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Battles to Bridges: U.S. Strategic Communication and Public Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations General Editors: Donna Lee, Senior Lecturer in International Organisations and International Political Economy, University of Birmingham, UK and Paul Sharp, Professor of Political Science and Director of the Alworth Institute for International Studies at the University of Minnesota, Duluth, USA. The series was launched as Studies in Diplomacy in 1994 under the general editorship of G.R. Berridge. Its purpose is to encourage original scholarship on all aspects of the theory and practice of diplomacy. The new editors assumed their duties in 2003 with a mandate to maintain this focus while also publishing research which demonstrates the importance of diplomacy to contemporary international relations more broadly conceived. Titles include: G.R. Berridge (editor) DIPLOMATIC CLASSICS Selected Texts from Commynes to Vattel G. R. Berridge, Maurice Keens-Soper and T. G. Otte DIPLOMATIC THEORY FROM MACHIAVELLI TO KISSINGER Herman J. Cohen INTERVENING IN AFRICA Superpower Peacemaking in a Troubled Continent Andrew F. Cooper (editor) NICHE DIPLOMACY Middle Powers after the Cold War Andrew F. Cooper, Brian Hocking and William Maley (editors) GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND DIPLOMACY Worlds Apart? Mai’a Davis Cross THE EUROPEAN DIPLOMATIC CORPS Diplomats and International Cooperation from Westphalia to Maastricht David H. Dunn (editor) DIPLOMACY AT THE HIGHEST LEVEL The Evolution of International Summitry Brian Hocking (editor) FOREIGN MINISTRIES Change and Adaptation Brian Hocking and David Spence (editors) FOREIGN MINISTRIES IN THE EUROPEAN UNION Integrating Diplomats Michael Hughes - 2011-02-21 - PalgraveConnect - licensed to Feng Chia University www.palgraveconnect.com material from Copyright DIPLOMACY BEFORE THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION Britain, Russia and the Old Diplomacy, 1894–1917 Gaynor Johnson THE BERLIN EMBASSY of Lord D’Abernon, 1920–1926 Christer Jönsson and Martin Hall ESSENCE OF DIPLOMACY 10.1057/9780230277922 - Battles to Bridges, R. S Zaharna 9780230_202160_01_prexii.indd i 11/26/2009 3:24:27 PM Donna Lee MIDDLE POWERS AND COMMERCIAL DIPLOMACY British Influence at the Kennedy Trade Round Donna Lee, Ian Taylor and Paul D. Williams (editors) THE NEW MULTILATERALISM IN SOUTH AFRICAN DIPLOMACY Mario Liverani INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST, 1600–1100 BC Jan Melissen (editor) INNOVATION IN DIPLOMATIC PRACTICE THE NEW PUBLIC DIPLOMACY Soft Power in International Relations Peter Neville APPEASING HITLER The Diplomacy of Sir Nevile Henderson, 1937–39 M. J. Peterson RECOGNITION OF GOVERNMENTS Legal Doctrine and State Practice, 1815–1995 Gary D. Rawnsley RADIO DIPLOMACY AND PROPAGANDA The BBC and VOA in International Politics, 1956–64 TAIWAN’S INFORMAL DIPLOMACY AND PROPAGANDA Karl W. Schweizer and Paul Sharp (editors) THE INTERNATIONAL THOUGHT OF HERBERT BUTTERFIELD Paul Sharp and Geoffrey Wiseman (editors) THE DIPLOMATIC CORPS AS AN INSTITUTION OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY Ronald A. Walker MULTILATERAL CONFERENCES Purposeful International Negotiation A. Nuri Yurdusev (editor) OTTOMAN DIPLOMACY Conventional or Unconventional? R. S. Zaharna BATTLES TO BRIDGES U.S. Strategic Communication and Public Diplomacy after 9/11 Studies in Diplomacy and International Relations Series Standing Order ISBN 978–0–333–71495–9 - 2011-02-21 - PalgraveConnect - licensed to Feng Chia University www.palgraveconnect.com material from Copyright (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England 10.1057/9780230277922 - Battles to Bridges, R. S Zaharna 9780230_202160_01_prexii.indd ii 11/26/2009 3:24:27 PM Battles to Bridges U.S. Strategic Communication and Public Diplomacy after 9/11 R. S. Zaharna Associate Professor, American University Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-02-21 - PalgraveConnect - licensed to Feng Chia University www.palgraveconnect.com material from Copyright 10.1057/9780230277922 - Battles to Bridges, R. S Zaharna 9780230_202160_01_prexii.indd iii 11/26/2009 3:24:27 PM © R. S. Zaharna 2010 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy, or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied, or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS, UK. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted her right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills,Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN: 978–0–230–20216–0 hardback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-02-21 - PalgraveConnect - licensed to Feng Chia University www.palgraveconnect.com material from Copyright 10.1057/9780230277922 - Battles to Bridges, R. S Zaharna 9780230_202160_01_prexii.indd iv 11/26/2009 3:24:28 PM For Nazmi Zaharna Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-02-21 - PalgraveConnect - licensed to Feng Chia University www.palgraveconnect.com material from Copyright 10.1057/9780230277922 - Battles to Bridges, R. S Zaharna This page intentionally left blank Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-02-21 - PalgraveConnect - licensed to Feng Chia University www.palgraveconnect.com material from Copyright 10.1057/9780230277922 - Battles to Bridges, R. S Zaharna Contents List of Illustrations ix Acknowledgements x Introduction 1 Part I Crisis Public Diplomacy 1 America’s Communication Problem 11 From global sympathy 11 To anti-American hostility 14 Beyond image – The bigger picture 19 2 Battle for Hearts and Minds 29 Public diplomacy wake-up call 29 The battle 31 Public diplomacy challenges 47 3 Search for Answers 53 Reports and recommendations 53 Lingering issues and blind spots 58 The battle continues (2005–2008) 65 Part II Changing Dynamics 4 Changing Dynamics and Strategic Vision 73 U.S. public diplomacy in retrospect 73 Traditional diplomacy to public diplomacy 80 Public diplomacy to “new public diplomacy” 83 Global communication era 88 5 The Soft Power Differential 92 Soft power dilemma 92 - 2011-02-21 - PalgraveConnect - licensed to Feng Chia University www.palgraveconnect.com material from Copyright Mass communication – Wielding soft power 94 Network communication – Creating soft power 96 Soft power differential 111 6 Communication, Culture, and Identity in Public Diplomacy 115 Culture in international relations and public diplomacy 115 vii 10.1057/9780230277922 - Battles to Bridges, R. S Zaharna 9780230_202160_01_prexii.indd vii 11/26/2009 3:24:28 PM viii Contents Explicit and implicit culture in U.S. public diplomacy 118 Cultural underpinnings of U.S. public diplomacy 121 Challenges of identity and culture in public diplomacy 128 Part III Expanding the Vision of Strategic U.S. Public Diplomacy 7 Strategy and Tactics: Conceptual Frameworks 137 From either/or to both 137 Information framework 138 Relational framework 146 Expanding the conceptual vision 153 8 Grand Strategy: From Battles to Bridges 156 Grand strategy, strategy, and tactics 156 U.S. public diplomacy grand strategy 159 Viability of the U.S. grand strategy 162 Redefining U.S. strategic goals 166 Epilogue 174 Notes 185 Index 221 Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to Feng Chia University - PalgraveConnect - 2011-02-21 - PalgraveConnect - licensed to Feng Chia University www.palgraveconnect.com material from Copyright 10.1057/9780230277922 - Battles to Bridges, R. S Zaharna 9780230_202160_01_prexii.indd viii 11/26/2009 3:24:28 PM Illustrations Table 5.1 Soft power differential 113 Figures 5.1 Individuals not networked 98 5.2 Chain network 99 5.3 Hub or Star network 100 5.4 All-channel network 101 5.5 Mass
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