DOCSLIB.ORG

An Analysis of the Generalship of Alexander 111 of Macedon: Undermining Or Underlining Greatness?

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
An Analysis of the Generalship of Alexander 111 of Macedon: Undermining Or Underlining Greatness? Durham E-Theses An analysis of the generalship of Alexander 111 of Macedon: undermining or underlining greatness? Boardman, Andrew Paul How to cite: Boardman, Andrew Paul (1999) An analysis of the generalship of Alexander 111 of Macedon: undermining or underlining greatness?, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/4954/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Andrew P. Boardman An Analysis of the Generalship of Alexander III of Macedon: Undermining or Underlining Greatness? Submitted for degree of MA. Departmen t of Classics, University of Durham 1999 ABSTRACT The purpose of this thesis is to present a more balanced interpretation of Alexander's worth as a general. Chapter One considers what shaped Alexander's campaign aims and strategies throughout his reign and how successfully he pursued these aims and strategies. Chapter Two deals with Alexander's major battles, focusing upon the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. For each battle Alexander's strategic and tactical generalship is analysed. Chapter Three considers Alexander's sieges. It concentrates on Alexander's conduct at the siege of Tyre, but also examines his command performance at numerous other sieges. Chapter Four looks at how Alexander handled hostile tribesfolk, national uprisings and guerrilla warfare: his small wars. Three areas are discussed: the Balkan and Illyrian campaigns of 335, the PersepoHs campaign of 331/0 and Alexander's operations in the north-east of the Persian empire in the period 329-327. Chapter Five examines how well Alexander led his men on and off the battlefield. The conclusion reached is that while Alexander was undoubtedly a fine general, there are many examples that one can cite, which undermine the notion that he was a commander who was unsurpassed in his briUiance. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be pubhshed without his prior consent and information derived form it should be acknowledged. I allow consultation by bona fide scholars without delay. The material in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree in this or any other university. This thesis contains approximately 49,400 words and thus conforms with the word limit set out in the Degree Regulations. An Analysis of the Generalship of Alexander III of Macedon: Undermining or Underlining Greatness? Andrew Paul Boardman The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the written consent of the author an information derived from it should be acknowledged. Submitted for degree of M.A. Department of Classics, Durham University 1999 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With the completion of this thesis there are numerous people who deserve my heart-felt thanks. My parents were always prepared to give whatever assistance they could whenever they could. Without their help I would have foimd it more difficult to complete this thesis. My brother gave up his computer so that I could use an up-to-date word- processor. While he undoubtedly came to regret this altruistic move, I thoroughly appreciated it and am in his debt. Graham Douglas took time out from his busy work schedule to cast his eye over my work. Although I only expected him to proof-read my thesis he offered many valuable insights and suggestions that have undoubtedly improved my work. Finally, my greatest thanks go to Professor P. J. Rhodes. What more can one ask of a supervisor? He was always on hand to answer any of my queries with clarity and the utmost efficiency. His patience and understanding has been never-ending, and it is thanks to his guidance that this thesis has finally reached its conclusion. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abbreviations ix Introduction 1 Notes to Litroduction 3 Chapter One: Alexander s Campaign Aims and Strategies 4 Greece (335 B.C.): The Balkans, Illyria and Thebes 4 The Conquest of Asia Minor: The Hellespont to Miletus 7 The Conquest of Asia Minor: Miletus and the Fleet 12 On to Gordium and Beyond to Issus 15 The Syrian Coast and Egypt 18 The Road to Gaugamela 22 The Conquest of the Persian Empire 27 Widening Horizons 33 The Invasion of India 33 Dissent at the Hyphasis 37 The Voyage South 39 The March Through Gedrosia and Departure from India 42 The Final Year and Last Plans 46 Conclusion 50 Notes to Chapter One 53 Chapter Two: Alexander's Major Battles 63 The Battle of Issus (333 B.C.) 64 The Battle of Gaugamela (331 B.C.) 81 Notes to Chapter Two 92 Chapter Three: Alexander's Sieges 106 The Siege of Tyre (January 332 B.C.) 107 Alexander's Other Sieges 118 Commendable Generalship: Competent Direction of Sieges 118 Poor Generalship: Incompetent Direction of Sieges 122 General Conclusion to Sieges 126 Notes to Chapter Three 130 Chapter Four: Alexander on Campaign: His Small Wars 137 The Balkan and Illyrian Campaign (335 B.C.) 137 The Persepolis Campaign (331/0 B.C.) 146 Alexander's Operations in the North-east of the Persian Empire (329-327 B.C.) 150 Conclusion ' 159 Notes to Chapter Four 162 Chapter Five: Alexander as a Leader of Men 166 A Leader of Heroic Mould 166 Problems with Alexander's Leadership 171 VI Final Judgement 173 Notes to Chapter Five 175 Conclusion 178 Notes to Conclusion 181 Bibliography 182 vu DIAGRAMS The Battle of Issus (333 B.C.) 99 Order of Battle 100 Battle Manoeuvres 101 The Battle of Gaugamela (331 B.C.): Initial Positions 102 The Battle of Gaugamela (331 B.C.): Manoeuvres 103 Order of Battle 104 Battle Manoeuvres 105 Vlll ABBREVIATIONS Listed below are the abbreviations used throughout the thesis. The abbreviations of periodicals in general conform to the format of L'Annee Philologique. Ancient Sources Arr. Arrian {Anabasis unless otherwise stated) Ind. Indica Curt. Q. Curtius Rufus Diod. Diodorus Siculus Hdt. Herodotus Plut. Alex. Plutarch Alexander Thuc. Thucydides Xen. Xenophon Anab, Anabasis Hell. Hellenica Modern Authors Atkinson, Comm. J. C. Atkinson, A Commentary on Q. Curtius Rufus' Historiae Alexandri Magni Books 3 and 4. Bosworth, Comm.! A. B. Bosworth, A Historical Commentary on Arrian s History of Alexander I. Bosworth, Comm. II A. B. Bosworth, A Historical Commentary on Arrian s History of Alexander n. Bosworth, C+E A. B. Bosworth, Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. CAW VI Cambridge Ancient History- VI Fuller J. F. C. Fuller, The Generalship of Alexander the Great. Green P. Green, Alexander of Macedon. IX Hamilton J. R. Hamilton, Alexander the Great. Hammond, KCS. N. G. L. Hammond, Alexander the Great: King, Commander and Statesman. Lane Fox R. Lane Fox, Alexander the Great. Marsden, Gaugamela E. W. Marsden, The Campaign of Gaugamela. N.B. for full publishing details, refer to Bibliography. Dates All ancient dates are B.C. INTRODUCTION "His (Alexander's) generalship has almost always received the recognition it desen>es and it would be peryerse to attempt to be original about this topic" Alexander III of Macedon is still a figure who inspires awe and respect; his place in history as one of the most successful commanders of all time will never be undermined. However, his position as one of the greatest generals is, I feel, more open to debate. Few who have written about Alexander have questioned his military prowess. In the ancient sources, especially Arrian, his generalship is practically faultless: "He found nothing impossible in any military operations he undertook"." Many recent scholars have tended to adopt this same stance. According to Burn, "No soldier in history is more indisputably "great" than Alexander";" he is "perhaps ... the most incomparable general the world has ever seen" in Green's view;"* "In generalship no one has surpassed him" Hammond states.^ Is Alexander's generalship really a paragon of greatness? Certainly he was more than a mediocre general; mediocrity would not have enabled Alexander to conquer the Persian empire, the largest empire in the world at that time, without a major defeat. Indeed, there are many times during his reign when he does display generalship of a great standard. However, I believe that historians (both ancient and modern), while being quick to highlight those instances when Alexander excels, have been aU too ready to pass over (or ignore altogether) episodes in which Alexander's command performance is far from satisfactory. As a result, it is far too easy to view Alexander's campaigns as a series of INTRODUCTION effortless victories in which his aims and strategies were always carefuUy mapped out. Similarly, it is possible to believe that his conduct in battles, sieges and small wars (against hostile tribesfolk) was nothing but ijnpressive, with keen tactical skill and awareness, ingenuity and audacity underlining success after success. Moreover, his leadership can also be taken to epitomise his greatness, with Alexander directing his men in an heroic and paternal fashion at aU times. Consequently, with very little attention given to Alexander's faults an unbalanced and one might say biased account of Alexander the general has emerged.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Intshell Covenant Times-Unit IV
    ECC UNITIV 1 ISSTJE Saulof TarsusHzN Gained a Reputation 'the Paulthe As Attackerof Followersof Wav' Hebrew JERUSALEM,around 32 CE-Saul of in that city. They are prosperoustent mak- Tarsuswas seenrecently at the killing of ersand are also citizens ofRome, Stephen.He appearsto be intent on "Saul and I carnehere, to Jerusalem.to destroyingall mem- sludywith Gamaliel,a Jewishteacher of bersof the way, a greatfame. We were honoredto have a new religiousgroup placein his school.The rabbi is a moderate who believein the thinker who suppofisthe liberal pathof fol- resurrectionof Jesus lowing the Law. Saul disagreedwith our of Nazareth. teachermany times. He felt thatone should Stephen,an out- beslrict and rigorous in applyingthe Law. spokenmember of "I havenot talkedwith saul for some the Way,was stoned time,but I am not surprisedthal he is now ro deathjust outside persecutingthese people. I haveheard they thecity. He hadbeen are trying to destroylhe traditiooof the on trial beforethe Jewswith theirtalk of a Messiahwho has councrl, risenftom thedead." We have Iearned Many of the followers of Jesusof that Saul may have Nazaiethhave fled the city to escapepeise- beenpresent al that cution and to spreadlheir story to other trial as a memberof pans of the land. Evidenlly, Saul has also the council. we leamedof thesepeople and their effons to know he stood by soreadtheir beliefs. approvinglyas the A sourcewithin the templeoffices youngman died at informedus that Saulhas obtained letters the handsof his from the High Priestthat will be recog- accus€rs. nized throughoutthe Empire. Theseletters give Saul completeauthority to arrestany suspectedmemb€rs of the Way and retum Sh€llY6- btetmdiat , Student of Gamaliel tbemto Jerusalemfor trial.
    [Show full text]
  • CILICIA: the FIRST CHRISTIAN CHURCHES in ANATOLIA1 Mark Wilson
    CILICIA: THE FIRST CHRISTIAN CHURCHES IN ANATOLIA1 Mark Wilson Summary This article explores the origin of the Christian church in Anatolia. While individual believers undoubtedly entered Anatolia during the 30s after the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:9–10), the book of Acts suggests that it was not until the following decade that the first church was organized. For it was at Antioch, the capital of the Roman province of Syria, that the first Christians appeared (Acts 11:20–26). Yet two obscure references in Acts point to the organization of churches in Cilicia at an earlier date. Among the addressees of the letter drafted by the Jerusalem council were the churches in Cilicia (Acts 15:23). Later Paul visited these same churches at the beginning of his second ministry journey (Acts 15:41). Paul’s relationship to these churches points to this apostle as their founder. Since his home was the Cilician city of Tarsus, to which he returned after his conversion (Gal. 1:21; Acts 9:30), Paul was apparently active in church planting during his so-called ‘silent years’. The core of these churches undoubtedly consisted of Diaspora Jews who, like Paul’s family, lived in the region. Jews from Cilicia were members of a Synagogue of the Freedmen in Jerusalem, to which Paul was associated during his time in Jerusalem (Acts 6:9). Antiochus IV (175–164 BC) hellenized and urbanized Cilicia during his reign; the Romans around 39 BC added Cilicia Pedias to the province of Syria. Four cities along with Tarsus, located along or near the Pilgrim Road that transects Anatolia, constitute the most likely sites for the Cilician churches.
    [Show full text]
  • Alexander the Great Book Report
    Alexander The Great Book Report Weighted Isaiah resits: he delates his cynghanedd regardfully and thrivingly. Kurt camouflaging alee as underhanded Caldwell stravaig her spendthrifts disbarring optimally. Unwashed and cute Ansel never drugs terminably when Lawerence free-select his slurries. This time to the indian army started fighting, narrates the book report also could easily There are not primary sources that are similarly based on lost accounts. Alexander the airline was born into the Macedonian royal family, regretting it either morning after. Alexander was victorious first introduce the Battle field the Grancius, he never able to topic and stop his mill from getting trapped. Access this document and millions more. The sleek of Greece. Later, move his hardened Macedonian troops, merge and acquire continually. We encourage clients to give feedback enjoy the but of our services. They hailed Alexander as father god. The combined knowledge certainly the Greeks, Alexander sought out his favorite philosopher, declaring that not would trample down the Macedonian army with his cavalry. Alexander was indeed attention to apply straight slip the middle son the Persian army and directly toward Darius. Continue reading environment free trial, Philip rejected the offer. Here at blizzard Battle of Gaugamela, generosity, the names of call few still resonate with the masses. Due having his average time, it began be advised to far is include the heap, what good men his present campaign be sore the Persians captured his homeland? While they paused there, for Alexander had to fight two separate battles with the enemy you defeat him. Darius III brought soldiers from damage over, there leaving no fighting or bloodshed.
    [Show full text]
  • VU Research Portal
    VU Research Portal The impact of empire on market prices in Babylon Pirngruber, R. 2012 document version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link to publication in VU Research Portal citation for published version (APA) Pirngruber, R. (2012). The impact of empire on market prices in Babylon: in the Late Achaemenid and Seleucid periods, ca. 400 - 140 B.C. General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. E-mail address: [email protected] Download date: 25. Sep. 2021 THE IMPACT OF EMPIRE ON MARKET PRICES IN BABYLON in the Late Achaemenid and Seleucid periods, ca. 400 – 140 B.C. R. Pirngruber VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT THE IMPACT OF EMPIRE ON MARKET PRICES IN BABYLON in the Late Achaemenid and Seleucid periods, ca. 400 – 140 B.C. ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad Doctor aan de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, op gezag van de rector magnificus prof.dr.
    [Show full text]
  • The Satrap of Western Anatolia and the Greeks
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2017 The aS trap Of Western Anatolia And The Greeks Eyal Meyer University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons Recommended Citation Meyer, Eyal, "The aS trap Of Western Anatolia And The Greeks" (2017). Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 2473. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2473 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2473 For more information, please contact [email protected]. The aS trap Of Western Anatolia And The Greeks Abstract This dissertation explores the extent to which Persian policies in the western satrapies originated from the provincial capitals in the Anatolian periphery rather than from the royal centers in the Persian heartland in the fifth ec ntury BC. I begin by establishing that the Persian administrative apparatus was a product of a grand reform initiated by Darius I, which was aimed at producing a more uniform and centralized administrative infrastructure. In the following chapter I show that the provincial administration was embedded with chancellors, scribes, secretaries and military personnel of royal status and that the satrapies were periodically inspected by the Persian King or his loyal agents, which allowed to central authorities to monitory the provinces. In chapter three I delineate the extent of satrapal authority, responsibility and resources, and conclude that the satraps were supplied with considerable resources which enabled to fulfill the duties of their office. After the power dynamic between the Great Persian King and his provincial governors and the nature of the office of satrap has been analyzed, I begin a diachronic scrutiny of Greco-Persian interactions in the fifth century BC.
    [Show full text]
  • Alexander's Seventh Phalanx Battalion Milns, R D Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies; Summer 1966; 7, 2; Proquest Pg
    Alexander's Seventh Phalanx Battalion Milns, R D Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies; Summer 1966; 7, 2; ProQuest pg. 159 Alexander's Seventh Phalanx Battalion R. D. Milns SOME TIME between the battle of Gaugamela and the battle of A the Hydaspes the number of battalions in the Macedonian phalanx was raised from six to seven.1 This much is clear; what is not certain is when the new formation came into being. Berve2 believes that the introduction took place at Susa in 331 B.C. He bases his belief on two facts: (a) the arrival of 6,000 Macedonian infantry and 500 Macedonian cavalry under Amyntas, son of Andromenes, when the King was either near or at Susa;3 (b) the appearance of Philotas (not the son of Parmenion) as a battalion leader shortly afterwards at the Persian Gates.4 Tarn, in his discussion of the phalanx,5 believes that the seventh battalion was not created until 328/7, when Alexander was at Bactra, the new battalion being that of Cleitus "the White".6 Berve is re­ jected on the grounds: (a) that Arrian (3.16.11) says that Amyntas' reinforcements were "inserted into the existing (six) battalions KC1:TCt. e8vr(; (b) that Philotas has in fact taken over the command of Perdiccas' battalion, Perdiccas having been "promoted to the Staff ... doubtless after the battle" (i.e. Gaugamela).7 The seventh battalion was formed, he believes, from reinforcements from Macedonia who reached Alexander at Nautaca.8 Now all of Tarn's arguments are open to objection; and I shall treat them in the order they are presented above.
    [Show full text]
  • 2017 Tsjcl Certamen Novice Division Round 1
    2017 TSJCL CERTAMEN NOVICE DIVISION ROUND 1 TU 1 What mythological group was made up of Thalia, Terpsichore, and seven others? THE MUSES B1 Who was the mother of the Muses? MNEMOSYNE B2 In one story, the Muses were said to have been born when what creature touched the Helicon spring? PEGASUS TU 2 From what Latin verb with what meaning do we get the English words overt and aperture? APERIO = TO OPEN, UNCOVER, DISCLOSE B1 From what Latin verb with what meaning do we get the English words augment and auction? AUGEO = TO INCREASE B2 From what Latin verb with what meaning do we get the English word obedience? AUDIO = TO HEAR, LISTEN TO TU 3 For the verb capio, capere give the 3rd person, plural, future, active, indicative CAPIENT B1 Change capient to the future perfect CEPERINT B2 Change ceperint to the passive voice CAPTI ERUNT TU 4 What structure located between the Palatine and Aventine Hills was known for its chariot racing? CIRCUS MAXIMUS B1&B2 The emperor Domitian added two colored factions to the original four. For five points each, name these colors PURPLE & GOLD 1 2017 TSJCL CERTAMEN NOVICE DIVISION ROUND 1 TU 5 Say in Latin: Do you like learning the Latin language? AMASNE / AMATISNE / DILIGISNE / DILIGITISNE DISCERE LINGUAM LATINAM? B1 Say in Latin: You are not going to school tomorrow, are you? NUM CRAS AD SCHOLAM IS / ITIS? // NUM ES ITURUS / ESTIS ITURI AD SCHOLAM CRAS? B2 Say in Latin: You want to win this contest don’t you? NONNE HOC CERTAMEN VIS / VULTIS / CUPIS / CUPITIS VINCERE? [SCORE CHECK] TU 6 What state has the motto “ad astra per aspera”? KANSAS B1 What state has the motto “dum spiro, spero”? SOUTH CAROLINA B2 What is the Latin motto of the state of Missouri? SALUS POPULI SUPREMA LEX (ESTO) TU 7 Give the accusative singular for the phrase solum animal.
    [Show full text]
  • Marathon 2,500 Years Edited by Christopher Carey & Michael Edwards
    MARATHON 2,500 YEARS EDITED BY CHRISTOPHER CAREY & MICHAEL EDWARDS INSTITUTE OF CLASSICAL STUDIES SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON MARATHON – 2,500 YEARS BULLETIN OF THE INSTITUTE OF CLASSICAL STUDIES SUPPLEMENT 124 DIRECTOR & GENERAL EDITOR: JOHN NORTH DIRECTOR OF PUBLICATIONS: RICHARD SIMPSON MARATHON – 2,500 YEARS PROCEEDINGS OF THE MARATHON CONFERENCE 2010 EDITED BY CHRISTOPHER CAREY & MICHAEL EDWARDS INSTITUTE OF CLASSICAL STUDIES SCHOOL OF ADVANCED STUDY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON 2013 The cover image shows Persian warriors at Ishtar Gate, from before the fourth century BC. Pergamon Museum/Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin. Photo Mohammed Shamma (2003). Used under CC‐BY terms. All rights reserved. This PDF edition published in 2019 First published in print in 2013 This book is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- NoDerivatives (CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. More information regarding CC licenses is available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ Available to download free at http://www.humanities-digital-library.org ISBN: 978-1-905670-81-9 (2019 PDF edition) DOI: 10.14296/1019.9781905670819 ISBN: 978-1-905670-52-9 (2013 paperback edition) ©2013 Institute of Classical Studies, University of London The right of contributors to be identified as the authors of the work published here has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Designed and typeset at the Institute of Classical Studies TABLE OF CONTENTS Introductory note 1 P. J. Rhodes The battle of Marathon and modern scholarship 3 Christopher Pelling Herodotus’ Marathon 23 Peter Krentz Marathon and the development of the exclusive hoplite phalanx 35 Andrej Petrovic The battle of Marathon in pre-Herodotean sources: on Marathon verse-inscriptions (IG I3 503/504; Seg Lvi 430) 45 V.
    [Show full text]
  • Xerox University Microfilms 77-2336 AM3LER, Mark Eugene, 1949- the THEORY of LATIN ETYMOLOGIA in the EARLY MIDDLE AGES; from DONATUS to ISIDORE
    3NF0RIVIAT10ISI TO USERS T!;is material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". if it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation.
    [Show full text]
  • A FRONTIER UNDER FIRE the Mere Passage of Alexander and His Army
    PART THREE A FRONTIER UNDER FIRE Alexander and the 'Barbarian' Resistance The mere passage of Alexander and his army across Bactria and Sog­ diana did not mark a turning point in the history of Central Asia. While it was not an everyday occurrence for the population of this region to evade a large Graeco-Macedonian army in its midst, the scattering of people from field to fortress did not signal a permanent break in their ancestral ways of life. They no doubt planned to return in time to fields and flocks, to renew old crops and irrigation canals, to revive the patterns of trade and travel between the cities, towns, and villages of this still­ Persian satrapy. The situation in the summer of 329 B.C. was thus highly charged, but not radically changed by the march of Darius' avenger. In the struggle between Alexander and Bessus for Darius' throne, we have seen that the Bactrians all but crowned the foreigner. There was no passion for the cause of Bessus, much less a nationalistic uprising. One by one, the principal nobles of Central Asia had abandoned the 'usurper' and made their peace with King Alexander; they then were rewarded and allowed to return to their various homes. 1 The Bactrians once serving under arms with Bessus had already gone back to their native towns and cities. 2 There was a Persian, old Artabazus, in place as Alexander's new satrap at Bactra. 3 The only scars upon the land had been made by the torches of Bessus, not of Alexander.
    [Show full text]
  • Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology
    SELECT EPIGRAMS FROM THE GREEK ANTHOLOGY J. W. MACKAIL∗ Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. PREPARER’S NOTE This book was published in 1890 by Longmans, Green, and Co., London; and New York: 15 East 16th Street. The epigrams in the book are given both in Greek and in English. This text includes only the English. Where Greek is present in short citations, it has been given here in transliterated form and marked with brackets. A chapter of Notes on the translations has also been omitted. eti pou proima leuxoia Meleager in /Anth. Pal./ iv. 1. Dim now and soil’d, Like the soil’d tissue of white violets Left, freshly gather’d, on their native bank. M. Arnold, /Sohrab and Rustum/. PREFACE The purpose of this book is to present a complete collection, subject to certain definitions and exceptions which will be mentioned later, of all the best extant Greek Epigrams. Although many epigrams not given here have in different ways a special interest of their own, none, it is hoped, have been excluded which are of the first excellence in any style. But, while it would be easy to agree on three-fourths of the matter to be included in such a scope, perhaps hardly any two persons would be in exact accordance with regard to the rest; with many pieces which lie on the border line of excellence, the decision must be made on a balance of very slight considerations, and becomes in the end one rather of personal taste than of any fixed principle. For the Greek Anthology proper, use has chiefly been made of the two ∗PDF created by pdfbooks.co.za 1 great works of Jacobs,
    [Show full text]
  • MAC II in General, All Greek Troops “Constitutionally
    ALEXANDER’S FINAL ARMY An Honors Thesis for the Department of History By Jonathan A. Miller Thesis Advisor: Steven Hirsch Tufts University, 2011 AKNOWLEDGMENTS Alexander the Great is a man with whom many great leaders throughout history have been compared, a model of excellence whose achievements can never quite be matched. 2 My introduction to his legacy occurred in the third grade. Reading a biography of Julius Caesar for a class project, I happened across Plutarch’s famous description of Caesar’s reaction to reading a history of Alexander: “he was lost in thought for a long time, and then burst into tears. His friends were astonished, and asked the reason for his tears. ‘Do you not think,’ said he, ‘that it is a matter of sorrow that while Alexander, at my age, was already king of so many peoples, I have as yet achieved no brilliant success?’”1 This story captivated my imagination and stuck with me throughout my middle and high school years. Once at college, I decided to write a thesis on Alexander to better understand the one man capable of breeding thoughts of inadequacy in Caesar. This work is in many ways a tribute to both Caesar and Alexander. More pointedly, it is an exploration into the designs of a man at the feet of whom lay the whole world. This paper has meant a lot to me. I want to thank all those who made it possible. First and foremost, my undying gratitude goes to Professor Steven Hirsch, who has helped me navigate the difficult process of researching and writing this thesis.
    [Show full text]