European History: Course Study Guide

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Roman Monarchy: 753- 509 BC ● 753- Romulus first King ● 509 Last Kings of rome- Tarquis- expelled Roman Republic: 509- 27 Bc ● Ruled by two elected consuls, legislative bodies of senators, popular assemblies

Powerful generals disrupt Republic ● 82 BC Sulla marches with army to Rome, declared dictator for life ● 50 BC Julius Caesar marches on Italy with the army ○ 44 B.C dictator for life, assassinated ● Augustus (adopted son of Caesar) wins civil war between Caesar’s followers and his opponents

Roman Empire (27 BC- 476AD)

Diocletian: (284-306 BC) - splits empire up into East and West because he believes it will be easier to maintain, persecuted Christianity ● Governed by multiple emperors Constantine: (305-337) - converts Empire into chrisitanity in 312 AD ● Makes Eastern capital at Byzantine, calls in Constantinople ● Edict of Milan- 313 AD- legalizes Christianity in Europe Visigoths- threatened by the Huns because they have a long relationship with Rome Barbarians- a member of a community or tribe not belonging to one of the great civilizations (Greek, Roman, Christian). Huns: Nomadic people from Central Asia

Entry of Visigoths into Empire ● Huns threatened Visigoths in 376- force them to seek asylum in Rome ○ In Rome they were mistreated ● Visigoths - Sack of Rome 410 AD- viewed as the start of the end of the Roman Empire- Alaric was their leader- under him they started demanding land ● Visigoths pressured by the Huns, ask for permission to cross the Rhine, Rome says no, they do so anyway. The Romans treated them poorly. Would enslave Visigoths and sell their kids as slaves. Led to the battle. ● Battle of Adrianople- 378 AD- battle between Roman army and Goths army. The Visigoths won ultimately leaving Eastern Roman Empire basically defenseless and established the supremacy of cavalry over infantry that would last for the next millennium. ● 418- Visigoths finally settled in Gaul (Southern France) ○ Helps Romans defeat the Huns

Attila the Hun- Also known as Scourge of God- said that he was sent by God to punish them ● 434- becomes leader of the Huns ● 451- defeated by the Romans and Visigoths at the Battle of Chalons under Attila ○ Turns on Rome, negotiated peace with Pope Lee I - 452 ● 453 dies- of suffocating on vomit from partying

How Rome lost the West ● Abandon Britain ○ Pull troops from Rome-410 ○ Angelo Saxons- take control

Vandals cross Rhine (406) ● Sack of Rome - 455 9 emperors (455-476) - taken out by Barbarian generals

Odoacer- Barbarian general in Roman army with followers- disposed of the last Roman Emperor ( Romulus Augustus) in 476. - Calls Himself King of Italy- although no one recognized him as such

Why did Rome Fall? - Weak emperors- appointed kids as young as 8 years old - Civil Wars- Emperors and Usurpers- multiple King makers (generals, barbarian commanders) - Dependence on Barbarians in the military

Western Territorial Collapse (Loss of territories) ● 408- Vandals take Spain ● 410- Abandon Britain ● 418- Visigoths take Aquitaine - 213 landlord estates + political control ● 439- Vandals take North Africa - food/grain ● 455- Vandals sack Rome a second time ● 486- Franks take Northern Gaul

Losing Territory= loss of revenue and people, which led to them not being able to support the army. Became a cycle.

Justinian ● Builds the Hagia Sophia- destroyed in Nika revolt 532 ● Makes law code - serve as a basis of later European law systems - compilation of earlier laws ● Takes back Italy from the Ostrogoths for a time, Southern Spain from Visigoths ● Takes back Africa from Vandals ○ Eastern Roman Empire keept it until Muslim conquest

Natural disasters (during Justinian reign) ● 542- Black Plague - kills 33-50% of Europe’s population

Nika Revolt- 532 ● Mobs in Constantinople who revolted because of high taxes, burned half of city, sieged part of palace, burned Hagia Sophia ● Justinian sends army - kills 30,000 people

Franks ● Rise of the Franks in Gaul ○ 507 pushed Visigoths, South into Spain ○ Clovis- first Catholic King of France and the Merovingian

Ostrogoths ● Theodoric ○ Sent him to recover Italy in 493 in the name of Eastern Europe ○ Takes Italy back from Odoacer ○ Theodosian code 438- all laws since Constantine

Council of Nicea-325 Heresies: Arianism, Miaphysitism

Early Middle Ages: 476-1000

● Population grows ● More land cultivated, forests cut down ● Better farming technique- more food grown ● Trade and Navigation - Italian city states trade in Mediterranean ● Growth of cities ● Start using horses and iron plows there was an increase in trade

Germany ● Started after the treaty of Verdun ● Independent state after Charlemagne’s grandsons split up the empire ● Ruled by German dukes, who elected one duke as their King

Lechfeld- King of the Germans 955, Duke of the Saxons, Pope crowned “Holy Roman Empire” ● Defeats magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 ○ End of Magyar raid in Western Europe ■ Magyars settle down in Hungary Germany from now on known as the Holy Roman Empire, and its rulers are Holy Roman Emperors

Guilds- groups that live together Otto I - First Holy Roman Emperor

Timelines: 27 B.C Beginning crowned Roman Emperor (Augustus) 476 A.D Fall of Western Empire 900 A,D Charlemagne crowned Roman Emperor (in spirit) (Franks) 962 A.D Otto the Great (German) crowned Holy Roman Emperor 1453 A.D End of Eastern Roman, capital at Constantinople

The Investiture Controversy Investiture= the appointment of bishops Controversy= Popes vs. Emperor over who has the right to appoint Bishops in the Holy Roman Empire

Pope eventually wins- bishops must be elected first according to church law 1122- Henry the fifth- concordat of worms - A Emperor can no longer interfere

Gregory VIII ● Reformed the Papacy ● Forbids the emperor Henry IV to appoint bishops ● Henry tries to fire him - gets excommunicated in 1076 and tells Henry’s subjects to not follow him ○ The Road to Canossa (1077) - begs for forgiveness barefoot in snow ● Seperation of the Church and State

Papal Monarchy - advisors, bureaucracy, lives in papal states ● Cardinals ○ Political contender ■ 2 weapons against monarchs= excommunication, interdict(excommunicate a country= puts pressure on a ruler) ○ Cannon law ■ Law of the church - independent court system in Europe, Church punishes clergy not state People are divided by those who pray (clergy) , fight (nobles), andwork (peasants/farmers)

Feudalism = the system by which Medieval Europe is governed, King at top Knight at bottom- comes from no central authority ● Nobility=people with land who can fight - Lords and Vassals ● Lords give land to vassals- vassals fight for Lord ● Peasants- work land owned by nobles for food in return for protection ● Estates- land owned by nobles

Fall of Rome ● Barbarian Kings (kingdoms)- land grants take place of taxes ● Roman tax system collapses ○ Kings give land to supporters in exchange for military aid

Roman period: - Land owners pay taxes to a central state, which would defend them

Anarchy- no ruler

Normans- Northmen ● Settle in Normandy ○ Northern France ■ Settle in Sicily ■ Push out Muslims ○ Settle in England on two occasions

England- Anglo Saxons invade after the abandonment of Britain (410) ● Anglo Saxon kingdoms ● Raids by the Vikings begin (800’s) ● Alfred the Great, King of Wessex unites the Anglo Saxons, protects against Vikings

Britons- (400s and earlier) ● Anglo Saxons united by Alfred the Great

Vikings ● Danes- Denmark ● Normans- (Normandy) (France) ○ Sicily ○ Holy Land ○ North Africa ● Both groups end up in England at some point - Christianized by Ireland (509-604)

Conquests of England ● 1014 Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark conquers all of England ○ Son is Cnut the Great (1016-1035) ● 1066 Edward the Confessor dies without an heir ○ William, duke of Normandy conquered England Cnut has no heir

Anglo saxons ● Edward the Confessor- takes a vow of chastity= no heir= ruled for 24 years

3 prospects for next King (1066) 1. William of Normandy- Vikings 2. Harald Hardrada- Norway 3. Harold II- Anglo-Saxon

Harold defeats and kills Harald. William is given the throne - put off by the storm. 1066- Battle of Hastings( Norman Conquests) ● William conquered all of England from harold ○ French becomes the language of the court (legal language) - used in our laws

Medieval England

● 1154-1189 Henry II ○ Sends sheriffs around to enforce laws ○ Conflict with Thomas Becket on who can try clergy ○ Henry wants to try them in royal courts ○ Thomas wants to try them in church(canon law) courts ● England- control of legal system- royal court and cannon law ● Thomas Becket is killed by Henry II’s knights ● King John “Softsword”

Beginning of English Democratic tradition ● 1215- King John is forced by English nobles to sign the Magna Carta ○ King must respect the rights of lords ○ No illegal imprisonment ○ No taxation of nobles without their consult ● English nobles and Kings start to meet in Parliament

Parliament ● Begins when the King agrees to call nobles together to make decisions with him ● An assembly of nobles and common people that make decisions with King and passes law ○ Gains power over 100’s of years

English common law- their court system

Medieval France - Many local lords with castles - Capetian Kings constantly fight them for authority - Philip IV- taxes clergy and brings bishops to court- Pope Boniface VIII challenged him but backs down

The Great Schism of 1054 ● For along time, Western Christians (led by the Pope) and Eastern Christians (Led by the Patriarch of Constantinople) had been in conflict ● Main issue: the universal power of the Pope ○ Pope: claims Pope is equal in power to the other bishops ○ Patriarch: claims Pope is equal in power to the other bishops ○ Pope and Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other ■ Eastern and Western Christianity split (Eastern- Orthodox, Western Catholic)

Crusades ● Pilgrimage ● The People's Crusade ● Princes Crusade ● Siege of Antioch ● Siege of Jerusalem ● Second Crusade 1146-1149 ● Third Crusade 1189-1192 ● Fourth Crusade ● Children Crusade

Cathars ● Religious Heretics in southern France that believe the world was evil and created by an evil God. Believes they are a spiritual substance trapped inside of an evil body ● 2 gods: good and evil ● All flesh and physical matter evil - including kids. Believes Catholic church is evil ● Believes the church under the Pope is a false church: Pope calls crusade against them St. Francis of Assissi St. Dominic

Intellectual Culture: ● Interactions with Jews and Muslims through Spain, Crusades, and Trade ● Jewish and Muslim philosophy and science, enters Western World ● Aristotle enters West through Arab translation

Important Muslim philospohers connected to Aristotle ● Avicenna ● Averroes

Jewish Philosophers connected to Aristotle ● Maimonides ○ Taught divine and real truths ○ Like averroes

Scholastic Theology ● Use logic (Aristotle) to reason about God ● Make logical system of theology ● Thomas Aquinas - Summa Theologiae - Natural and divine truth cannot contradict each other because God is one

Universities ● Bologna- law (canon law) ● Paris- theology ● Montpelier- medicine ● Bachelors, Masters, Doctoral degrees

Medieval Culture Vernacular Literature ( Vernacular Languages= local languages ) ● Beowulf(old English) ● Song of Rowland (old French) ● Love, Poetry, Romances (Knight stories) ● Dante Alighieri = The Divine Comedy

Architecture Styles ● Romanesque style ● Gothic style

Mongols (invade Europe in 1241) ● Nomadic people from the Steppe, north of China ● Genghis Khan - 1227 - unites Mongol clans,conquers north China,conquered central Asia ● Mongol tactics: mounted archery, flanking, feigned retreat. Use siege weapons from Muslim world

1241- Mongols ravage Hungary. Poland, massacre civilians, take everything reach Austria ● Defeat European knights in battle using hit and run tactics and gunpowder, example Battle of Legnica ● Turn back to deal with the struggle in China when the Khan dies

Mongol Empire= largest land empire in world history

The Black Death 1349 ● Transmitted by rat fleas(they bite rats) - comes from Central Asia ● Bubonic plague (Buboes= boils that well up on skin) - kills people in days ● Kills ⅓-½ of Europe’s population ● Effects= more land for survivors, peasants get more rights

The Papacy Divided ● French Kings begin to dominate Popes

The Babylonain Captivity Western Schism

The Hundred Years War(1337-1450) ● Charles IV of France dies without an heir ● Philip of Valois (cousin) chosen instead of king of England (Edward III) who was married to Charle’s sister ● King of England claims the throne and declares War ● Massive armies (biggest in medieval history) ● English raid and pillage France, huge destruction ● Englishes longbow (more powerful and shoots faster than crossbow) ● English make defensive positions, use longbow and cannons to pick off reckless French knights - Battle of Crecy (1346) - Battle of Poitiers (1356)

[Longbow -> secret to their success] [Battle of Agincourt -> 10/25/1415]

France Defeated ● King Charles VI of France is insane ● Battle of Agincourt (1415) Henry V of England uses longbows to wipeout heavy French knights charging up a muddy hill ● Henry becomes heir to the throne

France Liberated Joan of Arc

Italy ● Guelphs vs Ghibellines internal warfare in cities ● Powerful families take over republic of Florence and Venice ○ Medici family in Florence- rule Florence for all of 14th century ○ Lorenzo De Medici Savonarola = Dominican Preacher

Late Medieval Europe

Economic Boom in 15th century ● Trade ○ between Italian cities ( Florence, Venice) ○ Hanseatic League ( North Germany) ● Bauking ○ Influential families that were wealthy made it hard to get away with never paying it back

Monarchies Strengthen and Centralize ● Kings start to pay professional armies instead of using armies of knights ● Kings gain control over lesser nobles ● Kings unify their Kingdoms and make united countries

Except for the Holy Roman Empire - 7 princes decide to elect an emperor together

England ● After Hundred Years War, civil war in England between the Houses of York and Landcaster ○ The War of Roses ● Henry Tudor ( Henry VII) wins war, establishes Tudor dynasty ○ Battle of Bosworth field (1485)

Russia ● 1480- frees itself from the Mongols ● Prince of Moscow starts calling himself “ Isar” ( Caesar)

Fall of Constantinople ● 1453- Ottoman Turks (under Mehemet II the conqueror) take Constantinople ○ End of Byzantine empire ○ Mehemet makes Hagia Sophia into a mosque ○ Ottomans conquer up through Balkans, Hungary ● Janissaries- Ottoman soldiers- kidnapped as babies from Christian lands, used as elite slave soldiers

Spain 1469- Ferdinand of Aragon marries Isabella, Queen of Castile - Spain united into one country 1492- Reconquista ends- They have completely conquered Spain - Jews and Muslims expelled- unless they converted - Spanish inquisition investigates those who pretended to convert

The Renaissance

● A time of ○ Rediscovery of classical (greek and Roman) knowledge and culture ○ Blending of Classical and Christian Art and philosophy ○ Begins in Italy

Early Renaissance Giotto- early Renaissance artist - palm sunday paintings

Renaissance Art - Brunelleschi- dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, founding hospital in Florence - Masaccio - Trinity 1427 - Painter - Botticelli- Primavera, 1478 - Birth of Venus

Mid Renaissance - Ghiberti - doors

High Renaissance - Leonardo da Vinci- Mona Lisa - Michaelangelo- Statue of David, Roof of Sistine Chapel in Rome

Northern Renaissance- - Jan Van Eyck - sacrifice of the Lamb of God (altar piece) - Albrecht Durer- sensitive to light and detail

Humanism - A movement to follow Greek and roman Philosophy and morals - Petrarch- Italian Poet, rediscovered ancient texts, helped revive classical Latin, one of the first people to think of the Middle Ages as the Middle Ages

Humanistic Education- concerned with the spread of knowledge - renewed Latin, Greek, Philosophy - Greek allowed people to read the Bible in its original language

Invention of Printing ● Johannes Gutenburg - first Bibles published- 1455

Printing ● Makes books cheaper - More people are able to read ● Spread of information and ideas much faster

Christian Humanism ● Study of Hebrew and Greek Bible in its original languages ● Use ancient texts, languages to reform the Church ● Erasmus- makes new Latin translations of Bible ○ Criticizes people’s piety as superstitions ○ Calls for return to piety centered on Christ ○ Stays faithful to Catholic Church but influences many into learning

European Exploration ● Europe and Asian trade follows the Silk Road ○ Trade across Asia peaceful after Mongul conquests ○ Trade in spices especially ○ Marco Polo goes to China, publishes popular book about travels

Portugese Exploration ● Wanted to access Asian spices themselves and get around Muslim trades ● Sail down the coast of Africa, try to find the route to Asia ● Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal sends first explorers ● 1498- Vasco de Gama- sails around Africa and reaches India ● Portugese establish trading empire from Portugal to Indonesia

Columbus ● Sent by Ferdinand and Isabella to find Western route to Asia ● October 12, 1492 lands on San Salvador (discovers New World) ● Ferdinand and Isabella send him back three times ○ 1. To bring Christianity to the native peoples ○ 2. To find source of wealth ● He brings back slaves instead and his settlers exploit the natives ○ Which angers Ferdinand and Isabella ● Amerigo Vespucci- America ○ First guy who realizes America is its own continent

More Exploration ● 1522- Spanish expedition under Ferdinand Magellan- first to travel around the world

Spanish Conquistadors conquer the Americas ● Aztec Empire in Mexico- constand war, brutal oppression, practice human sacrifice ● Inca Empire in SOuth America ○ 1521- Hernan Cortes- conquers Aztec Empire ● Helped by diseases - smallpox- that he brings from Europe ● Natives ally with him to free themselves from the Aztecs ○ 1533- Fransisco Pizarro- conquers Inca Empire

1493- Pope divides world exploration into East and West

1494- Treaty of Tordesillas- Portugese get Brazil ● Massive conversion of nations to Christianity by missionaries ● Spanish find silver mines- Spain becomes massively wealthy ● Conquistadors oppress and enslave nations ○ King,Queen, and Catholic clergy defend the nations ○ Bartolomé de las Casas- Dominican friar, defends human dignity of nations ■ Wins Valladolid Debate, argues natives are human beings

Columbian Exchange ● Colonists bring European crops, animals, and diseases (especially smallpox) to new world- 90% of the Natives die ● Colonists bring back potatoes, tomatoes, corn

The Reformation

● reform= a change for the better ● Time when people are trying to reform Christianity in Europe ● The Catholic Reformation ○ Reform within the Catholic Church ● Protestant Reformations ○ Break with the Catholic Church and reforms Chritainity outside of it

Important Aspects of Medieval Christianity ● Praying to saints ● Venerating relics (body parts or objects that had belonged to saints) ● Venerating images of Jesus and the Saints ● Going on pilgrimages to shrines of saints ● Important because people cannot read- anyone can understand images

Late Medieval Christianity ● 14th-15th century ○ Explosion of religious devotion ○ Lay people = Ordinary people, not clergy - were more involved in religion

Problems in Church ● Corrupt Bishops take Church money and do not do their jobs ● Priests and bishops break vows of chastity ● Priests are uneducated and live shameful lives ● Monks and nuns are very laid back ● Efforts to reform the church increase in later middle ages

Martin Luther (1483-1546) ● Almost struck by lightning ● “ Help me St. Anne… I will become a monk!”

Martin Luther the Monk ● Scrupulous= obsessed with his sins ● Felt like God hated him and that he was damned to hell, no matter what he did

Luther’s Theology ● Justification by faith alone ○ We cannot do anything to be saved. Only our faith in Christ saves us. Nothing we do affects our salvation ○ The Bible is the only source of Truth ● Priesthood of all believers ○ There is no difference between priests and regular people. We are equally priests

Sola Scriptura ● Only two sacraments ● No Pope, they believe Pope is the Anti- Christ ● No praying to Saints ● Priests can marry No monks and nuns ● No purgatory ● No pilgrimages

Luther and the Bible ● Rearranges the books of the Bible ● Removes 7 books of the Old Testament

Luther’s Break with the Catholic Church ● 1517-Martin Luther's bishop in Germany sells indulgences (reductions in time in purgatory) to pay back bribes to the Pope ● October 13, 1517 - Martin Luther writes 95 theses to protest against indulgences, nails them to Church doors ○ Says God forgives sins, not letters from the Pope ○ 1518- begins to deny the authority of the Pope ○ Excommunicated ○ 1521- Holy Roman Emperor gives Luther last chance to back down at the Diet of Worms (imperial council) ○ Luther refuses so Emperor declares him an outlaw ○ Prince of Saxony - defends Luther and takes him in

More Protestant Reformations- Switzerland ● Started by Ulrich Zwingli ○ Believed images in churches were idolatry (worship of false Gods) ○ Believed that the Eucharist was only a symbol, not actually the Body of Christ ○ One by one the cities of Switzerland destroy all images and decoration in churches, abolish Catholic mass ○ Make every strict society with many rules Anabaptists ● Believe you should only be baptized as an adult ● Persecuted by other Protestants (expelled, burned at the stake) ● Some deny that Jesus was divine, deny Trinity ● Some say only inner relationship with God is important, say that any Church or rituals are necessary

John Calvin ● Most important reformer in France and Switzerland ○ His ideas spread across Europe and England ● Believed in predestination (God decides whether you go to hell or heaven before you are born) ● Took over Swiss city of Geneva- made into strict society ○ Burns alive people who disagree with his theology

The English Reformation Henry VIII ● Wants an annulment from the Pope to separate from his wife, Catherine of Aragon, and marry Anne Boleyn because his current wife cannot conceive children. ● Pope does not allow the divorce ○ Henry declared himself Head of the Church of England and divorces Catherine Henry VIII’s Six Wives ● Catherine of Aragon - divorced ● Anne Boleyn- beheaded ● Jane Seymour- died ● Catherine Howard- beheaded ● Catherine Parr- survived! Henry’s Reformation ● Takes all of the Church’s property and closes all monasteries ● Edward VI (his son) - Protestant makes Book of Common Prayer in English and abolishes the Mass, destroys the images of the Church (in churches) ● Protestant church of England= Anglican Church Mary I (Bloody Mary) ● Makes England Catholic again ● Executes Protestant clergy ● Strict Catholic, kills many who are not Catholic ● Rebellion against her reign because of marriage to Philip II king of Spain

St. Thomas Moore ● Henry VIII’s chancellor ● Refusal in recognition of Henry as head of the Church ○ Executed 1535

Elizabeth I, The Virgin Queen (1558-1603) ● Bans Catholic Church ○ Catholic’s forced to pay fines if skipped mandatory mass for the Church of England ○ Catholics need to worship in secret ○ Catholic priests automatically killed ○ Catholic priests (especially Jesuits) sent in secret to England, to give mass, many of them die ● Makes England Protestant again ○ Keeps certain Catholic rituals ● She is called the “Virgin Queen” due to the fact she never married

1588 Spanish Armada (fleet of ships) tries to conquer England and make it Catholic again - Defeated by smaller, lighter English ships

Puritans = English Protestants who thought the Church of England was still too Catholic and needed to be freed from idolatry

Mary, Queen of Scots ● Was Catholic and in line to the English throne but was deposed and exiled to ENgland ● She participated in a plot to kill Elizabeth and take the throne of England ● She was beheaded by Elizabeth in 1587

Henry VIII 1509-1547 Edward VI 1547-1553 Mary I 1553-1558 Elizabeth I 1558-1603 James I 1603-1625

James I ● Mary, Queen of Scots son. James I becomes king of England and makes the King James Bible which is the first English translation of the Bible ● Dies in 1625, Son Charles inherits throne as King Charles I

Guy Fawkes ● Almost blows up Parliament - known as The Gunpowder Plot ○ Failed ○ Celebrated in England on November 5th

The Catholic Reformation ● The Council of Trent (1545-1563) ○ Church council called to deal with the Protestant doctrines ○ Called by Pope Paul III ○ Condemns Protestant doctrines ● Reform of the Clergy ○ The inquisition finds and punishes corrupt priests and bishops who are not celibate, stealing from the church, etc ○ Seminaries are established to make sure priests are educated ○ Monasteries and religious orders become more strict again ● New Religious orders founded= make schools for boys and girls, serve the poor ○ The oratorians use music, plays to illustrate faith for people

● The Jesuits ○ Founded by Ignatius of Loyola ○ Specialized in schools= open and free to everyone, educators of the sciences ○ Missionaries ○ Run hospitals and prisons ○ Write a lot of catechisms ● Catholic Art ○ Protestand believe images in Churches are Idolatry and that the senses distract you from god ■ Protestant churches are very simple, there are no images ○ Catholic Art in the Counter- Reformation are extremely decorated, try to make you feel and see the world of the Sacred ● Miracles and Mystical Experiences ○ Protestants do not believe in miracles and think that mystical experiences come from the Devil ○ Catholics in the Counter- Reformation focus on miracles and on spiritual experiences that we can see, feel, touch ● Demons and Witches ○ Both catholics and Protestants obsessed with the devil and demons in this period ○ Both sides afraid of witches; execute them in witch hunts ● Protestants Disagree ○ Luther and Zwingli argue about the Eucahrist ○ Lutherans kill Calvinists as heretics ○ Lutherans and Calvinists kill Anabaptists

Religious Wars between Catholics and Protestants

Switzerland ● Civil War- each canton(region) chooses its religion ○ Battle of Kappel 1531- Zwingli dies ■ Catholics finally defeat the Protestants

Germany ● Germany ( Holy Roman Empire) splits between Catholic and Lutheran states ● Charles V is Holy Roman Emperor ○ Tries to force all states to be Catholic ● Lutheran states form a League and rebel against the Emperor ○ War results ○ 1555- Peace of Augsburg- Each Prince can choose its state to be either Catholic or Protestant

The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) ● Between Protestant states and Catholics led by the Emperor ● Starts with Defenestration of Prague ( in Bohemia) ○ Rebels in city of Prague = throws the ministers of the Emperor out of the window and elect a Protestant King ● Catholics winning at first ○ Battle of the White Mountain 1620 - rebels in Bohemia crushed ● But France sides with the Protestant states ○ Exhausted Catholics give up

Siege of Magdeburg 1630-1631 ● 30% - 50% of Germany died ● First examples of ‘total war’ ( everyone is involved)

Netherlands (ruled by Spain)

● 80 years war (1566-1648) = revolt against Spain ● Protestant North Netherlands vs. Catholic South

The Treaty of Westphalia 1648 ● Ends the 30 and 80 years war ● Each state in the Holy Roman Empire can choose to be either Catholic, Lutheran, or Calvinist and must tolerate other religions ● The Netherlands become an independent Protestant Country but tolerate Catholics

Sovereign Nation State= fixed borders, independent from other states, no other states can decide what happens inside it

French Wars of Religion 1567-1598 ● Civil War between Catholic nobles and Hugernots(Calvinists) under Henry of Navarre ● 1572- St. Barthelemy Massacre = Catholics across Europe kills 10-13 thousand Huguenots ● Henry of Navarre becomes King Henry IV of France ● Edict of Nantes 1598- Catholics and Huguenots both tolerated

The English Civil War ● Charles I of England Persecutes Puritans ○ Flee to America ● Puritans in Parliament rebel against Charles I of England under Oliver Cromwell(1642) ○ Makes a New Model Army (trained, professional;) to defeat Charles ○ Wins at Battle of Naseby (1645) ● Charles captured and executed in 1649 ● England becomes a commonwealth under Cromwell until he dies and Charles II takes the throne

Effects of the Religious wars

● Catholics and Protestants get so sick of killing each other ● All of the disagreements and war between religions makes people confused about what the truth is and disgusted with religion in general

Meanwhile Catholics defend Europe from the Ottoman Turks

Ottomans dominate Europe ● 1526 - Battle of Mohacs- Ottomans take Hungary ● Ottomans dominate the sea until the ○ Siege of Malta- 1565- Knights Hospitaller defend island of Malta against 40,000 Turks ○ The Battle of Lepanto 1571- allied Christian navy defeats Ottoman s in largest naval battle since ancient times ○ These two battles break Ottoman domination of Mediterranean

The Age of Absolutism

● Strong monarchies from ○ Centralize the government - The King and his ministers have most of the Power ○ Collect taxes effectively ○ Keep a permanent and professional army that drills year round and has advanced technology ● Hugo Gratius 1525

France- Treaty of Alais-1629= the Huguenots lose their rights

Louis XIV “The Sun King” 1643-1715 ● The strongest monarch of the age ○ Longest reign of ant monarch in history that we know about (72 years) ● Complete control over the government ● Absolute Monarch- “ I am the nation” ● Takes away all power from the nobles ● Builds the Versailles Palace ● Fights endless wars - in Europe and North America against England ○ Nine Years War also known as the King William’s War ○ War of the Spanish succession (1701-1715) ■ Gets his son on the throne of Spain ● Raises huge taxes ● Bankrupts the country- France weal ● Peace of Utrecht

Strong Monarchies ● Austria- under the Hapsburg family ● Prussia- under the Hohenzollern family ● Sweden

● Poland ○ The Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth ○ Most powerful state in Eastern Europe until 1600’s ■ Cossacks (nomads in Ukraine region) revolt and devastate Poland in 1648 ■ Russia and sweden invade in 1655 ○ Weak monarchy due to democracy ■ Weak king ■ Nobles vote in sejm ( parliament) = anyone can suspend the meeting and must be a complete census ■ Poland declines ● Russia- Peter the Great ○ Tries to make Russia copy the rest of Europe and become European ■ Studies European military, technology, and Fashion ○ Makes a modern army capable of standing up to European armies ○ Great Northern War - conquers the Baltic from Sweden and Poland and gets access to the Sea ■ Makes Russia’s first navy and European style capital at St.Petersburg ○ Treaty of Nystad 1721 = Peter gives up Finland but gains the Baltic

Ottoman begins decline ● 1683-Polish Kings Jay Sobieski defends Vienna from siege by the Ottomans (the siege of Vienna) ○ Charges down from the outside the city with his calvary ● 1699- Allied European army takes back most of Hungary

Colonization and Trade ● Dutch and English dominate world trade ○ Slave trade from Africa ● All the European powers make plantations to farm sugar in South America and the Carribean ○ Use slaves from Africa ○ Huge source of money ● English and French colonize North America (1600s) ○ English:Virginia, New england ○ French : Canada ● Dutch East India Company = sell stocks/ shares of the company ○ Held bank of Amsterdam

Samuel De Champlain French colonies- trading posts with Indians- trade fur

The Scientific Revolution

● A time of new discoveries in science and math ○ That prove ancient philosophers wrong ○ That change people's beliefs

Astronomy ● The ancient worldview- Aristotle ● The Earth and Humans are at the center of the universe ● The sun, planets and stars move around in perfect circles ● The sky is perfect and never changes ○ Heaven is above the stars

Ptolemy- Astronomer and mapmaker

Copernicus 1473-1543 ● Says the Earth and planets move around the sun ● Is able to make more accurate predictions about where the planets will be

The Gregorian Calendar ● Calendar used since Roman Times- was wrong by many days

Pope Gregory XIII makes new calendar with and extra day every four years (leap years) ○ We use this calendar to this day

Tychno Brahe

Kepler ● The orbits of the planets are actually ovals, not circles

Galileo 1564-1642 ● First to use the telescope to look at the sky ○ Discovers the planets have moons, the sun has spots ○ Proves Copernicus;s correct observations ● Publicly advocates for Copernicus’s theory ● Condemned by the Inquisition - his books are banned, he takes back what he said and lives under house arrest ● Galileo on Trial 1633

Knowledge of Human Anatomy

Francis Bacon ● Invents the scientific method ○ Finding out what is true by doing experiments rather than using theories from old resources

Rene Descartes ● All we can trust is reason (logical sense) ○ You can’t trust what you see and hear ● “Cogito Ergo sum” ○ “I think, therefore I am” ● Thinks world is made up of individual particles (like atoms) ● Invents Cartesian coordinate plane

Blaise Pascal ● Invents calculator( pascaline calculator)

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek ● First microscopist and microbiologist

Robert Hooke ● Discovered cells by studying the honeycomb structure of a cork under a microscope

Robert Boyle ● Experiments with gas and pressure

Issac Newton ● Invented calculus ● Discovered gravity (force that attracts all objects to each other, causes orbits of the planets, and makes things fall to Earth) ● Made universal laws of motion for all objects

The Enlightenment

● The Age of Reason ● A time where people began to think that ○ Reason is more important than traditional religion ○ People believe in the supernatural ○ People cared more about science (evidence we can measure) ○ People start to question the authority of absolute monarchs, nobles, and of the Church (all based on tradition) ● There was a belief that we can build a perfect society based on reason ○ People have individual freedom of speech/religion ○ More democratic government (moves away from feudalism) ■ Seperate from the Church ● People became more about morals and ethics rather than traditional beliefs

Deism= the belief that God created the world and lets it run like a machine on its own

Before Enlightenment ● Divine Rights of Kings ○ Kings rule, belief that God put them there ○ Nobles and Kings are superior because of their blood(family line) ■ Questioned by Thomas Hobbes and John Locke

Thomas Hobbes ● Kings rule because we put them there ○ Social Contract

John Locke ● Human beings have natural rights to life, liberty, and property ● We make governments to protect our rights

The French (philosophers) Voltaire ● French philosopher ● Thought France should get rid of the Church and of the privileges of nobles Montesquieu-Died in 1755 ● Believes in separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial) Diderot ● Assembled first encyclopedia (1751-1765) Jean Jacques Rousseau ● Society should be a democracy ● The government is elected and rules by the will of the people

Adam Smith ● Advocate for free trade ● Capitalism Immanuel Kant- 1784 ● “Dare to Know” ● Freeing ourselves from the slavery of Feudalism Neoclassical Art ● Art exhibitions ● Museums ● Music ○ Mozart

Europe During the 1700s ● William of Orange (William II) and Mary ○ King from House of Hanover ● Parliament gains more power, office of Prime minister created ○ Whigs and Tories

Robert Walpole ● First prime minister of England

Catholic Stuart Kings try to take back throne ● 1745- Bonnie Prince Charlie (grandson James II)- lands in Scotland leads rebellion, defeated at Battle of Culloden

Monarchs in the Enlightenment ● Extremely powerful and absolutist ● Try to separate the church from the state, remove trade barriers, improve the lives of peasants, make law codes ● Fight massive, global wars with each other using massive armies

Frederick the Great (Prussia) ● Makes Prussia the most powerful country in Central Europe

Global Wars ● War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748 ○ Prussia grabs land from Austria,becomes most powerful country in central Europe ○ French and English in North America ● Seven Years war 1756-1763 ○ Prussia against rest of Europe ○ French and English ■ Fought French and Indian war in North america (English take Canada) ○ Fight in India ● Partition of Poland 1795 ○ Russia, Prussia, and Austria invade and divide Poland up among themselves ○ Poland does not exist as an independent country again until after World War I

The French Revolution 1789 French involved in American Revolution ● Bring ideas of American Revolution back to France ● Fight in American Revolutionary War- come back to France trained and ready for revolution The Ancient Régime (the old order in France) ● 1st estate = clergy (not taxed) ● 2nd estate= nobles (not taxed) ● 3rd estate= everyone else (pay all taxes) ● Problems ○ Country is bankrupt ○ King Louis XV and XVI are weak and inept ■ Marie Antoinette wife of Louis XVI (Austrian Princess) ○ Not enough food in Paris

Revolution Begins ● May 1789 - Louis XVI calls the Estate General ○ meeting of representatives from the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Estates ○ 3rd Estate calls for more power ■ Declares itself the National assembly of France and invites the other two estates to join (many nobles and clergy join) ■ June 20 They are locked out of the assembly hall and meet at a tennis court ● Took the Tennis court oath which sweared took keep meetings until France had a constitution

Storming of the Bastille ● King brings army to the city ○ People of Paris fear a plot by the King ● July 14, 1789- mobs of people storm the Bastille (city prison of Paris), Free the prisoners and take the weapons

Deceleration of the Rights of Man ● August 26, 1789- Assembly drafts a Declaration of the Rights of man and the citizen ○ Based on the U.S Declaration of Independence (same ideas) ○ Thomas Jefferson helped write the document

Jacques Necker The Assembly Takes over ● Abolishes the nobility ● Takes all Church property, abolishes monasteries ● Forces all clergy to swear loyalty to the government ○ Some (juring priests) do, others (non-juring priests) do not ○ Non-juring priests were persecuted- counter revolution in countryside by peasants who support their priests

Jacobin

The Flight to Varennes (June 20,1791) ● King and family try to flee to Paris to raise an army to crush the Revolution ○ recognized at Varennes and brought back to Paris ● People in Paris outraged, call for King to step down

The Revolution Intensifies ● Jacobins (radical revolutionaries) dominate the Assembly ● April 1792- Assembly declares War on Austria ○ Austria had threatened to come in to restore the King’s power ● July 1792- Grain shortages in Paris ○ rebels in Paris overthrow the Assembly, attacks the King’s palace (The Tuileries) and imprison him ○ Break into the city jail and massacre 1600 priests

The King Guillotined ● September 21, 1792 - French revolutionary army wins first major victory against Austria at Valmy ○ the convention abolishes the monarchy in France ● January 21, 1793 - Louis XVI executed by guillotine for being a traitor

Terror Begins ● 1793- War with Austria, peasant rebellions in France against the Revolution ○ committee of Public Safety takes over government

Jacobins kill Girodins for not agreeing with them Maximilien Robespierre

The Terror 1793-1794 ● Maximilien Robespierre starts the “Terror” to eliminate enemies of the revolution ○ Tens of thousands are killed without trial (by guillotine) ○ draft masses of people into the army ○ makes christianity illegal, churches closed ■ Robespierre starts a cult of the Supreme being to replace Christianity ■ October 1793 Marie Antoinette is killed by a guillotine

End of the Terror ● Robespierre’s supporters every start to feel unsafe ● Robespierre’s gets guillotined- marks end of terror

Thermidor Government (1794) ● New Constitution - Moderate government with 5 man council called the Directory (Executive Branch) ● French Army under Napoleon Bonaparte conquer Northern Italy (1797) ● 1799- Napoleon takes power with the army, makes himself First consul ○ 18 of Brumaire

Napoleon ● From island of Corsica ● Military Genius ● Led French campaigns in Italy and Egypt (1797), became national hero ○ military ● Conquers Europe with his great army ○ Puts his friends and family members on the thrones of European countries ● Makes civil code (law code) ● Makes Concordat (agreement) with Church (Christianity is legal again) ● Proclaims himself Emperor of the French (1804) ● Tries to invade England - Stopped at trafalgar by Admiral Horacio Nelson (1805)

Battle of Austerlitz(1805) ● Defeats Austria and Russia - brilliant strategy- Napoleon’s greatest victory ● Holy Roman Empire dissolved ● Napoleon makes the Confederation of the Rhine (united group of German states) ● Creates unified Kingdom of Italy in northern Italy

Napoleon involves Russia (summer 1812) ● Russia too big, takes too long for supplies to come, cannot feed army ● Russians burn everything and retreat so that Napoleon’s army cannot live off the land ● Battle of Borodino- Napoleon takes big losses ● Winter starts to come - French forced to retreat - die of cold and disease (only 1/7) survive

Fall of Napoleon ● Russians, Germans, and Austrians move into France ○ Battle of the Nations - Napoleon is defeated (1814) and exiled to the island of Elba ● Returned in 1815, takes control of the army (100 days)

● Defeated at the Battle of Waterloo (1815) by the British under the Duke of Wellington ○ Exiled for life at the island of St.Helena

Toussaint Louverture ● Leads Haiti in revolution against France

The Conersvative Reaction ● Restoring Monarchy in Europe

The Congress of Vienna (1814) ● European powers meet to decide what to do with Wurope after Napoleon defeat ○ led by Clemens von Metternich (Austrian foreign minister) ● Restores Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) as king of France - The Bourbon Restoration and restores King of Spain ● Makes German Confederation to replace the Holy Roman Empire

Louis XVIII (France) ● Rules with a constitution and assembly (constitutional monarch) ● Keeps Napoleon's Law codes

Conservative Reaction ● Kings across Europe crash any attempts by the people make government more democratic or liberal

Ferdinand VII (Spain) ● riots in 1805- asked Napoleon for help ● Napoleon invited him over then imprisoned him ● Napoleon put his brother on the throne ● Revolt until 1814 with British support ● 1812- democratic government elected

● 1814- Napoleon loses and Ferdinand returns and exiles any/every part of the democratic government

Alexander I (Russia) ● Congress of Vienna gave him Poland ○ have democraticesque government ● Followed by Nicholas I

Franz II (Austria) (1792-1835) ● wanted no change

Debate After the French Revolution ● Liberalism (the Enlightenment) - we should have government by the people, where people are allowed to speak, worship, and trade freely ● Versus ● Conservatism- we should keep old institutions the way they are (like the king and the church) ○ Government tells people how to live ○ Edmund Burke (England)

Industrial Revolution ● People start making things such as fabric and metal goods using machines, instead of by hand ● People start using coal and steam power ● People start making things in centralized factories instead of individually at home ● Putting out system- Producing things in homes and selling them ● Started in England 1700s- spreads to Germany then slowly the rest of Europe ● Reduces the power of nobles who own land, not factories ● Makes everyone wealthier ○ Factories produce cheap goods people can afford to buy ○ Farming becomes more efficient and feeds people better

● Population grows massively in Europe ● People move to cities away from the country ○ to work in factories ● Textile Industry ○ producing cloth, clothing fabric

The Working Class ● Live crammed in slums (no sewer, polluted water supply) ● Work all day in factories ● Vid young, have very poor health ● Women and children work in factories as well ● However their situation and living standards improved overtime ● Begins to organize themselves into unions

The other classes (grow very wealthy) ● Middle class (businessmen and managers) ● Factory owners (very wealthy) ● Wealth inequality between workers and factory owners grows

19th century ideas

Romanticism ● a movement in art and literature in 1800s ● Romanticism was a reaction to the Enlightenment (which emphasized reason) ● Romanticism instead emphasized ○ emotion, passion and the power of nature ○ as well as heroism, sacrifice ○ the past, old myths and legends become prominent

Romantic Music ● Beethoven ● Schubert, Schumann ● Chopin ● Wagner

Literature Poets ● William Wordsworth ● Percy Byshhe Shelly ● John Keats ● Lord Byron ● Samuel Taylor

Literature- Germany ● Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ● Friedrich Schiller

Nationalism ● The idea that each ethnic group should get its own independent country ○ Germans want united Germany (not bunch of little Kingdoms) ○ Italians want unified Italy (not many little kingdoms) ○ Hungarians want independence from Austrian Empire

Utilitarianism ● Goal of society is to provide “greatest happiness for the greatest number”

Socialism ● the idea that that the government should own everything ● The community should own things jointly (no private property) ● The opposite of capitalism(people own things privately, Buy and sell for money)

Karl Marx ● wrote the communist manifesto ● started a worldwide communist / Marxist movement ● Founder of Marxism

● Believed the workers of the world (the proletariat) should unite and start a world revolution to overthrow the factory owners (bourgeoisie) and take over society ○ then gradually there would be no more countries, governments, or private property, and the world would be a communist society Reform and Revolution 1815-1848 Britain - becomes slowly more liberal and democratic ● 1819- “Peterloo Massacre” -massive protest in Manchester demanding voting rights for all citizens ○ British army charges and kills many ● 1830’s Parliament lowers property qualifications required to vote for representatives ○ Abolishes slavery ● Corn Laws- tariff on imported grain

Revolutions of 1830 ● France- Paris revolts after Charles X dissolves the Assembly, king flees- assembly brings in Louis- Philippe (more liberal) ● Belgium rebels against Netherlands and becomes independent ● Poland rebels against Russia (crushed)

Balkan Peninsula ● Under Ottoman Control 1400’s ● Ottoman Empire grows weak, loses control of Balkans and Egypt ● Powerful local rulers and Janissaries oppress peasants (Christians) and take their food

Nationalist Movements in Balkans ● Greek want to restore Byzantine Empire, want independence ○ Peasants rebel 1821 ● Serbs want independence ○ Rebels against Ottomans 1815 ● 1830-Treaty of London ○ Russia, France, Britain intervene and force Ottomans to recognize independent Greece and Serbia

The 1848 Revolutions ● Revolutions across European every country for democracy ○ Riots in cities (Paris, Vienna, Berlin) - people demand voting rights, end of serfdom ● Starts with February Revolution in Paris (overthrows Louis Philippe and establishes republic) ● Czechs, Hungarians want independence from Austria ○ Hungary declares independent republic ● Germans and Halians want unified countries (nationalism)

Frankfurt Parliament 1848 ● Assembly from all German countries meets at Frankfurt to discuss unified Germany ● Draws up constitution for united Germany (not including Austria)

Revolution Fails ● France- Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon) elected President of republic- 1852 proclaims- self Emperor Napoleon III ● Germany - Prussian army crushes ● Austria, Italy, Hungary- Austrian army crushes

Unification of Italy ● North Italy united by kingdom of Piedmont (1859) under King Victor Emmanuel II ○ Attacks Austrian territories in Italy with the help of Napoleon III ● 1860- revolution in South Italy, united itself to North ● 1860-Victor Emmanuel I conquers Papal states ○ Pope Pius IX loses political power and becomes “prisoner of the Vatican”

The Crimean War (1854-1856) ● Russia invaded Ottoman Empire to protect Orthodox Christians ● Britain and France defend Ottomans ○ Attack Russia just to keep the balance of power in Europe Realpolitik ● politics based on the pursuit of power, not on moral principles Prussia ● Under King Wilhelm I with his minister Otto von Bismarck Prussia conquers other German states ● Seven weeks war with Austria 1866 ○ Prussia establishes North German Confederation and annexes smaller states

Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) ● Prussia and North German Confederation invade France and take Alsace and Lorraine ● 1871-German princes and proclaim German Empire under Wilhelm Kaiser (Wilhelm I) France ● Franco-Prussian War ○ Napoleon III captured - France becomes republic (Third republic) ○ Paris Commune 1871- socialist uprising in Paris takes over city (crushed by the army)

Austria-Hungary ● 1867- Hungary becomes independent part of Austrian Empire - Austrian Empire now known as Austria - Hungary ○ Hungary- Magyars ○ Croats- Croatia Magyarization- force schools to reach Magyar language

Ottoman Empire and Balkans ● Empire weak, huge debt ● Young Turks inside empire protest, want reform ● Crimson war- Romania becomes independent (1856) ● 1876 Bulgaria revolts (protected by Russia as fellow Slav nation) ○ becomes independent Russia ● 1861-Tsar Alexander II freed the serfs (liberal) Britain ● More and more people can vote for Parliament ● Liberal and conservative parties dominate politics Across Europe ● Governments become more liberal (except in Prussia/Russia) ● Prussia and Russia stay autocratic (Tsar I emperor has most or all the power)

1859-1900 ● massive factory production (steel, - buildings, trains, ships) ○ lives of workers improve, middle class grows ● Telegraph, telephone allow for faster communication ● Trade and travel increases

Suez canal

Queen Victoria- Victorian Era in England ● Hard working middle class ideal, strict morality

Age of Optimism ● Scientific advances ○ Charles Darwin: Theory of evolution (life forms evolve over time) ○ Louis Pasteur: discovers germs, realizes they cause disease ● People believe science can solve their problems

The New Imperialism ● European countries race to colonize Africa (and parts of Asia) ○ French and Belgian Congo extract rubber, Commit atrocities ● British Empire includes India, South Africa, Egypt ○ BoerWar ● China weak, European countries dominate for trade ○ Opium Wars Anxiety across Europe ● People in democracies want more participation in the government ● People in autocracies (Russia, Prussia) want democracy ● Workers strike across Europe ● Socialists gain power, assassinations across Europe (anarchists) Russia ● War with Japan 1904-1905 ● 1905:workers strike across Russian Empire ● Revolution in St. Petersburg 1905 ○ “Blood Sunday” - Tsar’s troops fire on protestors ● Russian socialist parties from ○ Bolsheviks - want immediate violent revolution to establish communist state Age of Empires ● Land Empire: Russia, Austria ● Sea Empires: Britain, France

Germany aggressive and imperialist ● Kaiser Wilhelm II aggressive, wants to prove himself and expand German Empire ○ builds up German army and navy ○ Morocco Crisis: demands trading rights with Africa War looms ● Russia and France afraid of Germany ● Germany afraid of being surrounded by Russia and France Chaos in the Balkin Peninsula ● 1908 - Austria annexed Bosnia (where many serbs live) ○ Serbia is furious at Austria ● 1914- Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (heir to the throne) assassinated by Serberian terrorists in Sarajevo (Bosnia)

War Breaks Out ● Austria declares war on Serbia ○ Germany supports Austria (“Blank check”) ● Russia starts to mobilize army in defense of Serbia ○ Germany declares war on Russia and France

World War I (1914-1918) ● The Entente ○ Russia, France, Britain ● Vs The Central Powers ○ Germany, Austria, Ottomans Enthusiasm for war across Europe People have no idea how horrible it is going to be

Course of the War ● Germany knocks out Russia quickly from the war (Battle of Tannenberg) ● Germany invades France through the Netherlands ○ Defensive War: both sides dig trenches ○ Trench warfare: try to advance bit by bit across the land and dig new trenches ■ Millions die to gain or lose a few miles of land ■ Very little gain or loss of territory The Horrors of War- traumatic for Europe ● New Technology ○ Machine guns ○ Poison gas ○ Huge artillery ● Life of the Trenches ○ Muddy, filthy ○ Rats, lice, disease

Russain Revolution (1917) ● February Revolution: Protests in St.Petersburg over fund and feel, army joins the protests - Tsar Nicholas II abdicates ● October Revolution: Bolsheviks (communist) party under Vladimir Lenin takes over St.Petersburg ● Russian Civil War between between Reds(communist) and Whites (1918-1921) ○ Lenin and Reds win - establish Union 1922 Stalin Lenin Trotsky

End of the War ● Germany over extended and running out of resources ● 1918- US enters the war (Germany had been sinking American ships) ● Germany seeks peace ○ Kaiser abdicated- Germany becomes republic (Weimar republic) ○ November 11,1918 (end of the war)

Treaty of Versailles 1919 (ends WWI) ● Germany ○ Blamed for the war ○ Forced to pay massive reparations ○ Forced to disarm itself and shrink its army ○ Harsh treaty- Germans feel betrayed and angry (sets the stage for WWII) ● Breaks up the Russian and Austrain Empires ○ Creates independent Poland (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary, etc.) ● Makes League of Nations to manage disputes between countries (USA doesn't join- fails)

World War I Legacy ● Germany bitter and angry ● Pointless war- millions died for no reason ● Europe traumatized Lenin dies- Joseph Stalin becomes Soviet Union Leader after 1928

Stalin’s Plan for the USSR (1930’s) ● The “5 year plans” to industrialize the USSR ○ Government takes all the farmers’ land and makes collective farms ○ Forces farmers to work on collective farms ○ Sells their crops internationally to buy factory machinery ○ Leaves farmers to starve ■ 5 million starve to death, Especially in Ukraine

Life Under Stalin ● Uses secret police to find anyone who might be disloyal to the regime (including communist party members or army leaders) ○ kills or sends millions to the Gulag (forced labor camps) Nazism in Germany 1920’s-1930’s in Germany ● Germany forced to print money to pay France- paper money becomes worthless (inflation) ● Worldwide great Depression in 1930’s ○ High unemployment

Nazi Party ● Anti-Communist, anti-Jewish (blame them for Germany’s weakness after WWI) ● Want to re-arm Germany and expand ● Nationalist believe German race (the Aryan race) is superior

Democracy fails in Germany ● Political parties fail to agree on anything -> government cannot function ● People become more radical -> elect Communist and Nazi parties to the parliament ● Nazi’s refuse to work with other parties unless Hitler is made the chancellor -> Hitler appointed chancellor (1933) ● Parliament building set on fire by a commmunist (the Reichstag fire) -> Hitler declares state of emergency, suspends democracy, becomes Führer of Germany Party rallies Hitler Youth

Nazi Germany ● Sterilize people with genetic diseases ● Kill disabled people (1939) ● 1938 - Kristallnacht (night of the broken glass) - Jewish synagogues and stores destroyed, Jews forced to leave Germany ● Imprison anyone who disagrees with regime (many clergy)

Hitler’s Beliefs (from his book Mein Kampf) ● All history is a struggle between races ● German race must expand and conquer

Hitler’s Plan for Germany ● Purify Germany (of Jews, foreigners, and disabled people) ● Expand Germany east into Poland and Russia - Killor starve out the slavs living there - Settle the area with Aryan Germans - Because German race needs more living space (Lebensraum)

World War II (1939-1945) ● The Axis powers (Germany, Japan, some Eastern European state, Italy ● The Allies (Russia, USA, Britain)

War begins ● 1935 Germany rearms itself (against the Treaty of Versailles) ● 1938 Hitler annexes Austria (makes Austria part of Germany - the Anschluss ● 1938 Britain and France allow Hitler to annex the Sudetenland parts of Czechoslovakia where many Germans live) - policy of appeasement - Hitler then takes over the rest of Czech lands Hitler invades France ● French surrender after 6 weeks -> Germans occupy France ● Britain fights alone against Germany (defends against German air attacks)

June 1941 : Hitler invades Russia ● (His plan all along) ● Advance stopped outside of Moscow by Russians as winter sets in The SS- Nazi Elite

German Brutality ● SS sent to Poland and Russia along with the army ● Organize mass shootings of… ○ Polish priests and intellectuals ○ Soviet Prisoners ○ Communist party members ○ Polish and Soviet citizens in areas that rebel ○ Jews especially The Holocaust- the systematic killing of 6 million Jews by the Nazi Regime The “Final Solution” ● Starting in 1941, Hitler and the SS plan to 1. Place all Polish Jews in ghettos 2. Transport them and Jews from the rest of Europe to death camps in Poland to exterminate them a. Crowd them into gas chambers, kill them with poison gas, then burn the bodies in massive ovens b. Largest camp= Auschwitz (1 million Jews total die)

The Tides Turn ● Battle of Stalingrad 1943- Russians destroy German army ○ Russians begin pushing back German line and moving West

US Enters War ● December 7, 1941- Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor (destroy much of West Pacific Fleet) ○ Invade US island and Philippines ● US and Britain invade in North America ● US and Britain invade France June 6, 1944 D'Day

End of the War ● Germans fighting on two fronts ○ Exhausted and out of resources, especially oil ● Americans push across France ● Russians take Berlin- Hitler commits suicide and army surrenders

Potsdam Conference (July 1945)

Aftermath ● Allies divide Germany into occupation zones ○ City of Berlin divided between allies ● United Nations founded ● Trial of Nazi War criminals in the Nuremberg Trials

The Cold War and Beyond

● Russian army continues to occupy Eastern Europe, sets up communist government ○ Sets up communist government East Germany ○ Build Berlin Wall to wall off the Western part of the city ● US and Russian WWII alliance ends ○ “Iron curtain” separates capitalist West and communist East

End of Communism in Europe ● 1980’s - protests to across Eastern Europe and Soviet Russia ● November 1989 - fall of the Berlin Wall ● 1991- Soviet Union- dissolved