FREE VIRIATHUS: AND THE LUSITANIAN RESISTANCE TO ROME 155-139 BC PDF

Luis Silva | 336 pages | 19 Sep 2013 | Pen & Sword Books Ltd | 9781781591284 | English | South Yorkshire, United Kingdom Viriathus and the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome BC - Luis Silva - Google книги

Viriathus also spelled Viriatus ; known as Viriato in Portuguese and Spanish ; died BC was the most important leader of the Lusitanian people that resisted Roman expansion into the regions of western as the Romans called it or western Iberia as the Greeks called itwhere the of would be finally established after the conquest. Viriatus developed alliances with other Iberian groups, even far away from his usual theatres of war, inducing them to rebel against Rome. He led his army, supported by most of the Lusitanian and Vetton tribes as well as by other Celtiberian allies, to several victories over the Romans between BC and BC before being betrayed by them and murdered while sleeping. Of him, Theodor Mommsen said, "It seemed as if, in that thoroughly prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared. There are several possible for the name Viriatus. Viri may come from:. The Celtiberian elite used the title uiros ueramosmeaning the 'highest man' and the equivalent would be summus vir. According to the historian SchultenViriatus had a Celtic name. For he was, as is agreed by all, valiant in dangers, prudent and careful in providing whatever was necessary, and that which was most considerable of all was, that whilst he commanded he was more beloved than ever any was before him. Little is known about Viriatus. The only reference to the location of his native tribe was made by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculuswho claims he was from the Lusitanian tribes of the ocean side. He belonged to the class of warriors, the occupation of the minority ruling elites. He was known to the Romans as the dux of the Lusitanian army, as the adsertor protector of Hispania, [8] or as an imperator[9] probably of the confederated Lusitanian and Celtiberian tribes. described him as a shepherd who became a hunter, then a soldier, thus following the path of most young warriors, the iuventuswho devoted themselves to cattle raiding, hunting and war. According to Appian[12] Viriatus was one of the few who escaped when Galbathe Roman governor, massacred the flos iuventutisViriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC flower of the young Lusitanian warriors, [13] in BC. Viriatus was thought by some to have a very obscure origin, [14] although Diodorus Siculus also says that Viriatus "approved himself to be a prince" and that he said he was "lord and owner of all". His personality and his physical and intellectual abilities as well as his skills as a warrior were described by several authors. He was a man of great physical strength, probably in the very prime of life, an excellent strategist, [16] and possessor of a brilliant mind. Some authors claim that the ancient authors described Viriatus with the precise features of a Celtic king. He was described as a man who followed the principles of honesty and fair dealing and Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC acknowledged for being exact and faithful to his word on the treaties and alliances he made. A more modern current claims Viriatus belonged to an aristocratic Lusitanian clan who were owners of cattle. His aims could then be compared to pure Roman aristocratic ideals of that time: to serve and gain military glory and honor. The honored Viriatus as their BenefactorGreek: euergetes[22] and Savior Greek: soter[23] typically Hellenistic honorifics used by kings like the Ptolemies. Some authors assert that he was probably from the Herminius Mons Serra da Estrelain the heart of Lusitania, in central or the Beira Alta region. Most of his life and his war against the Romans are part of legend and Viriatus is considered the earliest Portuguese national herogiven the fact that he was the leader of the confederate tribes of Iberia who resisted Rome. The historian Appianus of Alexandria in his book about Iberia in the Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC Historia RomanaRoman Historycommented that Viriatus "killed numerous Romans and showed great skill". It has been argued that Silius Italicusin his epic poem entitled Punica[25] [26] mentions a former Viriatus who would have been a contemporary of . The historical Viriatus would be the one who received the title of regnator Hiberae magnanimus terraethe "magnanimous ruler of the Iberian land". The Roman conquest of Iberia began during the Second Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC Warwhen the senate sent an army to Iberia to block Carthaginian reinforcements from helping Hannibal in the Italian Peninsula. This began Roman involvement in years of subsequent fighting throughout Iberia, resulting in its eventual conquest in 19 BC with Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC end of the Cantabrian Wars. The Lusitanian War is one of the most well documented episodes of the conquest. Rome's dominion of Iberia met with much opposition. In BC, Rome divided the southeastern coast of Iberia into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulteriorand two elected praetors were assigned Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC command the legions. Lusitania's rich land was praised by ancient authors. Polybius in his Histories"speaking of the natural wealth of Lusitania [ The Romans charged the native tribes with heavy taxes: a fixed vectigal or land-tax, the tributum and a certain quantity of cereals. The indigenous towns had to deliver their own treasures to the Romans, which left them only with their yearly earnings to pay the taxes. Between and BC, the Roman army collected 4 tons of gold and tons of silver looting the native tribes of the . In BC, when Publius Furius Philus was accused of paying very little for the cereals that Iberia was compelled to deliver to Rome, Cato defended the interests of the native tribes. The exploitation and extortion reached such an extreme degree in the provinces that Rome had to create a special tribunal and laws, like the Lex Calpurnia created in BC. Also as part of the payment, a certain number of men were required to serve in the Roman army. The Lusitanians revolted first in BC against the Romans. Iberia was divided between the tribes that supported Roman rule and the tribes that revolted against Roman rule, as they had been divided before by those who supported the Carthaginian Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC those who supported Romans. This period was marked by a number of broken treaties either by the Roman generals, or their senate, that would not ratify the treaties, or by the native people. In Roman lawperegrini dediticii was the designation given to peoples who had surrendered themselves after taking up arms against the Romans. Then they attacked the tribes that were Roman subjects and that had sided with the Romans in helping to attack and plunder the Lusitanian towns. Possibly [ citation needed ] the Lusitanians recovered some of the booty the Romans had divided with those tribes. In BC the who had become Roman allies, fearing the revenge of the rebels who considered them traitors, asked the Romans to punish the rebellious tribes who had broken out into war and that the legions should remain in Iberia to protect them. In the year BC, Lucullus "being greedy of fame and needing money", made a peace treaty with the Caucaeiof the tribe, after which he ordered his men to kill all the tribe's adult males, of which it is said only a few out of 30, escaped. While Lucullus invaded the country from the east, Galba attacked it from the south. Unable to Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC a war on two fronts, the Lusitanian troops suffered several losses in engagements with the Romans. Fearing a long siege and the destruction the Roman siege engines would cause in their towns, the Lusitanians sent an embassy to Galba to negotiate a peace treaty, although for the Romans it would be perceived as the Deditio in dicionemthe surrender. The Lusitanians hoped they could at least renew the former treaty made with Atilius. Galba received the Lusitanian embassy politely, and a peace treaty was agreed on the terms proposed by him. He commanded them to leave their homes and remain in open country. The Lusitanians probably lost their city and possessions and their land would have become Ager Publicus. The treaty turned out to be a trap, like the one Lucullus had prepared for the Caucaei. When the unarmed Lusitanians, among them Viriathus, were gathered together by Galba to hand over their weapons and to be split into three groups two of the points of the treaty that had been negotiated and allocated to new lands, the trap was sprung. With the promise that they would be given new lands they waited unaware while Galba's army surrounded them with a ditchto prevent them from escaping. Afterwards, Roman soldiers were sent in and began to massacre all the males of military age. The survivors are said to have been sold into Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC in . The relocation of an entire tribe, accompanied by slaughter or their reduction to the status of slaves was a punishment often inflicted on native populations who took part in revolts. Galba distributed a little of the plunder to the army and a little to his friends, the native tribes that sided with him, and kept the rest. This incited a massive rebellion, with the entire Lusitanian tribe mustering as they waged war for three years against Rome, but met with many failures. Three years after the massacre, the rebellion was on Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC verge of defeat when Viriathus appeared and offered himself as leader. Through his understanding of Roman military methods he saved the rebel Lusitanians by a simple though clever escape plan. Viriathus became the leader of the Lusitanians and caused much grief to the Romans in revenge for the massacre of his people. And, in fine, he carried on the war not for the sake of personal gain or power nor through anger, but for the sake of warlike deeds in themselves; hence he was accounted at once a lover of war and a master of war. Two types of war were carried on by Viriatus, bellumwhen he used a regular army, and latrociniumwhen the fighting involved small groups of combatants and the use of guerrilla tactics. Nothing is known about Viriatus until his first feat of war in BC. He was with an army of ten thousand men that invaded southern Turdetania. Rome sent the praetor Caius Vetilius to fight the rebellion. He attacked a group of Lusitanian warriors who were out foraging, and after several of them were killed, the survivors took refuge in a place that was surrounded by the Roman army. They were about to make a new agreement with the Romans when Viriatus, mistrusting the Romans, proposed an escape plan. The Lusitanians, inflamed by his speech, made him their new commander. His first act was to rescue the trapped and resisting Lusitanians whom he then commanded, first by lining up for battle with the Romans, then scattering the army as they charged. As each wave broke apart and fled in different directions to meet up at a later location, Viriatus with 1, chosen men held the army of 10, Romans in check by being in a position to attack. Once the rest of the army had fled, he and the thousand men escaped as well. Having effectively saved all of the Lusitanians soldiers, he immediately fortified the loyalty of the people around himself. Viriatus organized an attack against Caius Vetilius in Tribola. Since the Romans were better armed, he organized guerrilla tactics and sprang imaginative ambushes. Charging with iron spears, tridents and roars, the Lusitanians defeated Vetilius, killing 4, out of 10, soldiers, including Vetilius himself. In response, Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC were hired to attack the Lusitanians, but were destroyed. After that incident, the Lusitanians clashed with the armies of Gaius PlautiusClaudius Unimanus and Gaius Negidiusall of whom Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC defeated. During this period Viriatus inspired and convinced the Numantine and some to rebel against Roman rule. To complete the subjugation of Lusitania, Rome sent Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianuswith 15, soldiers and 2, cavalry to strengthen Gaius Laelius Sapiens who was a personal friend of Scipio Aemilianus Africanus. This gave the Lusitanians access to what is today's Spanish territory, modern Granada and . The results of Viriatus's efforts as well as those of the Numantine War caused many problems in Rome, the most notable being a drop in legionary recruitment rates. Near Sierra Morenathe Romans fell into a Lusitanian ambush. Viriatus did not harm the Romans and let the soldiers and Servilianus go in exchange for a peace treaty that recognised Lusitanian rule over the land they dominated. However, the peace brought by the treaty displeased Quintus Servilius Caepiowho got himself appointed successor to his brother, Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus, in the command of the army and administration of affairs in Iberia. In his reports to the Roman Senate he claimed that the treaty was in the highest degree dishonourable to Rome. Livy seemed to have a different opinion as he writes it was a stain on Servilianus' military career but comments that the treaty was, aequisfair. Servilius Caepio, on his request, to harass Viriathus as long as it was done secretly. The treaty was in effect for one year. During that time Q. Servilius Caepio harassed Viriathus and kept pressuring with his reports until he was authorised publicly to declare war. Knowing that the Lusitanian resistance was largely due to Viriathus' leadership, Caepio bribed Audax, Ditalcus and Minuruswho had been sent by Viriathus as an embassy to establish peace Appian [45]. Military Book Review Viriathus: and the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome BC

It lasted until and is an important event in the integration of what would become Portugal into the Roman and Latin-speaking world. This marked the first incursion of the Roman into the peninsula and possibly the first clash between Lusitanians and Romans, as the Lusitanians fought, during the Punic Wars, on the Carthaginian side as mercenaries. In BC, a war broke out between the Romans and the Lusitanians, who were an autonomous people. The Lusitanian War starts inwhen Punicus attacks some of its neighboring lands that belong to Roman subjects. In this raid, the Lusitanians kill Romans, including a quaestor named . After this first victory, the Lusitanians gain the alliance of the and together lay siege to the Blastophoenicians, a Phoenician settlement subject to Rome. During this siege, Punicus is killed and is then succeeded by Caesarus. Mummius is sent from Rome to fight Caesarus. Caesarus is initially defeated but, while fleeing, managed to turn the battle around, killing Romans. Mummius takes his remaining soldiers and drills them in camp. He manages to later attack the Lusitanians by surprise, slaying a large number of them. The Lusitanians on the other side of the Tagus were led by Caucenus and invade the Cuneiwho were subject to Rome, and capture Conistorgis. Some of the Lusitanians proceed to raid North , laying siege to a city named Ocile. Mummius follows them into Africa, achieving victory against the Lusitanian rebels and ending the siege of Ocile. With this victory, Mummius returns to Rome and is awarded a triumph. Mummius is succeeded by Marcus Atiliuswho fights the Lusitanians killing of them and taking their largest city, Oxthracae. This terrifies the neighboring tribes including the Vettoneswhich make terms of surrender. During the winter of BC, the Lusitanians rebel again, besieging some Roman subjects. Servius Galbathe successor of Atilius, rushes to rescue them. After an initial victory, Galba is defeated while trying to pursue the fleeing Lusitanian forces. About Romans are killed and Galba takes refuge in a settlement called Carmone. He then reassembles his forces and winters in Conistorgis. Lucullus was wintering in Turditania. When he discovers that Lusitanians were nearby, he starts by attacking those nearby Lusitanians killingthen those crossing the straits near Gades killing another of them and then sets off Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC invade Lusitania. Galba joins in the invasion of Lusitania. Inas a result of Lucullus and Galba's invasion, the Lusitanians send ambassadors to Galba to renew the treaty they made with Atilius in BC. Galba pretends to accepts a truce and promises them fertile land. The Lusitanians, following the good news of the ambassadors, come together at a place appointed by Galba and are divided into three parts in a plain. Galba approaches each division separately, asks the Lusitanians there to lay down their arms and slaughters them. A few Lusitanians escape, namely, Viriathus. In BC, the Lusitanians assemble a force of and Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC Turdetania. Gaius Vetilius is sent to deal with the raid, amassing a force equal to those of the Lusitanians in numbers. Vetilius wins against the Lusitanians, who ask for peace terms. As peace terms were being arranged, Viriathus reminds his fellow Lusitanians of the treachery of the Romans, which he had witnessed first hand with Galba. The Lusitanians choose Viriathus as their leader and obey his escape plan: they should organize as if going into battle, but then flee in every direction and later reassemble in a city named Tribola. Vitilius, seeing the Lusitanian forces scattering, decides to attack Viriathus head on, but Viriathus and of his best men proceeds to flee and attack repeatedly, occupying Vitilus for enough time two days for the others to flee to safety and then flees himself to join them. With this feat, Viriathus gains great fame and reinforcements from neighboring tribes. Viriathus was to gain renown throughout the Roman world as a guerrilla fighter. In the words of Theodor Mommsen"It seemed as if, in that thoroughly prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared. Viriathus' forces ambush the Romans. About Romans manage to flee to Carpessus with their quaestorthe Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC of the original being either killed or imprisoned. Vitilius himself is killed during this ambush, as he was considered to be of little worth as a slave he supposedly was old and fat. The Quaestor asks for reinforcements from the Roman allies and Titiiwho send about men, but all are slayed in skirmishes against Viriathus' forces. Plautius is defeated by Viriathus, who then proceeds to Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC the country without check. With the end of the wars against Carthago and GreeceMaximus managed to assemble a great force: men on foot and on horse. The forces assemble in Orso and skirmish with the Lusitanians frequently, but without full-scale battle. In BC, Maximus attacks Viriathus and manages to put him into flight and capture two of his cities. Maximus pursues Viriathus into a place called Baecor, killing many of his men and failing to capture Viriathus. Afterwards, Viriathus skirmishes with Quintus, takes refuge in a place called Venus mountain, but later returns to battle, slaying of Quintus' men, drove out the garrison of Ittuca and raided Bastetani. In BC, Fabius Maximus Servilianus succeeds Quintus, bringing two new legions and more allies, up to a total of men on foot and on horse. Maximus asks for reinforcements from Africa and is attacked by Viriathus, who does not succeed in disrupting Maximus' plans. Maximus is reinforced by horse and ten elephants. Maximus wins over Viriathus, who flees but manages to inflict deaths and to drive the Romans back to camp. The Romans are saved by night time and manage to defend their camp initially, but after constant attacks from Viriathus during the night or during the heat of day, fall back to Itucca. Viriathus returns to Lusitania and Maximus, instead of following him, raids five towns in Baeturiawho had sided with the Lusitanians. Afterwards, he marched against the Cunei and only then into Lusitania. While moving against Viriathus, Maximus is attacked by Curius and Apuleiuswho led men. Curius is killed in battle and Maximus succeeds in Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC the Lusitanian cities of Escadia, Gemella, and Obolcola. Maximus captures around men, beheaded and sold the rest as slaves. While following Viriathus, Maximus' army rested in Erisana. Viriathus manages to infiltrate the town and, in defeating Maximus' armies, asks for the end of the war. In BC, Fabius Maximus Caepius succeeds Maximus and writes to Rome complaining of the treaty made with Viriathus, saying it was unworthy of the dignity of the Roman people. The Senate first only allows Caepius to fight Viriathus secretly, but then decides to break off the treaty and declare war against Viriathus. Caepius took the town of Arsa and wins a battle over Viriathus who flees in Carpetania. As Viriathus flees, Caepius turns against the Vettones and Callaicidestroying their fields. Afterwards, Viriathus sends his most trusted friends Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus to negotiate peace terms Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC Caepio. Caepio bribes them, ordering them to assassinate Viriathus. Viriathus slept little and in his armor, but allowed his friends to enter his tent at any time, so he could be summoned to battle as soon as possible. Taking advantage of this, his friends entered his tent and killed him in his sleep, slitting his throat. Viriathus is only found dead in the morning, when the traitors were long gone. Unable to avenge him as they knew not who murdered him, they instead held a grand funeral: they dressed Viriathus in special garments, burned him in a pyreheld processions, gladiator battles and songs. After the death of Viriathus, Tautalus is elected to lead the Lusitanians. The Lusitanians attempt to raid Saguntumbut fail. On crossing the river Baetis on their return, they are defeated by Caepio and accept to become Rome's subjects. This marks the end of the Lusitanian War. The end of the Lusitanian Wars marks a period of relative peace in Lusitania. The Lusitanians will rise against the Romans only many years later, in 80 to 72 BC, in the Sertorian Warwhen they recruit the outlaw ex-general Quintus Sertorius to lead a rebellion against Rome. The Lusitanian War, and Viriathus in particular, would become an enduring symbol of Portuguese nationality and independence see Lusitanic. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Studies in Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC Antiquity and Classics. Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read Edit View history. Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file. Download as PDF Printable version. Date to BC. . Lusitanian tribes. Viriathus - Wikipedia

Excellent translation from the Portuguese about an ancient barbarian fighter against Rome, the Lusitanian, Viriathus. He deserves to be better known; historians have neglected him and his importance Luis Silva. In the middle years of the second century BC, Rome was engaged in the conquest and pacification of what is now and Portugal. They met with determined resistance from several tribes but nobody defied them with more determination and skill than Viriathus. Apparently of humble birth, he emerged as a leader after the treacherous massacre of the existing tribal chieftains and soon proved himself a gifted and audacious commander. Relying on hit and run guerrilla tactics, he inflicted repeated humiliating reverses upon the theoretically superior Roman forces, uniting a number of tribes in resistance to the invader and Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC their efforts at conquest and pacification for eight years. Still unbeaten in the field, he was only overcome when the Romans resorted to bribing some of his own men to assassinate Viriathus: And the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome 155-139 BC though they reneged on the agreed payment, claiming they did not reward traitors! Though renowned in his day Viriathus has been neglected by modern historians, a travesty that Luis Silva puts right in this thoroughly researched and accessible account. Portuguese by birth, the author draws on Portuguese research and perspectives that will be refreshing to English-language scholars and his own military experience also informs his analysis of events. What emerges is a stirring account of defiance, heroic resistance against the odds and, ultimately, treachery and tragedy.