145 697 designated IOC site Source: International Olympic Committee (2013)

New initiatives launched for the 2012 Olympic Games included enhanced presence in social media via the IJF website, Facebook, Instagram, You Tube and Twitter, which more than doubled its hits in the period of the 2012 Olympic Games in comparison to the first half of 2012. At the time of reporting these statistics, the official report for the 2016 Rio Olympic Games had not yet been published.

General principles that the IJF undertakes include strict governance complying with the International Olympic Committee in terms of, for example, match fixing. Strict anti-doping policies result in regular testing. Athletes are supported via student-athlete scholarships, allowing for a transition from a competitive career to becoming an IJF coach. Other main areas of development include financial support of national federations by the distribution of more than half of the IJF’s Olympic Games dividends. Support is provided through human resources by providing coaches, IT support, athletes, referees and officials for various international events.

Judo is also promoted via television broadcasts, the World Judo Day, conferences and seminars. Youth development programmes, including a judo for schools’ initiative, encourages the worldwide participation of all children aged 6 to 12 years old. Gender equity is promoted and female empowerment achieved by hosting events such as Women in Judo days and governance by the IJF Gender Equity Commission. Judo sport-for-all events such as Judo for Family camps are presented during school holidays to promote the inclusion of entire communities.

It is evident why Carr (1993) stated that judo has progressed from a relatively small martial art to a modernised, Western, large-scale international sport. Sikorski (2005) indicated that judo has grown immensely in popularity at a global level, and has evolved in multiple directions since the first World Championships in 1956. The IJF claims that there are more than 20-million active judokas globally at present (World Judo Today, 2016).

The only other Olympic code with its origins in the martial arts exists, namely taekwondo. In comparison to judo, taekwondo formed as a result of a combination of fighting skills that were firstly practised in Korea, and secondly introduced in Korea during Japan’s annexation of Korea from 1910 to 1945 (Readdy, n.d.). The World Taekwondo Federation was established in 1973, was recognised by the International Olympic Committee in 1980, and was introduced as a demonstration sport at the 1988 and 1992 Olympic Games. Taekwondo was officially included as a sport at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games (Readdy, n.d.). Taekwondo is aesthetically pleasing for spectators and with 207 member federations its commercial impact has been significant, but not as great as in the case of judo (see Table 2.2). One of the results of the popularity of taekwondo has been the inclusion of taekwondo in European models of sport (Rauhala, 2006). The information in the following Table was derived from the International Olympic Committee (2013).

Table 2.2: Commercial comparison of Olympic judo and taekwondo

Event Item Judo Taekwondo Tickets available 66 432 40 476 2008 Olympic Tickets sold 65 955 40 185 Games Number of articles published 238 50 Number of pageviews designated IOC site 142 000 157 000 Tickets available 97 897 72 023 2012 Olympic Tickets sold 99 235 71 602 Games Number of articles published 1 928 692 Number of pageviews designated IOC site 145 697 124 088 Source: International Olympic Committee (2013)

In summary, judo remains the most significant Olympic sport code with origins in Asia. The success of judo is arguably a result of Jigoro Kano’s extensive travelling and promotion of judo internationally. Judo’s inception at the Olympic Games in 1964 coincided with a period of development in sport dominated by a narrative of globalisation, thus setting the context for the diffusion of the sport. The sport-specific directions of change to ensure judo’s continued global

26 popularity and success include an increase in the number of weight categories, a reduction in contest fight time from 20 minutes to 5 minutes, the introduction of two colours of judo suits (blue and white), and rule changes encouraging more attacking judo to enhance spectator value. Sikorski (2005) indicates that the increased popularity of judo in Western, developed countries, has resulted in a significant increase in the number of tournaments.

2.7.4 The diffusion of judo in the UK

Gunji Koizumi, a Japanese jujutsu expert, arrived in England in 1906 and taught jujitsu for approximately a year before leaving for the USA, only to return in 1910 and establish the London Budokwai in 1918. Yukio Tani joined Koizumi, another Japanese jujutsu expert who was invited to England by Mr Barton-Wright, an Englishman who spent some time in Japan and attempted to establish jujutsu under the name Bartitsu (Noble, n.d.). Bartitsu was introduced to the British population in 1899 and popularised jujitsu in England to such an extent that by 1901 Barton-Wright had been invited along with Yukio Tani to perform demonstrations at the Empire Theatre. These events coincide with phase III of Maguire’s (1999) periods of sportisation, highlighting a period of diffusion of British sports and pastimes throughout all continents. The increased interaction of the British Empire with Asia, amongst others, and the Meiji restoration in Japan, created the context for these developments to take place. Judo’s significant diffusion to the rest of the world is not by chance, as the establishment of the sport in England was clearly strategic due to the global impact that could be achieved through the British Empire.

In line with a global narrative of nationalism and increased resistance to Western sports by non- Western countries, the fourth phase of sportisation identified by Maguire (1999) coincides with numerous developments related to judo in England. In 1920, a delegation led by Jigoro Kano visited the Budokwai, and Tani and Koizumi were convinced to adopt the more scientific judo as their primary teachings. As a result of their prowess, Jigoro Kano awarded them with 2nd Dan black belts in judo (All England Judo Federation, 2009). Kano’s attempts to establish judo’s physical, mental and moral superiority over other sports through Japanese coaches in England, signify enhanced attempts to increase Japan’s territorialisation at global level. The result was the establishment of the Budokwai as the first judo club in England that was open to the general public (Plavecz, n.d.). Gunji Koizumi went on to become the driving force and first president of the British Judo Association in 1948 and became known as the father of British Judo. Callan (2008) indicates that the British Judo Association consists of more than 24000 licenced members

27 and over 800 judo clubs. Great Britain’s success in Olympic judo can be seen in the fact that they are ranked 10th on the all-time medals table with 18 medals. Significantly, Great Britain has participated in Olympic judo events since its inauguration at the 1964 Tokyo Games, a period that signifies the professionalisation of sport systems, and elite sport management.

2.7.5 The diffusion of judo in the Netherlands

The Netherlands was part of the original body of members that established the International Judo Federation and the European Judo Union in 1951, as discussed earlier. According to Snijders (n.d.), jiu-jitsu was first introduced in the Netherlands in approximately 1910, and the first judo school was established in 1938. The diffusion of jiu-jitsu to the Netherlands coincides with Maguire’s (1999) third phase, highlighted by the diffusion of British sports and pastimes throughout continental Europe. Significantly, a variation of jiu-jitsu was already established in England. The Judo Bond Nederland (JBN), which is the official judo federation of the Netherlands, was established on 29 January 1939. Today the JBN consists of approximately 45 000 licenced members, classifying it as a medium-sized sport association (JBN, 2016).

The success of the JBN has been significant, with a total of 22 Olympic judo medals, placing them sixth on the overall Olympic medal table for judo (SR/Olympic Sports, 2016). However, arguably the most significant impact the Netherlands has made on competition judo, is the fact that Anton Geesink became the first non-Japanese judo player to win a World Championships in 1961 and a gold at the inaugural 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games (European Judo Union, 2016). Whilst beating his Japanese opponent in the finals, Geesink gestured to his Dutch teammates to withhold from running into the competition area to celebrate his victory, acknowledging that he first needed to respect his Japanese counterpart by bowing to him after the completion of the contest (European Judo Union, 2016). Bowing forms part of the philosophy of judo, recognising respect for one’s partner by thanking them for their participation, and indicating that there is no intention to harm them (Dalien, n.d.). Geesink’s success coincides with a narrative of professionalisation and globalisation in sport, and judo’s most prolific period of global expansion. Therefore, the JBN was established as a frontrunner of elite judo performances from the outset. The fact that Geesink spent a considerable amount of time training abroad in Japan to achieve success, further reinforced the context for globalisation in order to attain victories at elite-level in judo.

2.7.6 The diffusion of judo in South Africa

An online search on the history of Judo in South Africa delivered very limited results with few reliable resources. Based on the most recent academic sources, a history of judo in South Africa has been traced. Professor Jack Robinson who emigrated from England in 1934 and trained under Yukio Tani, introduced judo in South Africa. Yukio Tani was a Japanese judo and jujutsu instructor who resided in England from September 1900 (Noble, 2000). Robinson founded the South African National Amateur Judo Association (SANAJA), however later a second body, the South African Amateur Judo Association (SAAJA) emerged. The latter focussed on teaching Kodokan style judo and was recognised by the South African government (Niehaus, 2013), however the two bodies controlled judo in South Africa on and off in the 1970s and 1980s through a committee named the South African Judo Union (SAJU). The establishment of volunteer-based, amateur judo organisations in South Africa coincides with phase III of Maguire’s (1999) period of sportisation. However, the existence of more than one organisation resulted in the disjointed management of athletes. The challenges experienced were compounded by Apartheid, the exclusion of populations based on race, and the subsequent isolation of South African sport. The potential effect on elite judo in South Africa was significant. Although judo was practiced as a sport in communities, South Africa was excluded from the initial approximately 30 years of international evolution of judo to World Championship and Olympic level.

It was not until 1992 that the amalgamation of the various organisations under the guidance of the National Olympic Committee of South Africa (NOCSA) took place (Niehaus, 2013) with the new body being called Judo South Africa (JSA) to the present day. The first President was Jan Olivier, and the current president, Tembani Hlasho. NOCSA has since been replaced by the South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee (SASCOC), which is the controlling body for all high-performance sport in South Africa (Nauright & Parrish, 2012). This period signifies the fall of Apartheid, and a significant shift in narrative from nationalism to globalisation. Other major events that impacted were the collapse of the Berlin Wall and the USSR.

2.8 Judo development: Gender

Miarka, Marques and Franchini (2011) describe the process of inclusion of females in judo in Japan and globally. In their review, they equate the development of female participation in judo to the industrial revolution in Japan, and the coinciding Meiji Era (1868 – 1912). It was during this time period that Japan’s relative westernisation resulted in a changing perspective of what constituted female health, especially in terms of motherhood and childbearing. In a time in Japan dominated by militaristic rule, the significance of the samurai, and submission to Japanese feudal lords, females were expected to submit to male heads of the household and remain mostly inactive due to their perceived fragile nature (Svinth, 2001). A changing Western perspective that incorporated physical training as a method of improving health for motherhood and childbearing purposes, influenced the Japanese culture. The Western recognition of the benefits of physical education for females, and the influence on Japanese culture, coincided with the invention of judo, and in the late 19th century, Jigoro Kano began presenting private lessons to female judokas. In 1919, the first female judoka registered with the Budokwai Judo Club in London (Plavecz, n.d.). However, as Miarka et al. (2011) report, it was not until 1923 that the women’s section of the Kodokan was officially established.

Female judokas remained distinguished from men in Japan through practices such as separate training sessions and a white stripe through their belts (Svinth, 2001). The first foreign female to be awarded a first Dan black belt in Japan in judo, was English judoka Sarah Mayer. It is significant that she was treated differently to female Japanese judokas, as she was allowed, and expected, to train and compete with male judokas (Callan & Spenn, 2016). She also received a full colour black belt (without a stripe). Miarka et al. (2011) indicate that Mayer was often treated exactly like other males, and it was potentially more suitable for the Japanese not to expose her to the females in order to preserve their culture. She is widely regarded as paving the way in Europe for the emancipation of female judokas from a traditionally male hegemony in judo. Her bold participation should be understood from the context of British sport and the fact that women in the upper social class were allowed to participate in a variety of sports such as horseback riding, archery, golf, tennis, skiing and skating. Females were included in the Olympic Games as early as 1900, however in Japan, evidence suggests that students from higher girls’ schools started to play tennis and participate in swimming in the 1920s, with competitions in track and field only being introduced in approximately 1924 (Juntendo, n.d.).

The development of female judo in Japan should be understood from the context of the relatively late emancipation of females in Japanese sport, and the male hegemony, dominated by a warrior ethos, that resulted in the fact that females participated mostly in kata training (training of forms) rather than randori and shiai (competition simulation fighting) during the early 19th century (Miarka et al., 2011; Svinth, 2001). The mobilisation of women during the Second World War (WWII) contributed significantly to their liberation from such patriarchal ideologies (Hastings, 2011). Following WWII, women’s judo was practised in similar ways to men’s judo as a result of a change in lifestyle and mindset, with modern women becoming stronger and more forceful (Hoppe, 1998). The growing trend of female emancipation in sport during this time, should be understood from the context of increased resistance to Victorian ideologies related to gender and female participation, particularly through scientific research that challenged traditional perceptions of female abilities in sport (Vertinsky, 1994).

Female emancipation in sport and a rapid rise in feminism, coincided with a time of globalisation of sport. As a result, following WWII, Keiko Fukuda (one of Jigoro Kano’s students and the highest ranked female judoka in history) immigrated to the USA in 1966 to teach judo (Mukai, n.d.). The post-WWII period also culminated in the first World Judo Championships for females in New York in 1980 (Leyshon, 1998), and the inclusion of females in the Olympic judo programme. This took place firstly at the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games as a demonstration sport, and secondly from 1992 in Barcelona as an official event on the Olympic programme (International Olympic Committee, 2015). In Europe, the first continental championships took place in 1951 in Paris, France. The tournament was first hosted by Great Britain in London during 1953 and by the Netherlands in Rotterdam during 1957 (Judo Inside, 2016). A test event for the women’s European Judo Championship took place in 1974 in Genoa, Italy, followed by the hosting of the Championships in Munich, Germany, in 1975.

Based on the previous discussion of figurational sociology and the figurations that are appropriate to this study, it is evident that it is necessary to reduce the reality into manageable sectors. One theory that is useful in incorporating and understanding the complex management of micro-and macro-level agencies at play in an organisation’s environment, is the systems theory (Tang, 2007).

2.9 Systems theory

The earliest traces of the systems theory is found with pre-Socratic philosophers who attempted to understand the nature and dynamics of the world from observations and reasoning, as opposed to mythology. The first philosophical studies were conducted from the Greek perspective of the world as a Kosmos (something ordered, as opposed to chaos). From this perspective, every living substance of the system constantly attempts to adjust itself in order to achieve harmony according to its context in a given structure. The Greek worldview, therefore, is one that views the world as a giant organism (CSP, 2014). A system can be defined as an assemblage of objects united by some form of regular interaction or interdependence (Mele, Pels & Polese, 2010: 129). Such systems are found in nature, science, economy, society and information systems (Mele et al., 2010).

The origins of a theoretical formulation based on the systems perspective can be traced to General Systems Theory (GST) that is based on the interwar studies of Ludgwig von Bertalanffy spanning from 1901 to 1972 (Boulding, 1956). The main premise of GST was to provide a metatheory that unifies the sciences and humanities through a new world view that regards homologies/isomorphisms as characteristic of the organisation of whole entities, or systems (Boulding, 1956). The importance of developing a unfiying theory across the spectrum of scientific approaches was necessitated by an increasing tendency of the sciences to form specialised fields of knowledge, thus leading to a breakdown in communication and a slowing down of the generation of knowledge amongst the sciences as a whole (Von Bertalanffy, 1956).

In becoming a metatheory, the GST was developed to integrate the fundamentally opposing analytical and organismic understandings of the term system. Rapoport (1986) distinguishes between the respective understandings. The analytical relates to the mathematical models and methods that have been developed within the context of the study of the non-living world in the exact natural and engineering sciences. The organismic understanding relates to the study of a diverse range of phenomena in the living and social world by life and social sciences. Furthermore, the GST aimed at unifying the sciences by incorporating the descriptive and normative traditions of systems thinking into one perspective (Rapoport, 1986).

By developing the GST along the lines of a unifying theory that incorporates the similarities of a diverse range of empirical fields, there is an acknowledgement of the existence of structural

32 uniformity amongst observable phenomena that is not only the result of construction, but rather exists as an independent feature of the world (Boulding, 1956; Von Bertalanffy, 1950)

Boulding (n.d.) distinguishes between three fields that imply philosophical assumptions in GST. Epistemologically, the GST postulates isomorphisms between different disciplines by incorporating analytic aspects to investigate the organismic realm. Ontologically, the GST postulates isomorphisms between real-world systems of the same or different type. Finally, from an ethical perspective, the GST attempts to position itself as a tool to reconcile facts with values from a humanistic (anti-reductionist and nonmechanistic) perspective.

From this perspective of systems thinking, all living systems, such as cells, organisms and societies, perform different functions and on different time scales, yet react to change in the form of circular causality to constantly produce qualitative changes in the form of new components and properties (Balagué, Torrents, Hristovski & Kelso, 2017; Thompson & Varela, 2001). From a systems perspective, all systems are in constant relation to supra-and sub-systems (Mele et al., 2010).

Whilst reductionist approaches have attempted to simplify the understanding of phenomena within respective fields, the systems approach maintains that components within living systems cannot be studied in isolation. Rather, whole entities are formed by their constant interactions and subsequent emerging properties, and components behave differently in isolation as compared to when they form part of a network of processes (Balagué et al., 2017; Noble, 2006). The emphasis on the study of every system of nature, society and scientific domains provides an interdisciplinary approach to study phenomena (Capra, 1997; Mele et al., 2010). It is the dynamic nature of interaction amongst the variables of systems that leads to Mele et al. (2010) and Balagué et al. (2017) proposing systems theory as the most appropriate and accurate to bridge the gap between various disciplines. They indicate that a systems approach is necessary in order to produce a thorough integration and common language to create a unified knowledge of phenomena, where individual properties become indistinct.

Organisations such as those in the non-profit sector must react optimally to changes in the environment in order to remain current (Starnes, 2001). Such environments include considerations related to constant changes in the economic, technological, social and regulatory elements of the operating environment. All these elements of an organisation are essentially

33 highly organised groups of individuals that are formed through abstract, un-linear, dynamic interactions and constantly interact with the external environment (Balagué et al., 2017).

Complex assessments of the effectiveness of organisations have been reduced into mainly four models, namely the goals model (the degree to which an organisation has achieved its goals), the system resources model (the ability of an organisation to optimally identify and gain access to scarce resources), the process model (clear link between the internal processes of the organisation and the desired outputs), and the multiple-constituency-model (integration of multiple perspectives of effectiveness from various organisational constituencies) (Chelladurai, 1987). The goals, system resources and process models equate the input, throughput and output sectors of an organisation, whilst the multiple-constituency model emphasises the dependency of an organisation on interaction with its environment. These models could be incorporated into a unified perspective, explaining organisational effectiveness from a dynamic open systems perspective (Chelladurai, 1987).

The Systems Management approach is characterised by a set of interrelated and interdependent parts that are either closed (these systems do not interact with the environment) or open (these systems form dynamic interactions with the environment) (Vrba & Brevis, 2014). Chelladurai, (2014: p.4 of Chapter 3) indictated that:

Organisations are open systems in that they influence and are influenced by the social, cultural, and economic conditions of the community in which they operate. They depend on society for their resources, and in exchange, they provide products or services for that society.

In open systems thinking, individuals are essential in determining the performance of organisations and how they adapt to the specific context in which they are expected to perform. As a result of an open system’s interaction with the environment, internal processes take place, such as homeostasis, referring to the exchange of information between a system and the environment in order to maintain equilibrium over time (Hannan & Freedman, 1977). Maintaining an equilibrium refers to a system’s ability to provide for the needs of the appropriate supra-systems (Beer, 1975). Due to the exchange of information between the environment and the system, self-regulation is a characteristic that attempts to keep the system within its context and boundaries of its structure (Beer, 1975). Another internal process that results is termed autopoiesis, which refers to a system’s ability to self-organise internal

34 complexity with that of external, environmental complexity (Maturana & Varela, 1975). Finally, equifinality refers to open systems achieving the same end-state (Katz & Kahn, 1978).

Mele et al. (2010) identified different applications for a dynamic open systems approach in management. The first is knowledge, in which organisations are seen as entities with the ability to learn and have skills that enable knowledge-creation. The second is value, in which an organisation is seen as a holistic system with the potential to evolve and develop. The third is quality, which changes as an organisation learns and adapts to its demands. The fourth is the environment. If the organisation is a micro-level system, the environment is the macro-level system. The decision-maker assesses the structure of their own system as compared to supra- systems, and makes decisions that will ensure their survival, thus altering the boundaries between the systems. The fifth is the organisation’s ability to identify and manage relationships through communication channels, and aligning the organisation’s development with all external relationships. The sixth is adaptation, which refers to viability (creating an internal environment and being able to effectively respond to external stimuli), and the ability to survive in a particular context due to continual dynamic processes and internal changes. Finally, the seventh is complexity. Organisations are complex in that they are multifaceted and have the ability to react and change as they learn from experience.

Due to a system’s reliance on individuals as actors in the performance of organisations, there is a need by implication to consider social relationship dynamics and individual conditions, linking systems to subjectivity and a contextualised perception of space and time (Gatti, Biferali & Volpe, 2009; Mele et al., 2010). Whilst a systems approach is often overly complex and does not suggest detailed specifications of optimal relationships amongst variables, nor does it suggest a managerial approach to a set of variables in a system, the systems approach does provide for a framework of analysis of an organisation and subsystems within the organisation (Chelladurai, 2014). From a dynamic open systems perspective, such a framework of analysis consists of variables that relate to people, their characteristics, authority, task and control activities, and the interplay amongst such variables (Chelladurai, 2014). Essentially, changes within an organisation result in changes in the environment and vice versa.

The emergence of modern sport and the rapid growth of sport as a sector of business due to professionalism, globalisation and commercial interests, emphasises the need to approach the multifaceted aspects of a sport system from a dynamic, open systems management point of view

(Trenberth & Hassan, 2013). Hatch (1997) explained that open organisations comprise all systems that rely on input from the environment that undergoes transformation (throughput), and results in output to the organisation. In relation to an elite sport system, inputs could include human and material resources, whilst the outputs could be elite training facilities, athlete support services and successful elite performances (Tang, 2007).

2.10 Figurational and systems theory: A theoretical framework

The figurational theory and systems theory share links that provides this study with a theoretical framework. The figurational theory provides a descriptive framework for the understanding of the development of society and sport from a broad, global disposition. The systems theory holds explanatory power, and provides a reduction of the reality related to figurational theory. In essence, the systems theory provides a method to understand phenomena within the larger framework of figurations.

In terms of the achievement of homeostasis and conflict control mechanisms, both the figurational theory and systems theory make reference to self-regulation mechanisms. From a figurational perspective, external control mechanisms have not diminished, however control has become self-regulated over time. The self-regulation mechanism relevant to figurational theory results in uniformity in certain situations. Systems theory proposes that self-regulation constitutes the system’s attempt to remain relevant within the context and boundaries of the structure that the system exists in. According to the systems approach, homeostasis is achieved by the constant exchange of information between systems and the environment in order to maintain equilibrium over time. For example, games are bound by rules in formal structures and context through the institutionalisation by society. Therefore uniformity from a systems perspective is achieved by interdependence and equilibrium.

Furthermore, figurational theory proposes a dual and singular mechanism of society. Plural refers to interdependent collectives of individuals that form the social, cultural, moral, political and economic institutions of society. Singular refers to the embedded power and authority that results from rules and structures inherent in productive societies. Systems theory proposes that there are various sectors such as economic, technological, social, nature, science and information technology. These sectors are controlled by highly organised groups of individuals that are formed by unlinear dynamic relations that constantly interact with the external environment.

Regarding the scope of the theories, figurational theory describes broad tendencies such as state formation and processes, therefore not an end in itself. Systems on the other hand reduces occurrences to living organisms, how those organisms form part of systems, and how systems result in the formation of formal structures. Systems produce equifinality, and organisations within systems achieve value by having the ability to evolve and develop, within the scope of the boundaries that they interact with.

In terms of dynamics, both theories propose a form thereof. From both a figurational and a systems perspective, individuals are seen as inseparable entities of the broad interwoven constructs of society. These constructs represent dynamic networks of interdependent individuals that form fluid balances of tension, shifting between conflict and cooperation. Systems attempts to make sense of the dynamic and uncontrolled relations of society in figurations by reducing reality to highly contextualised and structured, relatively dynamic entities that react and change only as related to their direct environment. Hence, phenomena cannot be studied in isolation, as they form part of a system that results in individual properties becoming indistinct.

Finally, figurational theory postulates that all interactions result from power imbalances in society. Systems theory, representing highly contextualised structures in society, reduces the power relations to relationships of authority that exist, for example, at different levels of responsibility in organisations. Furthermore, the sport fraternity has its own internal law system. This indicates that sport has differentiated its power relations to such an extent that sentences for misconduct, for example, are enforced by internal structures.

2.11 Summary

The diffusion of sport was largely influenced by Great Britain, as the seat of the British Empire. The diffusion should be understood in the context of Maguire’s (1999) five phases of sportisation, with a period of establishment of volunteer sport clubs in Great Britain being followed by the spread of traditional white, male, team sports such as cricket, soccer and rugby. The diffusion of British pastimes and sports throughout continental Europe, Africa, Asia and America coincides with phase three (1870-1920). Colonialists originally played these sports exclusively in the respective colonies, however the result was increased interaction with indigenous populations, and eventually the resistance to colonial powers through sport, signified by a global narrative of nationalism, coinciding with phase four (1920-1960). Finally, the effect of the resistance to Western powers by non-Western countries, and the subsequent victories over 37 former colonial masters, signified a shift towards globalisation (1960-1990). South Africa and the Netherlands are two countries that had extensive interactions with Great Britain.

Although Japan was not a British colony, the interaction between the British Empire and Asia, and the Meiji Restoration, all coinciding with phase three (1870-1920), resulted in the diffusion of judo to England, and subsequently to the rest of the globe. Judo is a culmination of combat skills derived from ancient samurai practices developed by Dr Jigoro Kano in the Meiji Era. The Meiji Era is associated with a period of rapid industrialisation of Japan. This period resulted in a gradual opening up to the Western world and contributed to the diffusion of judo at global level. Dr Kano contributed to the globalisation of judo, visiting numerous countries and promoting judo in the USA, Europe, Asia and Africa.

As a result of Japan’s involvement in the Second World War, judo was suspended, however following the conclusion of the War, judo experienced a tremendous rise in popularity, particularly in Europe. Judo was particularly popular in England, and with the success of the Netherlands at international level (Anton Geesink became the first non-Japanese world champion) these countries displayed particular prowess in the sport. With 24 000 and 45 000 licenced members respectively, countries such as Great Britain and the Netherlands have proven consistently successful at all levels. Great Britain is 6th on the all-time Senior World Championships medal table and the Netherlands 4th. On the Olympic medals table, the Netherlands is placed 6th overall, and Great Britain 9th. Finally, in the European continental championships, the Netherlands (2nd) and Great Britain (3rd) trail only France on the overall medal table. With over 28-million judokas worldwide, and 200 member federations, the International Judo Federation currently represents the largest Olympic sport with Asian (Japanese) origins, and one of the most widespread sports in the world.

Increasing political and economic heterogeneity in Europe has resulted in higher quality judo competitors from the continent. The institutionalisation of participation as a result of figurational developments in sport, and the subsequent professionalisation of sports such as judo, has resulted in the need for more structured management of elite athletes. Underpinned by a theoretical framework that incorporates the broad overarching development of society and sport from a figurational perspective for descriptive purposes, and a reduction of the figurations to understandable and manageable sections of society through systems theory, the management of sport is identified as such a section. The following chapter provides a discussion on the management of high performance sport in order to produce top-level elite athletes. 38

CHAPTER 3

MANAGEMENT OF HIGH PERFORMANCE SPORT

3.1 Introduction

Due to the formation of modern forms of sport in the 19th century, emphasis has been placed on the potential political and socio-economic advantages of achieving success in international competitions (Victor, 2016). Political powers utilise sporting success for nation building, setting benchmarks to define national identity, and for asserting political independence and expressing distinctive identities. Sport success is further utilised as a conduit of power that allows nations to confirm their global position on a world stage, such as the contextualisation and rebirth of nations, for example, post-war Japan at the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games (Victor, 2016).

Two of the major historical events that played a significant role in enhancing the awareness of the advantages of sport, were the Olympic success of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in the 1970s and 1980s, and the success of the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) in the build-up to the 2000 Olympic Games in Australia (Böhlke & Robinson, 2009). Contemporary elite sport systems are increasingly adopting a homogenous model (De Bosscher, De Knop & van Bottenburg, 2009; Oakley & Green, 2001) in line with that of the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) and the principles of the German Democratic Republic (Böhlke & Robinson, 2009).

The convergence of elite sport systems is the first factor of a ‘global arms race’ at the sporting level (Oakley & Green, 2001). The second factor is constituted by the fact that certain countries are consistently more successful than others in winning international championships and Olympic gold medals in certain sports. Due to the factors that have emerged in the ‘global arms race’, it is apparent that the mere existence of an elite sport system can no longer explain the reason(s) for success of athletes at international level, but rather the governance thereof (Böhlke & Robinson, 2009). Essentially, the ‘global arms race’ refers to a performance market in elite sport that adjusts itself based on the increasingly higher costs required to achieve success at the highest level (Shibli et al., 2012), and governments have become more interested in developing sport systems and creating appropriate development frameworks that could contribute to the success of their national teams and athletes (Marcu & Buhas, 2014; Sam, 2009).

The management of sport systems has traditionally been approached from two distinctly contrasting approaches, one placing emphasis on the value of maintaining historical, social and cultural connections, whilst the other purely focusses on sport as a method for promoting business interests (Stewart & Smith, 1999). Drakulevski, Nakov and Iliev (2014) indicated that all the activities of modern sport should be managed on modern business principles. Whilst traditional business management incorporates processes such as planning, leading and control (Škorić & Bartoluci, 2014), the modern business environment is inextricably and increasingly linked to politics, economics, social dimensions and technological advances (such as information technology) at regional, national and global levels. The business environment consists of a micro and macro-environment (Vrba & Brevis, 2014), with the micro-environment being made up of resources, organisational functions, policies, strategies, goals and, objectives, whilst the macro- environment has two major components, namely the market and the remote environment. The market environment is also described as the operation environment. The latter comprises of customers, suppliers of capital, materials and labour, the labour force and unions, competitors, and intermediaries such as wholesalers, agents, brokers and retailers. Finally, the remote (external) environment comprises politics and legislation, the economy, culture, technology and the ecology.

3.2 Sectors of the sport management environment

It is essential for managers to understand the context of a sport organisation within a country’s sport system, in order to manage the functions related to performance (Robinson, 2011). Robinson, Povill, Henry, Vandeputte and Clark (2007) indicate that all functions of sport management take place within distinctive sectors of the sport environment. These sectors form part of the operating environment of a sport organisation. The impact of sectors of society such as government, and the various stakeholders that form part of the operating environment, could ultimately influence the organisation’s performance. Hence, the following discussion is related to the political, socio-economic, technology and legal sectors, within which sport organisations function.

3.2.1 Political sector

Sport is inextricably linked to politics that includes elements such as national pride and national identity. Poor Olympic performances have resulted in structural reform at government level in countries. Examples include reforms in England in order to restore their image as a global superpower (Victor, 2016), a Ministerial Task Team in South Africa to investigate potential barriers to high performance success (SRSA, 2012), and a joint government and NOC*NSF task team to determine methods for the Netherlands to achieve consistent Olympic success (Ronday, 2012). Sport is so intertwined with politics that it is shaped by the broader political environment, and has become a regular topic of political discourse (Bairner, 2010).

Major sporting events such as the Olympic Games cost a tremendous amount of money ($15 billion (R290 billion) for the 2012 and $12 billion (R167 billion) for the 2016 Games), result in significant administrative burdens for most countries, yet they continue to bid enthusiastically for hosting rights (Tomkiw, 2016; Victor 2016; Yao, 2010). One reason for such investment is promoting national image by influencing foreigners’ opinions of a country’s economics, culture, politics and citizens (Yao, 2010). Another reason is that sport acts as a method of displaying and promoting national identity at a local and international level. Restructuring sport systems after poor Olympic performances reflects the recognition that governments attribute to the importance of the national narrative of sport, and the restructuring is mostly related to a country’s heritage and self-worth. Japan, for example, used the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo as a display of unity and a reformed national image, through the use of especially electronic media. This was done in particular to resurrect Japan’s global image following the damage caused by their involvement in the Second World War (Yao, 2010).

Yao (2010) indicates that national image is reliant upon the extent to which a country receives positive or negative coverage. A positive image is created by coverage of factors such as progress, prosperity, stability and abundance of resources, whilst a negative image is formed through reporting factors such as inefficiency, instability, distrust and unreliability.

Governments also recognise the potential that sport offers as a tool for nation-building (Hong, 2011; Labuschagne, 2008; Victor, 2016). Multiple examples exist, such as North Korea and South Korea marching in unity as one team at the Olympic Games, and East and West German athletes receiving their medals under the same song (Beethoven’s Ode to Joy) at the 1956, 1960

41 and 1964 Games, instead of their respective national anthems. The Olympic Games have also been used as a form of promoting superior systems and political agendas by regimes such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.

Another significant advantage is the potential to assert a distinctive identity and political independence (Hong, 2006; Victor, 2016). The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) in Ireland’s endeavour to revive traditional games serves as an example of the potential of sport to offer resistance to other political powers. Other examples include, for example, the development of cricket in India, and rugby in South Africa, as forms of resistance to colonial superpowers (Hong, 2006).

Some governments use sport as a tool to exercise soft power, referring to affirming or reaffirming a global status and position as a world power, not just in sport, but in global politics. In essence, exercising soft power effectively results in convincing a partner to offer support in achieving a desired outcome (Victor, 2016). Countries host mega-events such as the FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games to exercise soft power and alter their global image (Grix & Houlihan, 2013). Germany, for example, engaged in a successful long-term, well-resourced campaign in order to alter the country’s unfavourable global image. The hosting of mega sporting events relates to the display of global diplomacy, especially in the case of developing countries such as China (2008 Olympic Games), Brazil (2014 FIFA World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games) and South Africa (2010 FIFA World Cup and 2022 Commonwealth Games) and the attempt to demonstrate soft power capabilities, as well as further enhance such power (Grix & Lee, 2013). The 2022 Commonwealth Games event in South Africa is currently in jeopardy as a result of financial implications (Sunday Tribune, 2017).

However, indications exist that the soft power effect does not always emerge. Examples are South Africa and Brazil’s hosting of the 2010 and 2014 Soccer World Cup respectively, and China’s hosting of the 2008 Olympic Games. These are events that did not result in any significant change in their global status at any level (Manzenreiter, 2010; Victor, 2016). The cost implications in South Africa were exorbitantly higher than the initial budget, and the opinion was expressed that the money could have been applied for other conducive purposes.

Other political considerations, dependent on the strategies and policies of international sporting bodies, that could play a role in sport organisations are, for example, the allocation of female

42 quotas (the minimum number of females) in management positions of sport organisations and government policy, related to the importance that sport has in the community. Policies can influence the social value that is attached to sport, the relationships that policies maintain between the National Olympic Committee, National Federations and government departments, and the importance placed on physical education for children. Tax policies and advertising legislation that are to the benefit of potential sponsors, could result in sources of income for elite sport, contribute to the stability of governments, and shape the attitude of key politicians towards sport. Besides the political benefits of hosting major sport events, they have been increasingly identified as a major source of multilevel socio-economic gains (Emery, 2010; Li & Blake, 2009).

3.2.2 Socio-economic sector

Sport is recognised as an important sector of economic activity (Gratton & Taylor, 2000) and Drakulevski et al. (2014) make it clear that modern sport as a business sector, employs large numbers of people and generates a vast amount of economic activities. The demographics of a population, such as age and gender distribution, cultural and social factors such as family structure, income per capita, and general attitudes towards participation in competitive and/or social sport structures, influences the socio-economic sector (Robinson et al., 2007). Sam (2009) indicates that the global trend towards commercialisation of sport has resulted in governments increasingly pressing for the professionalisation and financial independence of national sport organisations (NSOs). The context of globalisation of sport has resulted in mass media coverage, which in turn has stimulated significant financial investment in the development of sport, especially by way of creating aesthetic and emotional pleasure for spectators through mega-sport events (Sikorski, 2005). Globally, an increase in sport events at junior and senior level, combined with the commercial success of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, driven by the presidents of the IOC and the organising committee through private sector funding, television revenues, sponsorships and ticket sales (Tomlinson, 2005), has culminated in the proliferation of opportunities for professional sports careers. However, the commercialisation and expansion of sport globally, has given rise to increasing high-scale corruption, which has implications for the professional governance of sport organisations (Brooks, Aleem & Button, 2013).

Regarding elite sport, Boyer, Musso, Barreau, Collas and Addadi (2007) indicate that countries invest in mega-events for a number of reasons. Firstly, to challenge talented/elite athletes by

43 allowing them the opportunity to participate in a home-based major event for which they would otherwise not be able to qualify. Secondly, to enhance the sport’s profile through national and international collaboration with sport and media organisations that are usually not available for the particular sport. Finally, the development of the sport through the strengthening of existing partnerships, establishing of new partnerships, enhancing the visibility of the sport nationally, and creating unity amongst club and regional structures in order to achieve common performance goals. Due to these benefits, governments remain heavily invested in national sport organisations and allocate a tremendous number of resources into ensuring participation in events such as the Olympic Games (Arnold, Fletcher & Molyneux, 2012). The source of these funds is often joint schemes funded by the public and private sector where social, financial and participation goals are included in one project to develop sport, provide for the community, and achieve high performance success (Barker, Saipe, Sutton & Tucker, 2003).

Examples of such significant investment in the Games include the UK’s £135-million investment in sport mass participation following the hosting of the 2012 London Olympic Games in order to ensure a legacy of continued participation and support for sport (Gov.uk, 2011). The UK also increased their budget by 11% to £347-million for the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games from £312-million for the 2012 London Games. The goal was being the first host country to win more medals in the following Games (Gibson, 2012), which was subsequently achieved. The UK announced a further 29% increase in funding for elite athletes from 2015 to the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo, with the majority of funding coming from the public and the National Lottery in order to sustain medal winning capabilities at the 2016 and 2020 Games (Cutmore & Ziegler, 2015).

An announcement was made by government in 2015 of an additional $20-million investment in Canadian high performance sport to be matched by the private sector for a four-year period starting in 2016 (Sport Matters, 2015). This is besides the $100-million funding boost allocated towards the 2013-2016 Olympic cycle specifically directed at areas such as high performance sport and Olympic Games preparation (Almeida & Soudas, 2016).

In 2013, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) allocated 93% of its budget in order to assist with expenditures related to programme development for US athletes and National Governing Boards (NGBs). Highlights of the investment by the USOC in preparation for the 2016 Games included $73-million of grants to provide direct support to athletes and NGBs; $81-

44 million to support programming including developing training centres and international relations; administrative support to NGBs and $1-million each to 17 NGBs and more than $3- million to two NGBs; more than $6-million of medical services to athletes; career and tuition assistance to 186 athletes; and 16 Olympic and Paralympic training sites that provided in excess of $10-million support to 500 national teams.

The Australian government announced that it will invest more than AUD135-million in national sport federations and athletes over the 2015-2016 period, with an increased budget for 27 sports in order to contribute towards performance outcomes (Australian Sports Commission, 2015). Approximately AUD100-million is allocated to National Sport Organisations’ high performance programmes, more than AUD22-million for participation, and 12-million dollars for direct athlete support.

In total, elite sports funding provided by the relevant Government department, the LOTTO, and private partners of National Sport Organisations (NSOs) in some competing Olympic countries have the following funding available for elite athletes (Ronday, 2012):

• Germany: $204-million (R2.8 billion) • France: $185-million (R2.5 billion) • England: $150-million (R2.1 billion) • Italy: $125-million (R1.7 billion) • Canada: $93-million (R1.3 billion) • Japan: $70-million (R979 million) • South Korea: $69-million (R965 million) • The Netherlands: $47-million (R657 million)

South Africa, a country that finished third at the 2015 African Games, announced the following budget allocations for elite sport in preparation for the 2016 Olympic Games: R91.1-million ($6.4-million), R113-million ($7.9-million) for NSOs for the financial year, R8-million ($560 000) direct athlete support for 40 athletes, and an additional amount for athletes who were identified as definite 2016 Olympic medal contenders (SRSA, 2016a).

Other factors identified by Sikorski (2005) and Sandner (2013) that contribute to continuing performance development in sport include commercialisation due to an increase in the 45 attractiveness of competitions, the extension of the competition calendar, changes in the competition system and an increase in performance-based financial rewards. The use of complex IT and video solutions during training assessment and performance analyses, and the expansion of sport science research related to elite sport performance, also occurred.

3.2.3 Technology sector

Smith and Westerbeek (2004) describe the future of sport as consisting of a small number of globalised, core sport products that make use of interactive technology and generate a substantial amount of economic activity. One of the critical elements for the future success of sport organisations is based on the ability of sport organisations to embrace modern technology (Trenberth & Hassan, 2013).

In a market economy, business is described as a complex system of transforming resources into products and services related to the needs of people, in exchange for profits (Van Rensburg et al., 2013). Therefore, business management principles must be adopted in order to remain abreast of modern sport demands.

3.2.4 Legal sector

The increased globalisation and commercialisation of modern sport have contributed significantly to the enhanced role of sports law on the practice of sports (Gardiner, 2012). Whilst it is expected that all sport federations should be governed by a set of rules that are defined in a constitution, which is usually approved by stakeholders and relevant governing authorities, the context is often complicated by the presence of a mix between volunteer and full-time staff. Rules are mainly established to define standards of play for the specific sport, create standards for competition, guide the conduct of participants, and give direction to relationships between people and governing bodies of which the organisation comprises.

Other modern contemporary issues in sport that have necessitated the evolution of modern sports law include, for example, the impact of professional sport and employment of athletes, with particular emphasis on the protection of athletes from exploitation by sports promoters, managers and club owners, and the enhanced recognition of the need for protection of athletes from discrimination based on race, gender and disability (Welch, 2012). The management of the legal 46 sector in the context of contemporary sport, requires an intricate balance of expectations related to professional businesslike management, and volunteer-based staff who represent an amateur sporting environment.

3.3 Professionalisation of sport organisations

The professionalisation of sport organisations includes a number of phases as identified by Bayle and Robinson (2007). The first of these phases is termed restructuring, which is characterised by the recruitment of staff related to administrative functioning such as secretarial staff, accountants and the management of membership. The second is the recruitment phase, during which tasks that cannot be performed by the current staff are delivered by externally recruited specialised service providers. Strategy and policy are defined by elected officials within the organisation, and technical experts provided by the state.

The third is functional specialisation, and is characterised by the recruitment of paid specialists in fields of communication, law and information technology. The relationship between elected officials who were originally responsible for these functions, and newly recruited specialists, is complex and requires good management from the president of the organisation. Typically, three levels of sport management exist, namely top level managers such as head directors and sport directors, functional managers such as marketing and financial managers, and operational managers, namely sector executives and coaches (Aćimović, Špirtović, Jonić & Projević, 2013).

National technical directors generally assume the role of overall coordination of the sports organisation, following which project managers are recruited at headquarters level. Directors are responsible for the planning, implementation, and coordination of all the decisions made within the sport organisation, ultimately leading to the achievement of the organisation’s goals and objectives (Jovanova-Simeva, 2015). Directors analyse existing decisions and implement corrective measures where necessary. They plan the entire organisation by putting structures and human resources in place that allow for the organisation to function optimally and achieve its goals and objectives (Aćimović et al., 2013).

Fourthly, an increase in the hiring of marketing experts, paid staff and management and coordination staff occurs in favour of volunteer staff. Volunteer staff focus on strategic management and control, whilst paid staff assume the role of departmental directors and give 47 operational leadership to the organisation. Aćimović et al. (2013) indicate that functional and operational managers have the responsibility of executing activities relevant to their portfolios as determined by top-level management such as finances, marketing, maintenance of facilities and equipment, and administration. Operational managers are technically skilled and highly knowledgeable individuals that supervise and execute specific tasks and functions who have highly differential, yet linked responsibilities, such as coaches.

Finally, there is an emergence of increased pay for staff, support staff, departmental heads, paid coaching staff and a paid national technical director. Payment of staff is characteristic of a move towards independence from the state. The extent to which the staff in a sport organisation work together shapes the culture, and determines the success of the activities. It is evident that management does not take place within a social vacuum, and hence understanding the context of a sport organisation should contribute to the establishment of a performance culture (Girginov, 2010). The culture will depend on the model of sport participation, which is either embedded in pleasure and participation, or power and performance (Coakley, 2007).

3.4 Models of sport participation

The pleasure and participation model proposes that people engage in informal physical activities and sports in order to experience challenges and excitement (Sekot, 2009). This model proposes that especially young people play informal, action-centred sports as an alternative to formal, organised and rule-centred sports (Sekot, 2009).

Organised, high profile elite sports, represent the power and performance model. These sports have become the norm as a result of westernised concepts of success that are associated with participation in, for example, the Olympic Games (Sekot, 2009). The prioritisation of elite sport has resulted in the increased tendency to evaluate youth sport based on its potential elite sport outcomes. In turn this has shaped the interest and investment of resources to favour the development of elite athletes, which has been perpetuated by, for example, the introduction of the Youth Olympic Games (Houlihan & Zheng, 2013), and the Commonwealth Youth Games. Examples of such athletes in South Africa, include Caster Semenya (athletics) and Chad le Clos (swimming).

Goranova and Byers (2015) report that there is a decline in the number of people participating in the majority of Olympic sports nationally in the UK, regardless of Olympic success. The implications are significant as can be seen in Figure 1, as the social significance of elite sports encourages mass participation (Sekot, 2009). Mass sport participation, in turn, should contribute to the overall system of talent development at grassroots level by increasing the talent pool, and the ultimate quality and quantity of athletes that are produced within the system (Collins, 2008; Goranova & Byers, 2015). Although not all athletes enter at the base of the athlete development triangle and some athletes transfer their skills between sports to enter the system at different levels, the majority follow the pathway as displayed in Figure 1 (Gulbin, Weissensteiner, Oldenziel, & Gagné., 2013).

Figure 1: Athlete Development Triangle (Gulbin et al., 2013:4).

3.5 High performance sport systems

Factors such as a nation’s passion for sport, cultural factors such as being more performance driven, being good long-term thinkers and planners, and access to facilities and resources make it impossible to create a homogenous model that could account for the success of all elite sport systems (Girginov, 2010; De Bosscher et al., 2006). Despite this, elite sport systems are increasingly becoming more uniform, with local variations characterising the differences in implementation (Houlihan & Zheng, 2013).

Stamm and Lamprecht (2001) indicate that factors at macro-level such as population and GDP are increasingly becoming less of a determining factor at international sporting events, as a result of smaller nations adopting much more in-depth, strategic and systematic long-term plans to create international champions. Within these systems, there are enhanced efforts through initiatives such as Olympic Solidarity funding, to mobilise coaches and athletes, and deliver multifaceted programmes that enable knowledge and skill transfer between coaches and athletes (Olympic.org, 2016b). However, in the case of developing countries, macro-level determinants still contribute to more than 50% of the success of elite athletes (De Bosscher & De Knop, 2003). Shibli et al. (2012) agree that a nation’s wealth and population are playing a less significant role with the realisation that meso-level factors such as managed public investment that can be directly influenced and changed through policies, are increasingly becoming determinants of elite sport success.

The growing social significance of international competition and the benefits that they possess at socio-political level, have resulted in increased recognition for systems that promote talent identification, talent development, talent recognition, scouting and appropriate selection for participation in national and international competitions from youth level (Smith, 2016). Such systems are characterised by higher levels of complexity and greater financial investment in larger countries such as Great Britain, USA and Canada, whilst small countries such as the Netherlands have optimised their talent identification and talent development processes to function more effectively and competitively at lower costs (Smith, 2016).

3.5.1 Characteristics of high performance sport systems

The competitive superiority that some NSOs display over others is as a result of such organisations being able to produce high quality athletes more effectively and efficiently (Robinson & Minikin, 2012). The success of some countries over others at major sport events such as the Olympic Games is evident in the fact that only 26.3% of countries (54 of 205) won at least one gold medal, and less than half (41%, 85 of 205) countries won at least a medal at the 2012 Olympic Games (Houlihan & Zheng, 2013).

Research by Shibli and Bingham (2008) revealed that increasing Olympic success and the maintenance of present success depends upon four factors, in the following order: (1) maintenance of dominance in sports where outstanding performances are already being introduced; (2) increasing market share by achieving further success in sports where victories are already being attained; (3) targeting sports in which medals are not being won; and (4) becoming competitive in sports where a satisfactory level of competitiveness has not been achieved. Furthermore, continued specialisation in sports where success is already being achieved is critical for sustained excellence, whilst simultaneously diversifying expertise into sports that do not produce success, should result in enhanced Olympic performance.

Robinson and Minikin (2012) discuss the two main methods of developing competitive strategies, namely adopting a standard view on competitiveness which seeks to compete on cost leadership or differentiation. They argue that the standard view of competitiveness is ineffective as a result of the fact that there are limited opportunities to reduce costs and differentiate core activities. The second, more effective strategy, is a resource-based view that seeks to determine what the organisation is capable of, based on the internal context of the organisation, the resources that are available, and how they are utilised (i.e. the organisation’s capability).

Therefore, NSOs with the most resources will not necessarily gain the greatest competitive advantage and achieve the highest rate of success. It is rather those capable of capitalising on resources most effectively. Arend and Lévesque (2010) identify the core characteristics of the most valuable resources. Firstly, resources should be valuable by assisting in enhancing operational effectiveness through the minimisation of threats and exploiting opportunities to the maximum. Secondly, resources should be rare amongst current and potential competitors. Thirdly, resources should be imperfectly imitable, meaning that other organisations will face

51 significant challenges (such as high costs) in attaining similar resources. Finally, resources should be organisationally appropriable, indicating that the organisation should increase in value as a result of the acquisition of the resource(s). The effective acquisition and utilisation of resources that exhibit these characteristics should significantly enhance the ability of an NSO to achieve major sporting success.

De Bosscher et al. (2006) indicate that factors such as early talent identification at schools, high training frequency in school sport systems, financial support systems, the training and qualification of professional sports coaches, high priority of scientific research and a network of sports medicine all fall within the meso-level and are therefore under direct control of national federations and government. Various researchers (Böhlke & Robinson, 2009; Fletcher & Arnold, 2011; Houlihan & Zheng, 2013; Oakley & Green, 2001; O’Boyle & Hassan, 2014; Sandner, 2013; Teodorescu and Urzealã, 2013) support the findings related to meso-level factors made by De Bosscher et al. (2006), and have identified essential characteristics of, and services that, elite sport systems should offer in order to create performance environments wherein their athletes can perform and achieve success at the highest level of international sport.

A further model that provides guidelines in terms of multistage training, competition participation and a recovery pathway based on factors such as physical and mental development, is Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) (Canadian Sports Institute, 2014). The characteristics of elite sport systems that are shared by the authors above, are discussed accordingly. i) The recognition that achieving excellence in sport implies substantial costs, with the appropriate investment in the necessary infrastructure and people. ii) Targeting of a selected number of priority sports for investment of resources, based on the analysis of their potential international success. iii) Comprehensive needs analysis and planning for the implementation thereof, based on each individual sport. iv) Access to facilities and equipment with priority access for elite athletes to highly developed, sport-specific training facilities and equipment is critical to achieving success. This type of access is generally provided by a centrally supported, regional network of training institutes. Excellent home multisport and sport-specific training facilities, as well as excellent training facilities abroad, are essential. Establishing partnerships with foreign

training institutions and creating relationships whereby athletes and coaches can interact across international boundaries, should ensure the availability of excellent training facilities abroad. Management should prioritise establishing such relationships for full functioning of elite sport systems. Many established international performers and others who aspire to become successful at elite level, invest heavily in the establishment of elite training centres. Examples include the Institute National du Sport, de l’Expertise et de la Performance (INSEP) in France, five federal training institutes in Germany, the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) in Canberra, and the National Coaching and Training Centre in Ireland. v) A coach education system. Coaching is a method of applying management skills whereby coaches identify the potential and motivation of athletes, and in turn encourage them to identify and find potential solutions and strategies to their own sporting challenges. Coaches who are most efficient in stimulating the athlete’s bio-psycho-motor abilities through the management of all training factors, produce the best performances. Coaches are essential in the coach-athlete performance relationship due to their direct impact on the performance of athletes. Therefore, an individual performance management system is necessary to contribute to the overall organisational performance.

The coaching system should be designed to coordinate with and complement the athlete development system that is in place. Therefore, coaches with the necessary educational level and practical experience should be assigned to the appropriate athlete categories. Educational and practical experience relevant to the specific group of athletes should be current and regularly updated in order to remain abreast of the latest training methods.

Securing world-class coaching expertise is an essential function in achieving high performance at elite level. Managers should establish relationships whereby clear coach- athlete communication is encouraged, and information sharing takes place regularly in order to produce consistently higher levels of performance.

There are three elements that could contribute to the development of local coaches to an elite level. The first element is improving the quality and quantity of time that is available for coaches to focus on their coaching activities and responsibilities. The second is increasing the recognition that coaches receive, as well as ensuring an enhanced status for coaches. The third element is improving the overall quality of the coach education process. vi) Talent identification structures should be in place that incorporate processes allowing for the systematic identification of individuals with a talent for sport. For example,

maintaining an effective database for statistical evaluation and monitoring of the progress of talented and elite athletes. vii) Athlete development pathways that follow the talent identification process. Structures and systems should be in place for age-appropriate development of talented individuals in their chosen sport. These systems should offer opportunities for progression to high performance and eventually to retirement from competitive sport. The provision of sport services that create an enabling environment for all members of the team such as athletes, coaches, managers and scientists, to interact formally and informally, is critical for success in this regard. viii) Competition structures with access to the relevant, developmentally appropriate competitions at intervals necessary for the development of athletes, should be provided. This will ensure that athletes gain the necessary competitive experience in order to ensure smooth transition from, for example, national level participation to international level participation. The existence of well structured, developmentally appropriate competition programs should enable continued international exposure.

Participation in international training and international competitions should make provision for special considerations during the final stage of preparation, such as opportunities to engage in adaptation training for climatic change and regional conditions. Management and coaches should design a programme that incorporates these considerations into the overall programme. ix) Sport science support, including medical and scientific support, is a vital element in the long-term preparation of athletes. Management should ensure that athletes have access to a multi-disciplinary team of experts by establishing relationships with institutions and experts that include strength and conditioning, physiology, biomechanics, sport psychology, medicine, physiotherapy, performance nutrition, engineering, lifestyle coaches, and training and sport science. These functions should be incorporated into the programme to meet the needs of individual athletes. x) Anti-doping structures should be in place in order to ensure that athletes avoid the use of illegal supplements/substances through the provision of the relevant anti-doping information and access to resources. Regular testing of high performance athletes should support this process.

54 xi) Athlete lifestyle support and preparation for retirement, including services such as assisting athletes in securing access to funding and with opportunities for education and career planning. Such services complement and support the goals of the overall long-term development process, and support athletes in their non-sporting lives. xii) General guidelines for all systems include maintaining a clear understanding of the role of agencies involved and establishing effective communication systems that enable maintenance of the system. Simplicity of administration through common sporting and political boundaries is also essential.

It is clear that a nation’s quest to achieve success at international level should focus on the planning and long-term development of athletes in a strategic, systematic and comprehensive manner, taking into consideration multiple political and policy-level factors. A lack of planning and investment could lead to either a continued lack of top level performances, stagnation in performance, or even a decline in performance. Relatively few studies have examined the direct impact of individual, organisational and environmental factors on the performance of sport management structures (Hoye & Doherty, 2011). Accordingly, the following discussion focusses on the managerial aspects of elite sport systems.

3.5.2 Management of high performance sport systems

De Bosscher et al. (2009) indicate that the reasons for the variations of elite sport systems between countries is firstly as a result of cultural factors and a nation’s past experiences in elite sport. Secondly, the political governing system with specific reference to institutionalisation and governmentalisation appears as the reason. Finally, the specificity of sports may result in a variety of elements present in systems individually designed for the relevant sport that are not present in systems related to the development of elite athletes in other sports.

The United States (US) is an example of a federal state system that discourages any involvement in elite sport systems, and delegates such responsibilities to sport organisations that are tasked with elite athlete production. Systems such as these present challenges in terms of policy coordination at national level. Furthermore, the US system, for example, relies on a school sport system to produce elite athletes, a system that is not comparable to club sport systems in any other country.

The various functions within the organisation including finances, marketing and facility management, all form part of organisational management. Whilst Bayle and Robinson (2007) agree that organisational performance is critical for success, the concept has rarely been explored from a holistic viewpoint, making it difficult to consider how national governing bodies in sport interact to produce top level performances.

Organisational influences play a major role in athletic performance (Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009). The authors conducted a review of six factors that relate to organisational influences on the performance of athletes, which indicates that the way in which individuals are managed and directed, will increasingly become a vital factor in achieving success in Olympic competition. The factors include: i) Olympic performance factors. The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) issued an investigation in order to identify the reasons for some athletes performing substantially better than others during the Games. The body of knowledge that emerged from the investigation indicated that managerial and organisational-related factors contributed significantly to the difference in performances. Organisational and managerial culture, such as the coach-athlete relationship, coaching style, athlete support structures, travelling arrangements, media and Olympic village distractions, and the ability to react to changes in circumstances were identified as some elements that impact on athlete performance at the Games. ii) Roles in sport teams. Due to Olympic sport teams consisting of a big variety of members fulfilling numerous tasks, the multifaceted nature of such teams often creates role conflict. In order to contribute constructively to the performance culture, it is critical to establish role clarity amongst all members who contribute to the team environment, especially as many of the functions of specialists such as coaches, sport scientists and medical personnel may overlap. iii) Organisational success factors. Leadership, group cohesion and communication are core characteristics of National Sport Organisations (NSOs) in reaching their targets. These targets are increasingly becoming similar to those of companies in the business sector that are required to meet performance targets, and in the case of NSOs, delivering Olympic medals is one of the main targets. As a result, performance management is required, and managers are expected to possess interpersonal skills that enable them to apply a variety of skills that are applicable to the relevant situation. Maintaining clear lines of

communication should ensure the existence of a performance management environment within the organisation. iv) Performance environments. Strategic alliances with significant institutions, organisations and businesses, access to funding, communication, planning and preparation for competitions and opponents are all factors that could contribute positively or impact negatively on organisational performance.

For the reasons mentioned above, effective management is considered as one of the most critical elements in a sport organisation, as the effective coordination of activities could ultimately lead to performance success (Chourides, Hadjiphanis & Evripidou, 2016).

These stages correlate positively with the findings discussed next, and the overall system of performance management that is required to produce peak performances on all levels in a sports organisation. In order to monitor and evaluate performance, governments are increasingly introducing performance measurement systems and programmes that rely on secondary performance information from national sport organisations (Macris & Sam, 2014). Macris and Sam (2014) further indicate that performance management in sport is largely based on experience from business management and human resource management models. Four scales of performance management analyses are identified (Öcal, 2015). They are human resource management performance, administrative performance, financial performance and employee performance.

Iconomescu, Mindrescu and Badau (2014) indicate that human, financial, information and material resources are important elements of a fully functioning sport organisation. Human resource performance refers to the effective use of human capital, whilst administrative performance refers to the smooth running of administrative functions, and the capacity to encourage a positive climate and cultural aspects in the organisation. Financial performance refers to the management of the organisation’s budget, including use of the budget and efforts to increase the budget, and employee performance refers to the task and contextual performance of employees.

The respective functions of a sport organisation can be managed by a centralised system, characterised by the control, development, marketing and promotion of an organisation through one, central location (Anderson, 2006). Although centralisation contributes to cost saving and

57 product consistency, Anderson (2006) indicates that decentralisation in sport organisations could contribute to greater employee involvement, an enhanced sense of belonging, and as a result higher effort levels in achieving the goals of the organisation. Decentralisation is highlighted by the fact that all people working for the organisation make decisions regarding their own work, and those with the most relevant knowledge make decisions related to specific fields (Robinson et al., 2007).

Due to the fact that modern sport has placed a significantly enhanced focus on the performance of all functions related to the various levels of management in the sporting environment, strategic performance management has become a critical component of sport management (Bayle, Duncan, Chappelet & Kartakoullis, 2007; O’Boyle & Hassan, 2014).

3.6 Strategic performance management

Performance is considered such a global term that the concept has become inseparable with the majority of services and the practice of performance measurement (Bouckaert & Halligan, 2008). Accordingly, due to growing government involvement in sport, national sport organisations are increasingly adopting performance management and performance monitoring systems (Houlihan & Green, 2009). As a result, setting targets, outputs and creating benchmarks to evaluate performance embody a movement towards performance management in sport governing bodies (Shibli et al., 2012). Strategic management is defined by Bayle et al. (2007: 62) as the implementation of a strategy, which is a plan for achieving long-term goals and objectives and allocating resources necessary for carrying out these goals.

An effective management approach towards training has become one of the most vital elements of elite sport systems (Teodorescu & Urzealã, 2013). Taking part in sport and in competition requires material and organisational resources, as well as professional management. Considerations related to the management of individuals and athletes, or a group of people effectively, and creating a structure and process whereby they can achieve a common goal such as success at the Olympic Games, is termed performance management (Northouse, 2010). Performance management provides a framework for understanding the intricacies of the working of a management system based on factors such as vision and mission statements, and resource management. Performance management is defined by Houldsworth and Burkinshaw (2008: 88) as:

…the basic aims of performance management are to share understanding about what is to be achieved, to develop the capacity of people and the organization to achieve it, and to provide the support and guidance individuals and teams need to improve their performance.

O’Boyle and Hassan (2014: 301) add another element in defining the concept, namely the concept of complexity and holism:

...a holistic approach to performance that spans numerous performance dimensions that may be fundamental to the effective delivery of an organisation’s mission.

Literature reveals that any understanding of organisational performance requires a multicriteria approach (Bayle & Robinson, 2007), and success depends on setting goals and objectives. Elements such as identifying marketing position, determining physical and financial resources, assessing profitability, and analysing athlete performance should be included. The present circumstances should be assessed by identifying strengths and weaknesses that will allow the attainment of goals and objectives. Based on the assessment of circumstances, predictions about the future should be made.

Predictions should assist in developing alternative scenarios and setting direction by developing various possible situations and outcome predictions. Once the outcome predictions have been made, the most appropriate version should be selected, implemented and regularly assessed through analysis of action plans and adaptations made when necessary. The performance environment of non-profit sport organisations such as national sport federations that require constant performance evaluation, is displayed in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Performance Environment of NPSOs (Winand, Vos, Claessens, Thibaut & Scheerder, 2014: 42)

Bayle and Robinson (2007) investigated the performance of National Governing Bodies (NGBs) of sport in France and determined that there are two performance mixes that explain the holistic understanding of such bodies in the country. Significantly, they indicated that French NGBs operate in similar ways to those of the majority of Western European countries. French NGBs are composed of paid and volunteer staff. The model developed by Bayle and Robinson (2007: 10) to understand NGBs in a holistic way includes the strategic performance mix (which reflects an NGB’s potential performance) and the operational performance mix (reflecting an NGB’s actual performance).

3.7 Integrated model of sport performance management

3.7.1 Strategic performance mix

Three main strategic principles within NGBs determine their potential performance. The first is the system of governance. Governance is a core responsibility of the organisation’s board of directors, and corporate governance literature indicates that the main roles of the board are to secure healthy relationships with other organisations, enhance organisational performance, secure resources to support the organisation and ensure compliance of management (O’Boyle & Bradbury, 2013).

3.7.2 Multilevel systems of governance

Lipicer and Lajh (2013) report that similarities exist between the governing systems in the field of sport as compared to other public organisations, and that they can be governed at three different levels. The first is a macro-oriented system of governance that views the sport-system as a subsystem within a larger framework, and is evaluated based on the similarity of governance principles in comparison with general governance principles in the framework as a whole. The second is a meso-oriented system of governance characterised by ‘the motives, set goals, measures and networks of governmental intervention in sport policy-making in relation to the independent, non-governmental sport arena (Lipicer & Lajh, 2013: 54).

Finally, sport governance can be mainly concerned with activities performed by individual authority institutions (the performance of individual activities), which constitutes a micro- oriented system of governance. One of the strongest links to good governance is the determination of a maximum term of service that senior volunteers in an organisation can assume (Bayle & Robinson, 2007; O’Boyle & Bradbury, 2013).

3.7.3 Models of governance

Baumann (2006) applied his research to the governance of international sport federations, and reported that the system of governance depends highly on the level of volunteerism and structure adopted by the federations. In federations where the president is a volunteer, the president generally exercises strict control over administration, whereas when the president is a paid 61 employee, the system of governance depends on the specific skills of the executive director and the managerial philosophy of the president. The length of the president’s term of office further influences the system of governance adopted.

Research by Bayle and Robinson (2007) identified four predominant models of governance. Firstly, a strong presidency is characterised by the president taking the major performance- related decisions affecting the NGB. Typically, the president surrounds him-/herself with two colleagues, usually the National Technical Director and the Director of Administration. Secondly, a tandem presidency that is characterised by the equal share of responsibility in decision-making between the National Technical Director and the president. Thirdly, a dispersed presidency is characterised by the president acting as a General Director, coordinating the portfolios of the other directors. Finally, the managerial system is characterised by a paid director or National Technical Director assuming the role of decision-maker either formally or informally, with other main elected officials accepting this authority.

The managerial system was evident in the French Canoeing and Judo Federations. The dispersed presidency and managerial system of governance were evident in complex systems with over 50 paid staff (non-volunteers), whereas the strong and tandem presidencies were found in systems with less than 20 paid administrative staff. Whilst these systems were found to rarely exist in their pure forms, they evolve from strong and tandem to dispersed and managerial with increased complexity. Due to the fact that the French NGBs are governed with models similar to other Western European countries, these findings present insight into the governance of judo bodies such as the Dutch and British Judo Associations.

3.7.4 Quality of the operating network

Bayle and Robinson’s (2007) research revealed findings regarding the quality of the operating network. The term ‘quality of the operating network’ refers to the quality of the relationship between the various entities within a National Governing Body (NGB). Quality is determined by their ability to be reactive and reliable, and the solidity of the relationships that constitute the sport system. Due to the fact that there is competition between the entities within the sport system down to club level where they compete for resources and members, it is critical that NGBs ensure solidarity in structures at regional and district level. Failure to ensure solidarity could result in service delivery being negatively influenced.

Two methods are mainly used to establish solidarity at district, regional, and higher levels. The first is characterised by the establishment of service level agreements between organisations in the sport system, and the second being the certification of the quality of clubs and leagues in which members participate. It is critical that the NGB firstly establishes solidarity with the International Federation relevant to its sport, and then with the regional and district organisations.

Service level agreements allow for an NGB to retain involvement throughout the system all the way down to club level, ensuring that NGB policies are filtered through to local level. These agreements offer opportunities to create quality certification of clubs and leagues in order to ensure that the level of service offered to members is of high standard. NGBs that adopt such strategies usually award quality certification based on a number of preconditions that must be met, and in turn offer a variety of supporting materials and resources that enable clubs and leagues to expand and grow the member base.

3.7.5 Position of an NGB in the industry

Findings by Bayle and Robinson (2007) reveal that the position of an NGB largely depends on its economic wealth which is formed by interactions between the public, commercial and voluntary sectors. Seven factors combine as strategic resources to determine the size of an industry and the NGB’s position within it. Firstly, the power of the particular sport indicated by its turnover, which reflects the NGB’s economic potential. The second factor refers to the commercial intensity surrounding the sport, such as the potential of the sport to attract tourists and stimulate leisure activity. The third factor relates to the coach education system, which determines the capacity of clubs to deliver services. Fourthly, the facilities available to expand the sport, for example schools and training venues, which determine the opportunities available to expand membership. The fifth factor refers to the number of events that can be commercialised. Sixth is the accessibility, quantity and quality of equipment that is necessary to practise the sport, and the final factor is the cost of participating in the sport.

The research by Bayle and Robinson (2007) further determined that NGB’s that have a central position in their organisations, have the highest level of potential performance. The National Tennis Federation in France generates approximately €160-million per year in cash and €7- million of benefits from tournaments hosted at Roland Garos, which determines its potential

63 performance. The position of the NGB is determined by the direct benefit gained (such as revenue) from hosting events and benefits gained from leisure participation in the industry). The advantages of a central NGB include the development of high performance coaches for elite athletes and the delivery of more diversified, globalised services.

3.7.6 Operational performance mix

Bayle and Robinson (2007) indicated that several specific factors exist that either inhibit or enhance the actual or operational performance of an NGB. The factors enhancing such performance are: i) Type and level of professionalisation

The functioning of NGBs depends upon finding a balance between paid and unpaid staff (volunteers/elected officials). The importance and impact of paid staff depends on the skills that they contribute, specifically when such skills are not present amongst unpaid staff. Besides the skill contribution of paid staff, it is critical that portfolios are clearly defined and that a well-structured accountability framework exists in order to direct the interaction amongst staff.

The French NGBs under study followed four stages of professionalisation, namely restructuring, which is characterised by the initial recruitment of administrative staff, secretarial staff and accountants. The NGB is run by the national technical director and aided in policy development by specialists provided by the state. There are no more than 5 to 10 paid administrative staff and the balance of power is in favour of elected officials. Specialised functions such as marketing, law and accountancy are often performed by external service providers.

The second stage is functional specialisation during which paid staff members (now a total of 15 to 40) are present, specifically in the areas of information technology, law, communication and technical specialists. Paid administrative staff become important advisors to elected officials, an administrative director or manager is often in position and the first specialisation between technical and administrative departments emerges. The national technical director still coordinates the majority of functions. Due to the increased

involvement and importance of paid specialists, the president emerges as a critical role player in managing relationships between paid specialists and elected officials, who were previously responsible for the majority of functions within the NGB.

In stage three, the coordinators were present amongst NGBs such as in gymnastics and judo. During this stage, more than 40 paid staff members are present consisting of marketing specialists, management and coordination staff, recruitment of project managers at headquarters level, and an increase in the level of support staff. Due to the specialised skills and knowledge of paid staff, they are dedicated to performing operational tasks and elected officials focus increasingly on strategic management and control.

The fourth and final stage represents the emergence of professionalisation throughout all structures in the NGB. During this stage, more than 100 paid staff are present and the national technical director is exclusively paid by the NGB, signifying independence from the Ministry of Sport. Further differentiation and specialisation of structures take place under the guidance of an increasing number of departmental heads and directors, who are supported by greater numbers of support staff. Besides a paid technical director, club coaches are paid by the NGB and regional structures emerge that are developed by coaching specialists and paid managerial staff.

Thibault, Slack and Hinings (1991) conducted a study whereby professionals were hired to perform certain functions within an amateur sport organisation. It was evident that professional staff immediately impacted on vital decision-making, leading to the centralisation of decisions, followed by gradual decentralisation. The levels of standardisation and specialisation dramatically increased and improved differentially amongst all organisational systems, with the greatest gains in systems requiring technical expertise. ii) Participatory Organisational Culture

During periods of growth, paid and volunteer staff share feelings of belonging and passion and interest in achieving the goals of NGBs. Stimulating such commitment amongst the various staff groups of an NGB, creates a participatory culture that ultimately culminates in a significantly more productive system with a higher work output involving all stakeholders. According to Bayle and Robinson (2007), a participatory organisational

culture is core to achieving operational success, and is achieved through the involvement of all stakeholders working together collectively to reach the same targets.

One crucial element related to the success of sport organisations that is dependent on its culture is the method of communication (Fletcher & Arnold, 2011). Communication is the core method used to distribute the organisation’s vision to all stakeholders, and accordingly encourages commitment to the process of performance development. It is also essential for the various stakeholders such as managers, performance directors, and others to respect the boundaries of their portfolios, which ultimately contributes to the performance atmosphere. The performance atmosphere is dependent upon and should contribute to more effective role definition, appreciation and performance.

Following the establishment of a common culture, elite sport organisations invest a notable amount of time in identifying and articulating a vision (Fletcher & Arnold, 2011: 234). Further to identifying a vision, elite sport management should disseminate the vision, role model the message, and inspire individuals to invest in it (p.234). A united vision should ultimately lead to enhanced management team unity and have an enhanced effect on overall team performance.

Once a vision has been established, one of the main roles of national sport bodies is the management of operations within the team environment. This includes various functions such as financial management, training and competition planning, selection of athletes for competitions, and the upholding of the rules and regulations of the organisation. Organisational influences play a critical role in athletic performance (Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009). In Fletcher and Wagstaff’s (2009) review of six items that relate to organisational influences on athletes, they determined that the way in which individuals are managed, directed and led, will increasingly become a vital factor in achieving success in Olympic competition and contribute to determining the success of national sporting organisations. iii) A partnership approach

It is critical for NGBs to establish vertical partnerships with clubs and leagues, horizontal partnerships with other NGBs that share similar interests, even if they are in competition

with each other, and systemic partnerships with the national Olympic committee, Ministry of Sport, sponsors and partners in the private sector.

Factors identified that inhibit the performance of NGBs include: a) Deficient information systems

All the NGBs under study had limited knowledge of the market they cater for and therefore a lack of understanding of the potential opportunities and threats that exist. This places NGBs in a position of risk as they will be unable to react and adapt to the demands of the environment. b) Inappropriate incentives

It is essential that NGBs identify the most appropriate incentive mechanisms to reward staff. Paid staff are often offered financial incentives, especially when there is an absence of a partnership culture in the NGB. However, financial incentives could create conflict between paid staff and the non-profit policies and strategies of NGBs, resulting in a decrease in performance. Unpaid staff are generally not motivated by financial incentives, and one of the strongest models of participation amongst staff was present in the French Judo NGB where all staff strongly embraced the Japanese culture of serving. c) Insufficient control mechanisms

Organisational control mechanisms generally exist at operational, management and strategic levels. In NGBs it is mostly the case that organisational control is either insufficient or absent, as management and the evaluation of volunteer staff are often negatively perceived. Such insufficiency is characterised by inadequate information systems, unclear work regulations and inaccurate task analysis, resulting in a high level of autonomy for volunteer staff. The detrimental effect is unclear tasks and objectives that directly inhibit organisational performance.

d) Political sclerosis

Conflict often exists between paid staff and elected staff, and deficiencies in the electoral system of NGBs create opportunities to manipulate votes, often resulting in decision- making and renewing of mandates without any substantial democratic debates. Furthermore, representatives of regional structures who are elected by their constituents, often defend the structures they represent at the expense of the goals of the NGB. Finally, it is often the case that it is not possible to separate the personal interests of volunteer staff from the interests of the NGB as a whole.

Other elements based on modern business performance management principles that could either contribute to or deter increased performance, is targeted performance. Targeted performance involves the selected allocation of the majority of resources by governments, in particular financial, to sports that are seen as most likely to yield successful results at elite sport level (Shibli, et al., 2012).

Shibli et al.’s (2012) research indicates that targeted performance, despite its potential to create a more strategic system of resource allocation to sport organisations, could result in an eventual decline in performance as a result of the tendency of sport organisations to avert potential risks for fear of a decline in performance and a loss of support. Sport organisations may also regard the selective allocation of resources as an environment where they are in competition with each other, thus creating a situation in which organisations tend not to share information that could contribute to the success of others.

Simultaneously with the growth and expansion of sport into a global phenomenon, government awareness and influence of sport have resulted in a complex relationship of diverse, wide- ranging policy issues (Houlihan, 1997). Shilbury, Sotiriadou and Green (2008) distinguish between three main areas of sport policy that stimulate research in this field. These are firstly policy making, particularly in elite versus mass participation sport, and international comparison of such policies. Secondly, the influence that various political ideologies exercise on the formation of sport policies, and thirdly, elite sport policy, which fuels research in this field as there is growing interest in how policies at elite sport level create environments for continued

68 international sporting success. The following discussion reflects on the policies that could influence elite performance.

3.8 Sport policies

De Bosscher et al. (2006) indicated that sport policies could influence the success of international performances significantly. Policies are vital as sport-specific contextual factors that influence the success of sport systems are included in policies (Brouwers, Sotiriadou & De Bosscher, 2015). From a top-down approach, policies could have various levels of impact at macro-level, meso-level and micro-level (De Bosscher et al., 2006).

3.8.1 Macro-level

Due to increased political involvement in elite sport, it can be derived that policies are increasingly developed to achieve political goals, which implies that policies can never be separated from the political context of a country (De Bosscher et al., 2006). The macro-level is described as the social and cultural context in which people live: economic welfare, population, geographic and climatic variation, degree of urbanisation, political system, and cultural system (De Bosscher et al., 2006: 186).

Although studies (Stamm & Lamprecht, 2000, 2001; Bernard & Busse, 2000) indicate that the influence of macro-level elements on international performance has decreased from 57% (1964 – 1980) to 45% (post 1980), the influence remains significant. Whilst none of the macro-level elements influence sport in the short term, they should be taken into account when conducting comparisons of sport systems across international boundaries (De Bosscher et al., 2006).

3.8.2 Meso-level

This level is significantly influenced by sports policies and politics that could have a significant influence on the long-term performance of sport systems and athletes at international level. Meso-level factors are fully or partially influenced by sport policies and politics, signifying the only level where these factors can be influenced and changed (De Bosscher et al., 2006). Policies and politics at meso-level are especially relevant and related to elite athlete

69 performance. Such athletes are more likely to achieve international success when policies and politics create opportunities for substantial and effective investment opportunities.

3.8.3 Micro-level

Factors within the micro-level are directly related to individual athletes, such as genetic qualities, and the closed environment (such as parents, friends, family and coaches) (Sotiriadou, Gowthorp & De Bosscher, 2014). At micro-level, some factors such as training programmes and tactics can be controlled, whilst factors such as genetic predisposition for certain sports, cannot be controlled (Higham & Hinch, 2010).

Well-considered micro-level factors, such as when coaches select age-appropriate developmental programmes for their athletes, contribute to meso-level factor implementation, such as talent identification and development processes (De Bosscher, De Knop, van Bottenburg & Shibli, 2015). Similarly, meso-level factor implementation related to athlete support such as sport science, will enable favourable athlete training and performance conditions (micro-level factors).

3.8.4 SPLISS model

The micro, meso and macro-level spheres are incorporated into the SPLISS (Sport Policy Factors Leading to International Success) model (De Bosscher, 2016). The SPLISS adopts a multidimensional approach that incorporates a system-resource model (national sport context at level of inputs), an internal process approach (throughputs), a goal-based model (outputs) and a multiple constituency model (feedback on the system). Based on a review of policies by De Bosscher et al. (2006), nine pillars of policy development regarding sport were identified as priority areas to ensure successful elite athlete performances. The nine pillars are divided into input and throughput phases. Pillar one is the input, whereas pillar two to nine are throughput phases. Throughputs are described as policy actions that could result in enhanced international performances (De Bosscher, 2016).

Outputs in elite sport can be measured on the basis of the number of medals won at identified elite tournaments such as the Olympic Games, the number of athletes who are placed in the top six or top eight in selected competitions, or even the number of athletes who qualify for identified competitions (De Bosscher et al., 2006). Research by Houlihan and Zheng (2013) 70 report findings that may influence policy-making related to elite sports that are similar to the elements discussed in the nine pillars. They are described accordingly.

Pillar 1: Financial resources

Financial and human resources are inputs of sport policies. Nations that invest larger amounts of finances in elite high performance sports, can create greater opportunities for high performance athletes to train under ideal circumstances. Competing in the financially driven environment of modern sport requires great financial resources to achieve success, which includes optimisation of the sport environment through marketing (promoting the organisation’s brand and the enhancement of the image of athletes through endorsements, licensing, image rights and merchandising) (Carenys & Sales, 2012).

In De Bosscher et al.’s (2006) study which investigated the performance of six countries (Italy, Belgium - divided between Flanders and Wallonia, UK, Norway, Netherlands and Canada) at major international sport events based on the nine pillars of sport policy development, pillar one emerged as one of the most significant factors in determining success. Based on the countries included in the study, the Netherlands, UK and Italy scored highest on the level of absolute financial investment in elite sport and the highest elite sport funding for national sport organisations. The performances of these countries at the Summer Olympic Games was significantly better than other countries under study, indicating that greater financial investment is necessary to achieve international sport success.

Houlihan and Zheng (2013) indicate that one of the most significant considerations for public policy regarding the achievement of elite success is related to the provision of substantial financial resources that enables elite athletes the opportunity to train for a substantial proportion of their time, whilst offering a wide range of support services. The results indicate that whilst some of the financial support is directed towards increasing the amount of time athletes spend training, the majority of financial support is allocated to the provision of elite coaching (pillar 7) and sport science (pillar 9). Financial investment in elite coaching is particularly evident in the UK and the Netherlands, with UK coaches reporting that they earn more than €50 000 (R639 000) per annum and Dutch coaches reporting earnings of more than €25 000 (R346 500) per annum (De Bosscher et al., 2008).

Despite the indication that many countries are stretching their public-sector funding for elite sport to unsustainable levels, there seems to be no indication that policies will be changed, as achieving success at major sport events remains important to governments and public alike (Houlihan & Zheng, 2013). Besides elite sport, Iconomescu et al. (2014) indicate that the most difficult task in private and public sector sport is securing financial support, and that a lack of financial and material resources is the greatest reason for athletes not pursuing high performance sport careers. This indicates that financial resources influence sport policies at organisational and national level.

Pillar 2: Governance, organisation and structure of policy development

Having the best policies and largest financial investment are not necessarily the recipes for success, as the management of the finances, policies and appropriate implementation of elite performance plans, will determine the success of athletes at international level. Pillar two incorporates the development and implementation of policies, and includes those involving the distribution of finances (the inputs) and the method of implementation, i.e. the organisational structure (throughputs). An integrated approach of pillar one and two is critical for the development of successful sport and athletic careers. The career path of athletes is incorporated in pillars three, four and five.

Pillar 3: Sports participation

Pillar three specifically refers to the initiation phase, i.e. the first participation of an athlete in any given sport. This pillar is often described as the talent identification phase and implies that development of talented athletes is necessary following their identification.

Pillar 4: Talent identification and talent development

At a national level, policy factors related to pillar four relate mainly to planning and coordinating the talent identification, development processes and related functions. Talent identification is performed at sport-specific level, as the process usually develops within sports. The primary concern is with youth athletes and how they fit into three phases. Firstly, talent recognition (monitoring systems that recognise talented athletes based on criteria that pertain to the relevant sport). Secondly, talent scouting, referring to the process of recruiting new athletes. The third phase involves selection processes, which refer to the methods used for selecting athletes for different events such as tournaments and training (De Bosscher, Brockett & Westerbeek, 2016).

De Bosscher et al. (2016) indicate that the pre-elite young athletes progress to a more advanced stage following talent identification, characterised by more time spent training, greater specialisation, and a shift from club events to formal, competitive events directed at optimising performance gains. Athletes at this stage are in the talent development phase which includes regular testing to confirm their potential, and selection for higher level age-specific important events such as regional or national youth championships. During this time, athletes begin to receive personal attention and greater recognition from their personal coach, club, governing bodies and government.

De Bosscher et al. (2015) conducted a global evaluation of 15 countries based on the nine-pillar SPLISS model. The countries included in the study were the Netherlands, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Estonia, France, Finland, Japan, South Korea, Northern Ireland, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland. Results indicate that countries in general scored relatively low on the overall evaluation of pillar 4. However, smaller countries such as the Netherlands, Flanders and Switzerland were found to have the most comprehensive approach related to talent identification and development.

The highest average score related to talent identification and talent development was found in multidimensional support services offered to young athletes. Whilst there were no differences amongst the top 16 athletes and others, 47% of emerging talents (n=2 932) received support in terms of extra training opportunities, training schedules, access to international competitions, equipment, reimbursement of expenses, medical support services, psychological support,

73 nutritional advice, and biomechanical analyses. The Netherlands received the highest score amongst the 15 nations under study, based on support services for young athletes.

Their age, school education and demanding training schedules have resulted in significant concerns and considerations on developing favourable circumstances for young athletes to achieve success on both fronts. 61% of athletes from the 15 countries under study indicated that their educational institutions were offering a form of special treatment due to their athlete status, whether it be flexible study time, alternative study schedules, distance learning or other related support.

The presence of nationally coordinated systems incorporating secondary education and sport schedules were identified in nine of the countries, namely Australia, Denmark, Finland, Flanders, Wallonia, France, Japan, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. The countries that scored the highest in terms of academic support for elite youth athletes were Flanders and Finland, with Brazil and Northern Ireland achieving the lowest scores. In terms of elite youth athletes continuing with tertiary (after school) education, the majority of countries reported limited structures for support, assuming a liassez faire approach where NGBs acted as the intermediary. Only two countries under study (Spain and Portugal) revealed that they provide legal elite athlete status with quotas for placement at universities should athletes meet the criteria, as well as other study support such as mentors.

Multiple factors exist advocating centralised and decentralised systems for training and academic support as displayed in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Centralised and decentralised systems

Advantages of Decentralised Systems Advantages of Centralised Systems • Athletes sleep in their home environment • Athletes live, study and train in one and train with their club coach place • Investment in a broader talent • Cheaper cost per athlete development base is possible, with more • Enables more all-inclusive services athletes able to enter the system • Greater time efficiency (e.g. time spent • Avoid early drop-out and burnout travelling to training sessions) • A more individual approach to athlete • Higher training level and standards development is possible according to the principle of ‘better • Encouragement of local sport club athletes make athletes better’ involvement, therefore local • Centralisation of expertise such as the implementation of sport development best coaches, sport science and sport medicine support • Sport clubs often lack capacity for appropriate, high quality talent development services

Source: De Bosscher and De Croock (2010)

Pillar 5: Athletic and post-athletic career support

Talent identification, talent development and the perfection phase are described as being in the shape of a pyramid; reason being that there is a significant drop-out level during these phases, with few athletes ultimately entering the perfection phase of high performance. As a result of the process of talent development, athletes who choose to progress further, usually enter international level participation.

The following four phases are part of the throughput stage and are essential for elite athlete development, with pillars six, seven and eight being a priority at both developmental and elite levels.

Pillar 6: Training facilities

Access to high standard training facilities is essential, with elite athletes receiving priority access.

Pillar 7: Coach provision and development

This phase incorporates all elements involved in the provision and development of coaches. Results of Iconomescu et al.’s (2014) research in sport management indicate that the results of athletes and the level of their potential success depend heavily on the knowledge, education and professional capacity of the coach. The higher the level of education and skill competency of a coach, the more success the athletes are likely to experience.

Pillar 8: (Inter)national competition

National and international competition programmes and well developed participation structures are essential. It is vital that athletes can compete in a developmentally appropriate environment corresponding to the phase of an athlete’s career, and systematically progress through the national competition framework to elite international competitions. Upon entering the international competition cycle, national federations should create opportunities for regular international participation.

Pillar 9: Scientific research and innovation

This phase emphasises the necessity of access to sports medicine and sports science support for elite athletes. In order to gain performance advantages over other countries, an in-depth sport science and sports medicine approach is vital. Sports medicine has become a critical specialised field of numerous sport governing bodies across the world (Green & Houlihan, 2005), as is evidenced by the more than 140 affiliates of the International Sports Medicine Federation (ISMF).

Figure 3: SPLISS Model (De Bosscher et al., 2006: 206).

3.9 Summary

The management of high performance sport takes place mainly within the political, socio- economic, technology and legal sectors of the sport management environment. Within the sport management environment, the professionalisaton of sport has taken place in order to secure various resources that contribute towards more successful athlete performances at elite level.

Certain phases are linked to the professionalisation of sport organisations. The first is the restructuring of the organisation, followed by the recruitment of staff for the required positions. Once the staff have been recruited, functional specialisation follows, then hiring of marketing experts and other paid staff in favour of volunteer staff. Finally, professionalisation is characterised by an increase in pay for staff. The ultimate performance environment of high performance sport systems within sport organisations depends on the extent to which the culture can be shaped to adopt a power and performance model.

One result of the professionalisation of sport organisations and the subsequent pursuit of success at elite level, is the existence emergence of Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) to support high performance systems. LTAD programmes consist of multistage training, competition and recovery pathways that are supported by talent identification, developmentally appropriate training frequency, financial support, and the training and qualification of sport coaches.

The success of the overall high performance system therefore depends on the input, throughput and output based on strategic performance management. One model that incorporates the macro- , meso- and micro-level factors for the evaluation of meso-level success based on nine pillars, is the SPLISS model. This model informed the design of the questionnaire and interviews, hence the discussion of methodology in the following Chapter. Following the discussion of methodology, Chapter 6 describes the sport systems and structures within the context of the sport environment that the BJA, JBN and JSA function.

CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the mixed-methods research design and methodology used to conduct this comparative case study analysis. Mixed-methods research combines qualitative and quantitative research, representing a triangulation of methods such as interviews, focus groups and questionnaires, in an attempt to develop an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). In this study, a comparative analysis of the management of high performance sport systems was conducted. Comparative case studies are conducted to produce generalisable knowledge about causal questions such as why policies and systems work or fail. An understanding of how the features within a particular context influence the success of a system, emerges with comparative case studies (Goodrick, 2014). Whilst Henry, Al-Tauqi, Amara and Lee (2007) indicates that there is a lack of standardisation related to the research methods used to conduct intercountry comparative case studies on sports policies, studies such as those by De Bosscher, Shibli, van Bottenburg, de Knop and Truyens (2010) developed the SPLISS model in order to address the methodological issues in such studies. They used quantitative measures in order to quantify data related to policies in an area of research that was generally qualitative in nature.

Henry et al. (2005) describe types of comparative research in sport, including studies that seek to find similarites, studies that seek to describe differences, and theorising of the transnational. The latter design is more appropriate for comparative sport studies, as the designs that determine similarities and differences regard their unit of analysis as unique and bounded. The transnational design takes into account the pressures that shape sport organisations at global level, as well as at local level, termed glocalisation (Robertson, 1992). This study adopts the transnational design. In general, such studies are grounded in a macro-theory (Henry et al., 2007). In this study, figurational theory served the purpose of a descriptive macro-theory related to globalisation, and systems theory was used to determine how sport systems could react to the phenomena related to glocalisation and globalisation.

In order to gain an in-depth understanding of high performance sport systems, the methods of data collection included semi-structured interviews with executive members of the federations and elite judo coaches, and focus groups with elite judokas. Questionnaires were administered to elite judo coaches and athletes. Focus groups and semi-structured interviews are generally used in policy research (Harrell & Bradley, 2009). In total, 26 coaches and 104 judokas participated in this study. The procedures that were followed in order to conduct the research are discussed following the section of research design and methodology, and the reliability and psychometric properties of the self-designed questionnaires, are reported. The chapter concludes with ethical considerations related to this study.

4.2 Research design and methodology

A mixed-methods international comparative case study analysis on the management of high performance judo systems was conducted among three countries (England, South Africa and the Netherlands). A concurrent triangulation mixed-methods research design makes use of both quantitative and qualitative data that contributes to exploring and understanding phenomena in- depth, assess its prevalence, and confirm or corroborate findings (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2007). In the present study, multiple data sets were gathered, namely quantitative data through the use of questionnaires, and qualitative data through interviews and focus groups. Qualitative data provides contextual explanation and ensures validation through the triangulation of mixed methods and different types of research participants (Hussein, 2009). Therefore, the contextuality provided by qualitative data contributes to an understanding from a figurational perspective, whereas the quantitative data from questionnaires provides data on the management of a highly structured system of high performance sport as a figuration.

Triangulation facilitates the integration of quantitative and qualitative data, and enables the clarification of theoretical propositions and the basis of research results. Such methods challenge existing theoretical assumptions and offer the opportunity for the development of new theories through the establishment of links between theory and the empirical findings of research (Östlund, Kidd, Wengström & Rowa-Dewar, 2011). The multimethod approach therefore allows for empirical verification of data by triangulation and explanation of contextual and lived-reality experiences, which are obtained by way of narrative reporting (Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe & Neville, 2014; Hammond, 2005). Finally, mixed-method research emphasises triangulation to validate research data, reveal competing and/or alternative perspectives, identify complex and dynamic categories, and develop analytic density (Fielding, 80

2012). Within the context of this study, triangulation enriched strategic data on the management of high performance judo systems, within their highly complex contextual realities. This study is informed by the embedded case study approach with the main unit of analysis analysis being the high performance judo systems of JSA, the JBN and the BJA.

Two self-designed questionnaires to assess the management performance of sport organisations were disseminated to elite judokas and elite judo coaches registered with Judo South Africa, the British Judo Association and the Netherlands Judo Association respectively. The questionnaires for judokas aimed to assess categories of management related to elite performance, such as peak performance, programme design and performance analysis, facilities and technology, and support services. Questionnaires for coaches aimed to assess management performance related to elite performance based on the themes of governance, athlete support, development strategies, and marketing, communication and sponsorship.

Qualitative data was gathered by way of focus groups with elite judokas from South Africa (n=8), the Netherlands (n=8) and England (n=7), as well as semi-structured interviews with one executive member of the British and South African judo federations (n) and a sample of elite judo coaches from South Africa (n=3), the Netherlands (n=2) and England (n=3). The data gathered from the questionnaires substantiates the experiences of judokas and coaches with regard to the most important themes related to the management of high performance sport systems. Data gathered from the interviews and focus groups was transcribed and used to triangulate and support findings from the questionnaires.

In order to ensure gender representation and avoid biases, proportional representations of male and female judokas were selected through purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is based on the selection of units (such as individuals or groups of people) that serve the purposes related to answering specific research questions (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). Criteria for selecting judokas as respondents were based on their level of representation, i.e. they were all part of their respective national teams and/or national squads in the Junior (u/21) and Senior (21 and over) age categories. Coaches were selected based on current or past coaching of their respective country’s national team in the relevant age categories. Gender representation was ensured by approaching and encouraging the participation of male and female judokas, coaches and executive members in each country.

4.3 Population

The total population of elite judokas consisted of the national squad in the u/21 and senior (over 21) age categories. Due to the fact that Judo South Africa does not have a national squad selection system in place such as those of the Dutch Judo Federation and the British Judo Association, elite judokas in South Africa were classified based on 1st, 2nd or 3rd position on the national ranking list of Judo South Africa. Placing in the top 3 positions on the national ranking list automatically qualifies a judoka to be invited to the national trials, of which the winner receives national colours. The Dutch and British judokas are selected for the national squad based on their performances at a variety of predetermined events.

The total elite population of Judo South Africa that qualified on these criteria, based on the national ranking list updated on 3 September 2016, was 82. At present, there are a combined 119 England judokas in the British Judo Association’s national junior and senior squads and in terms of the Dutch Judo Federation, 72 judokas fit the criteria for this study (judokas described as International Talent and higher (A status, M status and HP status)), according to the Federation’s classification. The combined population of elite judokas identified for this comparative study was 273 (n=82 for Judo South Africa, n=72 for the Dutch Judo Federation, and n=119 for the British Judo Association). Refer to Table 4.1 for further information.

4.4 Sample

One hundred and four (n=104) elite judokas of a population of 273, a representative sample of 26 elite judo coaches and one executive member of each national federation participated in this study. Various biographical details of the sample were captured, and are presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Sample Variable Groups N Percentage (%) Executive member 1 50 British Judo Judokas 29 27.9 Association Coaches 6 23.1 Executive member 1 50 Judo South Africa Judokas 37 35.6 Coaches 14 53.8 Executive member 0 0 Dutch Judo Judokas 38 36.5 Association Coaches 6 23.1 82

Variable Groups N Percentage (%) British Judo 119 24.3 Association Population of elite Judo South Africa 82 45.1 judokas Dutch Judo 72 52.7 Association Age category of Junior 58 55.8 judokas Senior 46 44.2 Males 64 61.5 Gender judokas Females 40 38.5 Males 20 76.9 Gender coaches Females 6 23.1

Based on the population of elite judokas for this study, judokas from Judo South Africa (n=37), the British Judo Association (n=29) and the Netherlands Judo Association (n=38) participated accordingly. 64 (61.5%) of the judokas were males and 40 (38.5%) were females, providing for a proportionally representative sample of both genders in this study. Based on the criteria of this study, South African judokas who participated represented 45.1% of the elite judokas in the country, whilst British judokas represented 24.3% and Dutch judokas represented 52.7% of elite judokas in the countries respectively. A proportionally representative number of junior (n=58) and senior (n=46) judokas took part in the study.

The criteria for the selection of judo coaches were based on their representation as coach of a national team for their country in the age groups under study. In South Africa, there were no dedicated full-time national age group coaches as is the case in the Netherlands and England, hence the fact that South African coaches were selected based on their appointment as a coach for one of the age group teams under study. Dutch and English coaches were selected based on their current status as a coach for the particular age group at international level. Twenty-six (n=26) elite judo coaches participated in this study. The coaches who participated in the study represented the federations as follows: Judo South Africa (n=14; 53.8%), the British Judo Association (n=6; 23.1%) and the Netherlands Judo Association (n=6; 23.1%). 20 (76.9%) of the coaches were males and 6 (23.1%) were females, providing for a representative sample considering the small sample size. One executive member from South Africa and England was included in this study. Unfortunately, the Dutch executive member agreed to participate, but subsequently did not respond to requestes by the researcher.

4.5 Researcher

The researcher in this study is an ‘insider’ with extensive involvement, knowledge and expertise of judo. He has competed for South Africa’s senior and university national teams, and has coached the cadet (u/18) national team at Commonwealth and World Championship level. He has also coached the national university team at the World University Championships. In total, the researcher has been involved in the sport for 26 years.

As a result of the fact that numerous respondents were aware of the status of the researcher, a high level of trust was present based on shared experiences. Due to the familiarity, the researcher was careful not to influence the responses of the participants, and accordingly allowed them to respond in their own time. The researcher was available at all times to offer support in the event that participants had requests regarding the questionnaires, however participants were encouraged to interpret the questions independently.

The benefits of being an insider in research are that insiders have in-depth knowledge of the particular topic of study, have access to the environment of study, and insider researchers have a shared understanding and trust with their immediate and removed colleagues with whom social interactions and working committees have been established over time (Costley, Elliot & Gibbs, 2010). The research participants and insider researcher therefore create a forum through which the respective parties can create meaning (Eide & Kahn, 2008; Hockey, 1993).

4.6 Procedures

In order to successfully conduct this exploratory study, a number of procedures were followed. Some procedures included a pilot study, data collection, and data analyses. These activities are described in the following section.

4.6.1 Pilot study

A pilot study was conducted in Pretoria, South Africa, in 2015, in order to simulate the conditions and procedures of the actual research. Five judokas who were in the South African national team at that stage, four of which were in the Junior (u/21) age category, and one who was in the cadet (u/18) age category. As part of the pilot study, interviews were conducted at the 84

2015 South African Open Judo Championships with three coaches, all of whom had experience of coaching South African national teams in the target age categories, at international level.

An advantage of conducting the pilot study was the identification of topics that warranted greater attention and a more in-depth literature study. Such topics included the extent to which financial and scientific support was offered to top judokas, the amount of time spent training, access to training facilities and the use of technology, the level of coaching available, and the overall system of elite athlete development that is offered by the national federation.

Questionnaires for both judokas and coaches were further refined to incorporate topics resulting from the pilot study. The final questionnaires clustered questions under the relevant topics (see Annexures E, p.219 and F, p.226), and wording simplified to ensure a greater level of understanding. Interviews were further refined to include the topic of elite performance pathways.

4.6.2 Data collection

Judokas and coaches who complied with the criteria for this research were recruited in January, June and July 2016. Firstly, members of Judo South Africa were recruited at the 2016 Judo South Africa national training camp in Bloemfontein (January) and the 2016 South African Open Judo Championships in Johannesburg (June - July). Secondly, British judokas were recruited through their head coaches at the respective national training centres in Walsall and Bath (July) and finally, Dutch judokas were recruited through their head coaches at the national training centres in Haarlem and Essink (July).

Following their recruitment at the respective venues, the aims and objectives related to the present research were clearly communicated to the coaches, judokas and their legal guardians/parents, where applicable. Prior to their participation, participants were requested to complete an informed consent form and in the event of underage children, a child assent form was completed by a parent/legal guardian. Prospective participants were informed that their participation was entirely voluntary and that all information gathered would be treated as strictly private and confidential. Assurance was given that the identity of the participants would be protected and that they would remain anonymous throughout, as well as in the results of the study.

Questionnaires were disseminated to all participants who completed the relevant consent forms, and participants completed the questionnaires in approximately 20 minutes. The completed questionnaires were returned to the researcher directly after completion. Questionnaires were available only in English, however in order to ensure that there was no language barrier present, a manager or coach was present in all cases in order to assist the participants in their home language.

Due to time constraints after training sessions and during tournaments, two British coaches, seven South African coaches, and four Dutch coaches submitted their questionnaires via email to the researcher. In terms of judokas, for the same reason as the coaches, four British, three Dutch, and four South African judokas submitted their completed questionnaires via email to the researcher. Finally, two executive members, one from South Africa and the other from England, were interviewed following the data collection from coaches and athletes, which contributed to triangulation and strengthening of the results of the study.

4.7 Methods

4.7.1 Focus groups and semi-structured interviews

A focus group is defined as a method to collect qualitative data from homogenous people in a group situation through a focussed discussion (Krueger & Casey, 2009: 15). According to Luntz (1994), people will most readily reveal their innermost thoughts when they believe that others who are present, share a common bond. Characteristics that define focus groups are break characteristics that differentiate groups from each other, and control characteristics that are characteristics common to all groups (Morgan, 1993).

Three focus groups were conducted in the present study, one with South African judokas, one with British judokas and one with Dutch judokas. The criteria for selection were based upon the current competition status of the judoka and their age. Judokas had to be in their respective national squads and be either in the junior or senior age category. Care was taken to ensure that there was gender representation in all the focus groups. Respondents of the South African focus group consisted of males (n=5) and females (n=3), respondents of the Dutch focus group consisted of males (n=4) and females (n=4) and respondents of the British focus group consisted of males (n=5) and females (n=2).

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with elite judo coaches from South Africa (n=3), England (n=3) and the Netherlands (n=2), as well as one executive member from the South African and British federations (n=2). Semi-structured interviews allow the interviewer to follow topical themes during the interview that could emerge from a predesigned interview guide (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006). The development of the interview guide was informed by relevant themes identified through a thorough literature review. The themes were related to the delivery and management of high performance sport systems, and the interview questions were structured accordingly.

All judokas, coaches and executive members who participated in the focus groups and interviews were fluent in English, although for some English was their second language. As a result, the researcher was careful to ensure that terminology was clearly explained.

4.7.2 Qualitative data analysis

Major topics of discussion recorded in the focus groups and interviews focussed on the effect that various aspects of the management of high performance judo systems. Questions were structured in a similar order to the themes identified in the literature study. The five main themes that emerged were governance, peak performance, programme design and performance analysis, facilities and technology, and athlete support. Other significant topics that emerged were related to the main themes, and included governance issues such as strategic alliances, capacity building such as coaching education, performance pathways, including talent identification and development structures..

4.7.2.1 Coding of focus groups and interviews

Based on recommendations and guidelines provided by Gorden (1992) and Wilkinson (2004), coding categories were defined in order to identify and include all relevant information under relevant themes. In the case of the focus groups and interviews conducted in this study, coding categories included five main themes, namely governance, peak performance, programme design and performance analysis, facilities and technology, and athlete support.

Based on an integrated approach proposed by Rabiee (2004), each category was assigned with a unique symbol, following which all relevant information was classified by identifying and 87 underlining responses relevant to the respective categories defined above. Category codes enabled the researcher to classify and cluster responses under the relevant categories. In the event that more than one response was similar, the responses were grouped together. In doing so, the frequency of responses could be determined.

4.7.3 Trustworthiness of qualitative data

According to Shenton (2004), there are four criteria that define the trustworthiness of qualitative research. The first criterion, namely credibility, is one of the most critical elements of establishing trustworthiness in qualitative data. A number of constructs strengthen credibility, which are present in this study, such as the fact that there is a triangulation of methods as a result of the use of qualitative and quantitative research methods (i.e. focus groups, interviews and questionnaires), purposive random sampling is used (specific age groups of elite judokas), and familiarity with the target audience exists as a result of the fact that the researcher is an insider. The second criterion was transferability, which was achieved by conducting the pilot study, interviews, and focus groups in similar conditions to the actual research, and by ensuring that the data gathered in this research can be understood in the context of the most elite sport organisations.

The use of overlapping methods in qualitative research, such as interviews and focus groups, ensured the achievement of the third criterion of dependability. Finally, confirmability refers to the level of objectivity maintained throughout the qualitative data collection and reporting process. In this research, utmost care was taken to record and report on the exact responses of the research participants, and therefore also avoid research bias.

4.7.4 Quantitative data analysis

Factor analysis was used to reduce a large number of variables into groups based on intercorrelation discovered amongst those variables (Pallant, 2010). In essence, factor analysis is used as a data reduction technique.

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is the most common statistical technique used to assess internal consistency (reliability) by providing an indication of the average correlation that exists amongst

88 all the items that make up a scale (Pallant, 2010). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was therefore used to assess the reliability of the self-designed questionnaire for coaches and judokas.

4.7.5 Quantitative research tools

4.7.5.1 Self-designed questionnaire for coaches and judokas

The self-designed questionnaires for coaches and judokas were based on a questionnaire adapted by Wim Hollander in 2014 for the Commonwealth Games Federation to assess aspects of governance. The questionnaires were designed to assess the management performance of sport organisations. The judokas’ questionnaire consisted of peak performance, programme design and performance analysis, facilities, technology, and support services sections. Regarding the judokas’ questionnaire, frequencies and descriptive statistics were provided by the section on peak performance, whereas exploratory factor analysis revealed reliability and psychometric properties on the remaining sections (Yu & Richardson, 2015).

The coaches’ questionnaire consisted of sections that investigated management performance, namely athlete support and development strategies, governance, management, marketing, communication, and sponsorship respectively. Due to the relatively small sample of elite coaches (n=26), factor analysis was not possible (Yong & Pearce, 2013) and data analysis provided frequencies and descriptive statistics. In such cases, Cronbach’s Alpha is used to report reliability (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011).

4.7.5.2 Reliability and psychometric properties of the self-designed questionnaires

Reliability analysis was done to determine the reliability of the questionnaire. Internal consistency of the items was measured by using Cronbach`s alpha reliability coefficient. According to George and Mallery (2003), an alpha value of > 0.9 is excellent, > 0.8 is good, > 0.7 is acceptable, > 0.6 is questionable, > 0.5 is poor, and < 0.5 is unacceptable. A high value of alpha indicates good internal consistency of the items in the scale.

The reliability tests of the judokas’ questionnaire revealed numerous statistically significant values. The section on programme design and performance analysis consisted of eight items, of which five were retained following exploratory factor analysis. The reliability of the five items 89 assessing programme design and performance analysis reported a significant value (p < 0.005) for Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity, a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value of 0.754 which is above the minimum recommended value of 0.6 (Kaiser, 1970, 1974), and a Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.774.

The section on facilities and technology consists of six items. The Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was significant (p < 0.005), a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value of 0.649 was reported, which is above the minimum recommended value of 0.6, and an acceptable Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.674 was reported. The final section on support services consists of 21 items of which three were excluded following exploratory factor analysis. The Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was significant (p < 0.005), a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value of 0.758 was reported, which is above the minimum recommended value of 0.6, and a good Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.859 was reported. The psychometric properties of the judokas’ questionnaire are displayed in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Psychometric properties of the judokas’ questionnaire Cronbach’s Variable No. of Items Mean SD KMO P value Alpha Programme design and performance 5 3.749 1.088 0.754 0.00 0.774 analysis Facilities and 6 3.61 1.148 0.649 0.00 0.674 technology Support 21 2.313 1.35 0.758 0.00 0.859

As a result of the fact that the section on programme design and performance analysis, as well as the section on facilities and technology consisted of fewer than 10 items, inter-item correlations were reported in Table 4.3 (see Annexure A, p.210). A range between 0.2 and 0.4 is satisfactory (Briggs & Cheek, 1986).

The following section refers to the tests used on the scales of the coaches’ questionnaire, with Cronbach’s Alpha reported on each of the scales. i) Strategic alliances: This scale consists of three items, and a good Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.812 was reported. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.4 (p.210).

90 ii) Capacity building initiatives: The scale consists of nine items, and reported an excellent Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.934. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.5 (p.210). iii) Athlete support: The scale consists of three items, and reported an acceptable Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.748. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.6 (p.211). iv) Team selection initiatives: The scale reported an excellent Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.950. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.7 (p.211). v) Athlete preparation initiatives: The scale consists of four items and reported an excellent Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.909. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.8 (p.211). vi) Scientific support: The scale consists of five items. The scale reported an excellent Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.977. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.9 (p.211). vii) Team organisation initiatives: The scale consists of three items. The scale reported an excellent Cronbach’s Alpha score of 0.940. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.10 (p.211). viii) Governance and engagement initiatives: The scale consists of two items. An acceptable Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.713 was computed. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.11 (p.212). ix) Governance: The scale consists of four items, and reports a good Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.811. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.12 (p.212). x) Management: This scale consists of five items and reported an excellent Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.947. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.13 (p.212). xi) Human resources: This scale consists of four items. The Cronbach’s Alpha value reported for this scale was good (0.874). Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.14 (p.212). xii) Information technology: This scale consists of three items. An excellent Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.945 was computed. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.15 (p.212). xiii) Facilities: This scale consists of three items and an excellent Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.921 was reported. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.16 (p.213).

91 xiv) Marketing, commercialisation and sponsorship: The scale consists of five items and reported an excellent Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.905. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.17 (p.213). xv) Communication: Consists of seven items and reported an excellent Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.979. Inter-item correlations are displayed in Annexure A, Table 4.18 (p.213).

A summary of the item statistics of the coaches’ questionnaire is displayed in Table 4.19.

Table 4.19: Summary item statistics of coaches’ questionnaire No. of Variable Mean Min. Max. Range Max/Min Variance items Strategic alliances 0.591 0.521 0.690 0.169 1.324 0.006 3 Capacity building 0.612 0.166 0.924 0.758 5.558 0.032 9 initiatives Athlete support 0.497 0.203 0.760 0.557 3.746 0.063 3 Team selection 0.826 0.739 0.872 0.133 1.180 0.002 4 initiatives Athlete preparation 0.714 0.574 0.904 0.329 1.573 0.013 4 initiatives Scientific support 0.893 0.841 0.937 0.096 1.114 0.001 5 Team organisation 0.839 0.806 0.893 0.087 1.108 0.002 3 initiatives Governance and engagement 0.554 0.554 0.554 0.000 1.000 0.000 2 initiatives Governance 0.517 0.361 0.746 0.384 2.063 0.022 4 Management 0.783 0.520 0.949 0.428 1.822 0.030 5 Human resources 0.634 0.376 0.804 0.427 2.136 0.022 4 Information 0.852 0.829 0.873 0.044 1.052 0.000 3 technology Facilities 0.795 0.689 0.900 0.211 1.305 0.009 3 Marketing, commercialisation 0.656 0.353 0.965 0.612 2.733 0.050 5 and sponsorship Communication 0.867 0.700 0.981 0.281 1.401 0.005 7

The following section describes the ethical considerations regarding the collection of data from the participants in this study.

4.8 Ethical considerations

The relevant authorities from the respective federations (Judo South Africa, British Judo Association and the Dutch Judo Federation) were approached in writing to participate in this study. The approval was gained from Judo Space in the UK (Dr Mike Callan) for the British Judo Centre of Excellence, Bath University’s High Performance Judo Centre, and one of the national high performance training centres in the Netherlands (Sport School Essink) (see Annexure H, p.221). Approval for research at another high-performance training centre in the Netherlands (Haarlem) was secured telephonically with the head coach, John van der Meer. In South Africa, approval was given in writing by the General Secretary of Judo South Africa (Ina van den Heever) on behalf of the President of Judo South Africa (Tembani Hlasho) (see Annexure G, p.233).

All judokas and coaches who participated in this research were handed an information sheet explaining the purpose and objectives of this study (see Annexure D, p.216). As a result of the fact that some judokas were under the age of 18 years, parents (and the coaches of judokas as legal guardians in the event that parents were not present) were requested to complete a child assent form (see Annexures C, p.215 and D, p.216), indicating that the participants understood the research, had knowledge of the purpose and objectives of the study, and thereby gave permission for them to participate.

The information sheet and consent forms informed participants that they would remain anonymous throughout the study, as well as in the results that are published based on the research. In the event that information obtained on a questionnaire was discussed, it was done between the researcher and supervisors of the study. If at any time during the study, an individual desired to withdraw from participating, including the completion of the questionnaire, the individual had the right to do so. All questionnaires disseminated to coaches and judokas were accompanied by a letter of informed consent. In order to ensure anonymity, confidentiality and the privacy of all participants, all data is stored and locked away in a secure location to which only the researcher has access, for a period of three years.

4.9 Summary

This chapter provides a foundation for the research that was conducted in this study by describing the research process. An essential element of this research was identifying an appropriate research design for a comparative study between Judo South Africa, the Dutch Judo Federation and the British Judo Association. Literature revealed that the mixed-methods, nested case study research design was the most appropriate, as this design is the most effective in affording a comparison between the three countries, whilst providing for the interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data. Besides the research design, this chapter describes the order in which the research was conducted, providing for a structured order of reporting data in Chapter 6.

CHAPTER 5

SPORT SYSTEMS OF THE UK, NETHERLANDS AND SOUTH AFRICA

Having considered the overall system of management related to sport organisations and specifically elite sport systems, a discussion of the overall and elite sport systems of the UK, the Netherlands and South Africa follows. The discussion provides comparative insight into the three countries that are included in this study.

5.1 UK Sport structure

A summary of the UK Sport business plan for the period 2013 to 2017 (UK Sport, n.d.) reveals that the UK Sport structure consists of a sport system and a variety of strategic partners, supported by well-defined values and a mission statement. The values of UK Sport are firstly a commitment to excellence, which emphasises providing a high-class system that functions on the highest possible standard to ensure top performances. Secondly, integrity and openness, which focus on accountability and establishing good relationships with stakeholders, and thirdly, working together by establishing relationships and collaborating with strategic partners.

UK Sport (n.d.) and UK Sport (2015) indicate that the UK Sport system consists of: i) School sports, of which the governing agency is the Youth Sport Trust. ii) Community sports which are governed by the home country sports councils. The home country sports councils consist of Sport England, Sport Wales, Sport Northern Ireland and Sport Scotland. iii) High Performance sport. UK Sport governs high performance sport.

UK Sport has developed a code of governance for sport organisations (Active People Survey, 2016). Themes from the code are discussed accordingly.

5.1.1 Governance and leadership

UK Sport strives to ensure good governance that places the organisation in a position where other sectors strive to replicate their structures. Providing specialised programmes that develop and encourage strong leadership skills is essential. Leadership in the sport sector should ensure high levels of corporate governance in NGBs and partners funded by UK Sport, as well as high standards of monitoring of governance systems. It is envisioned that good governance and high quality leadership will improve the overall ethics of sport, and ensure the well-being and performance of athletes.

Five principles of good governance are highlighted in the code of governance for sports (Active People Survey, 2016). The first principle is structure, which emphasises that sport organisations should have a clear and appropriate governance structure that is exclusively led by a properly constituted Board. The second principle is related to people and the recruitment of individuals that display diversity, independence, skills, experience and knowledge that should contribute to achieving the organisation’s goals. The third principle has to do with communication, which relates to transparency, accountability and democratic principles. The fourth principle is standards and conduct and encourages organisations to uphold the highest possible standards of integrity, supported by regular evaluation processes that should result in constant improvements. Finally, policies and processes should ensure that organisations comply with laws and regulations, and implement strategic financial planning, risk management and control mechanisms. As part of the good governance of sport organisations, there are three tiers of organisations as determined by the amount of financial support received, each with specific minimum criteria for good governance.

5.1.2 Financial investment

Tier 1 organisations receive a maximum total of £250 000 (R4 617 825), Tier 2 organisations between £250 000 (R461 7825) and £1 million (R18 471 300), and Tier 3 organisations more than £1 million (R18 471 300) (Active People Survey, 2016). The main sources of income for UK Sport are derived from the Department of Culture, Media and Sport (Exchequer) and the National Lottery. UK Sport, in turn, invests the funding, currently £543 million pounds (R10 029 915 900) in their partners, elite sport, sport programmes and the hosting of mega sport events (UK Sport, 2015).

Direct investment in National Governing Bodies (NGBs) of sport and in athletes is projected at £337 million (R6 224 828 100) from the National Lottery, £158 million (R2 918 465 400) from Exchequer, and £1.5 million (R27 706 950) from the commercial and other sectors for the period 2013 to 2017. More than 1 300 elite athletes have been supported with more than £350 million (R6 464 955 000) of financial investment for the 2016 Olympic Games and beyond. UK Sport allocates 70% of the available funding to NGBs and elite athletes. Support given directly to athletes is specifically for their living and sporting costs, and is based on an Athlete Performance Award (APA). NGB funding is applied to create world-class programmes incorporating highly specialised staff and outstanding performance environments (UK Sport, 2015).

Athlete Performance Awards consist of three bands for Podium level athletes (refer to Figure 5: Performance Pathways, p.99), and are paid over a four-year cycle coinciding with the Olympic Games. A-band athletes (Senior World Championship and Olympic medallists or Paralympic Games gold medallists) receive up to £28 000 (R517 196) per annum; B-band athletes (top 8 positions at Senior World Championship or Olympic Games and medallists at senior world championships or Paralympic Games) receive up to £21 500 (R397 132) per annum; and C-band athletes (potential to medal at World Championships and Olympic level within four years) receive up to £15 000 (R277 069) per annum (UK Sport, 2015).

Investing in the hosting of mega sport events endeavours to establish a legacy of hosting world- class events, providing British athletes with the opportunity to participate in home events that form part of qualification criteria for the Olympic Games and other major international events. Engagement with millions of spectators of elite sport, generates substantial amounts of income for host communities (UK Sport, 2015).

Four priority targets are considered when selecting events, namely that they must support and profile high performance success, create opportunities for interaction between people and sport, build on the legacy of the 2012 London Olympic Games and 2014 Commonwealth Games, and stimulate socio-economic development. The Gold Event Series aims to host at least 100 major sport events in the UK by 2023. A total of £27 million (R498 638 700) will be invested in major sport events by 2019.The UK Sport funding process described, is displayed in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4: UK Sport Funding (UK Sport, 2015: 1)

5.1.3 Talent and performance pathways

These processes comprise enabling and assisting the respective sports in developing more effective talent and performance pathways (UK Sport, 2015). The English Institute of Sport (EIS), which focusses on the development of science, medicine and technology, is instrumental in assisting the respective sports in identifying gaps in the talent and performance pathways, and ensuring that the most effective strategies are implemented to identify and develop athletes who are capable of winning medals at elite level.

The EIS not only provides services related to talent development, but contributes significantly towards elite athlete performance. These contributions are constituted by the provision of the above-mentioned services for elite athletes, and the assistance of coaches and performance directors in the creation of conditions that stimulate elite performance success. A generic performance pathway (i.e. not applied to a specific sport) that serves as a guideline for UK Sport NGBs, consists of various sections. Community sport (includes schools, clubs and universities) provides the athlete base from which further selection and development of athletes will take place. Talent pathways consist of county programmes/talent programmes, regional programmes, national age-group programmes and performance foundations. Performance foundations consist of the home nation talent development pathways, where talented athletes are identified, developed and prepared for the elite performance environment. Within one to four years, athletes can graduate to the podium potential phase.

The performance pathways are displayed in the following Figure:

Figure 5: Performance Pathways (UK Sport, 2015: 1)

Performance pathways consist of the podium potential and podium phases, and overlap with the performance foundation phase. The podium potential phase seeks to support and develop athletes and teams that have demonstrated a realistic chance of winning medals at future international events. Generally, graduation to the podium phase takes approximately six years. The podium phase includes all athletes with a realistic chance of winning medals at the Olympic or Paralympic Games, and who are potentially a maximum of four years from such an achievement.

5.1.4 Human resource capacity building and support services

One of the highest priority sectors within UK Sport’s human resources is the development of high quality coaches (UK Sport, 2015). Coaches’ development is ensured through the specifically designed delivery of programmes to ensure long-term high quality coaching development. UK Sport regards high class coaching as a critical element in achieving elite sport success. Such initiatives also support retired athletes in securing coaching careers and coaching qualifications. Other high level investments further ensure constant recruitment, development and retention of high quality managers, scientists, medicine and support service staff.

Leadership and governance programmes are in place, with CEOs from the Home Country Sport Councils participating in the Leading-Edge Executive Leadership programme. Coaching, mentoring and tailored support programmes are offered accordingly, thus enabling sport organisations to apply good governance and reach their targets, based on key performance indicators. Warm weather and related acclimatisation training, and international competition schedules form part of the support programmes. Training takes place in high-class elite training facilities, with access to these facilities prioritised for elite athletes.

In order to inspire future generations of young athletes to pursue performance careers, elite athletes will serve more than 1 300 volunteer days by 2017 in order to promote sport. Furthermore, approximately 25 000 volunteers and officials will gain experience through their services in mega sport events.

5.1.5 International collaboration

In order to establish a global footprint, support services are offered to various international sport bodies. The IDEALS (International Development through Excellence and Leadership in Sport) programme ensures that there are progressive interactions amongst leaders throughout UK Sport and international partners. Currently, the programme is linked to a number of NGBs and 10 Universities in the UK, as well as countries such as Namibia, Zambia and Tanzania, as part of an outreach programme.

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The partners of UK Sport include: i) NGBs of the respective Olympic and Paralympic sports; ii) Elite athletes; iii) Commissions funded by UK Sport, namely the British Athlete Commission (BAC), Sports Coach UK (scUK), Sports Resolutions, Institutes of Sport (England, Scotland and Wales), Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme (TASS) and the UK Sports Association for People with Learning Disabilities (UKSAPLD); iv) Commercial partners, including BAE Systems, BUPA and Sportscover; v) Delivery partners that include the Home Country Sports Councils (HCSC), namely Sport England, Sport Wales, Sport Northern Ireland and Sport Scotland; vi) Funding partners, including the National Lottery, Exchequer and the commercial sector; vii) UK Government, specifically the Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) that serves as a governing body for the departments of health, education, international development, foreign and Commonwealth, cabinet office and treasury; and viii) Subsidiaries, that include the English Institute for Sport (EIS), International organisations such as UNICEF, Major Events such as the HCSCs and local councils, and Landscape institutions such as the UK anti-doping agency, the Youth Sports Trust, the British Olympic Association, Sport and Recreation Alliance and British Universities and Colleges Sport.

In order to ensure that all funded partners and NGBs achieve their goals, annual key performance indicators (KPIs) exist.

5.2 The British Judo Association (BJA)

The BJA is affiliated to the International Judo Federation, the European Judo Union, the Confederation of the European Union, the British Olympic Association, the Central Council of Physical Recreation, the Commonwealth Judo Association and the Commonwealth Games Council. In terms of judo, the BJA is the representative of Great Britain internationally (British Judo Association, 2016). The vision of the BJA’s Centre of Excellence, which is creating medal- winning athletes at every Olympic and Paralympic Games, and the mission, which is creating a judo performance system from grassroots to Olympic and Paralympic level, are clear.

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5.2.1 Governance and leadership

The British Judo Association (2016) indicates that the BJA is a registered public company and is governed with reference to the Public Companies Act with its relevant memorandums, articles, by-laws, policies and guidelines. The BJA is the NGB of judo in the UK, and as a receiver of public funds, must comply with the regulations and expectations as described in the previous section. The documentation provides specific regulations in order to ensure that the BJA complies with UK Sport in terms of governance issues. The committees governing the BJA consist of a Board of Directors (minimum four, maximum 14 individuals with three being independent), a Council (consisting of the President, Vice Presidents, and representatives of the Home Country Associations, nine English Regional Areas and other bodies such as Royal Navy Judo, Army Judo and British Universities Judo) and commissions that serve to deliver services in specifically defined categories. The Home Country Associations are each automatically represented by a Director on the Board of Directors respectively.

The Bye-Laws of the BJA describe the rules and regulations that apply to member clubs, license holders, Home Country Associations, English Regional Areas, organisations affiliated to the BJA and recognised bodies of the BJA. In particular, different level clubs are affiliated to the BJA depending on their status, which is determined by their compliance to specified minimum criteria. Category A clubs are entitled to representation and voting power at the BJA’s Annual General (AGM) and Extraordinary General Meetings (EGMs), thus promoting buy-in from all clubs in the Association. All General Meetings are called EGMs besides the AGM, and all clubs have one vote respectively.

5.2.2 Financial investment

The BJA provides financial investments that include incentives for talented top-level athletes at three different levels. The top two tiers are in line with UK Sport (Podium and Podium Potential), and a lower level of funding (Academy level) is BJA-specific. Athletes in the junior and senior national squads of the BJA that do not qualify for funding (self-funded) are able to participate in Olympic qualification events based on set criteria. Athlete Performance Awards are given to athletes in the World Class Performance Programme (WCPP), based on their performances and approximately £10 000 (R189 600) per annum is invested on each athlete engaged in the academy programme.

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UK Sport (2017) indicates that the total funding including the World Class Performance Programme and Athlete Performance Awards for the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games cycle was £6 947 000, whilst the 2012 London Olympic Games cycle received a total of £7 498 000, the 2016 Rio Olympic Games cycle £7 366 200, and the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games cycle £7 575 680. Initially, the funding for the Rio Olympic Games was based on a conditional one year award, related to governance and performance requirements. The British Judo Association subsequently addressed the governance-related conditions, and performance-related conditions culminated in the construction of a £1 million (R18 960 000) centre of excellence for high performance judo training. The result was an increase of approximately £500 000 (R9 480 000) in funding for the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games cycle (British Judo, 2014). In addition, Sport England announced an investment of £3 750 000 (R71 100 000) to increase the number of participants in judo, and £1 075 000 (R20 382 000) for talent investment over the period 2017-2021.

5.2.3 Talent performance pathways

Besides governance in the BJA, the Association has a performance programme that is structurally similar to UK Sport, but specifically applies to judo (British Judo Association, 2016). The Home Nations programmes, including Northern Ireland, Scotland, England and Wales provide the base of talented athletes for the programme. The goal of the Home Nation programmes is to identify young talented athletes, develop them physically and mentally, and equip them with the necessary skills in order to prepare them for eventual progression to the World Class Performance Programme that is targeted for top-level senior athletes. The focus for the Home Nation programmes is the development of athletes in the pre-cadet (13 and 14 years of age) to junior (18 to 20 years of age) categories.

The focus of the BJA has been shifted towards the technical development of pre-cadet (13 and 14 years of age) and the cadet (15 to 17 years of age) athletes, rather than a focus on winning tournaments at this age. The decision is based upon research conducted by the BJA, which indicates that technical development at this age is more important in order to achieve Olympic success, than producing medal-winning performances. As part of the shift in focus, the BJA has included an annual 10-day training camp in Japan over October to develop and inspire future generations of athletes. Two to three club/area coaches who actively promote the Home Nations and national programme are included in this fully sponsored tour.

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From 16 years of age, athletes have the opportunity to participate in judo on a full-time or part- time basis. The programmes are offered by each of the Home Nations at Performance Pathway Centres, of which England has eight. The centres in England are supported by the AASE academic programme and assists athletes in progressing to full-time judo training at the British Judo Centre of Excellence (BJCE).

The BJCE is situated on the Walsall Campus of the University of Wolverhampton, and is supported by the University. Full-time support staff such as coaches, sport science, sports medicine, and strength and conditioning specialists are involved. The BJCE is the culmination of the BJA World Class Performance Programme (WCPP) for able-bodied and visually impaired athletes preparing for the Olympic and Paralympic Games. Athletes based at the Centre train on a full-time basis. The performance programme is supported by the English Institute for Sport. An academy programme exists to afford athletes the best possible transition to the WCPP within 12 to 18 months.

5.2.4 Human resource capacity building and support services

The BJA regards having well qualified, knowledgeable coaches as a priority for delivering world-class athletes (British Judo Association, 2016). Four coaching level courses are offered, with level one being the most basic coaching level and level four a postgraduate diploma in advanced sport coaching practice. Compulsory revalidation courses exist up to level three. Level one and two must be revalidated within two years, and level three within six years. In terms of international events, the head female and male coaches are responsible for mat-side coaching for all major events up to and including the Olympic Games. Personal coaches are able to attend certain international events on a self-funded application process through the BJA.

In terms of support staff, advanced programmes such as the WCPP and Academy programme, include investment in sports science and sports medicine staff, accommodation, medical aid, lifestyle support and coach-led individualised training plans. The BJA also invests in volunteer training. Regular courses are offered to referees and technical officials, and individuals engaged in non-technical roles who assist at judo events.

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5.2.5 International collaboration

Regular event participation with foreign countries ensures international collaboration. First- world exchange actions with countries throughout Western Europe and Japan, as well as countries in Eastern Europe and South America with a history of success in judo ensures competition on par with the vision for elite success. Other foreign interaction includes outreach and assistance programmes through volunteer projects by British athletes in Africa, with countries such as Zambia.

The partners of the BJA are:

• National Judo bodies of Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and England; • British Judo Council; • British Olympic Committee; • European Judo Union; • International Judo Federation; and • Paralympics Great Britain.

5.3 The Netherlands sport structure

The NOC*NSF is the National Olympic Committee and The Dutch Sports Federation (Papendal, 2016). According to NOC*NSF (2016), the structure of the highest decision-making authority of sport in the Netherlands consists of a general assembly that is divided into the following categories: i) Ordinary members represented by national sport federations; ii) Extraordinary members represented by Dutch sport federations; iii) Dutch International Olympic Committee (IOC) members; iv) Honorary members; and v) Athletes’ Commission representing elite level athletes.

Ordinary and extraordinary members pay membership fees, and the amount for ordinary members is based on their membership numbers. At general assemblies, all members have voting power as identified above, however the Athletes’ Commission has two representatives, each with 105 the right to vote. Besides the general assembly, the NOC*NSF has a board that consists of 11 members, and 100 office staff members who manage the organisation under the leadership of the Managing Director (NOC*NSF, n.d.).

The NOC*NSF represents the Netherlands at various national and international events, and organises participation in international sporting events such as the Olympic and Paralympic Games, as well as two major youth sport events. The vision of the NOC*NSF is to unite their citizens and lead them to greater achievements. The mission is to achieve a top-ten position on the Olympic medal table. The following discussion highlights the methods proposed by the NOC*NSF to achieve elite success.

5.3.1 Governance and leadership

Sport is recognised as a significant method of raising the country’s profile internationally, whilst the value of sport in terms of health, socio-economic and educational benefits, is promoted in order to maintain a healthy nation (NOC*NSF, 2016). Approximately 10 million people in the Netherlands practise sport in more than 27 000 sport clubs. The goal of the NOC*NSF is to work closely with a diverse range of approximately 5 000 commercial sport providers, local and regional sport structures and communities in order to increase sport participation of the general population from 65% to 75%.

The strategy of achieving targets related to increased sport participation, which forms the basis of not only a healthy nation, but a larger pool of potential elite athletes, is based on an ‘attract and engage’ strategy. The strategy incorporates a neighbourhood-specific approach (collaboration between sport providers, local communities and institutions like schools) and a sport-specific approach, which has a goal of 100% sport participation of children 6 to 12 years of age (through collaboration between sports clubs, schools and government), 90% sport participation amongst 12 to 23-year-old individuals (through the provision of a large variety of sports, appropriate infrastructure, and increased availability of sports at schools), a 75% sport participation rate amongst 24 to 45-year-olds (by offering a variety of tailored sport experiences through collaboration between local authorities, commercial sports providers, businesses and schools), and related sport participation goals amongst older citizens.

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In terms of elite sport, all Olympic and Paralympic sports, as well as non-Olympic sports that meet certain criteria, are recognised as elite sports, although this does not guarantee funding and support. At present, there are approximately 350 athletes from 12 sport federations who make use of the Papendal National Sport Centre (NSC) on a full-time basis. Athletes have the opportunity to make use of the Centre for Top Sport and Education, which provides a unique opportunity for full-time athletes to study and gain an education, whilst participating in their chosen sport.

In order to achieve the goal of attaining a top-10 position on the Olympic medals table (i.e. top 10 sports country), there are criteria with which sport codes must comply. General focus criteria, which assist in broad classification, identify sport codes as part-time (a programme that runs for at least 125 days a year), performance (the programme performs at world championship, Olympic or Paralympic level) or sport federation commitment (partly funded by the national federation). In order to form part of the top-10 ambition, sport codes must comply with criteria, including being full-time programmes (at least 250 days per year). The sport should classify as a sport federation commitment sport and be a performance sport with a realistic chance of winning medals at world championship, Olympic or Paralympic level.

Management criteria for such sports include having a programme that is centrally managed by the national federation. The programme should have a full-time technical director, endorsed by the national federation that leads the programme. A full-time coach should manage a programme that is monitored by the national federation and incorporates a full-time talent development programme with a central management system.

5.3.2 Financial investment

The main sources of funding in the Netherlands sport environment are derived from the following sources (NOC*NSF, 2016): i) Consumers: The substantial sports consumer market in the Netherlands results in an annual income of approximately €6 billion (R98 billion); ii) Local authorities: Publishing the positive effects of sport policies in local communities and relating these effects to government objectives, are seen as a method of strengthening relationships and generating larger income. Approximately €1 billion (R16 billion) is raised annually; 107 iii) Business: Improving relationships between sport providers and businesses, and assisting the development of strategic relationships between the sectors, could create further increased funding. Currently, the business sector raises approximately €600 million (R9.9 billion) on an annual basis; iv) Government: the NOC*NSF works closely with government, in particular the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport. The government invests approximately €130 million (R2.1 trillion) in sport annually; v) National Lottery: The financial investment from the National Lottery in the NOC*NSF is approximately €52 million (R857 million) annually; vi) Leo van der Kar Fund: This fund supports athletes and coaches financially, both directly and indirectly, through various methods. The fund supports more than 1 200 coaches and athletes through, for example, exposure to foreign expert coaches and training methods; vii) Other sources of funding: These sources include various media-related sources (€50 million annually) (R824 million) and provincial authorities (€17 million annually) (R280 million).

5.3.3 Talent and performance pathways

Based on the classification of a sport which is determined by focus criteria, the Netherlands distinguishes between sport codes at elite level as part of the podium, potential, talent, part-time or international sport programme.

Athletes who become part of the respective programmes, progress through various stages. The first stage is talent identification, based on multiple testing criteria related to the principles of long-term athlete development (LTAD). Each sport federation is responsible for the development of a sport-specific LTAD that is externally audited and certified in order to ensure a scientific, age-appropriate, long-term approach that translates a curriculum into quantifiable goals that will ensure eventual senior success.

The talent identification process lasts for three to five years, following which athletes progress to the talent development phase that lasts for approximately five to eight years. Under the guidance of the national sport body, athletes are prepared technically, physically, mentally and are offered social support with the ultimate goal of achieving success at elite level internationally. During this time, athletes have the option to attend Top Sport talent schools that are coordinated by the

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LOOT Foundation. The schools offer talented athletes at school level the opportunity to participate in their sport whilst adjusting their school schedules to conform to their sporting requirements. The LOOT Foundation is an independent institution that ensures a working relationship between the training and performance expectations that the NOC*NSF has for talented athletes, and the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (TTS, 2017).

When athletes are identified as most likely to achieve medal success at world championship and Olympic level and rank in the top 16 positions in the world in their sport, sport federations recommend them to the NOC*NSF for High Potential (HP) status. Once athletes reach this status, they are supported financially through stipends, with living costs and individualised training programmes. The NOC*NSF goal is for 50 athletes to reach the HP-status. Such athletes progress from talent schools to Regional Talent Centres (NTCs), which serve as national training centres.

The focus of the NOC*NSF is on the period just prior to senior level (called senior -1), during which the highest drop-out rate occurs. Athletes at this level are supported to participate at youth European and World Championship level in order to prepare them more adequately for senior participation.

5.3.4 Human resource capacity building and support services

Sport science services at the Olympic Training Centres (OTCs) are offered to all full-time athletes in conjunction with their coaches and training programmes. Such services can include physiological support in terms of climate controlled training facilities that prepare athletes for different environmental circumstances.

Other main focus areas of elite athlete support services are the provision of high-level nutritional advice and eating programmes, as well as performance monitoring. Performance monitoring at the centre includes tests such as plyometric, visual skills, speed and movement skills and balance assessments. Numerous research projects are conducted by the Sport Innovation department, such as the optimisation of sleep patterns to improve sport performance and the use of a number of nutritional supplements to enhance performance.

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Besides training support, the NOC*NSF provides medical insurance to elite athletes that is tailored towards their specific needs. In addition to direct support services to elite athletes, there are 1 500 000 volunteers involved in sport in the Netherlands.

5.3.5 Access to facilities

There are five Olympic Training Centres (OTCs) in the Netherlands, of which the largest OTC is situated in Papendal, Eastern Netherlands. The centre provides accommodation, conference facilities, meeting rooms, and indoor and outdoor training facilities for the majority of sports. This centre serves as the home base for the NOC*NSF and incorporates support training facilities such as the Sports and Innovation Centre. Priority access is provided for elite athletes who reside at the OTC, however national sport bodies throughout the country make use of the facilities on a regular basis.

In order to produce better prepared athletes from the talent identification process onwards, the NOC*NSF has identified as a priority the strengthening of infrastructure at regional and national training centres.

5.3.6 International collaboration

The Papendal NSC is partnered by more than 20 sport-related organisations and businesses that make use of the office space and provide external services. Their use of office space generates further income for the centre.

The partners of the NOC*NSF include: i) Partners in Sport, such as the Lotto, Rabobank, EY, Volkswagen and Zilveren Kruis; ii) Project Partners, Official Suppliers and Social Partners such as Coca-Cola and Asics; iii) Media that includes eight partners; iv) Worldwide Partners that form part of the International Olympic Committee, such as Visa, McDonalds, Omega, Coca-Cola and Panasonic; and v) Government, in particular the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, and anti-doping associations.

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5.4 Judo Bond Nederland (Netherlands Judo Association)

The Judo Association Netherlands (JBN) consists of approximately 750 clubs and 50 000 members, making it one of the largest associations in the country. The JBN has as the mission to represent and promote all its members, whilst providing the necessary tools to practise their sport safely and effectively (JBN, 2016).

5.4.1 Governance and leadership

The management structure consists of a central executive committee comprised of directors who fulfil the following positions: chairperson, finances, member and tournament-related matters, mass participation and elite/high performance. Besides a central office, seven districts exist within the JBN, each with their own committees that report to the central executive (JBN, 2016).

5.4.2 Financial investment

Travelling and tournament costs of athletes selected for the national team, are covered by the national federation. Additionally, the national federation also secures travel insurance for athletes selected for the national team. In the event that athletes are requested to participate in international events not included on the original calendar, the national federation compensates the athletes for travelling costs to the value of €0.21 (R2.91) per kilometre, as well as €500 (R6 930) per day for senior events, €250 (R3 465) per day for junior events and €250 (R3 465) per day for cadet events (JBN, 2016).

5.4.3 Talent performance pathways

The goal of the JBN is to be placed within the top 8 judo countries in the world, which coincides with the NOC*NSF goal of a top 10 overall position globally. In order to do this, the JBN continues to strengthen its structures relating to elite training facilities and programmes at the OTCs, and launched its training programme at the OTC in Papendal, following the 2016 Summer Olympic Games.

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Talent development within the Dutch judo system is divided into specific age groups. These age groups are divided into the following categories (JBN, 2016): i) Under 12 years: Clubs form the basis for the training and development of athletes at this age. ii) Under 15 years: The year in which athletes turn 12 years old, they move to the u/15-year age category. During this time, they train at their clubs, and the most talented are invited to train at the regional training centre (RTC) servicing the relevant area. In terms of inviting talented athletes to train at the RTC, the discretion lies with the regional coach and the club coach. Two sessions a week at the RTC are offered, and once athletes sign up for the programme, regional sessions are compulsory, with club training sessions taking place on other days. Tournament participation takes place over weekends. iii) Cadets: From the age of 15 years to the age of 17 years, athletes have the opportunity of participating in training at the RTC and national training centre (NTC). The programme for talented athletes as identified by the regional coach, incorporates weekly training at the NTC and two sessions per week at the RTC. iv) Juniors: Athletes aged 18 to 21 years are assessed and based on their potential, the top- level athletes at this age are incorporated into full-time training at the NTC. The athletes who are not selected for full-time NTC training, follow a similar programme to the cadets, and are regularly assessed for progression to the NTC programme. v) Seniors: From the year in which athletes turn 21 years of age, they are identified as seniors. Seniors are assessed and based on their potential, the top-level athletes at this age are incorporated into full-time training at the NTC. The athletes who are not selected for full- time NTC training follow a similar programme to the Juniors, and are regularly assessed for possible promotion to the NTC programme.

World Class Performance (WCP) is the priority at this level, which is achieved by winning medals at World Championships, European Championships and Olympic level. Goals related to achieving WCP for senior (21 years and older), are winning at least three medals at each Olympic Games, at least two medals at the World Championships and three at the European Championships. 90% of JBN competitors who perform at elite level come from the JBN centres and judo participation should take place on at least 250 days a year. Regular assessment of performances should take place based on contributions from the NOC*NSF, stakeholders and international trends.

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Goals related to achieving WCP for Juniors (18 to 20 years) include the winning of at least three medals at the Junior European Judo Championships, with 80% of JBN competitors who perform at elite level coming from the JBN centres. Participation in at least 200 days of judo should take place on an annual basis.

Goals related to achieving WCP for cadets (15 to 17 years) include winning at least two medals at the cadet European Judo Championships, European Youth Olympic Festival and Cadet World Championships. Annual participation in 150 days of judo is compulsory.

Elite athletes, classified as International Talent, National Talent and Promising, train at one of four national training centres between the ages of 18 and 21, with seniors moving to the OTC in Papendal. Training programmes are guided by a generic term programme that creates a certain level of uniformity amongst the centres, and contributes to continuity in the programme.

In order to sustain WCP, the JBN’s goals include an annual 5% increase in the number of athletes training at one of the four national training centres. Ensuring a full-time, fully supervised, individualised programme for athletes recognised as International Talents should further contribute to a sustainable programme. Sustaining the programme further involves an annual international training camp in the Netherlands and securing signed contracts with elite athletes and the JBN.

5.4.4 Human resource capacity building and support services

Coaching education is one of the core activities of the JBN, with multiple coaching levels present, each with various criteria constituting an increasing degree of difficulty. An assistant coach qualification is the most fundamental level, with a diploma (B coach, level 4) in judo coaching being the most advanced. In terms of volunteer education, each district presents regular courses annually to enhance the skills of referees and technical officials.

Athletes selected for the national team are also, from time-to-time as deemed necessary, afforded sport science, sport psychological, and other related training opportunities. The JBN makes use of the support staff provided by the NOC*NSF at the national training centre in Papendal.

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5.4.5 International collaboration

In accordance with the vision of the NOC*NSF to host top-level international events, the JBN hosts annual elite international judo events. These events encourage closer cooperation with local businesses and government, and contribute to strengthened ties between the JBN and international collaboration with like-minded judo organisations. The events also offer opportunities for elite Dutch athletes for international participation within the country’s borders, contributing to possible home ground advantage (JBN, 2016).

Partners of the JBN are: i) The Lotto; ii) Communities of Rotterdam, Nijmegen and Hilvesum; iii) The Johan Cruyff Foundation; and iv) The Right to Play.

5.5 The South African sport structure

Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA) serves as the official government department responsible for sport in the country (SRSA, 2016a), whilst the South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee (SASCOC) is the multicoded sport body responsible for delivering performance teams to all multicoded events such as the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, Youth Olympic Games, World Games, All Africa Games and Zone VI Games (SASCOC, 2016). SASCOC awards national (Protea) colours to athletes who qualify for national teams based on set criteria, and endorses applications for the bidding and hosting of international sport events.

SASCOC comprises three sections, namely team preparation, a national academy section and coaches development, which is supported by expert commissions, namely high performance, athletes, coaches and medical and anti-doping. Members of SASCOC, as per the 2015 SASCOC Constitution, include: i) National Sport Federations that form part of the Olympic and Paralympic movement, that are affiliated to major international bodies that do not form part of the Olympic movement, that are affiliated to International Federations recognised by the IOC, and those without 114

international representative bodies, but participate nationally and comply with minimum criteria as set out by SASCOC; ii) Associate Members which may be awarded such status should they participate nationally and organise national events on a regular basis; iii) Special Organisational Members who are awarded such status provided that they meet the set criteria; iv) IOC Members; v) Members of the Board, (13 at present) who are automatically Members of SASCOC in ex officio capacity; vi) Provincial Sports Confederations, which are the officially recognised representative bodies of sport in each of the nine provinces in South Africa; vii) Athlete’s Commission which is a commission of the Board of SASCOC, duly represented at SASCOC meetings by a Member of the Commission who must be an Olympian; and viii) Honorary Members as determined by criteria set out by SASCOC.

Based on the representative organisations comprising SASCOC, a variety of measures have been implemented in order to achieve goals related to elite sport success. The measures are discussed in the following section.

5.5.1 Governance and leadership

The White Paper on Sport and Recreation refers to the King III Report on Governance for South Africa (SRSA, 2012) and indicates that emphasis in business and sport management should be placed on leadership, sustainability and corporate citizenship.

SASCOC’s written constitution serves as the guideline of the organisation’s functioning. The Constitution determines that the organisation’s Board is represented by a President, Deputy President, Vice President and five Additional Members. Specific terms of service, and other related rules and regulations are described in the Constitution.

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5.5.2 Financial investment

Athletes who are identified to become part of the national academy system (from sport focus school stage) as described below, receive the Ministerial Sports Bursary on an annual basis. The bursary is awarded to athletes from their first year of high school until they complete their high school education. The present goal is to support 40 athletes accordingly. According to the SRSA National Strategic Plan 2015-2020, the National Academy System, which caters primarily for talented athletes who are supported by National Federations, was projected to receive R26.5 million in the 2015/2016 period in support of the programme.

The Operation Excellence (OPEX) programme, which supports elite athletes with proven international medal-winning capability, functions on an annual budget of approximately R100 million, and it is tasked with supporting athletes from all 72 sporting codes (Mjikeliso, 2013). In 2015/2016, SRSA set aside R27.8 million (approximately $2.03 million) to support 60 elite athletes.

Sport science support to athletes and coaches in partnership with identified high performance centres and sport focus schools equates to approximately R60 million (approximately $4.38 million) per year at present, of which R21.7 million (approximately $1.58 million) is paid to the South African Institute for Drug Free Sport (SAIDS) annually in support of its operations.

Recognition systems, which include events such as an annual Sports Awards function, amount to approximately R18.9 million (approximately $1.38 million) in expenditure, with the budget set to increase to R21 million. Major events, such as the Ekhaya Hospitality Centre, which hosts events that exhibit South Africa’s potential as a sports tourist destination, receives R10.8 million annually, with the amount set to increase to R14 million (approximately $1.02 million) in the next budget.

Another major source of funding for National Federations (NFs) stems from SRSA’s grant system. Targeted federations receive grants in two tiers, firstly for administration, and secondly for governance, transformation and performance. Priority federations receive such support based on their ability to deliver mass participation initiatives, an existing strong presence and national footprint, affordability and sustainability of national rollout, and the promotion of equity, transformation and political redress in terms of equitable resource allocation. The sports are

116 football, netball, rugby, cricket, athletics, hockey, swimming, tennis, table tennis, basketball, gymnastics, softball, volleyball, goalball, boxing, tennis and selected indigenous games.

SRSA’s priority programmes in terms of the 2015-2020 budget planning, are divided into five programmes. Programme one is administration, programme two is an active nation, programme three is a winning nation, programme four is sport support, and programme five is sport infrastructure support. The five programmes are displayed in the following Figure.

Figure 6: Programme budgets SRSA 2015-2020 (SRSA, 2015: 1)

A unique scenario in South Africa is the achievement of targets in terms of gender and racial equality at management level and in terms of team composition. Transformation targets are assessed based on a points scorecard, and the goal for the period 2015 to 2020 is that 80% of

117 targeted NFs and 60 Sport and Recreation bodies will reach their transformation targets by the end of this period, failing which financial and non-financial support will be discontinued.

5.5.3 Talent and performance pathways

SRSA is responsible for implementing a talent tracking system in conjunction with SASCOC. The responsibility of SRSA is to support talented athletes at district and provincial level, whereas SASCOC supports talented athletes from national level onwards.

Creating an active nation by promoting mass participation recreation activities and maximising access to sport facilities and training opportunities at school level, is envisioned as a method to ensure a talent pool that will sustain elite level sport participants and performances.

National Academies provide opportunities for athletes deemed talented enough to achieve future elite success, to train on a full-time basis, whilst maintaining an academic career. At entry level, sport-focussed schools serve as the basis for district and provincial academies, and the National Training Centre in Bloemfontein. Sport-focussed schools are supported through scientific support programmes, equipment, infrastructure improvements, and capacity development of coaches. In conjunction with the National Academy System, a talent identification and development programme is being implemented, providing scientific support to an additional 40 athletes who fall outside, but are expected to enter, SASCOC’s Operation Excellence (OPEX) programme in future. An additional 80 world-class athletes under the age of 18 from major sporting codes, will also be supported.

The OPEX programme is supported by SASCOC and caters specifically for elite athletes. It consists of three tiers of funding (SASCOC, 2015). Athletes in the first tier receive comprehensive support consisting of a monthly grant mostly for general costs related to preparation for Olympic Games, and support services such as living expenses and medical aid. Second-tier athletes are judged on potential medal-winning capabilities at the Olympic Games and must have been medal winners at the Youth Olympic Games and Commonwealth Youth Games. Tier three athletes are judged based on motivations made by their NFs, and must be regular medal winners at international level.

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Specific targets set by SRSA for the period 2015 to 2020 include supporting 80 world-class athletes under the age of 18 years, the hosting of one annual National School Sport Championship annually (which serves as part of the selection process for the National Academy Programme), and a 10% increase in the number of athletes supported by Provincial Sport Academies. SRSA therefore focusses their allocation of resources on elite sport, with mass participation projects expected to feed into the elite sport system.

5.5.4 Human resource capacity building and support services

In terms of facilities, SRSA has prioritised the provision of sufficient sport facilities as one of the highest priority enablers. They will continue to support the establishment of a fully functioning Academy System and establish a sports house that will provide a central medium for governance and administrative support. Priorities related to structures include the establishment of a formal club sport participation structure, and the integration of sports development at provincial and local levels through sports councils.

Human resource education includes the training and empowerment of volunteers in order to support the sport system. Establishing and maintaining an Athletes’ Commission and a Coaches’ Commission should empower coaches and athletes and provide them with a forum to communicate. Similarly, establishing and maintaining an administrator and technical officials’ commission for empowerment and support, is critical. Internationally, maintaining strategic international relations should be a benefit to the overall system. Financially, securing adequate financial resources to fund all related sport projects is a critical priority, as well as capitalising on the potential benefits that sport broadcasting and sponsorship opportunities hold for sport and recreation events.

One of the main areas of the joint SRSA and SASCOC focus in terms of capacity building, is coaching (SASCOC, 2013). The programme is dedicated towards the implementation of the South African Coaching Framework up to, and beyond, 2018. The programme encourages transformation and excellence at all levels of sport, and focusses in particular on increasing the number of skilled coaches, which should enable improved performances of athletes all round. The framework should establish an effective, cohesive, inclusive and ethical coaching system. Numerous initiatives and seminars related to coaching development are presented, with NFs expected to align and implement the programmes accordingly.

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5.5.5 Access to facilities

SRSA has set out goals related to access to facilities over the period 2015 to 2020, with 6400 schools, hubs and clubs being targeted for assistance with equipment and attire, ultimately enabling a greater number of citizens to participate in sport and recreation activities. The expectation is to have approximately three million participants in provincial mass participation programmes by the end of the period, thus increasing the potential talent pool of potential elite athletes. Access to facilities is mainly based on mass participation development initiatives.

5.5.6 International collaboration

SRSA indicates that strategic international relations are critical to the development of South African sport, especially in terms of South Africa’s leading role on the African continent. SRSA provides intra-governmental and institutional support to four major events annually, based on their compliance to regulations related to bidding and hosting of international events (SRSA, 2016b). A special Directorate for International Liaison oversees such projects. The Directorate also negotiates government-to-government agreements and manages programmes that result from such agreements.

The subprogramme of the Directorate supports numerous bilateral international relations. These relationships include exchange programmes with countries such as Jamaica, India, Russia and Australia. SRSA also supports South African students who are engaged in studying for sport- related degrees in Cuba, and focus on strengthening international relations with African countries that are emerging from conflict. Furthermore, the subprogramme ensures that SRSA delivers on its responsibilities on important international forums such as UNESCO, the United Nations Sport for Development and Peace International Working Group (SDP IWG) and the World Anti- Doping Association (WADA). SRSA acts as the chair of the SDP IWG and the Thematic Group on Sport for Development and Peace, as well as Secretary-General of the Africa Union Sports Council Sport Development Region Five.

SRSA is also represented on the following influential councils: The Sports Development Committee, Women and Sport Committee, Committee on Sport for the Disabled of the African Union Sports Council Sport Development Region Five, Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa (ANOCA), Confederation of Southern African National Olympic

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Committees (COSANOC), and the Commonwealth Advisory Body on Sport (CABOS). The partners of SRSA include the Ministry of Sport, SAIDS and SASCOC. Besides SRSA, partners of SASCOC include the National Lotteries Commission, four sponsors (besides global Olympic and Paralympic sponsors) and a product supplier (Tabard).

The online study of the National Olympic Committees of the UK (UK Sport), the Netherlands (NOC*NSF) and South Africa (SASCOC) reveals that numerous in-depth and detailed resources of elite sport systems and their functioning are available for the UK and the Netherlands in comparison to South Africa. A number of broken links exist on the SASCOC website, with very little information on the OPEX programme and significantly limited information on the functioning of the South African Academy Sports System.

5.6 Judo South Africa

Judo South Africa (JSA) is the officially recognised representative body of the sport in South Africa, and is duly recognised as the only representative body for judo at SRSA and SASCOC (JSA, 2016). JSA has a written constitution that prescribes the functioning of the Association.

Members of JSA include: i) All persons who affiliate with the Association annually; ii) Honorary members, as approved by Council; iii) Life members, as approved by Council; iv) Associate members, as appointed by Council; and v) Regional/Provincial Controlling Bodies.

The Council comprises the JSA Executive Board and one representative from each of the Regional/Provincial Controlling Bodies. The JSA executive committee consists of 11 members, elected through a nomination process according to the four-year Olympic cycle (e.g. 2016 – 2020). The JSA Constitution makes provision for subcommittee members and coordinators for Executive Committee Members in the position of Treasurer, Vice-President, Coaching and Education, High Performance, Sport Director and Referees.

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5.6.1 Governance and leadership

An online study of JSA reveals that there are numerous documents available, explaining the functioning of the organisation. However, the only ratified and updated documents are the Constitution (ratified by the JSA Council in 2013), the Referee Policy (ratified by the JSA Council and explaining various functions and procedures related to referees), and the Education and Coaching Policy and Coach Education and Advancement Policy. These documents were ratified by the Council in 2014 and outline the functions and procedures related to coaching and education in the JSA system. In line with SRSA and SASCOC guidelines, a Code of Conduct for all members representing JSA is available.

Draft policy documents (i.e. no indication of official ratification by the JSA Council), which cannot be used for any discussions, include the JSA Tournament Policy (2009 draft document). The document, for example, refers to tournaments that are no longer in existence, and age categories that are no longer in use by the Association at national level. Others include the Selection Policy (2009 draft document), the Technical Officials Policy (2010 draft document), the Registrations Policy (2007 draft document) that is outdated and incomplete, and the Disciplinary Policy (2009 draft document).

5.6.2 Coaching and education

As mentioned, the Education and Coaching Policy and Coach Education and Advancement Policy documents are two of the few that are relevant and conform to constitutional requirements in terms of ratification. Due to the fact that SASCOC regards coaching development as a key priority for high performance coaching, this department is of critical importance for adequately qualified coaches to serve in the JSA High Performance Department. The documents clearly describe the vision, mission, scope, roles and responsibilities of the various Coaching Commission members, as well as the requirements to upgrade as a coach.

Coaching levels offered by JSA are level 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4, of which courses for level 3 (Provincial coach) and 4 (Senior coach) are offered by external service providers. Level 1 coaches are assistant coaches and level 2 coaches are club coaches. At level 2, individuals qualify to become a head coach of a judo club. It is unclear which levels are applicable for high performance

122 coaching and how they are selected for a career in high performance coaching. This should probably have been covered in an updated and applicable high performance policy document.

In comparison to the JBN and BJA, there is limited information available on JSA regarding departments, committees and their functioning at any level, and much of the available documentation is outdated. The JBN and BJA documentation is updated and relevant to their current cycle of participation. In terms of hosting international events, there is no information available on the potential impact on JSA, and the recruitment and training of volunteers for such events. There is also no information available on the registered clubs, the number of judo clubs in South Africa, and the number of registered members. Furthermore, should the current draft High Performance Policy be taken into consideration, there are no specific high performance plans in place, no indication of a High Performance Centre for Judo in South Africa, and no documents indicating planning for long-term success at international level.

There are also no references available explaining the qualification process for the 2020 Olympic Games, or a squad of athletes who have been identified for possible qualification. The only available list of registered coaches in South Africa on the website, is from 2014. The comparison also reveals that there is no financial information available regarding JSA, especially in terms of high performance funding, athlete support, and other related projects. Finally, although reference is made of Long Term Participant Development (LTPD) in the coaching education documents, the link to the existing JSA LTPD document is not available from their website.

5.6.3 International collaboration

Although JSA participates in only a few international events annually, the President of Judo South Africa is the assistant sports director of the Commonwealth Judo Association (Judo Commonwealth, 2016). Annual international events include continental events such as the African Championships and African Open.

5.7 Summary

Evidently, successful elite sport performance does not merely depend on the design and development of accurate and effective sport policies, but must also have the right personnel to lead sport organisations, create visions, and maintain peak performance environments (Arnold et

123 al., 2012). These personnel operate within organisational environments that are divided into the sectors within which they function, and present unique circumstances that must be exploited to the maximum (Fletcher & Arnold, 2011).

A system incorporating good leadership and governance through elements such as appropriate financial planning, athlete performance pathways, extensive investment in human resources, support staff and facilities, and extensive international collaboration, should enhance the likelihood of Olympic success. The UK and the Netherlands have extensive overall frameworks that incorporate these elements into a system of elite performance in comparison to South Africa.

The following Chapter reports on the results and discussion of the comparative research conducted between the Dutch, British and South African elite sport systems in this study, with the ultimate goal of comparing the systems, and identifying principles of good practice in the field of elite sport management.

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CHAPTER 6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 Introduction

The results of this study are based on the analyses, interpretation and discussion of different data sets that were gathered through the methodology, design and procedures discussed in Chapter 4. These results are discussed in this chapter accordingly. Qualitative data was gathered through interviews with judo coaches and executive members of each national federation, and focus groups with elite judokas from South Africa, England and the Netherlands. Quantitative data sets were gathered by administering self-designed questionnaires to judo coaches and judokas, both assessing the management of high performance sport systems from the respective perspectives. The completed questionnaires were analysed with guidance from STATCON (Statistical Consultation Service) at the University of Johannesburg, whilst recordings were transcribed and analysed by the researcher.

The discussion in this chapter is structured thematically, with the first discussion reporting biographical information, followed by inter-country comparisons of the management of high performance systems from the perspective of elite coaches, judokas and executive members. The Chapter concludes with a summary.

6.2 Descriptive statistics

The following section reports the analysis of data and interpretation of results from the questionnaires. Biographical data of the sample of judokas and coaches is presented next.

6.2.1 Biographical information of the judokas’ sample

Results from biographical data revealed that 101 respondents (three did not complete the question) indicated that they had been included in the national team, with 40 (39.6%) included in the national team for the first time between 1997 and 2011, and 61 (60.4%) included for the first time between 2012 and 2016. Furthermore, of these judokas, 34 (33%) were national team members for up to two years, 38 (36.9%) for three to five years and 31 (30.1%) for more than five years. One respondent did not complete this question. 125

Fifteen Judokas (n=15; 14.4%), competed in at least one Olympic Games; 42 (40.4%) of respondents were judokas for up to five years, whilst 62 (59.6%) were judokas for six or more years; 42 (40.4%) of judokas were in their present club for up to five years, 29 (27.9%) for six to ten years, and 33 (31.7%) over ten years. Of these judokas, 50 (48.1%) had the same coach for up to five years, 28 (26.9%) for six to ten years and 26 (25%) for more than ten years. A summary of the descriptive statistics is presented in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Biographical information of elite judokas

Percentage Variable Groups JSA JBN BJA N (%) When did you 1997 – 2011 14 14 12 40 39.6 first qualify for the national 2012 – 2016 23 22 16 61 60.4 team? 0 – 2 years 14 15 5 34 33.0 How many years have you 3 – 5 years 17 11 10 38 36.9 been in the national team? More than 5 6 11 14 31 30.1 years 0 – 5 years 2 0 1 3 2.9 How long have you been a 5 – 10 years 7 10 7 24 23.1 judoka? More than 10 28 28 21 77 74.0 years Have you been No 14 4 8 26 25.0 in the u/18 national team? Yes 23 34 21 78 75.0

Have you been No 10 19 4 33 31.7 in the u/21 national team? Yes 27 19 25 71 68.3 Have you been No 20 26 8 54 51.9 in the senior (u/21) national Yes 17 12 21 50 48.1 team?

None 34 32 23 89 85.6 Have you participated in Once 2 4 6 12 11.5 the Olympic Games More than once 1 2 0 3 2.9

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Percentage Variable Groups JSA JBN BJA N (%) 0 – 5 years 12 18 12 42 40,4 For how long have you been 6 – 10 years 5 17 7 29 27,9 in your present club? More than 10 12 11 10 33 31,7 years 0 – 5 years 13 23 14 50 48,1 For how long have you had 6 – 10 years 12 10 6 28 26,9 the same club coach? More than 10 11 6 9 26 25,0 years

It is evident from the biographical data that the majority of elite judokas in Dutch and British systems are more experienced in terms of international participation compared to South African judokas, having been in the national team for more than five years. The data can be directly related to the number of Olympic participants (Netherlands, n=60; Great Britain, n=82; South Africa, n=8) and the subsequent Olympic success of the respective federations (Netherlands, n=23 medals; Great Britain, n=19 medals; South Africa, n=0 medals). Clearly, the Dutch and British systems favour a long-term development system that emphasises experience and a low retention rate of elite judokas in order to achieve Olympic success.

The Dutch system indicates a constant decline in the number of elite judokas in national teams from u/18 to senior level, and a higher number of cadet national team members than the other federations. This could indicate that a system with a large talent pool is needed to produce higher quality elite athletes at Olympic level. The findings related to a larger pool of talent are in line with Goranova and Byers (2015) and Collins (2008). The fact that fewer elite Dutch and British judokas have been with the same club coach for more than 10 years than in South Africa could be as a result of the system of centralisation, whereby the national team is expected to move to national training centres and train with the relevant national coach. However, the results suggest that those elite Dutch and British judokas have a national coach for 10 or more years, which is significant in terms of the coach-athlete relationship.

The overall biographical data suggests that a highly elite group of judokas, with significant experience of elite participation, participated in this study. This is substantiated by a high proportion of participants who had participated in at least one Olympic Games, and the fact that all the judokas under study, were part of their respective national team between 1997 and 2016. 127

The contribution of such an elite sample of judokas provides invaluable insight into the understanding of elite sport systems.

6.2.2 Biographical information of the coaches’ sample

In terms of their classification as elite coaches, 100% (n=26) of the coaches represented their national federation as a national coach, with all the British and Dutch coaches (n=12) being full- time national coaches at the time of this study. Ten coaches (38.5%) served in their present position for up to seven years, whilst sixteen (61.5%) were in their present position for more than seven years.

Finally, coaches were required to indicate their level of education in judo based on the national federation’s coach education programme, sport or a related field. Seven coaches (26.9%) had a judo coaching qualification endorsed by their national federation, five coaches (19.2%) had an internationally recognised judo coaching qualification, four coaches (15.4%) had a diploma in sport or a related field, four coaches (15.4%) had a degree in sport or a related field, one coach (3.8%) had an honours degree in sport or a related field and four coaches (15.4%) had a Master’s degree or higher in sport or a related field. This indicates that 50% of coaches in this study (n=13) had a tertiary sport-related qualification, providing for a highly knowledgeable sample. A summary of biographical information related to coaches is presented in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2: Biographical information of coaches

Percentage Variable Groups JSA JBN BJA N (%) Representation as Yes 14 6 6 26 100 national team No 0 0 0 0 0 coach Time spent as 0 – 7 years 4 4 2 10 38.5 coach More than 7 years 10 2 4 16 61.5 National 6 0 1 7 26.9 International 1 2 2 5 19.2 Coaching Diploma 3 0 1 4 15.4 qualification Degree 2 2 0 4 15.4 Honours 0 0 1 1 3.8 Masters or higher 2 1 1 4 15.4 *One coach did not complete the item on coaching qualification.

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The status of the sample of coaches as elite, is substantiated significantly by the fact they represent a relatively high level of educational and sport-specific qualifications. The experience that these coaches possessed, combined with the fact that all coaches had represented their respective countries in a coaching capacity at international level, provides for a highly knowledgeable sample. Data from the coaches should, therefore, provide valuable and accurate information regarding the functioning of elite judo systems in the respective countries. Evidently from this data it is clear that South Africa has knowledgable coaches in comparison to the Dutch and British coaches. However, the full-time status of the Dutch and British coaches indicates a distinct difference with South Africa. The final stage of the professionalisation of sport organisations is highlighted by the employment of full-time coaches, findings that are confirmed by Bayle and Robinson (2007).

6.3 Inter-country comparisons from the perspective of elite coaches and executive members

The following section reports on the results of inter-country comparisons of data gathered from elite judo coaches, between the JBN, BJA and JSA on factors that could influence the management performance of elite sport organisations, such as strategic alliances and capacity building initiatives.

Due to the relatively small number of existing elite coaches, and the subsequent small sample size (n=26), the Bonferroni adjustment was not necessary in the analyses of the respective items. Preliminary analyses were performed prior to all correlational calculations in order to ensure that no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity existed.

6.3.1 Strategic alliances

The strategic alliances scale measured the extent to which coaches believed that their respective national judo bodies had efficient strategic relationships with important selected national organisations. The organisations included government, the national anti-doping association, and critical funding agencies such as the National Lottery.

Results from a Kruskal-Wallis test revealed a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level, x² (2, n = 26) = 10.57, p = .004, between the JBN, JSA and the BJA. Further analysis, 129 through a Mann-Whitney U test, revealed a significant difference and large effect size with JSA, in comparison to the BJA and the JBN (see Table 6.3). Similarities existed between the BJA and the JBN, demonstrated by the fact that there was no statistically significant difference between the national bodies. It is thus apparent that the JBN and BJA have aligned more strategically with national governing institutions and organisations that could provide critical support, such as financial and administrative resources, to elite sport systems.

In support of the above findings, South African coaches indicated that there is limited support from government institutions. It is generally the case that managers and coaches in JSA are highly dependent on limited direct income generation and subsidies, generated through activities such as national tournaments. One coach explained that: The federation generally relies on the entry fees from our national trials to contribute to coaches’ and managers’ tour costs. This should be understood in the context of the growing need for specialisation, which has implications for travel demands, as managers and coaches need to accompany athletes to international events. It is evident that the financial support of managers and coaches should be a priority in the South African environment, which could be explained by the fact that national teams are usually accompanied by volunteers, in their own time and at the expense of their regular occupations. The fact that judokas on the African continent, and especially Southern Africa, have achieved limited success at major international events, contributes to a greater need for travelling abroad, and thus increased costs associated with travelling to continents such as Europe and Asia. Considering that South Africa is a developing country with a substantially smaller GDP than the Netherlands and England, and an increasingly weak economy, travelling could place significant burdens on individuals. A smaller GDP, combined with social transformation targets, implies that the filtering down of socio-economic realities to athletes from a lower socio-economic status, significantly impacts the quality of strategic alliances, particularly as sport is partly state-funded. One tour to Europe could cost in the region of as much as R30 000 (Approximately $2200) at present.

Another narrative from a JSA coach indicated that: The government doesn’t recognise judo as a priority sport in South Africa. This has implications in the context of globalisation, the increasing need for the professionalisation of elite sport structures, and the emphasis on performance-based measurement of success of sport performances at global level. JSA’s relatively insignificant track record of success at major international judo events could account for the lack of support at government level. The prioritisation of selected sports at national

130 government policy level results in support at financial resource, and administrative level, as well as the provision of priority access to elite sport facilities. A further major factor that influences the support of national federations, is the present South African political discourse that favours an agenda of socio-political transformation, which could result in selecting teams on criteria other than merit. The dual selection criteria of redressing past political injustices versus performance-based criteria, represents a dichotomy, and such policies could perpetuate the relative lack of performance at international level.

An executive member from Judo South Africa indicated that:

The local municipalities, government and the Lotto provide limited financial support for national events. We also have links to JSA related to training facilities at universities and a high performance centre.

There are further links to Sport and Recreation South Africa, governments in Port Elizabeth, the Free State and the Western Cape (Provincial government sectors).

Western elite sport is embedded in the power and performance model. In this context, the elite success of judo in the Netherlands and in the UK strategically positions the Associations to capitalise on the support of government departments and funding agencies. The results are evident in the financial support provided by the respective Olympic Committees. The following narrative from one of the Dutch coaches substantiates the findings:

The JBN gets about €1 million per year from the NOC*NSF. We have had some problems in our organisation. Our previous technical director had a very good plan and we would have received up to €2 million per year.

A rather favourable situation also exists in the UK, where performance-based criteria are used to determine the level of financial success that sport organisations receive. One insightful narrative from a British coach reflected on the value of strategic alliances with funding agencies:

The biggest change in the England sport system can be seen pre-97 and post-97, when the system professionalised as a result of massive financial investment from the National Lottery. The investment focussed on three aspects, sport science, facilities and coaching staff.

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UK Sport was established in 1997, with the purpose of creating a clear strategy for elite success. The narrative indicates that professionalisation of a sports organisation is directly linked to the level of financial resources invested into the creation of performance structures and strategies.

All the British coaches agreed that the alliance with UK Sport provides significant financial support, with one coach responding that the investment for the Rio Olympic Games was …approximately £7 million, which is allocated to judo’s athlete performance awards and world class programmes. An executive member from the BJA indicated that:

About 75% of funding comes from the Lottery. For our elite programme we received just over £8 million over four years, so basically £2 million a year. The Lottery funds our national centre.

Another narrative from a BJA executive member indicated the importance of strategic alliances at the British Judo Centre of Excellence, with institutes supported by the National Lottery and government departments: The English Institute of Sport provides us with physios, sport psychology and sport science support. Support services are not limited to judokas. Coaches can also make use of the support as …coaches also have an opportunity to speak to lifestyle consultants if they have the need. A BJA executive member also indicated that:

We have an academy programme. Some (athletes) are full-time and some are part- time, and they are funded by the Association to transition to full-time training at the national centre as part of the World Class Performance Programme.

The BJA executive member further indicated that:

We do have a lot of other activities with the Universities. Their running English degrees, so we’ve got a German judoka studying here, some Japanese are going to do the same. We’re linked into their sport science…and there are University competitions that we can access for some athletes when its appropriate.

A mutual dependency model exists in the Netherlands, where strategic alliances with other national judo organisations contribute to elite judokas’ programmes. The following narrative from an elite Dutch coach provides further insight into planning regarding the National Training Centre in Papendal, (a district in East Netherlands): Papendal is in the East of the country near the border with Germany, so we can easily train there, or in Belgium.

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Strategic alliances in the Netherlands and the UK are based on a power and performance model that focusses on the achievement of international success, within a highly professionalised environment. The judo organisations are strategically aligned in terms of performance-based criteria, that enable the optimisation of support from the respective national institutions. Strategic alliances with organisations and businesses, access to funding, communication, planning and preparation for competitions are all factors that could contribute positively or impact negatively on organisational performance (Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009). In the South African model, optimisation of strategic alliances related to financial support are critical in order to participate abroad. The optimisation of such relationships is complex as a result of multiple criteria that emphasise elite performances on one end of the spectrum, but require non-performance based compliance to political criteria, on the other end.

6.3.2 Management

The management scale measured the extent to which coaches believed that their respective national judo bodies had efficient systems and strategies in place to ensure the effective delivery of a fully functioning high performance system. The elements of a high-performance system included a clear strategy for Olympic success, a budget that is in line with the strategic plan, and is evaluated by an annual monitoring and review process. Finally, the scale assessed whether a succession plan was in place following participation in the Olympic Games.

The Kruskal-Wallis test revealed a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level for the three groups x² (2, n = 26) = 11.73, p = .003, and post-hoc comparisons with a Mann-Whitney U test revealed a significant difference and large effect size between JSA in comparison with the BJA and the JBN. The results further indicated no statistically significant difference between the BJA and JBN, indicating that similarities existed in the management systems and strategies employed by these organisations.

The results should be understood within the context of the amateur, volunteer-driven status of judo in South Africa, in comparison with the global trend of professionalisation. Professionalisation related to planning and implementation of strategies and structures, implies an approach similar to that of the business sector. The amateur status of sports like judo in South Africa is perpetuated by numerous complications that have arisen as a result of a period of isolation during Apartheid, and the subsequent difficulties in overcoming many of those

133 challenges. The situation is further compounded by the fact that South Africa was banned from participation in the Olympic Games during the same period as the introduction of judo to the Games, depriving the country of exposure to the international development of the sport. One executive member from Judo South Africa indicated that …a vision, mission and goals existed, however the document is stored and not freely available.

The results related to South Africa are substantiated by the fact that all coaches agreed that very limited knowledge existed related to qualification for the Olympic Games, as is indicated by the following narrative: …there is no national programme. Only one or two coaches understand how to qualify… Furthermore, the qualifications of South African coaches who participated in this study suggest that highly knowledgeable individuals exist. A relative failure by the national body to exploit this knowledge, further contributes to the existing lack of planning.

In comparison to the challenges that exist in the South African context, the professionalised nature of the JBN and the BJA, has contributed to successful implementation management strategies and structures related to Olympic success. Another contributing factor that would explain the extensive planning in which these associations engage, is their international success in judo from the outset. The almost exclusive focus on creating systems to produce elite athletes and achieve international success through performance planning, can be seen in the responses from British and Dutch coaches.

British coaches indicated that, in order for judokas to qualify for the national squad and respective national teams, a selection process involving numerous criteria, exists. One narrative from a British coach indicated that High performance athletes are selected based on their performances at identified tournaments, and testing done at training camps. All British coaches agreed that judokas are subject to constant scrutiny based on their performances at various levels. Successful performances by elite judokas in the BJA are constantly stimulated and motivated by their regular monitoring and performance-based assessment. An executive member from the BJA confirmed that long-term strategies are essential to success at elite level with the following narrative: …our eight year strategy was really focused on getting our first gold medal in Tokyo (at the 2020 Olympic Games).

Regarding the Dutch system, there is a complete set of criteria for judokas to qualify for the national team, and the elite events such as the Olympic Games. The selection process is

134 performance-based, and includes numerous tournaments. The selection process starts at cadet (u/18) level. The following narrative from one of the Dutch elite coaches reflects on the process:

The best are selected to fight the Cadet European Championships and the Cadet World Championships. From club level, there are about 60 cadets in the national squad, which is narrowed down to about 19 for the selection tournaments.

Compulsory squad trainings also form part of the national squad system, and influences the selection process. Another Dutch elite coach explains the importance of the national sessions:

There are two regional trainings per week and national training once per week. No attendance excludes you from European selection tournaments. You can still compete in all other tournaments.

All Dutch coaches agreed that the selection process involves an overall squad system with relatively large numbers of elite judokas. The system, together with performance-based criteria and assessment, encourages constant competitiveness throughout the season, as judokas have multiple opportunities to qualify for the national team. The overall process stimulates elite success, and culminates in qualification for the Olympic Games. Performance management such as are present in the Dutch and British systems correlate with the recommendations made by Fletcher and Arnold (2011).

Planning and implementation of Dutch and British elite judo systems are clearly highly professional in comparison to JSA, which stimulates elite success. The professionalised system of management present in the Dutch and British systems are in accordance with the recommendations and findings of De Bosscher et al. (2006), Houlihan and Green (2008), Böhlke and Robinson (2009), Mele et al. (2010), Shibli et al. (2012), Gulbin et al. (2013) and Smith (2016). The socio-economic context of South Africa compounds the challenges related to professionalising, which directly influences the fact that there is a relative failure to design and implement fully functioning management strategies, systems and structures related to high- performance judo. Understanding the context within which management processes take place in order to optimise performance is supported by Girginov (2010).

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6.3.3 Human resources

The human resources scale measured whether human resource capacity building initiatives, policies and procedures, clear job descriptions, and full-time employees existed in the JBN, the BJA and JSA, and to what extent.

A statistically significant difference was revealed by a Kruskal-Wallis test at the p < .05 level for the three groups x² (2, n = 26) = 11.12, p = .004. Post-hoc comparisons using the Mann-Whitney U test revealed a significant difference and a large effect size between the BJA and JBN, in comparison with JSA. Table 6.3 displays further details. The fact that significant similarities existed between the BJA and JBN, should be understood in the context of the advanced level of professionalisation that exists in the respective sport systems. Professionalisation, coupled with strong strategic alliances with government and funding agencies, is linked to the socio-economic status of England and the Netherlands. These are contributing factors that can account for the fact that full-time human resource staff can be employed. Furthermore, there is global recognition that a culture of excellence is produced by sustainable, professional services. The findings related to the professionalisation of organisations through the employment of full-time staff correlates with those of Aćimović et al. (2013).

Professionalisation of human resource structures in the BJA is substantiated by the following narrative from an elite British coach: …coaches are fully employed staff members of the BJA. Another narrative further substantiates the results, indicating that: We have a dedicated office with full-time administrative staff at the centre referring to the British Judo Centre of Excellence. An executive member indicated that:

All the home nations have full-time coaches at their national and Commonwealth level. In England we’ve got our national coaches and then a development network of coaches in each of our regions. We have seven full-time coaches at the national centre, full-time medical staff, strength and conditioning specialists, performance analyst, a welfare manager, our head of operational services, and sport sciences staff.

Dutch coaches provided similar responses to British coaches. All elite Dutch coaches agreed that there are staff, such as coaches, in the full-time employment of the National Judo Federation. This is supported by the following narrative from one of the Dutch coaches, indicating that the

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JBN employs: …full-time employees, paid by a combination of funding from the NOC*NSF, and the JBN.

In the South African environment, results should be interpreted in the context of volunteerism. All elite South African coaches agreed that the national federation did not employ any full-time staff, such as coaches. Where coaches were engaged in judo on a full-time basis, the majority were involved in the private sector, as is substantiated by the following narrative from one of the elite South African judo coaches:

We have full-time coaches, but for the majority, that’s part of their private businesses where they teach judo at schools. There are only a handful of full-time coaches at centres or universities.

One executive member from South Africa indicated that there …is an executive member with a committee responsible for coordinating and implementing national programmes.

Continuing volunteerism in national sporting bodies is compounded by high levels of corruption and misappropriation of funds in government departments, resulting in cash-strapped sport organisations.

Options and career paths of staff, such as coaches, have clear links to the professionalisation of the BJA and the JBN. The inreasing emphasis on professionalisation correlates with the findings of Sam (2009). Career development opportunities are provided for coaches to progress from club to elite level, with full-time employment. In the South African context, similar opportunities for professional coaching careers within the national federation structures, do not exist. This leads to a dual system, where professional coaches are often plying their trade, and investing their knowledge and resources in the private sector, outside of the national federation’s framework. Bayle and Robinson (2007) indicate that optimal performance in sport organisations depends on maintaining a balance between full-time and volunteer staff, which is absent in the South African system. The way in which individuals are managed in a system impacts on performance (Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009). This perpetuates a system of volunteerism. Such a volunteer system within a globalised, professionalised sport context significantly affects the performance of management, findings that are supported by Northouse (2010).

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6.3.4 Capacity building initiatives

The capacity building initiatives scale measured the extent to which the JBN, BJA and JSA had an existing, fully supported and effective long-term coaches and athlete development plan that culminates in a high performance programme for senior judokas.

Results revealed a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level for the three groups x² (2, n = 26) = 9.59, p = .008, with the Kruskal-Wallis test. Post-hoc comparisons using the Mann- Whitney U test revealed a significant difference and a large effect size between JSA in comparison with the BJA and the JBN. Further details are provided in the following Table 6.3. The fact that no statistically significant differences were reported between the JBN and the BJA, indicates similarities on this measurement scale.

The significant differences between the JBN and BJA in comparison with JSA, can be accounted for by factors such as the system of volunteerism. Compounded by the limited financial and infrastructure support, is the fact that a lack of government and private sector support exists. Within this context, a lack of long-term planning for success by the national federation, further substantiates the quantitative results of the capacity building initiatives scale. When questioned about the existing LTAD programme, one South African coach responded that JSA has an existing document describing the guidelines for implementation of an LTAD programme, however:

The clubs can follow the programme, but there is no substantial national system for LTAD. JSA’s system offers five national tournaments, and a yearly training camp. Other than that, there are very few nationally coordinated training programmes.

In terms of the LTAD culminating in a senior high performance programme, coaches agreed that there is currently no high performance programme with substance offered by JSA. This is supported by the narrative that …we don’t have a high performance programme. It’s basically clubs competing against each other, and the majority of clubs don’t have many seniors. Another coach provided insight into the current lack of implementation of the LTAD model, responding that We would probably have to centralise the programme, because we don’t have many seniors left. Currently, there isn’t really a plan for our seniors. One executive member from JSA indicated that: We have a development programme for previously disadvantaged judoka, visually impaired judoka, and an annual South African Schools Judo Championships. The South African

138 executive member further indicated that we require more international exposure and more intense training camps to elevate our international performances. According to me, this is how to improve athletes.

In the context of the considerably limited implementation of the LTAD plan in South Africa, it is understandable that there is a similar trend in respect of coaching education. One South African coach commented that: We have internationally qualified coaches, but very little specific high performance coaching knowledge in the country. Clearly, limited implementation of an LTAD model, results in a similarly limited development of a coaching education system that should be run concurrently.

In comparison to South Africa, British and Dutch systems provide a detailed plan for the development of elite coaches and judokas. This can be understood in the context of the global recognition for the scientific approach to training methods, that results in the age-appropriate development of athletes from a recreational level to senior elite level. Elite British and Dutch coaches agreed that elements of the elite sport system such as athlete support services, national coaches, and financial support combine to contribute to an overall system of long-term athlete development (LTAD). Various narratives provide insight into their respective LTAD models.

One narrative from a British coach indicated that: The LTAD system is adapted to make it specific to able-bodied and visually impaired high performance athletes. Another response from the same British coach indicated the value that British coaches attach to a fully functioning LTAD programme, indicating that the:

…LTAD system can only be effective if the system allows players to progress. The players must be in a full-time programme with high quality scientific support.

One executive member from the British Judo Association confirmed the results by indicating that:

…we have our elite Olympic senior programme, so that’s the ones that participants in the Worlds…and then our junior programme…so our juniors are focused on Europeans (European Championships). Our focus on cadets is more aimed at development. What we do is we use that funding to take them to Japan for a month…and that helps them with transition to full-time training at the centre. Below that each of the home nations have their own programme which is coordinated by the pathway manager. 139

Regarding the strategic support required to deliver a successful LTAD system, all British coaches shared the opinion that the high performance programme must be linked to education and scientific support. One British coach responded that: High performance systems must always be linked to science and education as pillars of support whilst another response from a British coach indicated that:

The centre is linked to the University of Wolverhampton. The University sees the potential of attracting students from around the country to train and study, in order to enhance the reputation of being the Olympic judo centre of the country.

An executive member from the Brtish Judo Association confirmed thet …our juniors and seniors are on a centralised programme, so we have 25 players based at our national training centres.

A complementary British coaching education system, supports the overall LTAD model. Whilst one elite British coach felt that: The problem is that many of the plans developed by the BJA are made by coaches with relatively little specific high performance education. Another narrative indicated otherwise:

The pyramid of reaching top performance includes full-time national coaches at the centre of excellence who strive for continued coaching excellence, with the support of the national federation.

British coaches also indicated a level of knowledge related to the relevant qualities required for elite level coaching, supported by the narrative that: Coaching at high performance level requires systems and data recording for specific testing of numerous qualities. The coach-athlete relationship is also prioritised as part of the overall elite coaching process, by assigning coaches to certain groups of judokas. A narrative from an elite British coach sheds further light: The athletes are assigned to a coach based on their level of ability and age group. Each coach has their own group to work with. Coaches also provide individualised training programmes indicated by the following narrative from a British coach: …individual training programmes complement the overall training programme. Regarding the senior team in particular, judokas are encouraged to move to the national training centre and participate in a full-time training programme with their respective national coaches.

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The British Judo executive member further indicated that:

We have analysed all aspects of the sport and the individual to find out what it actually takes to win and how best to do that, and that’s then translated into a curriculum, which is then passed down into our club coaches on a regular basis.

Regarding the Netherlands’ system, Dutch coaches agreed that there is an existing LTAD model for judo, however it requires further investigation. This is supported by the following narrative from one of the coaches: There is an LTAD, but I think it’s difficult for judo. It must be adjusted for our sport. The LTAD system is further complemented by regular participation in developmentally appropriate tournaments as is supported by the following response: There are tournaments every week in the Netherlands. If the coaches feel that the tournament is not up to standard, it is easy to go to Belgium or Germany. As an extension of the LTAD process, the new training centre in Papendal will serve as a centralised national training centre for senior elite judokas as is indicated by the following Dutch coach’s response:

Four regional training centres at present for our seniors throughout the country. In future, we will centralise for seniors in Papendal, and the four centres will be for u- 18 and especially u-21 players. The four centres will be mainly for the final preparation to go to the senior training centre.

Similar to the British system, elite coaches indicated that the centre in Papendal will also be linked to education. One Dutch coach indicated that …the centre is linked to a university, so players have the option to study as well.

Dutch coaches also confirmed that there is a recognition for coaching education, indicating that …there are high minimum coaching level requirements to be a JBN coach. In linking coaching- education to elite performance, the system places emphasis on a coach-athlete relationship. A variety of narratives provide further details. Firstly, one Dutch coach indicated that …in the new centralised system there will be six support coaches and one main coach at Papendal. The coaching system allows for club coaches to be involved at international tournaments, indicated by the following Dutch coaches’ narrative: Cadet squads are club-based. They can fight certain European and local tournaments with their club coaches, whilst another response from a Dutch coach provides insight into the position of seniors: Seniors in national training centres have no further interaction with their clubs. They only train with their national coaches at the national centres.

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Clearly, the British and Dutch systems of athlete development have resulted in concurrent development of coaching education systems that are appropriate for the corresponding developmental categories within the LTAD system. A ceiling exists related to the development of coaching education related to high performance in South Africa, which could be accounted for by the subsequent lack of implementation of a holistic LTAD model. Having an LTAD system for high performance success, that is supported by a long-term coaches development model, is supported by various authors, such as Balyi et al. (2016), Gulbin et al. (2013) and De Bosscher et al. (2006; 2016).

6.3.5 Communication

The communication scale relates to the use of an effective media strategy, and the clear communication of a vision, mission and strategy related to high performance programmes. The scale also measured the extent to which elite coaches and judokas understood performance-based expectations related to their portfolios and participation respectively.

The Kruskal-Wallis test revealed a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level for the three groups x² (2, n = 26) = 13.20, p = .001. Post-hoc comparisons using the Mann-Whitney U test revealed significant differences, and large effect sizes between JSA, in comparison with the JBN and the BJA. Further details are provided in the following Table 6.3. The results indicate that there are similarities between the JBN and BJA, and that they are considerably more efficient in communication, related to the items measured.

These results should be seen in the context of the model of power-and-performance. The model clearly dictates the ultimate vision of producing elite champions at Olympic level. One elite British coach responded with: There you can read our vision. It’s important for us to display it clearly, to serve as constant motivation for the athletes and the coaches, referring to the display on the walls of the training venue, and in the strength and conditioning room at the British Judo Centre of Excellence. The use of social media, and the performance-based targets, are directly linked to the vision of the organisations. These findings are confirmed by Fletcher and Arnold (2011), who indicate that the performance environment is strongly influenced by the quality of communication in a sport organisation.

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In the South African context, the relatively isolated nature of judo within the global environment of strong competitors, contributes to the vacuum that presently exists in the establishment of a vision, mission and related strategies. This, combined with conflicting selection policies, and inadequate infrastructure to support elite performance, could account for the complete separation from any significant long-term plans. The effective use of social media can also be linked to marketing, commercialisation and ultimately securing sponsorships, as was tested in the following scale.

6.3.6 Marketing, commercialisation and sponsorship

Marketing, commercialisation and sponsorship consisted of a number of items, including whether the organisation had a dedicated marketing position, had a marketing and sponsorship strategy, a main sponsor for high performance programmes, and whether financial incentives were offered for athletes who perform successfully at international level.

The results reported a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level for the three groups x² (2, n = 26) = 8.43, p = .015, using the Kruskal-Wallis test. Post-hoc comparisons using the Mann-Whitney test also revealed a significant difference between JSA in comparison to the BJA and JBN, with a medium and large effect size respectively, indicating that the BJA and JBN were more aligned with the items measured, than JSA.

The weakening South African economy contributes to an increasingly challenging environment for securing sponsorship deals. Just over the past five years, the South African GDP has shrunk by approximately $100 billion. Compounding factors include the associated costs of marketing and commercialisation, and investment of human and other resources in order to conduct a substantial marketing campaign. A smaller GDP, and a focus on the use of sport for nation- building and social upliftment through, for example, sport-for-all campaigns in order to redress past inequalities, present a further contextual challenge for a minority sport such as judo in attempting to secure investment for elite athletes. The cultural significance of a national sport such as rugby in South Africa, contributes to the familiarity thereof with the general public. This makes such sports instantly more recognisable and marketable, in comparison to the relatively foreign concept of judo.

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Coaches were questioned regarding the level of financial support that JSA extends to elite judokas, coaches and managers. One elite South Africa coach indicated that there is an administration fee of the exec, referring to the JSA executive members. Another indicated that coaches and managers receive a limited amount of financial support for tours, but that …judokas are usually expected to pay for their own tours and kit. Basically, they cover all their own costs for international events. A South African executive member indicated that:

We support previously disadvantaged judokas financially as needed, and they pay only half of the entry fees at national tournaments. We support some of our development players and coaches to attend events such as the Africa Championships. We help the athletes based on their needs.

The same South African executive member provided further insight with the following narrative: We have sponsors from time to time for selected events, particularly related to previously disadvantaged judokas, some national events, and the transport of equipment.

In the case of judo in the Netherlands, the historical significance related to the breakthrough success of Dutch judo at international level, places judo in a position to capitalise on marketing and commercialisation opportunities. Adding to this, is the continued international success of Dutch judo, and the benefits for companies that may arise from being associated with such success in the form of sponsorship. Judokas are provided with substantial financial incentives. One Dutch coach responded that …national players pay for their training, but all their tour costs are covered. Olympic players pay a very reduced fee. Another narrative from a Dutch coach indicated that The top-level senior high performance judokas receive about €1200 per month from the NOC*NSF. €800 is a salary and €400 is for equipment and some other miscellaneous costs.

Besides financial support, one coach indicated that there is a system of incentives for elite Dutch judokas who are still at school, as is indicated by the following narrative from an elite Dutch coach:

A-level cadets are in the top 5 at national championships or medal winners at European tournaments. They get recognition at school and are allowed to miss 20% classes for judo training. Juniors get recognition for making the national team and don’t pay for tours.

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Judo’s diffusion to England, and the resultant international success of British judo at international level, contribute to the potential profitability of the sport in the context of a Western capitalist environment. Contributing to the marketing and commercialisation aspect of judo in England, is the significant involvement in major international events such as the Commonwealth Games. Regarding financial and related incentives, UK Sport and the BJA prioritise the funding of elite athletes. The following narratives of elite British coaches support this claim: The majority of funding in the UK Sport system is directed at elite sport, and We have athlete support programmes such as the AASE, which is an advanced apprenticeship for talented athletes. One British coach expanded on the topic, saying that: The BJA provides more financial benefit to top players than most federations in the world. The level of funding is almost exclusively performance-based as indicated by the following British coach’s narrative: Money allocation depends on the level of performance. The diverse status of elite judokas, as determined by performance-based criteria, is captured in the following narrative:

Some athletes don’t pay for their training, but have to cover their own tournament costs. It depends on their level of performance. UK Sport provides considerable funding for top-tier athletes.

A narrative from a British Judo executive member confirmed these results, indicating that:

Depending on the success of the athlete, you get certain amounts of money. So its basically a simple A, B, C route. C-level is about £15 000 per year and that’s tax free up to A level which is I think £20 000 a year. An Olympic or a World medalist will be an A, European medalists a B, and someone who’s on the programme and a Tokyo athlete will be a C. Below that we have the cadet programme which the BJA funds from our own pockets, which basically covers accommodation and living expenses.

The potential financial benefits for the business sector stimulate private sector investment in judo, and the opportunity for government to display competitive superiority over other countries, stimulates financial investment. These findings are consistent with those of Sikorski (2005) and Sander (2013). The subsequent professionalisation of both the JBN and the BJA, substantiates the results in the light of the ability to invest time, finances and human resources into establishing marketing campaigns that promote the vision of the organisations. Campaigns to raise funds through commercialisation and related activities is supported by the findings of Carenys and Sales (2012). The comparatively low currency value in South Africa, compounded by the significant difference in travelling to major judo events in comparison with the BJA and

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JBN, confirm that commercialisation and marketing of judo should be understood within the context of the South African, Dutch and British political and socio-economic environment.

6.3.7 Information technology

The information technology scale consisted of three items measuring the extent to which the respective judo bodies under study had a database of talented athletes, access to modern IT resources, and the use of IT resources for training and development.

Results of the Kruskal-Wallis test revealed that a statistically significant difference existed between JSA, the BJA and the JBN at the p < .05 level for the three groups x² (2, n = 26) = 14.25, p = .001. Further results are reported in the following Table 6.3. Post-hoc comparisons demonstrated that the BJA was significantly more engaged in the use of information technology and the maintenance of an effective database of talented athletes, indicated by the large effect size that was reported. Similar results were reported, also with a large effect size, when comparing JSA to the JBN.

These results should be interpreted from the perspective of the delivery of a highly detailed and sophisticated system of athlete and human resource development, which is represented within the JBN and the BJA. The presence of such a system as a element of a modern fully functioning sport organisation and as a neceessity for performance monitoring is supported by the findings of Bayle and Robinson (2007), Canadian Sports Institute (2014), Macris and Sam (2014), Iconomescu, et al. (2014) and Vrba and Brevis (2014). These systems are dependent upon detailed information related to athlete performances, in order to complement the age-appropriate development of which the LTAD process comprises. The use of advanced information technology for effective training and development can also be ascribed to the professional capacity that is entailed in full-time, salaried positions of employment.

Considering the above aspects, it is clear that the quality of the operating environment provides the context for the results related to the South African environment. Not having access to modern IT resources can be linked to a large extent to the limited financial capacity of JSA. The limited training and development initiatives can be attributed to the relative shortage that exists in the planning and implementation of long-term development programmes of human resources, that should run concurrently with the LTAD process. Results confirm the absence of participation

146 statistics and performance analysis, which form part of the database that is required for the effective delivery of high performance systems.

6.3.8 Facilities

The scale measuring facilities consisted of three items. The items measured the extent of access to elite training facilities, adequate office resources, and a dedicated office.

A statistically significant difference using the Kruskal-Wallis test existed at the p < .05 level for the three groups x² (2, n = 26) = 17.23, p = .00, with large effect sizes between JSA when compared to the BJA and to the JBN respectively. Further details are provided in the following Table 6.3.

The alignment of performance policies with the vision of achieving elite level performance success, provides the context for provision of, and access to elite training facilities. The subsequent delivery of successful international performances, through thorough planning and implementation of elite judo programmes by the JBN and BJA, accounts for the results reported on the facilities scale. In the case of South Africa, performance planning and implementation are limited. In this context, it should be understood that the relative failure to provide a programme that provides a purpose for the use of elite facilities, substantiates the findings of the Canadian Sports Institute (2014) and De Bosscher et al. (2006).

6.3.9 Scientific support

The scientific support scale measured the extent to which strength and conditioning, nutrition, psychology, rehabilitation and medicine was provided to athletes. Results revealed a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level for the three groups x² (2, n = 26) = 15.78, p = .00. Further details are provided in Table 6.3. Post-hoc comparisons revealed that JSA provided significantly less scientific support on the items measured, with large effect sizes in comparison with the JBN and the BJA.

The fact that the JBN and the BJA provide substantial scientific support to elite judokas correlates with widespread global recognition that the differences in performances at elite level are not only accounted for by pure talent, but by the level of physical and mental conditioning of 147 an athlete. British coaches agreed with the necessity of scientific support for best possible training and performance conditions. Accordingly, a variety of services related to athlete support are offered at the BJA Centre of Excellence, as is supported by the following narrative of an elite British coach:

The centre of excellence provides scientific support with a high-performance gym with state-of-the-art technology, full-time national coaches, and lifestyle consultants.

In reference to the Dutch system, one narrative from a Dutch coach indicated that At the moment, there are strength and conditioning trainings in the morning, and judo in the evenings at the four national centres. However, the national training centre in Papendal will embrace a more extensive approach to the provision of support services for elite judokas. This is supported by the following narrative of an elite Dutch coach:

The cost is very high for Papendal, about €1000 per month, but that includes all training, food and accommodation. Players will get things like strength and conditioning coaches, individual nutrition plans, and lifestyle consultants.

The South African context is different, and should be understood from the perspective of a relative absence of a high performance programme for senior judokas. The following narrative from one of the South African coaches supports the fact that elite South African judokas receive limited scientific support via the national federation: There isn’t a high performance centre for judo, but we use the SASCOC centre in Bloemfontein for our yearly national training camp. The centre provides …training facilities and sport sciences free of charge. The annual training camp takes place over approximately two and a half days per age category. Although there are some universities with judo programmes throughout the country, there is no high-performance centre for the national federation.

The results of this scale correlate with the findings of various authors such as the Canadian Sports Institute (2014), Houlihan and Green (2013), Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009) and De Bosscher et al. (2006). It is evident from the results of the scientific support scale that the presence of an elite programme for senior judokas could provide the context for the availability of, and extent to which scientific support is provided in a high-performance system. Within the frameworks of the BJA, the JBN and JSA, access to infrastructure, such as an elite high- performance centre, further influences the ability to provide scientific support.

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6.3.10 Athlete preparation initiatives

The athlete preparation initiatives scale assessed the extent to which the following was implemented: an athlete preparation strategy, an athlete performance monitoring and evaluation system, an athlete anti-doping strategy, and access to related facilities at a national training centre.

There was a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level for the three groups x² (2, n = 26) = 9.59, p = .008, and post-hoc comparisons revealed a significant difference and large effect size between the BJA and JSA. Similar results with a medium effect size were reported when comparing JSA with the JBN. More details are reported in Table 6.3.

These results should be considered from the point of view that JSA operates within a developing system that has undergone limited professionalisation of systems and structures. This directly influences the extent of JSA’s ability to design, implement and deliver on athlete preparation initiatives. The results further confirm the limited time and knowledge that volunteer staff, such as coaches, can afford to extra services that support the role of coaching. Constrained access to facilities contributes to the overall failure to provide the necessary preparation for elite athletes.

In the case of the Dutch and British judo systems, functions related to preparing elite athletes, can be linked with the holistic delivery of an LTAD system. The level of coaching education extends the contextual understanding of the provision of detailed athlete preparation services such as performance monitoring and evaluation.

Table 6.3: Intercountry comparisons: Coaches’ questionnaire

Kruskal-Wallis test: JSA, BJA and JBN Variable M N U Z r p JSA 2.33 14 Access to facilities BJA 4.56 6 3.000 -3.24 .72 .00 JBN 4.44 6 1.000 -3.4 .76 .001 JSA 2.07 14 Marketing BJA 3.43 6 16.500 -2.12 .47 .034 JBN 3.7 6 11.500 -2.53 .57 .011 JSA 2.23 14 Human resources BJA 3.63 6 12.000 -2.51 .56 .012 JBN 3.79 6 8.000 -2.83 .63 .005 JSA 1.92 14 Communication BJA 3.93 6 10.500 -2.61 .58 .009 JBN 3.81 6 3.000 -3.22 .72 .001

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Kruskal-Wallis test: JSA, BJA and JBN Variable M N U Z r p JSA 2.27 14 Capacity building BJA 3.81 6 7.500 -2.86 .63 .004 JBN 3.43 6 18.000 -1.99 .44 .047 JSA 2.2 14 Management BJA 4.13 6 9.000 -2.73 .61 .006 JBN 3.5 6 11.000 -2.57 .57 .01 JSA 3.43 14 Strategic alliances BJA 4.56 6 5.500 -3.05 .68 .002 JBN 4.44 6 15.500 -2.22 .5 .026 JSA 1.87 14 Sport sciences support BJA 4.2 6 1.000 -3.41 .76 .001 JBN 3.97 6 6.500 -2.97 .66 .003 JSA 2.21 14 Information technology BJA 4.39 6 1.000 -3.41 .56 .001 JBN 4.06 6 10.500 -2.62 .59 .009 JSA 2.27 14 Athlete preparation BJA 3.81 6 10.500 -2.61 .58 .009 JBN 3.54 6 18.000 -2.00 .45 .046

6.4 Inter-country comparisons from the perspective of elite judokas

The following section reports on qualitative and quantitative results of inter-country comparisons of data gathered from elite judokas, between the JBN, BJA and JSA. The results provide insight on aspects of management that could influence elite performance. The questionnaire was divided into scales consisting of a variety of items, such as peak performance, programme design and performance analysis, and facilities and technology.

6.4.1 Full-time and part-time coaches

The full-time and part-time coaches scale consisted of items measuring whether the respective judo associations under study had national coaches at the cadet (15 to 17 years old), junior (18 to 20 years old) and senior (21 years and older) level, available on a part-time or full-time basis.

A Chi-square test for independence with Cramer’s V, revealed statistically significant relationships between the federations regarding full-time coaching staff for the cadet age category, x² (2, n = 104), p = .01, Cramer’s V = .29 (medium effect size), the junior age category, x² (2, n = 104), p = .00, Cramer’s V = .51 (large effect size), and the senior age category, x² (2, n = 104), p = .00, Cramer’s V = .58 (large effect size) (see Table 6.4). The results

150 indicate that the majority of judokas agreed that the JBN and BJA had full-time coaches in the respective age categories, in comparison with JSA.

In the case of British judokas, a majority (n=19; 65.5%) indicated that there were full-time coaches for the national cadet and junior (n=28; 96.5%), and senior teams (n=29; 100%). With regards to the Dutch judokas, the majority (n=29; 76.3%) indicated that full-time cadet coaches were present, and responded accordingly with regard to full-time junior coaches (n=33; 86.6%), and senior coaches (n=36; 94.7%). The minority of South African judokas indicated that cadet coaches were full-time (n=16; 43.3%), and similar responses were recorded regarding junior coaches (n=45.9%) and senior coaches (n=18; 48.6%).

The fact that the overwhelming majority of Dutch and British judokas indicated a presence of full-time national coaches, should be interpreted from the perspective that their respective judo organisations have a fully functioning LTAD system, coaching development programme, and facilities available for national training centres. The centres support the presence of full-time national coaches. The results are further understood from a context of a favourable combination of political and socio-economic conditions that prioritise high performance sport, and enable the appropriate development and employment of knowledgeable coaching staff. One narrative from a British judoka supports the fact that full-time coaches are available: We have judo training daily, depending on the training programme they have worked out for us. Dutch judokas agreed that national coaches are available on a full-time basis, indicated by the narrative that We have training with our coaches every day.

Regarding the responses recorded from South African judokas, it is evident that a lack of high performance training facilities, combined with a limited long-term athlete and coaches’ development plan, contribute to a relatively amateur environment. Compounded by restrained financial resources, the results reflect the reality of the South African coaching context. The results correlate positively with the qualitative and quantitative responses of the coaches’ data. This confirms that judokas and coaches from the JBN, BJA and JSA, reflect on the status of coaching at national level similarly. Overall results reflect on the professionalisation of the organisations, and confirm the findings of Iconomescu et al. (2014) and De Bosscher (2006; 2016).

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6.4.2 Strength and conditioning coaches

The following item requested judokas to indicate whether their respective national organisations provided them with full-time strength and conditioning coaches. A Chi-square test for independence, using Cramer’s V, revealed a statistically significant relationship between federations regarding whether full-time strength and conditioning coaches were available to judokas: x² (2, n = 104), p = .00, with a large effect size (see Table 6.4).

The majority of BJA judokas (n=29; 100%) and JBN judokas (n=29; 76.3%) indicated that their national organisation provides sport sciences support, with the majority of JSA judokas (n=6; 19.3%) indicating that their organisation does not. See the following Table 6.4. The results related to South African judokas should be interpreted from the perspective of an amateur domain of functioning. The resultant limited high-performance knowledge, access to facilities, and international exposure in comparison with Dutch and British counterparts, further account for the relatively limited provision of strength and conditioning. The following narrative of a South African judoka, which was supported by other judokas in the focus group, agreed with the results: We use our own biokineticists for strength and conditioning, or our club coaches give us gym programmes, but not JSA.

In the British and Dutch arenas of highly professionalised services, with recognition for specialised services, all judokas agreed that strength and conditioning services were offered by the national organisations. The following narrative of a British judoka was supported by all the judokas, indicating that they have lifestyle consultants, strength and conditioning trainers, and rehabilitation specialists available. In the case of Dutch judokas, they agreed that strength and conditioning sessions formed part of services offered at the national training centres, as is supported by the following narrative from one of the Dutch judokas, We have strength and conditioning training almost every day. The number of sessions depends on the programme that we have to follow.

The realm of professionalising elite sport that is associated with infrastructure and human resource development, provides a context for understanding the extent to which strength and conditioning support is offered to judokas. South Africans receive significantly limited strength and conditioning coaching services in comparison to their Dutch and British counterparts. The results are confirmed by De Bosscher and De Croock (2010) who emphasise that sport sciences

152 support in high performance systems is essential. Houlihan and Zheng (2013) also indicate that financial resources in high performance systems are allocated to a number of essential elements, one being sport sciences support.

6.4.3 Coach-athlete relationship

Under the category of peak performance, a number of items measured the extent of the coach- athlete relationship. The items included whether judokas trained with their club or national coaches during the competition season, as well whether the club or national coach was responsible for coaching judokas at international events.

Chi-square tests for independence, using Cramer’s V, revealed statistically significant relationships between judokas regarding the coach-athlete relationship. Training with the club coach revealed a statistically significant relationship with large effect size: x² (4, n = 100), p = .00, Cramer’s V = .42. Similar results were reported for training with the national coach: x² (4, n = 99), p = .00, during the competition season. With regard to whether club or national coaches were responsible for coaching at international events, another statistically significant relationship was reported, with a large effect size: x² (2, n = 104), p = .00.

The results further reveal that the overwhelming majority of elite British judokas trained with their national coaches mostly and every day during the competition season (n=24; 85.7%). National coaches were significantly more responsible for coaching elite British judokas at international events (n=24; 82.7%). The results confirm the culmination of an LTAD system in a centralised high-performance centre. Within this system, recognition is given to the importance of the coach-athlete relationship, by affording judokas and coaches the opportunity to engage in a long-term relationship. As a result, at a personal level of performance, British coaches know and understand their athletes, thereby enhancing the level of confidence of their athletes, and are able to stimulate circumstances that encourage optimal performance. These results are confirmed by the qualitative and quantitative results from coaches.

Responses from Dutch judokas indicated that they trained with their club coaches regularly or every day during the competition season (n=31; 88.5%), as compared to 23 (67.6%) responses for training with the national coach. 28 (73.6%) of elite Dutch judokas indicated that club coaches were responsible for coaching at international events. This is in contrast to the responses

153 from British judokas. However, the following narrative from one of the Dutch judokas was supported by others in the focus group, and correlates with responses from Dutch coaches, We move from our clubs and coaches to the training centres, then the centre with those coaches, becomes our new club. The responses could therefore be interpreted from the point of view that judokas recognise the national coaches as their club coaches, and vice versa. It is also the case that some national training centres are shared with the local club, which could have contributed to the reversed responses. Despite the results, the majority of judokas indicated that they trained with their club coaches during the competition season, and competed under their club coaches at international events. The prioritisation of the coach-athlete relationship within the elite system of the JBN provides the context for further interpretation of the results.

From a South African perspective, the majority of judokas indicated that they did not train with their national coach at all during the competition season (n=28; 75.6%), although thirty-two (n=32; 86.4%) indicated that national coaches were responsible for coaching at international events. When questioned about this topic, all judokas agreed that national coaches offer volunteer services on a limited basis, as is indicated by the following substantiating narrative:

We only really see our national coaches in January at the camp, and when we go on tour. The rest of the year we train with our club coaches.

The results confirm a relative absence of a coach-athlete relationship between national coaches in South African and elite judokas, but this cannot be understood and interpreted in isolation. More successful elite systems clearly recognise the potential impact that a strong relationship between elite coaches and athletes could have on international performances. These results are confirmed by the Canadian Sports Institute (2014) and Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009). However, volunteerism in the South African system could account for the fact that coaches are not available to travel. The socio-economic status of coaches in the context of volunteerism, also adds perspective to the results. Furthermore, British and Dutch systems provide career opportunities for coaches, which are directly linked to professionalisation. The level of professionalism therefore accounts for the quality of the coach-athlete relationship. This contributes to a contextual interpretation of the coach-athlete relationship in South Africa.

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Table 6.4: Chi-square tests: Judokas’ questionnaire

Chi-square tests for independence: Judokas’ questionnaire Federation Tests Variable Category P- Cramer’s JSA BJA JBN value V Yes 16 19 29 Full-time cadet national coaches .01 .29 No 21 10 9 Yes 17 28 33 Full-time junior national coaches .00 .51 No 20 1 5 Yes 18 29 36 Full-time senior national coaches .00 .58 No 19 0 2 National federation has full-time Yes 6 29 29 .00 .72 strength and conditioning coach No 31 0 9 Not at all 2 17 4 Train with club coach during Mostly 8 2 18 .00 .42 competition season Every day 17 9 13 Not at all 28 4 11 Train with national coach during Mostly 5 5 17 .00 .48 competition season Every day 4 19 6 Club 5 5 28 Coach at international events .00 .59 National 32 24 10

6.5 Analyses of variance

6.5.1 Facilities and technology

The scale on facilities and technology consisted of a number of items measuring the extent to which judokas agreed that high quality training facilities such as a strength and conditioning gym and judo venue were available. The use of technology such as video recording during competition was also measured. A one-way between groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the impact of facilities and technology on the performance of judokas (see Table 6.5).

Participants were divided into three groups according to their national judo organisation (JSA, BJA and JBN). A statistically significant difference was reported at the p < .05 level for the three groups F (2, 100) = 19.42, p = .00. The actual difference between groups, using eta-squared was large (0.28). Post-hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni adjustment indicated that the mean score for the BJA (M = 4.72, SD = .36) was significantly different from JSA (M = 3.79, SD =

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.81) and the JBN (M = 4.07, SD = .54). Although no statistically significant difference existed between JSA and JBN, JSA scored lower that the JBN on the item.

Despite the fact that the JBN scored lower than the BJA, the results could be accounted for by the fact that the JBN was in the process of constructing an elite high performance centre for judo at the time of this study, whilst the BJA’s centre was already in existence. However, the results correlate with those gathered from the elite coaches. This indicates that elite Dutch and British judokas have advanced facilities and technology in training and competition, in comparison to elite South African judokas.

From a national government point of view, results related to South Africa should be understood in the context of a developing country, and the resultant implications for diverse investments in infrastructure. The investments are channelled towards positive social reinforcement of previously disadvantaged communities. In South Africa, investments related to social enhancement through sport, are often made possible by improving access to facilities through the construction of community centres for sport-for-all, and related mass participation projects. Such a diverse range of investment priorities necessarily influences the number of resources allocated to the construction of elite sport centres.

In the case of the British Judo Association, a focus on high performance sport and Olympic success provides the context for the recognition that athletes require the necessary access to elite facilities and technology. The majority of British judokas agreed that they have high quality training and support facilities at the Centre of Excellence. One judoka, who did not reside at the Centre of Excellence, indicated that training facilities provided by the university where he trains, are of high standard. The following narrative supports these findings: The strength training equipment and the dojo are top quality. A dojo is the Japanese terminology used in judo to describe a place of training.

The developed status of the Netherlands and elite sport contributes to the results of the facilities and technology scale. The fact that the NOC*NSF identified a top-10 position on the Olympic medal Table as a priority, has arguably contributed to the restructuring of the JBN high performance judo system. The construction of training facilities for elite senior Dutch judokas in Papendal highlights the fact that there is recognition for the necessity of elite training facilities to produce training conditions that should encourage optimal performances.

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Clearly, the use of technology in competition in the context of the facilities and technology scale of measurement, is directly linked to access to elite facilities. In South Africa, the relative absence of elite training facilities for judo, could have an adverse effect on the use of technology to optimise elite performances.

Table 6.5: ANOVA facilities and technology

Facilities and technology Mean difference Std. Error P-value JSA .934* .149 .00 BJA JBN .650* .111 .00 BJA -.934* .149 .00 JSA JBN -.284 .159 .218 BJA -.650* .111 .00 JBN JSA .284 .159 .218 * The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level

In terms of high performance systems and successful performances at elite level, these results are confirmed by a number of authors such as the Canadian Institute of Sport (2014), De Bosscher et al. (2006), De Bosscher (2016), and Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009). They emphasise the importance of the priority access to elite sport facilities for elite athletes, and the use of technology in high performance systems for the purposes of elite performance evaluation and data capturing.

6.5.2 Athlete support

6.5.2.1 Career and financial incentives

The career and financial incentives scale consisted of a number of items assessing the extent to which judokas received career support and financial incentives from their respective national judo organisations. A one-way between groups analysis of variance revealed a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level between the three countries under study: F (2, 100) = 13.86, p = .00. The actual difference between groups, using eta-squared was large (0.22). Post- hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni adjustment indicated that the mean scores for the BJA (M = 2.57, SD = .95) and the JBN (M = 2.39, SD = .88) were significantly different from JSA (M = 1.62, SD = .56). No statistically significant difference existed between BJA and JBN, indicating that elite British and Dutch judokas received substantial career support and financial incentives in comparison to their South African counterparts.

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Table 6.6: ANOVA career and financial incentives Std. Career and financial incentives Mean difference P-value Error JSA .958* .199 .00 BJA JBN .183 .229 .809 BJA -.958* .199 .00 JSA JBN -.775* .171 .00 BJA -.183 .229 .809 JBN JSA .775* .171 .00 * The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level

6.5.2.2 Local and international finances

The level of financial support received by elite judokas from the respective national judo organisations under study, was assessed in the local and international finances scale. Items specifically measured the extent to which elite judokas received financial support from their national organisations for international tournaments and training camps, and whether national teams had at least one sponsor.

By way of a one-way between groups analysis of variance, a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level for the three countries was reported: F (2, 100) = 36.99, p = .00. The actual difference between groups, using eta-squared was large (0.43). Post-hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni adjustment indicated that the mean scores for the BJA (M = 3.47, SD = 1.16) and the JBN (M = 3.14, SD = 1.16) were significantly different from JSA (M = 1.49, SD = .74). These results indicate that elite Dutch and British judokas received similar financial support for international tournaments and training camps from their national judo organisations, as well as confirming the presence of at least one sponsor for national teams. In comparison, results indicate that elite South African judokas are relatively deprived of financial support from JSA for international tournaments and training camps. The results further confirm a relative absence of sponsors for national judo teams in South Africa.

Table 6.7: ANOVA local and international finances

Local and international finances Mean difference Std. Error P-value JSA 1.985* .247 .00 BJA JBN .336 .288 .57 BJA -1.985* .247 .00 JSA JBN -1.649* .226 .00 BJA -.336 .288 .57 JBN JSA 1.649* .226 .00 * The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level 158

The results confirm the importance of financial support for elite athletes. More successful high performance systems offer financial support for elite athletes to a greater extent than less successful systems. These results are in accordance with those made by Bayle and Robinson (2007), De Bosscher et al. (2006) and De Bosscher (2016).

Besides measuring the extent of financial support that elite athletes received from their respective federations, the following item measured overall athlete support, incorporating multiple levels of support as described below.

6.5.3 Overall athlete support

The scale measuring overall athlete support consisted of 18 items that measured the extent to which overall elite athlete support was offered by the respective national judo organisations. These items related to financial and career support, assistance in securing accommodation, and other incentives such as support at tournaments, sponsorships, and employment opportunities.

A one-way between groups analysis of variance revealed a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level for the three groups: F (2, 100) = 15.78, p = .00 (See Table 6.8). The actual difference between groups, using eta-squared was large (0.24). Post-hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni adjustment indicated that the mean scores for the BJA (M = 2.45, SD = .73) and the JBN (M = 2.43, SD = .82) were significantly different from JSA (M = 1.65, SD = .48). Therefore, overall athlete support for elite British and Dutch judokas was significantly higher than for elite South African judokas.

Table 6.8: ANOVA overall athlete support

Std. Overall athlete support Mean difference P-value Error JSA .808* .156 .00 BJA JBN .025 .191 .999 BJA -.808* .156 .00 JSA JBN -.782* .156 .00 BJA -.025 .191 .999 JBN JSA .782* .156 .00 * The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level

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The overall athlete support section of results covers aspects of elite athlete support related to professionalisation. A relatively high level of professional structures and systems is present in Dutch and British sport systems in general, and elite judo in particular. British judokas indicated that international success adds to their financial stability by saying: We get considerable financial support when we are Olympic medal-winners and contenders. A different picture unfolds for athletes who do not fall in the same bracket and who are receiving funding to cover their expenses as a national athlete. One judoka said: We are supported with tour costs when we are in the national team.

In the case of elite Dutch judokas, they were also asked to reflect on financial support. One narrative indicated that We pay for some events, but not everything. When you are a top-level athlete, you get paid a salary. Another narrative describes an extensive athlete support system that is present in the Netherlands, indicating that the national organisation, in combination with the Ministry of Education and Olympic committee …allowed me time for training during the school day.

Similar developments are relatively absent within the South African context. These results are confirmed by the fact that all South African judokas agreed that they receive limited financial support, with one claiming that …some of us get financial support from our clubs, but very few get support from JSA. Some get support through JSA for their tours, like Olympic players.

The results are aligned to the pillars of the SPLISS model (De Bosscher et al. 2006) and the elements of a long-term athlete development model (Canadian Institute of Sport, 2014). Evidently, national Dutch and British judo organisations have implemented support systems that are aligned to the goals of elite performance. South African judokas compete in an environment that offers relatively limited opportunities for development into elite international competitors and, in comparison to more successful elite judokas, receive limited support.

6.5.4 Programme design and performance analysis

The programme design and performance analysis scale consisted of items measuring the extent to which training programmes and competition calendars were clearly communicated, and training and competition performances were evaluated and analysed.

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A one-way between groups analysis of variance was conducted, which revealed a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level for the three groups: F (2, 100) = 17.52, p = .00. The actual difference between groups, using eta-squared was large (0.26). Post-hoc comparisons using the Bonferroni adjustment indicated that the mean score for the BJA (M = 4.38, SD = .49) was significantly different from JSA (M = 3.45, SD = .59) and JBN (M = 3.55, SD = .87). Although no statistically significant difference existed between JSA and JBN, JSA scored lower than the JBN.

Results indicate that both the BJA and the JBN, although the BJA to the larger extent, engage in more extensive and in-depth programme design and performance analysis than in South Africa. These results can in part be interpreted from the perspective of coaching education, with elite Dutch and British coaches being highly knowledgeable in terms of high performance. The results are further explained by higher participation rates at international level amongst elite Dutch and British judokas, and access to elite training facilities and advanced technology and equipment. Furthermore, clear qualification guidelines for elite events such as the Olympic Games, provide the context for goal-directed programme design.

South African judokas indicated that they understood how to qualify for the national team, as is displayed by the following narrative: We get ranking points from the SA Open and National Rankings. They invite us based on our ranking, and if we win trials, we are in the Protea team. The Protea team refers to the national team. However, the fact that South African judokas scored the national organisation lower on programme design and performance analysis than the British and Dutch judokas, is demonstrated by narratives such as the following: I know there are qualification tournaments for the Olympics, but I don’t know how many, or exactly how to qualify, whilst another indicated that …my coach knows, so I rely on him to tell me.

In contrast to the South African situation, British judokas were confident that they understood how to qualify for major events such as the Olympic Games. This is supported by the narrative that: The BJA distributes the qualification criteria at the beginning of the Olympic cycle, so it’s clear to us and our coaches, how to qualify. If anything changes, we are notified. In response to qualification criteria for major international events such as the Olympic Games, another British judoka said that: There are compulsory qualification events, national training sessions, and national camps. We are also subject to testing at camps.

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Dutch judokas were also clear on their understanding related to Olympic qualification. One narrative from an elite Dutch judoka indicated that they …know how to qualify for the Olympic Games. The programme is explained to us, and I think you can get it from the website. Another narrative provides further insight into the selection process: We have selection events that we must compete in, and there are national trainings that we must attend. The confidence that elite Dutch judokas had in their coaches was also evidenced by the narrative from one of the judokas that …our coaches are highly qualified.

Table 6.9: ANOVA programme design and performance analysis

Programme design and Std. Mean difference P-value performance analysis Error JSA .925* .133 .00 BJA JBN .828* .168 .00 BJA -.925* .133 .00 JSA JBN -.097 .172 .922 BJA -.828* .168 .00 JBN JSA .097 .172 .922 * The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level

The elements of this scale emphasise the regular performance monitoring and evaluation of human resources in a high performance system, such as elite athletes, in order to ensure successful performances. These results are confirmed by Öcal (2015) and Houlihan and Green (2009).

Based on the results that have emerged from the various data sets, the following section highlights the main disfferences and similarities of the management of the respective federations’ LTAD models.

6.6 Management of LTAD models

The following Table summarises the major differences of the management of the overall LTAD programmes and related resources of the three federations under study, based on the discussion above.

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Table 6.10: Comparison of LTAD models National federation Category Variable BJA JBN JSA Plan Vision Create medal- To remain in the Optimise the winning athletes at top 8 positions in performance of every Olympic and the world, i.e to South African Judo Paralympic Games create medal- athletes to increase winning athletes at Olympic and every Olympic and Paralympic Paralympic Games qualification Mission Establish a To develop athletes Develop and Performance from grassroots and prepare talented System from training centres, to athletes for future grassroots and the Olympic and success at world training centres to Paralympic podium championships and the Olympic and Olympic Games. Paralympic podium Strategy Documented, Documented, Documented, but current strategy for current strategy for outdated. Refers to Olympic success Olympic success already passed events and many coaches and officials no longer involved LTAD plan Existing document endorsed by national federation Strategic Government Government Government alliances The National The Dutch Lottery National Lotteries Lottery Commission Universities Universities European Judo European Judo Africa Judo Union Union Union International Judo International Judo International Judo Federation Federation Federation Commonwealth Commonwealth Judo Federation Judo Federation Sponsors Sponsors Sponsors Human Country 66.18 million (UK) 17.04 million 56.52 million (Netherlands) (South Africa) Resources population Management Full-time director Full-time director Director with a and operational with volunteer commission. All managers commissions volunteer positions. Coaches Level 1: 300 Total: 1861. Split Level 1: 114 Level 2: 601 between different Level 2: 54 levels not available Level 3: 201 Level 3: 28

Total: 1102 Total: 196

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National federation Category Variable BJA JBN JSA Human Ratio coaches: 1:40 1:22 1:16 resources members Sport science Full-time Full-time Specialists in staff employees employees private sector, hired supported by the supported by the by athletes national and national and Olympic Olympic federation, at the federation, at the national training national training centre centre Athletes 44 000 40 019 3096 (Estimated 25 000 active judokas) Financial Sponsors Multiple sponsors; Multiple sponsors; Limited sponsors, top athletes fully top athletes fully and varies between resources sponsored sponsored events National Approximately R35 Approximately R16 Varies with grant Lottery 825 025 per year** 770 991,85 per applications. Last year*** grant received was in 2013/14 for R1 million. Physical National Four centres (one One centre in None resources training centre in each home Papendal nation)

Regional Eight centres Four centres None

training centres

Clubs 857* 663 106

Ratio clubs: 1:51 1:60 1:29 members Performance Athletes Structured Structured No structured pathways programme from programme from programme . Onus 13 years to senior under 12 years to on club coaches for senior development Coach- Assitant to Assitant to Assitant to education advanced level advanced level advanced level (level 1 – 4). (level 1 – 4). (level 1 – 4). Highest is at Highest is at Only recognition diploma level. diploma level. within federation. Revalidation Revalidation No revalidation courses offered courses offered courses offered. 164

National federation Category Variable BJA JBN JSA Performance Olympic 10 6 Not ranked, no output medal ranking medals Implemen- International Access to Access to Low participation tation competitions international international rate in international competitions competitions judo events Annual hosting of Annual hosting of Limited hosting of international international international competitions competitions competitions Programme Performance- Performance- Transformation- focus oriented oriented oriented Locality for In close proximity In close proximity Relatively isolated programme to major judo role to major judo role implemen- players players tation Finances Lower cost of Lower cost of High cost of travelling due to travelling due to travelling due to proximity proximity proximity Prioritisation of Prioritisation of Lack of elite athlete and elite athlete and prioritisation of coaches support coaches support elite athlete and coaches support Plan Nationally Nationally No nationally operationali- coordinated LTAD coordinated LTAD coordinated LTAD sation programme down programme down programme. Clubs to clubs (top-down to clubs (top-down and club coaches approach) approach) must produce elite athletes (bottom-up approach) Emphasis on Emphasis on Consistent decline developing high developing high from level 1 to 4 level coaches level coaches coaches Multiple sources of Multiple sources of Significantly financial, physical financial, physical limited access to and human and human financial, physical resources resources and human contribute to contribute to resources sustainability and sustainability and contributes to a implementation implementation lack of sustainability and implementation Programme design Programme design Programme design and performance and performance and performance analysis done analysis done analysis done by extensively by extensively by club coach national coach national coach

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*Number of registered clubs in UK Judo by Home Nation: England: 599 Scotland: 142 Wales: 57 Northern Ireland: 59 **R18.96 to the Pound conversion rate used. ***R16.77 to the Euro conversion rate used.

It is evident from the table above that one of the most significant differences between the national federations is the number of registered athletes. The fact that South Africa has a similar total amount of judokas, but sustantially less registered with the national judo federation, could relate to significant limits in terms of human resources when comparing the number of registered coaches. Subsequently, limits to human resources impacts on the ability of the system to increase in capacity. Coach-education is also substantially lower in the South Afrcan system. Whilst South Africa has comparable numbers of level 1 coaches, it is clear that capacity building is relatively limited as is indicated by the significantly lower numbers of level 2 and 3 coaches. ££

The lack of human resources could relate directly to the differences in the quality and completeness of policy documents and the lack of planning for the future success of elite judokas. The effect of low membership numbers and human resource limitations further results in a South m that does not incorporate long-term strategies for financial support of elite judokas that are similar to the BJA and JBN. A smaller registration base necessarily results in lower registration income, lower event participation and general lack of income.

The British and Dutch systems, with their advanced capacity building programmes such as long- term coaches and athlete development plans, financial resources, together with their tradition of Olympic success in judo, could account for their securing of physical resources such as a national training centre. Combined with strong strategic alliances with various agencies and institutions, the long-term sustainability of the overall system, culminating in high performance success at Olympic level, should be more attainable, as is evident in the comparison between the federations.

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6.7 Summary

The biographical data indicates that a representative sample of male and female elite judokas and coaches from England, South Africa and the Netherlands participated in this study. Qualitative and quantitative results reveal significant differences between more and less successful elite systems.

From the perspective of elite judo coaches and judokas, the most significant differences emerged regarding the management of resources, which points to systemic challenges in JSA. One of these elements was the professionalisation, development and capacity building of human resources such as athletes and coaches. As part of human resources, support structures such as sport sciences support and the quality of the coach-athlete relationship were essential to long- term performance success. Successful systems had coaches that were more effective at designing and evaluating comprehensive training programmes.

Another element related to the financial resources. The financial support of coaches and athletes was essential to establishing and maintaining a professionalised high performance environment. In particular, more successful elite judokas received financial incentives for their performances, and received substantial support for international judo events. In order to generate finances, successful high performance systems raised funds through effective marketing and commericalisation strategies that also resulted in multiple comprehensive sponsorships. Physical resources emerged as another significant element of successful high performance systems, with priority access to high performance training facilities being essential. The training facilities were complimented by the use of advanced technology for training, performance monitoring and evaluation, and the maintenance of data bases. The management of resources in successful high performance systems was dependent upon strategic alliances with funding agencies such as the national lottery, and government agencies for policy development and alignment. Strategies were disseminated by the effective communication of a vision and mission to maintain a performance environment.

Finally, the product of more successful systems was the comprehensive implementation of a structured, age-appropriate long-term athlete development programme, supported by long-term coaching development.

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CHAPTER 7

THE MAIN FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

7.1 Introduction

This comparative case study analysis was conducted between the high performance systems of three international judo federations (England, the Netherlands and South Africa). The elite judokas, coaches and executive members of the respective federations provided for a highly knowledgeable sample. The results of this study represent significant implications for best practices related to the management of high performance sport systems. In particular, high performance systems should incorporate multiple resources that culminate in the production of comprehensive performance pathways.

From a figurational theory perspective, results further indicate that successful high performance systems are not isolated from the context within which they operate. The context is influenced by international figurations such globalisation, commercialisation and the professionalisation of sport and national contexts are affected by socio-political and economic circumstances. Within such settings, the systems theory provides an explanation for the insitutionalisation and glocalisation of high performance systems. The following section provides a detailed discussion on the main findings of this study, followed by a reflection on the achievement of objectives, and implications for future studies.

7.2 Contribution to theory

7.2.1 Context and systems

This study contributes to an integrated and multi-leveled perspective of the management of high performance sport systems from a figurational and systems theory perspective. High performance sport systems are embedded within broader society as a significantly reduced, pragmatically structured and manageable entities. Systems theory constitutes a conceptual framework for an understanding of the operational environment of highly structured realities such as high performance sport systems. Such a system is embedded in society and would

168 inevitably absorb and react to changes within the broader socio-political, economic and increasingly professionalized environment as it presents itself from the global to the national and local levels of institutionalized sport practices.

High performance sport systems do not operate in isolation from society where multiple influences emanate. In order to account for the interaction at all levels of articulation that creates different contextual realities, the figurational theory affords conceptual clarity and descriptive qualities of ever-changing influences and realities (Featherstone, 1987). The descriptive framework contributed to the understanding of the development of society, sport and judo from a figurational disposition that includes a historical dimension. Therefore, figurational theory ensured the incorporation of contextual factors related to commercialization, globalization, professionalization, and the identification of related influences specific to national organisations, such as the socio-economic and political factors. From a theoretical perspective, systems theory acted as a tool to understand the functioning of each national federation under study within a larger framework of figurations.

Both figurational and systems theory reflect on homeostasis and conflict control mechanisms. From a figurational perspective, this study contributes to the understanding of the effects of globalization and professionalization as contextual factors that resulted in the internalization of self-regulation mechanisms of national sport federations due to increasing uniformity of structures, rules and regulations, as shaped by institutionalization within a contemporary society. Therefore, figurations absorb changes and reflect on them, whilst the institutionalisation of elite sport reflects on systems theory from a managerial perspective. Subsequently, high performance judo systems within national sport federations are constantly shaped and influenced by regulations that impact on the execution of high performance functions (Mele at al., 2010; Balagué et al., 2017). Systems theory accounts for the understanding of high performance sport entities that are controlled by highly organized groups of individuals and constantly interacts with the external environment. These individuals within a sport federation, include the high performance director, various managers and high performance coaches, perform their roles within the boundaries of their portfolios, representing relatively static and contained tasks and functions.

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Regarding the scope and articulation of the theories, this study contributes to the articulation of the formation of sport federations as institutionalisations emerging from the context of global figurations, whilst the systems theory constitutes a reductionist view of how delimitations were introduced to establish manageable sport structures. Subsequently, high performance sport systems are operationalized, inclusive of strategic directions, resource management and role- identification associated with formal structures.

Although figurations are constituted over longer time frames, the dynamics of change are captured. This study confirms the perspective of both figurational and systems theory that individuals and insitutionalised entities are inseparable from broad, interwoven constructs of society. Sport federations globally consist of individuals that constitute the membership and human resources of such organisations, and consistently interact with each other at various levels. High performance sport systems represent a reduced, highly contextualised form of global sport constructs, and change and react to their direct environments (Capra, 1997; Noble, 2007; Mele et al., 2010; Balagué et al., 2017).

Finally, figurational theory postulates that all interactions result from power imbalances in society. In this study, varying levels of performance at elite level could account for the interaction. Systems theory, representing highly contextualized structures represented at different levels of authority as evidenced in sport federations and high performance sport systems. Therefore, roles of the individuals within varied decision-making positions within a sport federation are related to degrees of relative decision-making power. The decision-making power may change according to a particular situation. For instance, a national coach may have all powers of decision-making during a competition, whereas a manager would take control prior to and following competitions such as in the case of strategic operations to secure funding for international events.

7.2.2 Framework and criteria

Through this study, various criteria are represented, originating from the results and a combination of factors from the SPLISS model, LTAD model and contextual factors that inform a framework for analysis and application. These criteria emphasise a need to diversify and include strategic positioning, strategic alliances, continuous development, competition, sustainable funding, knowledge and skills capacity and training facilities.

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The following figure displays the pragmatic framework developed on the basis of this study’s results that provide insights of concepts to be translated into criteria for the evaluation of the functioning of institutions.

STRATEGIC POSITIONING Strategy Vision STRATEGIC Mission TRAINING ALLIANCES FACILITIES LTAD model Government National centres Sport federations Regional centres Universities Clubs National lottery Sponsors

KNOWLEDGE & PROGRAMME OUTPUT SKILLS CAPACITY CONTINUOUS Managemement DEVELOPMENT Coaches Athletes Sport sciences Coach education Athletes

COMPETITION SUSTAINABLE FUNDING International events Olympic Solidarity Programme focus National lottery Locality Finances Sponsors Operationalisation

Figure 7: Framework

The following section discusses the criteria based on the framework displayed in Figure 7 above.

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7.2.2.1 Context

This framework emphasizes that it is essential for all high performance systems to take contextual factors into consideration when assessing or developing such a system. At national level, the economic and socio-political climate could influence the performance environment, whilst international figurations such as globalization, commercialization and professionalisation could impact on the national context. Due to the fact that the context will vary between different countries, it is imperative that high performance systems are aligned according to best practices within particular settings, in order to produce a higher level of performance output.

7.2.2.2 Strategic positioning

This criterion is used to assess the strategic positioning of a high performance system within the global, national and local context. It relates to having a strategy for long-term performance success that is supported by a contextualised vision and mission aimed at achieving Olympic success and a mission that is focused on the development of elite athletes from grassroots to Olympic level respectively. A Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model that should be endorsed by the national federation and incorporates an overall structure for the development of elite judokas, is informed by the strategy.

7.2.2.3 Strategic alliances

This criterion assesses the extent to which a high performance system has relevant and sustainable strategic alliances that will enable the achievement of objectives related to the aims, objectives, vision and mission of the high performance programme. Examples include government, universities, and funding agencies such as the national lottery. This implies that the extent to which the alliances are strategic, support the strategy adopted by the programme.

7.2.2.4 Continuous development

The scope of continuous progressive development that is offered to, for example, referees, technical officials, managers, athletes and coaches, in order to support and execute the operational functions of the high performance programme, are assessed using this criterion.

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7.2.2.5 Competition

This criterion measures the level of exposure to regular high level competitions that athletes experience as part of the high performance programme. The criterion further measures the challenges related to participation in these events, such as the scheduling of the competition programme, locality and the associated financial implications, and the hosting of high level events by the national federation.

7.2.2.6 Sustainable funding

This criterion relates to measuring the access to a sufficient and sustainable source of income for a four year Olympic cycle in order to support the overall high performance programme.

7.2.2.7 Knowledge and skills capacity

The criterion measures to what level the management, coaches and sport sciences staff have professionalised. This can be achieved through, for example, employment opportunities and career paths for staff within the system, in order to ensure the transfer of knowledge and skills at a higher level. In growing the knowledge and skills capacity of the system, the system should be capable of incorporating a larger quantity of athletes, thereby growing the athlete base at grassroots level, and simultaneously ensuring a larger number of elite athletes.

7.2.2.8 Training facilities

This criterion measures priority access to easily accessible, high quality and functionally equipped training centers for senior elite athletes at national level and junior elite athletes at regional level. Locally, the criterion measures whether clubs are easily accessible for talented youth athletes prior to entering the regional and national system.

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7.3 Contribution to method

7.3.1 Theoretical design

This study’s comparative methodology derives from the integrated nature of the theoretical approach. The use of the figurational theory in its descriptive form and the systems theory (incorporating a highly structured and contextualized high performance judo systems) contributes towards a theoretical design that allows for a comparative study. The theoretical design further resulted in the development of a pragmatic framework that enables a comparative study between multiple organisations. This framework proposes that performance output is dependent on multiple criteria. These criteria include a plan, human resources, financial resources, physical resources, performance pathways and implementation, and are shaped and influenced by the national socio-economic and political context. In turn, national context is constantly altered by the global context that is shaped by influences of commercialization and professionalization.

In order for operational elements discussed below to be incorporated successfully into a high performance sport system, significant networking and collaboration is required from international to local level to ensure information sharing and the establishment of best practices. Hosting and participating in major international events, and conforming to international rules and regulations are examples of the importance of collaboration with international federations.

Besides contextual factors at international level that shape and influence national federations, the management and allocation of resources, and the implementation of long-term plans in order to achieve high performance success are shaped and influenced by national context. The context at national level is influenced by policies, regulations and socio-economic conditions that are often dictated by factors such as the political sphere. Within this national context, establishing and securing stakeholder relations and service level agreements between national federations and national government, local government and clubs in the federation could secure sponsors, sustainable sources of financial income from the national lottery, and contribute to the professionalization of human resources and high performance sport systems through securing physical resources.

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At operational level numerous elements should be incorporated to ensure high performance success. Performance-oriented strategies should incorporate an overall vision of Olympic success and a mission of developing elite athletes from a grassroots level. In order to support the plan, a long-term athlete development model is required, and strategic alliances with essential institutions such as government, continental and international sport federations, the national lottery, universities and sponsors.

At operational level, human resources require professional staff that lead their respective portfolios, and are supported by volunteer commissions. Other professional staff required by high performance sport systems includes sport sciences staff and national coaches. The systems should further be supported by large quantities of athletes at grassroots level and evenly distributed numbers of coaches from assistant to advanced level.

Regarding performance pathways, a structured system of athlete development is required from u/13 years of age to senior level in order to produce elite success. In order to compliment the long-term athlete development process, coaching levels should exist from assistant to advanced level, with advanced coaches receiving a tertiary qualification. The coaches should be regularly evaluated by presenting revalidation courses.

Sustainable financial support is required in order to support a high performance sport system. The main sources of income can be acquired through significant collaboration with sponsors and the national lottery.

The quality of implementation is essential to achieve success at high performance level. National federations should adopt a performance-based approach that incorporates hosting major international events annually. This is in order to allow their athletes the opportunity of participating in Olympic qualification events on home ground. By doing so, national federations that are relatively isolated due to locality, could also reduce costs of travelling and increase the international exposure that their athletes could benefit from. Finally, a top-down approach is vital for disseminating the long-term athlete development programme from national level to club level.

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7.3.2 A layered approach

In this study, figurational theory linked with qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups provide insights of experiences and place the individual central to the management contour. Reality is not static and is socially constructed by the ideas and actions of individuals and collectives. To capture such relational dynamics, qualitative data collection is essential. It provides context and the construction of social realities within demarcated frames of constructs to be mediated. The use of qualitative data collection measures such as questionnaires in this study link with the systems theory, and are imperative for the establishment of cause and effect in highly controlled environments such as high performance sport systems. This enables the identification of a limited number of variables or criteria for inclusion in the framework of evaluation as proposed in Figure 7. The use of multiple theories and mixed methods in order to provide results for comparative purposes within contextual realities is indicative of a layered approach that identifies and enriches dynamic data on the management of high performance judo systems within complex contextual realities (Carter et al., 2005; Fielding, 2012).

7.4 Contribution to practice

7.4.1 Principles related to high performance sport systems

The framework displayed in Figure 7 has implications for best practice in terms of the management of high performance judo systems. The framework can be applied in a variety of contexts. One of the contexts is applying the framework as a method to develop a high performance judo system within the context of the relevant setting. Another application is the evaluation of existing high performance systems in order to identify strengths, as well as areas that require further development. Finally, the framework can be used to evaluate existing high performance systems and compare them with others in order to establish guidelines for best practice related to management.

7.4.1.1 Improvement of practices at the national level

The main areas of focus in order to improve practices related to the management of high performance judo systems are captured in the framework presented in Figure 7. In terms of human resource systems, best practice requires increasing the level of professionalisation and 176 diversity of services offered, such as sport sciences and full-time coaching. Professionalisation requires securing financial resources and implies the establishment of networks and collaboration with financial institutions such as the national lottery and sponsors. A human resource system that has the capacity to incorporate higher membership numbers further contributes to greater financial resources.

Besides professionalizing and developing financial resources, networking with relevant government departments, universities and clubs is essential in order to secure the physical resources required for training purposes. Establishing relationships with universities could also compliment the professionalisation of human resources by contributing to the coach education process at tertiary level.

Human, financial and physical resources in high performance systems are essential ingredients of performance pathways. Performance pathways incorporate long-term athlete development plans that are supported and complimented by the coach education process. The quality and level of implementation of the elements of performance pathways as displayed in Figure 7 are almost entirely dependent on the extent to which national federations can secure and allocate sufficient resources to high performance systems.

Regarding the federations in this study, from a South African perspective, recommendations for the improvements of practice would be to incorporate the political context into a development plan that would enable the system to produce high quality athletes from grassroots, whilst simultaneously collaborating with government and conforming to national regulations. Other benefits of such a system could be securing multiple resources due to extensive engagement with government. Furthermore, the South African system should be capacitated to such an extent that the membership numbers are increased substantially. Increasing the athlete membership base could result in added benefits related to financial resources, and subsequently also the professionalisation of the organization.

In the Dutch context, a recommendation would be to actively engage with custodians of physical resources in the country that could contribute to a greater network of training facilities that are exclusively available for the use of national judo teams. In terms of the British system, a recommendation would be to actively engage with stakeholders in order to assess the impact of a priority focus on high performance related to mass participation projects.

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Regarding the International Judo Federation (IJF), recommendations for best practice are using the framework in this study as a method to encourage national federations to align their high performance systems globally within the context of elite sport requirements. In doing so, national federations should raise their performance output, thus benefiting the quality of competition at international level that should reflect positively on the IJF.

7.5 Achievement of objectives

Considering the aim and objectives as set out in the problem statement and aim (1.2, p.2), and the objectives (1.3, p.3), together with the main findings of this study, the aim and objectives of this study were achieved successfully. An extensive literature study provides a detailed description of the development of sport from a figurational perspective (refer to Chapter 2, p.7), and the management of high performance sport systems (refer to Chapter 3, p.39). Qualitative data was gathered with focus groups conducted with elite judokas, and interviews with elite coaches and executive members. Quantitative data was gathered with an adapted version of a questionnaire designed for the Commonwealth Games Federation. Results are reported in Chapter 6 (p.125).

7.6 Future research

• A study incorporating greater management diversity and role identification based on multiple systems at different levels, in order to identify generic features and particular adaptations to strategically position a high performance system within the global and national environment.

• A study that interrogates the interrelatedness of human, physical and financial resources and their strategic application in recognition of global and national strategic priorities and role fulfillment.

• A study that critically review how socio-political and economic realities impact on the adaptation, strategic positioning and functioning of the high performance judo system in South Africa.

• A study in the Dutch context that focuses on the role and integration of training centers within the high performance judo system.

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• A study in the British context to assess the impact of the focus on high performance judo on mass participation, particularly in relation to policy priorities and national strategies for funding and resource allocation.

7.7 Limitations

Future researchers should be aware of the main limitations related to studies of this nature. These include challenges related to gaining access to national high performance coaches and athletes due to their regular traveling commitments for international events. Besides international commitments, training times in the relevant countries could create challenges related to transport late in the evenings. Furthermore, individuals at managerial and high performance coaching level in some organisations are subject to the protection of trade secrets that impacts on the ability to gain access to relevant information.

7.8 Summary

This international comparative case study contributed to the existing body of knowledge by providing valuable insight into the management of high performance sport systems. To our knowledge, this is the first study of its nature applied to judo. It is also the first study of its nature relevant to the South African context. The management of high performance sport systems could significantly impact on the performance of elite athletes, particularly if context is not taken into account. This study used the figurational theory from a descriptive perspective in order to identify the contextual elements that could influence the management of high performance sport systems at global level. The systems theory was used to establish a framework for the development of a glocalised system that incorporates local context.

One significant element that emerged from this study is the political context and its effect on the performance output of high quality elite athletes. Such contextual factors are unique to systems, indicating that no high performance system can be effectively managed if provision is not made to incorporate potentially unknown factors. A high performance sport system should be designed to adapt constantly to such contextual factors in order to capitalise, rather than be limited, by such factors.

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Multiple resources and related functions in the form of training facilities, sustainable funding, knowledge and skills capacity, continuous development, performance pathways and competition- related elements were identified as essential factors to the provision of high performance sport systems. These factors culminate to produce the performance output of a high performance system. However, these resources cannot be accessed and utilised effectively without strategic positioning and the subsequent establishment of strategic alliances to incorporate institutions such as the government and funding agencies such as the national lottery. Using the figurational theory in synthesis with the systems theory, assisted to identify the political context of this study as a significant factor that could influence the extent to which strategic alliances could be established. Should the managers of high performance systems be unaware of such factors, strategic planning could fall short, and result in a lack of capitalisation on the availability of potential resources.

Evidently, the results indicate that contextual realities at all levels, from the global to the local, influence systems and are reciprocally affected. Sport systems and LTAD processes are not static but react to the dynamics of ever shifting power relations in the broader socio-political and elite sport environment.

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ANNEXURE A

TABLES

Table 4.3: Inter-item correlations of scales of athletes’ questionnaire Programme design and performance analysis Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5

Item 1 1,000 0.722 0.603 0.328 0.413 Item 2 0.722 1.000 0.521 0.437 0.295 Item 3 0.603 0.521 1.000 0.259 0.307 Item 4 0.328 0.437 0.259 1.000 0.179 Item 5 0.413 0.295 0.307 0.179 1.000 Facilities and technology Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6

Item 1 1.000 0.412 0.083 0.427 0.268 0.123 Item 2 0.412 1.000 0.215 0.407 0.421 0.288 Item 3 0.083 0.215 1.000 0.062 0.035 0.050 Item 4 0.427 0.407 0.062 1.000 0.270 0.084 Item 5 0.268 0.421 0.035 0.270 1.000 0.700 Item 6 0.123 0.288 0.050 0.084 0.700 1.000

Table 4.4: Inter-item correlations, strategic alliances Strategic alliances Item 1 Item 2 Item 3

Item 1 1,000 0.561 0.690 Item 2 0.561 1.000 0.521 Item 3 0.690 0.521 1.000

Table 4.5: Inter-item correlations, capacity building initiatives Capacity building initiatives Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Item 8 Item 9 Item 1 1.000 0.439 0.166 0.199 0.520 0.749 0.713 0.363 0.595 Item 2 0.439 1.000 0.772 0.697 0.539 0.437 0.573 0.735 0.768 Item 3 0.166 0.772 1.000 0.924 0.639 0.290 0.463 0.763 0.658 Item 4 0.199 0.697 0.924 1.000 0.647 0.352 0.522 0.719 0.554 Item 5 0.520 0.539 0.639 0.647 1.000 0.788 0.704 0.776 0.674 Item 6 0.749 0.437 0.290 0.352 0.788 1.000 0.888 0.585 0.626 Item 7 0.713 0.573 0.463 0.522 0.704 0.888 1.000 0.682 0.769 Item 8 0.363 0.735 0.763 0.719 0.776 0.585 0.682 1.000 0.755 Item 9 0.595 0.768 0.658 0.554 0.674 0.626 0.769 0.755 1.000

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Table 4.6: Inter-item correlations, athlete support Athlete support Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 1 1.000 0.760 0.203 Item 2 0.760 1.000 0.528 Item 3 0.203 0.528 1.000

Table 4.7: Inter-item correlations, team selection initiatives Team selection initiatives Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 1 1.000 0.840 0.872 0.739 Item 2 0.840 1.000 0.854 0.799 Item 3 0.872 0.854 1.000 0.853 Item 4 0.739 0.799 0.853 1.000

Table 4.8: Inter-item correlations, athlete preparation initiatives Athlete preparation initiatives Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 1 1.000 0.904 0.633 0.712 Item 2 0.904 1.000 0.574 0.801 Item 3 0.633 0.574 1.000 0.659 Item 4 0.712 0.801 0.659 1.000

Table 4.9: Inter-item correlations, scientific support Scientific support Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 1 1.000 0.928 0.857 0.888 0.927 Item 2 0.928 1.000 0.923 0.852 0.937 Item 3 0.857 0.923 1.000 0.841 0.875 Item 4 0.888 0.852 0.841 1.000 0.907 Item 5 0.927 0.937 0.875 0.907 1.000

Table 4.10: Inter-item correlations, team organisation initiatives Team organisation initiatives Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 1 1.000 0.893 0.806 Item 2 0.893 1.000 0.818 Item 3 0.806 0.818 1.000

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Table 4.11: Inter-item correlations, governance and engagement initiatives Governance and engagement initiatives Item 1 Item 2 Item 1 1.000 0.554 Item 2 0.554 1.000

Table 4.12: Inter-item correlations, governance Governance Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 1 1.000 0.543 0.361 0.385 Item 2 0.543 1.000 0.420 0.646 Item 3 0.361 0.420 1.000 0.746 Item 4 0.385 0.646 0.746 1.000

Table 4.13: Inter-item correlations, management Management Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 1 1.000 0.934 0.943 0.899 0.594 Item 2 0.934 1.000 0.949 0.907 0.601 Item 3 0.943 0.949 1.000 0.882 0.520 Item 4 0.899 0.907 0.882 1.000 0.600 Item 5 0.594 0.601 0.520 ,600 1.000

Table 4.14: Inter-item correlations, human resources Human resources Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 1 1.000 0.804 0.549 0.376 Item 2 0.804 1.000 0.773 0.649 Item 3 0.549 0.773 1.000 0.656 Item 4 0.376 0.649 0.656 1.000

Table 4.15: Inter-item correlations, information technology Information technology Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 1 1.000 0.854 0.829 Item 2 0.854 1.000 0.873 Item 3 0.829 0.873 1.000

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Table 4.16: Inter-item correlations, facilities Facilities Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 1 1.000 0.900 0.689 Item 2 0.900 1.000 0.795 Item 3 0.689 0.795 1.000

Table 4.17: Inter-item correlations, marketing, commercialisation and sponsorship Marketing, commercialisation and sponsorship Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 1 1.000 0.450 0.416 0.375 0.353 Item 2 0.450 1.000 0.965 0.795 0.756 Item 3 0.416 0.965 1.000 0.815 0.810 Item 4 0.375 0.795 0.815 1.000 0.830 Item 5 0.353 0.756 0.810 0.830 1.000

Table 4.18: Inter-item correlations, capacity building initiatives Capacity building initiatives Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Item 1 1.000 0.700 0.780 0.800 0.849 0.802 0.824 Item 2 0.700 1.000 0.874 0.874 0.879 0.796 0.786 Item 3 0.780 0.874 1.000 0.981 0.944 0.900 0.887 Item 4 0.800 0.874 0.981 1.000 0.963 0.900 0.887 Item 5 0.849 0.879 0.944 0.963 1.000 0.914 0.922 Item 6 0.802 0.796 0.900 0.900 0.914 1.000 0.950 Item 7 0.824 0.786 0.887 0.887 0.922 0.950 1.000

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ANNEXURE B

LETTER OF INFORMED CONSENT: QUESTIONNAIRE

This research has been mandated by the University of Johannesburg and will be used to analyse and determine what factors relate to optimal managerial functioning of elite judo systems. It is envisioned that a concept of elite sport management could contribute to Olympic success of athletes. Your expert views on your association’s strategies, management and development- related issues are crucial to this research. You are kindly requested to complete this questionnaire that comprises of 5 sections, namely: i) Biographical – involvement in the association; ii) Games team preparation; iii) Management and governance; iv) Marketing, sponsorship and communication; and v) Membership development. You are completely free to participate anonymously and at no time will your identity be revealed. All data (responses) will be analysed and reported in a collective manner. The questionnaire will take about 15 to 20 minutes to complete, and you are free to exit at any time without any consequences. At no time will any of your responses be traced back to you individually, or to your professional role in your organisation. You will be treated with respect and all information is completely confidential. You may ask questions at any time relating to this research and contact the researcher if you wish to do so. Strict ethnical guidelines and practices will be observed at all times. All information will be utilised for research purposes only and all “raw” data will be destroyed once incorporated in the final research report. You may request to gain access to the results of this study by indicating this to the researcher. You may also choose if you want your name listed in the final report as research participants by circling - YES (I agree) or NO (I do not agree). I have read the above information and consent to the information gathered being used by the researcher. ______Participant Name (please print) Signature Date

______Witness Name (please print) Signature Date

______Researcher Name (please print) Signature Date For further information, please contact the researcher, Louis Nolte Mobile number: +27 82 907 1341 / E-mail: [email protected]

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ANNEXURE C

PARENT CONSENT FORM

Dear Parent/Guardian

I, Louis Nolte, am presently working on my Doctoral degree in Sport Management at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. As part of my degree requirements, I am conducting a research project related to management of judo federations. As part of this research, I would like the male and female judokas in the u/18 national team to complete a questionnaire related to the topic of the research. The data gathered from the questionnaires will be used in conjunction with various interviews and questionnaires of management in your federations, in order to conduct a critical analysis on management functions. It is envisaged that this research will assist national judo federations and related organisations with critical information regarding the management of federations with the ultimate goal of achieving Olympic success. The completion of the questionnaire will take only 20 minutes of your child’s time. All data captured from these questionnaires will be treated as confidential and therefore no personal details of your child will be distributed in the results of the research. I am requesting permission from you to use your child’s data in my research study. Please understand that your permission is entirely voluntary. If you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to contact me at on 082 907 1341 or by emailing me at [email protected]. Please complete the form below and return to Louis Nolte. Thank you for your interest in my research study. As the parent or guardian of ______(Please print your child’s name and surname) ¨ I grant my permission for my child to participate in this research project. I voluntarily consent to Louis Nolte using any of the data gathered about my child in his study. I fully understand that the data will not affect my child’s judo participation in any way, will be kept completely confidential, and will be used only for the purposes of his research study. ¨ I do not grant my permission for Louis Nolte to use my child’s data in his research project.

Signature of Parent/Guardian:______Date:______

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ANNEXURE D

PARTICIPANT INFORMATION AND CHILD ASSENT

PROJECT TITLE

Management of judo federations: A comparative analysis

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

Louis Nolte

WHAT IS A RESEARCH STUDY?

A research study is a method used to discover new information about any given topic. Children do not need to be in a research study if they don’t want to.

WHY ARE YOU BEING ASKED TO BE PART OF THIS RESEARCH STUDY?

You are being asked to take part in this research study because we are trying to learn more about the effect that managerial factors could have on your performance. These factors include, but are not limited to high performance programmes, access to facilities, coaching, and training and competition programmes. We are inviting you to be in the study because you are in the national team for under 18 years old judokas. An estimated total of 90 male and female judokas will participate in this study.

IF YOU JOIN THE STUDY WHAT WILL HAPPEN TO YOU?

• You will be required to complete a questionnaire adapted by the researcher to relate to this study. • Testing will take place on only one occasion, at the national training camp in January 2015.

WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF THIS STUDY?

There are no physical activities required during testing and therefore no associated risks.

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WILL THE STUDY HELP YOU?

The results of this study should assist your national federation in adapting their managerial processes and structures in order to provide you with the best possible system to achieve Olympic success.

WILL THE STUDY HELP OTHERS?

This study will have similar benefits to yours for other Judokas also participating in this study.

DO YOUR PARENTS KNOW ABOUT THIS STUDY?

Your parents have signed a letter of consent, confirming that you are allowed to participate in this study pending your decision.

WHO WILL SEE THE INFORMATION COLLECTED ABOUT YOU?

• No personal information will be distributed to anyone other than the researcher and no personal information will be included in the results of this study. • The results of this study will be made available to you, your parents and your Judo federation upon request.

DO YOU HAVE TO BE IN THE STUDY?

• This study is completely voluntary and you are not forced to participate in any way. • You can also take more time to think about being in the study.

WHAT IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS?

• You can ask any questions that you may have about the study. If you have a question later that you didn’t think of now, you or your parents can call Louis Nolte at 082 907 1341 or email Louis at [email protected]

OTHER INFORMATION ABOUT THE STUDY

• If you decide to be in the study, please write your name in the consent form. • You can decide to withdraw from the study at any time. Should you wish to do so, you are requested to inform the researcher. You will not be penalized for withdrawing from the study. You will also be given a copy of this paper to keep.

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CONSENT BY RESEARCH PARTICIPANT Details of Research Study

Research Title

Management of judo federations: A comparative analysis

Principal Investigator

Louis Nolte 27 Maiana, 5 Maiana Street, Brummeria, 0184 Contact number: 082 907 1341

Participant’s Particulars Name: Surname: Sex: Female / Male Date of birth ______dd/mm/yyyy Signature:

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ANNEXURE E

JUDOKAS QUESTIONNAIRE TO ASSESS THE MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE OF SPORT ORGANISATIONS

Purpose of this questionnaire This questionnaire forms part of a PhD in Sport Science that will investigate and compare the implementation of effective sport systems amongst various countries, with judo federations used as the sample for this study. Judokas, judo coaches and national federation management are included in the study.

Instructions for completing the questionnaire

1. The questionnaire consists of section A and B. Please complete all questions. 2. It is important, when replying to each statement, that you provide a true reflection of your opinion related to the question at hand. 3. This questionnaire will take approximately 20 minutes of your time. There are no right or wrong answers. 4. The information obtained will be used for research purposes only, and you will remain completely anonymous for the entire study. 5. Results of this study will be made available to your respective national federations; therefore you will have access once the results are available. 6. Mark the answer with an X where appropriate or complete where spaces are provided. ______SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION 1. Please state your age as of 31 December of this year

1.1 Age in years

2. Gender

2.1 Male 2.2 Female

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3. To which national federation are you affiliated?

3.1 British Judo 3.3 Netherlands Judo Association Association 3.2 Judo South Africa 3.4 Other (please specify)

4. When did you first qualify for the national team (only give the year)?

4.1 Year

5. Please indicate your response in the box corresponding to the most accurate response

5.1 You have been a judoka for 0 – 5 years 6 – 10 years More than 10 years 5.2 You have been a national 0 – 2 years 3 – 5 years More than 5 years team member for 5.3 You have been in the Junior (18 to 20 Senior (21 years and Cadet (15 – 17 years) following national teams years) over) 5.4 You have participated in the Once Twice More than twice Olympic Games Judo 5.5 You have been in your 0 – 5 years 6 – 10 years More than 10 years present club for 5.6 You have had the same club 0 – 5 years 6 – 10 years More than 10 years coach for

6.1 Please indicate the number of strength and conditioning training sessions that you participate in:

Competition Number of sessions per week Phase Before 6.1.1 0 - 4 6.1.2 5 – 10 6.1.3 11 - 15 competition

During 6.1.4 0 - 4 6.1.5 5 – 10 6.1.6 11 - 15 competition

After 6.1.7 0 - 4 6.1.8 5 – 10 6.1.9 11 - 15 competition

6.2 Please indicate the number of technical judo training sessions that you participate in:

Competition Number of sessions per week Phase Before 6.2.1 0 - 4 6.2.2 5 – 10 6.2.3 11 - 15 competition During 6.2.4 0 - 4 6.2.5 5 – 10 6.2.6 11 - 15 competition

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After 6.2.7 0 - 4 6.2.8 5 – 10 6.2.9 11 - 15 competition

6.3 Please indicate the number of tactical judo training sessions that you participate in:

Competition Number of sessions per week Phase

Before 6.3.1 0 - 4 6.3.2 5 – 10 6.3.3 11 - 15 competition

During 6.3.4 0 - 4 6.3.5 5 – 10 6.3.6 11 - 15 competition

After 6.3.7 0 - 4 6.3.8 5 – 10 6.3.9 11 - 15 competition

6.4 Please indicate the number of randori judo training sessions that you participate in:

Competition Number of sessions per week Phase

Before 6.4.1 0 - 4 6.4.2 5 – 10 6.4.3 11 - 15 competition

During 6.4.4 0 - 4 6.4.5 5 – 10 6.4.6 11 - 15 competition

After 6.4.7 0 - 4 6.4.8 5 – 10 6.4.9 11 - 15 competition

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SECTION B1: JUDOKA QUESTIONNAIRE

The following questions relate to your access to resources. Please respond by marking the most appropriate response with an X. Peak performance

1. To what extent do you train with your club’s judo coach:

1.1 DURING AN OLYMPIC JUDO YEAR

1.1.1 Before the start of the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

1.1.2 During the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

1.1.3 After the completion of the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

1.2 DURING A NON-OLYMPIC JUDO YEAR

1.2.1 Before the start of the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

1.2.2 During the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

1.2.3 After the completion of the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

2. To what extent do you train with your national judo coach:

2.1 DURING AN OLYMPIC JUDO YEAR

2.1.1 Before the start of the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

2.1.2 During the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

2.1.3 After the completion of the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

2.2 DURING A NON-OLYMPIC JUDO YEAR

2.2.1 Before the start of the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

2.2.2 During the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

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2.2.3 After the completion of the competition season Not at all Mostly Every day

3. Please provide answers to the following questions related to your federation by making a cross in the appropriate corresponding block: 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1 Who is your judo coach at international events? Club coach National coach

3.2 Does your federation have full-time Cadet (u/18) national 3.2.1 3.2.2 judo coaches? Yes No

3.3 Does your federation have full-time Junior (u/21) national 3.3.1 3.3.2 judo coaches? Yes No

3.4 Does your federation have full-time Senior (over 21) national 3.4.1 3.4.2 judo coaches? Yes No

3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5 Does your club have full-time judo coaches? Yes No

3.6 Does your federation have full-time strength and 3.6.1 3.6.2 conditioning coaches? Yes No

3.7 Does your club have full-time strength and conditioning 3.7.1 3.7.2 coaches? Yes No

3.8.1 3.8.2 3.8 Do you have a full-time strength and conditioning coach? Yes No

3.9.1 3.9.2 3.9 Do you have a part-time strength and conditioning coach? Yes No

3.10.1 3.10.2 3.10 Do you have access to a national team sport psychologist? Yes No

3.11.1 3.11.2 3.11 Do you have access to a club sport psychologist? Yes No

3.12.1 3.12.2 3.12 Do you have access to a sports dietician? Yes No

3.13.1 3.13.2 3.13 Do you have a sports dietician? Yes No

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4. Please rate the extent to which you have access to the following on a scale ranging between 1 to 7 as follows: 1 – Entirely disagree 2 – Mostly disagree 3 – Somewhat disagree 4 – Neither agree nor disagree 5 – Somewhat agree 6 – Mostly agree 7 – Entirely agree 4.1 Your training programme is clearly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 communicated 4.2 Your competition calendar is clearly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 communicated 4.3 Your overall programme allows time for 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 socialisation with friends 4.4 Your overall programme allows time for 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 socialisation with family 4.5 Your training is regularly monitored and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 evaluated 4.6 Your performances are regularly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 monitored and evaluated 4.7 Your club coach provides detailed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 technical analysis of your performances 4.8 Your national coach provides detailed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 technical analysis of your performances

Facilities and technology

5. To what extent do you have access to the following training facilities?

5.1 Judo venue 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5.2 Strength and conditioning gym 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5.3 Sauna 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5.4 Your training facilities are of high 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 quality 5.5 Technology such as video recording of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 judo tournaments is used extensively 5.6 Technology such as video recording of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 judo training is used extensively

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6. Support

6.1 Living accommodation provided by your 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 national federation 6.2 Your local tournament costs are covered 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 by your club 6.3 Your local training camp costs are 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 covered by your club 6.4 Your local tournament costs are covered 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 by your national federation 6.5 Your local training camp costs are 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 covered by your club 6.6 Your international tournament costs are 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 covered by your club 6.7 Your international training camp costs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 are covered by your club 6.8 Your international tournament costs are 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 covered by your national federation 6.9 Your international training camp costs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 are covered by your national federation 6.10 You have personal sponsorships from 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 outside organisations/companies 6.11 Your national federation assists in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 securing outside sponsors 6.12 Your club assists in securing outside 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 sponsors 6.13 Your national team has at least one 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 sponsor 6.14 Your family provides the most support 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 at tournaments 6.15 Your friends provide the most support 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 at tournaments 6.16 Your club members provide the most 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 support at tournaments 6.17 Your national team members provide 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the most support at tournaments 6.18 Your national federation assists you in securing a tertiary education during 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 your judo career 6.19 Your national federation assists you in securing employment during your judo 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 career 6.20 Financial incentives are provided by your national federation for peak 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 performances 6.21 Financial incentives are provided by 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 your club for peak performances

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ANNEXURE F

MANAGEMENT AND COACHES QUESTIONNAIRE TO ASSESS THE MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE OF SPORT ORGANISATIONS Purpose of this questionnaire This questionnaire forms part of a PhD in Sport Science that will interrogate and compare the implementation of effective sport systems amongst various countries, with judo federations used as the sample for this study. Judokas, judo coaches and national federation management are included in the study.

Instructions for completing the questionnaire

1. The questionnaire consists of section A and B. Please complete all questions. 2. It is important, when replying to each statement, that you provide a true reflection of your opinion related to the question at hand. 3. This questionnaire will take approximately 20 minutes of your time. There are no right or wrong answers. 4. The information obtained will be used for research purposes only, and you will remain completely anonymous during the study and in the results of the study. 5. Results of this study will be made available to your respective national federations; therefore you will have access once the results are available. 6. Mark the answer with an X where appropriate or complete where spaces are provided. ______SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION 1. Please indicate your age in years

2. Gender 2.1 Male 2.2 Female

3. To which national federation are you affiliated? 3.1 British Judo Association 3.3 Netherlands Judo Association 3.2 Judo South Africa 3.4 Other (please specify)

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4. What is your capacity in the organisation/federation? 4.1 Manager 4.2 Coach 4.3 Executive member 4.4 Other (please specify)

5. For how long have you served in your current position? Years 5.1 0 – 1 5.2 2 – 4 5.3 5 – 7 5.4 7 +

6. What is your highest qualification in the related field?

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SECTION B1: ATHLETE SUPPORT, GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES This section requires you to indicate to what extent your federation has the following as part of your athlete development programme. The following scale is applicable: 1 – Entirely disagree 2 – Mostly disagree 3 – Neither agree nor disagree 4 – Mostly agree 5 – Entirely agree

To what extent does your national federation have strategic alliances with the following agencies? 1.1 The national anti-doping agency 1 2 3 4 5 1.2 Government 1 2 3 4 5 1.3 The sport funding agency of your 1 2 3 4 5 country (e.g. LOTTO) To what extent does your national federation have the following capacity building initiatives? 1.4 A long-term coaches development plan 1 2 3 4 5 1.5 Dedicated full-time judo coaches 1 2 3 4 5 1.6 Dedicated full-time strength and conditioning coaches 1 2 3 4 5

1.7 Dedicated full-time support staff (e.g. sport 1 2 3 4 5 psychologists) 1.8 An athlete talent identification programme 1 2 3 4 5 1.9 A holistic long-term athlete development programme 1 2 3 4 5

1.10 Individualised long-term athlete development 1 2 3 4 5 programme 1.11 A high performance programme for senior judokas 1 2 3 4 5

1.12 An individualised athlete participation/competition 1 2 3 4 5 plan 1.13Athlete support in terms of:

1.13.1 Education 1 2 3 4 5 1.13.2 Career advice 1 2 3 4 5

1.13.3 Funding (e.g. sponsorship) 1 2 3 4 5 To what extent does your national federation have the following team selection initiatives? 1.14 An athlete selection policy 1 2 3 4 5 1.15 Clear competition/team qualification criteria 1 2 3 4 5 1.16 Transparent team selection processes 1 2 3 4 5 1.17 A coach selection policy for national teams 1 2 3 4 5

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To what extent does your national federation have the following athlete preparation initiatives?

1.18 A pre-tournament athlete preparation strategy 1 2 3 4 5

1.19 An athlete performance monitoring and evaluation 1 2 3 4 5 system 1.20 An athlete anti-doping strategy 1 2 3 4 5

1.21 Access to national high performance training 1 2 3 4 5 facilities 1.22 Scientific support such as: 1.22.1 Strength and conditioning 1 2 3 4 5 1.22.2 Nutrition 1 2 3 4 5 1.22.3 Psychology 1 2 3 4 5 1.22.4 Rehabilitation 1 2 3 4 5 1.22.5 Medicine 1 2 3 4 5 To what extent does your national federation have the following team organisation initiatives?

1.23 A team management plan for international 1 2 3 4 5 competitions 1.24 A team communications plan 1 2 3 4 5 1.25 A debriefing plan following events 1 2 3 4 5 To what extent does your national federation have the following team governance and engagement initiatives?

1.26 A detailed budget for athletes for international 1 2 3 4 5 participation 1.27 A public engagement plan for marketing purposes 1 2 3 4 5

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SECTION B2: GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT

The following questions relate to your federation’s responsibility and ability to provide strategic direction by way of allocating, for example, human resources and finances appropriately. Please rate your federation in terms of the extent to which the following managerial and governance tools are implemented. The following scale is applicable: 1 – Entirely disagree 2 – Mostly disagree 3 – Neither agree nor disagree 4 – Mostly agree 5 – Entirely agree Governance

2.1 Written constitution 1 2 3 4 5 2.2 Written portfolios for board members 1 2 3 4 5 2.3 Financial policy for long-term athlete development functions (e.g. talent 1 2 3 4 5 identification, development and high performance) 2.4 Adequate financial control 1 2 3 4 5 Management

2.5 An existing and fully functioning high 1 2 3 4 5 performance system 2.6 Clear strategy to achieve success at the 1 2 3 4 5 Olympic Games 2.7 A budget in line with the strategic plan 1 2 3 4 5 2.8 Annual monitoring and review process 1 2 3 4 5

2.9 Succession plan following the Olympic 1 2 3 4 5 Games Human resources 2.10 Human resources capacity building 1 2 3 4 5 2.11 Human resources policy and procedures 1 2 3 4 5 2.12 Clear job descriptions for all staff 1 2 3 4 5 2.13 Full-time employees 1 2 3 4 5 Information technology (IT) 2.14 Database of talented athletes 1 2 3 4 5 2.15 Access to modern IT resources 1 2 3 4 5 2.16 Use of IT for training and development 1 2 3 4 5

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Facilities 2.17 A dedicated office 1 2 3 4 5 2.18 Adequate office resources 1 2 3 4 5 2.19 Access to elite training facilities 1 2 3 4 5

SECTION B3: MARKETING, COMMUNICATION AND SPONSORSHIP

Please indicate the extent to which your federation has related marketing, communication and sponsorship structures in place. The following scale is applicable: 1 – Entirely disagree 2 – Mostly disagree 3 – Neither agree nor disagree 4 – Mostly agree 5 – Entirely agree

Marketing, commercialisation and sponsorship 3.1 Dedicated marketing position 1 2 3 4 5 3.2 Marketing strategy 1 2 3 4 5 3.3 Sponsorship strategy 1 2 3 4 5

3.4 A main sponsor for high performance 1 2 3 4 5 programmes 3.5 Financial incentives for athletes who 1 2 3 4 5 perform successfully at tournaments Communication

3.6 Effective media strategy 1 2 3 4 5 3.7 Effective use of social media 1 2 3 4 5 3.8 Effective dissemination of the following related to high performance programs:

3.8.1 Vision 1 2 3 4 5 3.8.2 Mission 1 2 3 4 5 3.8.3 Strategy 1 2 3 4 5 3.9 Clear understanding of what is expected 1 2 3 4 5 regarding performance of athletes 3.10 Clear understanding of what is expected 1 2 3 4 5 regarding performance of staff

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ANNEXURE G

LETTER OF ENDORSEMENT: JUDO SOUTH AFRICA

President Office General Secretary Cell : +27 (0)82 321 5614 Postal address : Cell : +27 (0)82 339 9147 Email : [email protected] 31 Jan Cilliers Park Fax : +27 (0)86 589 1858 WELKOM 9459 Email : [email protected]

LETTER OF ENDORSEMENT

On behalf of Judo South Africa, I acknowledge the intent to conduct the Doctoral research by

LOUIS NOLTE

and confirm that the research can continue as indicated.

TEMBA HLASHO PRESIDENT

02 September 2014

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ANNEXURE H

LETTER OF ENDORSEMENT: ENGLAND AND THE NETHERLANDS

Louis Nolte South Africa - by email

25 May 2016

Dear Louis Research Visit to Europe

It was good to hear of your intended visit to the UK and The Netherlands from 2 – 17 July. I would like to extend an invitation to you to visit the Judospace Educational Institute to meet with me. I am interested to collaborate with you on your PhD studies.

I understand that during your visit you also intend to visit the University of Bath, the British Judo Association National Performance Centre in Walsall, and the Sportschool Essink. I can recommend all of those environments to help further your studies.

I very much look forward to meeting you again soon. Yours sincerely

Dr Mike Callan Principal The Judospace Educational Institute

The Judospace Educational Institute www.judospace.com 24 Great Western House, 34-35 Lower Bristol Road, Bath, BA2 3AZ UK. [email protected]

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