"A good neighbor with bad fences": Liminality and the Construction of Canadian Threat in US Popular Media by Richard Baker A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © Richard Baker, 2010 Library and Archives Bibliothèque et ?F? 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The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriété du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protège cette thèse. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformément à la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privée, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont été enlevés de thesis. cette thèse. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. 1+1 Canada Abstract This dissertation explores Canada's capacity to provoke insecurity among Americans. It asks the question, 'How is it possible that Canada becomes understood as a threat to US security?' To answer this, I draw upon Anne Norton's understanding of the role played by the liminar in the creation of identity. Exploring representations of Canada in Hollywood films and US news reports, I contend that Canada occupies a place of liminality in the American imaginary - it is considered to be simultaneously part of and separate from the American experience. When the United States is facing an external threat, Canada's otherness prompts the American self to script Canada as a local manifestation of the threatening Other. However, because Canada also reflects an image of likeness, the threat that it represents takes on an omnipresent quality. By serving as a localized proxy of the Other, Canada prompts the American self to script its identity in increasingly rigid terms. Therefore, in response to my research question, I demonstrate that Canada's capacity to threaten US security can be understood as a subsidiary consequence of the dynamics of identity whereby the American self defines itself in opposition to an Other. 11 Acknowledgments I would never have re-started my education, to say nothing of finishing this dissertation, without the support of my family. My family's home was always a place of critical debate, and that atmosphere continues to shape my approach to this day. I owe a very real debt of gratitude to my mother and father, my sister and my brothers. While studying in Ottawa, my academic and social life was enriched immeasurably by Nadia Verrelli and Anu Pandey. I am so pleased that we found each other and I take great comfort in our continuing friendships. Laura Macdonald and Simon Dalby were generous with their time under a tight deadline that was not of their making. Their insightful comments and suggestions not only improved this dissertation, but also improved my own understanding of the material. Kelly Saunders provided me with the encouragement I needed at a crucial moment. I can say, without a hint of embellishment, that this dissertation would never have been completed without her intervention at the time when it was needed the most. Fiona Robinson has served as a remarkable supervisor. She is a compassionate person and a rigorous and discerning scholar. Her faith in my abilities, her endless supply of patience, and her timely reassurances were fundamental in seeing this process through to completion. Her expert guidance in this project is very much appreciated. Sandy Smith is my best friend and my partner in all things. It is the most extreme of understatements to say that this project would not have been possible without her. Her unflagging support for me in the completion of this dissertation, and in everything I do, moves me beyond words. Sandy, this really only makes sense because of you. iii Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Précis of the Argument 6 Canada's Place in the American Imaginary 9 Otherness, Liminality and Threat 19 Analytical Approach 27 Sources of Representations 34 Popular Media 39 Methodology 47 Hollywood Films 51 News Media 54 Structure of the Dissertation 56 Chapter 2 Self, Other and Liminar 62 Introduction 62 Self and Other 64 Discourse of Danger 72 Liminality 83 Canadian Foreign Policy 102 Conclusion 112 Chapter 3 Hollywood Films and Themes of Canadian Otherness 1 14 Introduction 114 Canada as Foreign 117 The British Other 118 The French Other 119 The Métis Other 122 The Indian Other 126 Canada as Wilderness 131 Wilderness as Setting 132 Wilderness as Plot 136 Wilderness as Characterization 138 Canada as Passive 145 The Cowboy in Canada 146 Canada and Resource Extraction 161 Conclusion 170 Chapter 4 Hollywood Films and Themes of Canadian Liminality 172 Introduction 172 Themes of Liminality 175 Colocation 176 Frontier 189 Canada as a Threat 200 Canada as Lawless Anarchy 201 Canada as Criminal Haven 209 Canada as Vulnerable Ally 216 Conclusion 224 IV Chapter 5 US News Media and Themes of Canadian Otherness 227 Introduction 227 Social Values 233 Social Welfare 234 Immigration 239 Multiculturalism 246 Gender 256 Weakness 259 Passivity 269 Conclusion 282 Chapter 6 US News Media and Themes of Canadian Liminality 284 Introduction 284 Colocation 286 Intertwined Lives 287 Shared Communities 290 Derby Line, Vermont 295 Border Images 300 Implications of 'Undefended' 301 Proximity and Vulnerability 304 Redefining the Border 313 Minimization 315 Point of Access 321 Mexicanization 328 Shared Identity 335 Cultural Similitude 336 Metaphors of Belonging 339 Diminished Foreignness 348 Conclusion 351 Chapter 7 Conclusion 354 Introduction 354 Summary of the Argument 355 The Liminality of Canadian Space 357 American Identity 368 International Relations Scholarship 372 IR Theory 372 Canadian-American Relations 373 The Practice of Canadian-American Relations 374 Further Research 378 The Conservative Perspective 378 Canadian Complicity 381 Liminality in Comparative Perspective 384 The Ressam Narrative 387 Conclusion 390 References 393 ? 1 Chapter 1 Introduction* Introduction In the aftermath of the traumatic events of September 11, 2001, Americans began looking for ways to understand what had happened. Government officials and public intellectuals plumbed the depth of the American imaginary in an attempt to make sense of the events. A number of crucial frames of reference were used to better understand and contextualize the situation. One of the frames revolved around the 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, complete with such elements as an unprovoked and surprise attack and a determined response to take the battle to the enemy (Dalby, 2003). l A second prominent frame, drawing from the Cold War, revolved around the notion that American freedoms were under siege and must be defended at all cost. These frames helped Americans to both make sense of the attacks and structure their response.2 For the most part, the US response ultimately unfolded in a distressingly predictable manner. But from the perspective of Canadian-American relations, there was one element of the US reaction that was intriguing. * The title of this dissertation draws from a section heading found in Strobel et al. (2000): "Canada's Border: A good neighbor with bad fences." 1 For example, President Bush drew from the analogy of Pearl Harbor as early as the evening of September 11, when he made his journal entry for the day: "The Pearl Harbor of the 21 st century took place today" (BaIz and Woodward, 2002). The temptation to turn to historical analogies as a way to make sense of unfolding events and future actions is certainly not an unusual one (Khong, 1987). 2 In the days and weeks that followed 9/11, a theory developed that some of the terrorists had entered the United States from Canada. It was initially picked up by a number of US newspapers and eventually began finding expression in statements from ranking politicians, including the junior Senator from New York, Hillary Clinton.3 Although no conclusive proof of this connection was ever forthcoming, and the theory itself was actually refuted in relatively short order, the rumour persisted (Whitaker, 2004/05; Gecelovsky, 2007).4 Indeed, despite considerable sustained efforts (Struck, 2005) to dispel the rumour, it became so entrenched that Canadian officials were still confronting it many years after 9/11. As recently as April 2009, even the US Secretary of Homeland Security suggested that terrorists from the 9/11 attacks entered the United States from Canada (Alberts, 2009a).