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Sampling and Analysis of Indoor Microorganisms

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Sampling and Analysis of Indoor Microorganisms SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF INDOOR MICROORGANISMS SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF INDOOR MICROORGANISMS CHIN S. YANG P&K Microbiology Services, Inc. Cherry Hill, New Jersey PATRICIA A. HEINSOHN Micro Bios Pacifica, California Copyright # 2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as per- mitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/ permission. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or complete- ness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Wiley Bicentennial Logo: Richard J. Pacifico Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Sampling and analysis of indoor microorganisms/[edited by] Chin S. Yang, Patricia A. Heinsohn. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-471-73093-4 ISBN-10: 0-471-73093-9 1. Buildings. 2. Microbial ecology. 3. Molds (Fungi). 4. Environmental sampling. I. Yang, Chin S. II. Heinsohn, Patricia A. QR100.S26 2007 5790.17--dc22 2006024643 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 CONTENTS PREFACE xi CONTRIBUTORS xv 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGICAL GROWTH AND CONTAMINATION INDOORS 1 Chin S. Yang and Patricia A. Heinsohn 1.1. Introduction / 1 1.2. Health Effects of Indoor Fungal and Bacterial Growth / 3 1.3. Team and Individual Expertise / 4 1.4. Approach of This Book / 8 1.5. Conclusion / 10 2. CONDUCTING BUILDING MOLD INVESTIGATIONS 15 Patricia A. Heinsohn 2.1. Introduction / 15 2.2. Baseline Investigation / 17 2.2.1. Physical Inspection / 19 2.2.1.1. Visual Inspection / 20 2.2.1.2. Documentation / 22 2.2.1.3. Moisture and Moisture Mapping / 29 2.2.2. Sampling Design / 36 2.2.2.1. Air Sampling Methods / 36 2.2.2.2. Selection of Air Sampling Instruments / 37 2.2.2.3. Air Sampling Flowrate, Pump Calibration, and Sampling Duration / 38 v vi CONTENTS 2.2.2.4. Number of Indoor and Outdoor Air Samples, Air Sampling Locations, and Order of Sampling / 40 2.2.2.5. Sampling Techniques / 41 2.2.2.6. Surface Sampling Techniques and Analysis / 41 2.2.2.7. Laboratory Selection / 43 2.2.2.8. Prior Notification / 45 2.3. Destructive Testing Investigation / 46 2.4. Sampling during Mold Remediation Oversight and Clearance / 48 2.5. Conclusions / 48 3. MICROBIOLOGICAL SAMPLING STRATEGIES IN INDOOR ENVIRONMENTS 51 Philip R. Morey 3.1. Introduction / 51 3.2. Sampling Strategy / 52 3.3. Spatial or Location Variables / 53 3.4. Temporal (Time) Variables / 54 3.5. Indoor/Outdoor Comparisons / 55 3.6. Complaint and Noncomplaint Zones / 56 3.7. Source and Air Samples / 58 3.8. Bulk Samples / 59 3.9. Dust Samples / 61 3.10. Surface Sampling / 63 3.11. Culture Plate Impactions and Liquid Impingers / 65 3.12. Spore Trap Samplers / 66 3.13. Sampling by Filtration / 68 3.14. Conclusions / 70 4. MICROSCOPIC ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR FUNGI 75 De-Wei Li, Chin S. Yang, and F. Harrington 4.1. Introduction / 75 4.2. Principles and Usage of Microscopes / 76 4.2.1. Microscopes / 76 4.2.2. Microscope Objectives / 79 4.2.3. Photomicrographic Accessories / 80 4.3. Aseptic Technique and Biosafety / 81 4.4. Sample Preparation for Spore Count / 81 4.5. Materials Needed for Preparing Samples / 82 CONTENTS vii 4.6. Staining and Mounting Techniques / 83 4.7. Procedures for Identification and Quantification of Spore Traps / 85 4.8. Techniques for Spore Count Analysis / 87 4.9. Background Particulates (Nonspore Miscellaneous Materials) / 90 4.10. Limits of Detection / 91 4.11. Data Presentation / 91 4.12. Variation of Replications and Duplications / 91 4.13. Sample Preparation for Direct Examination or from Cultures / 92 4.13.1. Bulk Samples / 92 4.13.2. Bulk Dust Samples / 93 4.13.3. Swab Samples / 93 4.13.4. Tape Lift Samples / 94 4.13.5. Culture Samples / 95 4.14. Evaluation of Fungal Infestation / 96 4.15. Training of Microscopy Analysts / 98 4.16. Quality Assurance/Quality Control Procedures / 99 4.17. WEB Resources / 100 5. CULTURE-BASED ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR INVESTIGATION OF INDOOR FUNGI 105 Florence Q. Wu 5.1. Advantages and Limitations of Culture-Based Analytical Methods / 105 5.2. Factors Influencing the Results of Culture-Based Analysis / 107 5.2.1. Ecological Considerations / 107 5.2.2. Viability of Fungal Spores / 108 5.2.3. Selection of Culture Media / 109 5.2.4. Concentration Variations / 109 5.2.5. Sampler Performance, Sampling Time, and Culture Preparation / 110 5.2.6. Experience of the Analyst / 111 5.3. Culturable Sampling Considerations / 112 5.3.1. Air Samples / 112 5.3.2. Surface Samples / 112 5.3.3. Bulk Samples / 113 5.3.4. Dust Samples / 114 5.4. Sample Preparation Methods / 114 5.5. Identification of Filamentous Fungi / 116 5.6. Data Reporting / 117 viii CONTENTS 5.7. Data Interpretation / 118 5.8. Laboratory Quality Assurance / 119 6. AIRBORNE BACTERIA IN INDOOR ENVIRONMENTS 123 Linda D. Stetzenbach 6.1. Introduction / 123 6.2. Bacterial Aerosols / 123 6.3. Selected Bacteria-Associated Health Effects / 124 6.4. Analysis of Samples for Airborne Bacteria / 125 6.5. Summary / 127 7. GENETICS-BASED ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR BACTERIA AND FUNGI IN THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT 133 Richard A. Haugland and Stephen J. Vesper 7.1. Introduction / 133 7.2. Genetics-Based Analytical Techniques / 134 7.2.1. In Vitro Nucleic Acid Amplification / 134 7.2.2. Hybridization Probes / 137 7.2.3. Nucleic Acid Sequencing / 138 7.2.4. Microbial Strain Typing / 139 7.3. Applications of Genetics-based Methods for Indoor Microbiological Analyses / 139 7.3.1. Detection of Pathogenic, Allergenic, and Toxigenic Bacteria and Fungi Using Nucleic Amplification and Hybridization Probe Techniques / 139 7.3.2. Microbial Strain Typing and Identification by Nucleic Acid Sequencing / 141 7.4. Quality Control/Quality Assurance and other Challenges / 142 7.5. Outlook for the Future / 144 8. WOOD IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT—CONDITIONS FOR MOLD AND DECAY 155 Susan E. Anagnost 8.1. Introduction / 155 8.2. Molds and Wood Decay Fungi / 155 8.3. Moisture Requirements for Growth of Molds and Wood Decay Fungi / 158 8.4. Water and Wood—Relative Humidity versus Moisture Content / 159 8.4.1. Wood Moisture Content and the Fiber Saturation Point / 161 CONTENTS ix 8.5. Moisture Requirements for Fungal Growth / 164 8.5.1. Moisture Requirements for Wood Decay Fungi / 164 8.5.2. Moisture Requirements for Mold Fungi / 166 8.6. The Effect of Changing Moisture and Temperature Conditions / 167 8.7. Susceptibility of Building Materials to Mold / 168 8.7.1. Visible versus Concealed Mold / 168 8.8. The Effects of Building Design and Construction / 170 8.9. Techniques for Assessment of Wood Decay and Mold in Buildings / 172 8.9.1. Nondestructive Testing / 174 8.9.2. Destructive Testing / 175 8.10. Summary / 176 9. USE OF STATISTICAL TOOLS FOR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF INDOOR MICROORGANISMS 179 Stella M. Tsai 9.1 Introduction / 179 9.2 Descriptive Analysis / 180 9.3 Correlation / 183 9.4 t-test and Nonparametric Methods / 185 9.4.1. Using t-test to Test Differences between Two Means (Two Groups of Samples) / 186 9.4.2. Nonparametric Test for Two Groups of Samples / 186 9.5 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Chi-Square Statistics / 186 9.6 Discussion / 189 10. ECOLOGY OF FUNGI IN THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT 191 Chin S. Yang and De-Wei Li 10.1. Introduction / 191 10.2. Factors Affecting Fungal Growth Indoors / 191 10.2.1. Biotic Factors / 192 10.2.2. Abiotic Factors / 193 10.2.3. Interactions Between Temperature, Moisture, and Fungi Indoors / 199 10.3. Ecological Interactions Between Fungi and Environmental Factors / 200 10.3.1. Indoor Fungal Ecology / 200 10.3.2. Specific Ecological Niche of Some Common Indoor Fungi / 202 x CONTENTS 10.4. Release and Dispersal of Fungal Spores / 206 10.4.1. Fungal Spore Types and Their Release / 207 10.4.2.
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