Prof. A. Sreedhara Menon Born on December 18, 1925 at . Completed his M.A. Degree in History as a private candidate from the University of Madras with first rank in 1948. Went to Harvard University on a Fulbright Travel Grant and a Smith-Mundt Scholarship and secured masters degree in Political Science from there with specialisation in International Relations. Worked in various capacities such as professor of History, State Editor of the Gazetteers, Registrar of the University of Kerala and UGC visiting Professor in the University of Calicut. Held many other positions during his eventful career. Apart from compiling eight District Gazetteers of Kerala he was written more than 25 books in English and .

BOOKS DC PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

y aim in writing this book is to make available to the general Mreader and the university, student a brief general survey of the through the ages. The scope and contents of the various chapters of the book have been so planned as to make each chapter self-contained even at the risk of some repetition. A Malayalam version of this book is also being brought out simultaneously. In this connection, I would like to make it clear that this book does not represent an attempt on my part to write a compre- hensive history of Kerala. On the other hand, it only provides the general framework within which I hope to write such a history, on my own initiative, at a future date. I have given equal attention in this book to all the three periods of Kerala History- Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. In writing the chapters on the ancient and early medieval periods in which an attempt is made to present a continuous history of Kerala from the Sangam Age to the Portuguese period, the works of Prof. Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan , published in Malayalam during the last ten years, have beenBOOKS of invaluable help. The works of scholars like Sardar K. M. Panikkar and Dr. T. I. Poonen provided useful material for the history of the Portuguese and Dutch periods. A large number of works written by other eminent authors in the field have also been consulted. The select Bibliography DCgiven at the end of this book would give an idea of the scope and extent of my enquiries and studies. I may avail myself of this opportunity to acknowledge with thanks the very valuable help I received from Sri Tirunellur Karunakaran, Malayalam Department, University College, Trivandrum, in writing the relevant sections dealing with the various branches of modern in Chapter XXX on “Literature and Arts”. I would be untrue to my conscience if I do not place on record the invaluable assistance I received from my wife, Mrs. Sarojini Menon, M.A., in the various stages of the works connected with the writing and publication of the book. She took considerable pains in writing down the manuscript copy and preparing the matter for the press. My strain in considerably lessened by the ungrudging help rendered by her at every stage. CONTENTS

I. The Geographical Background Natural Divisions - Geographical Position - Mountains and Hills - Passes - Sea - Rivers - Backwaters - Climate - Fauna, Flora, etc. - Parasurama Tradition – Origin of the Names Kerala and Malabar II. A Peep into the Sources Historiography - Traditional Sources - Literature; Sanskrit Works - Tamil Literature - Malayalam Works - Classical Accounts - Chinese Accounts - Arab Sources - European Travellers - Archaeological Sources; Monuments- Palaces - Forts - Coins - Inscriptions III. Prehistory Megalithic Culture - Dolmens, Cists etc. - Rock-Cut Caves - Antiquity of the Megalithic Culture - Racial Elements IV. Early Foreign Contacts Beginnings of the - and Phoenicians - Greek and Roman Trade - Chinese Trade - Indigenous Maritime Tradition - Ancient Sea-Ports - Later Ports V. Kerala in the Sangam Age Ays - Kingdom - Cheras - Utiyan Cheralatan - Nedum Cheralatan - Palyanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan - Narmudi Cheral - Vel Kelu Kuttuvan - Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralatan - Selvakadumko Valiatan - Perum CheralBOOKS Irumporai - Illam Cheral Irumporai - Chera Genealogy - Other Chera Rulers - Identification of Vanchimutur - Life and Culture of the Sangam Age - Social Life - Religion - Economic Condition – Post Sangam Age VI. The Confluence of Religions Dravidian Religion - JainismDC - Buddhism - Aryaiusation - Christianity – Jews - Islam VII. The Ay Kingdom Antiran - Titiyan - Atiyan and his successors – Post Sangam Age - Sadayan and Karunandah - Karunandadakkan - Vikramaditya Varaguna - End of the Ay Dynasty - Life and Culture in the Ay Kingdom - Genealogical Table VIII. The Era Origin of the Kollam Era - Udaya Marthanda Story - Logan’s View - Theory associated with Sankaracharya - Kollam Tonri - Other Theories - Modification of the Saptarshi Era IX. Kiilasekharas of Mahodayapuram (800r-1102A.D.) Kulasekhara Alwar - Rajasekhara Vannan - Sthanju Ravi Varman - Rama Varma - Goda Ravi Varma - Indu Kotha Varma - Bhaskara Ravi Varman I and II - Vira Kerala - Rajasimha - Rama Varma Kulasekhara - Genealogical table - The Foreign Perumals - Cheraman Legend - New Light on Chera Genealogy X. Government and Society in the Kulasekhara Age Political Divisions - Administration - Capital City - Progress pf Trade - Language and Literature - Progress of Hindu Religion - Sahkaracharya - The Bhakti Movement - Kulasekhara Alwar - Cheraman Perumal Nayanar - Viralminda Nayanar - Rise of the Temples - Rise of Temple arts - Education and Learning - Religious Harmony - Economic and Social Changes in the 11th Century XI. Venad Till 1314 Early History - Rise of Independent Venad - Ravi Varma Kulasekhara (1299-1314) - Conditions in the Venad Kingdom. XII. Rise of Kolathunad and Cochin The Mushaka Dynasty - The Kolathiris - Perumpadappu Swarupam XIII. Calicut under the Early Rise of Calicut - Zamoriri’s Early Qonquests - Conquest of Talappilli - Beginnings of the Conflict with Cochin - Relations with the Kolathiri - Administration under the Zamorins - Cultural Progress - Calicut in Foreign Accounts XIV. Minor Principalities Kerala Polity on the eve of the arrival of the Portuguese – Elavadathu Swarupam - Desinganad and Trippappur – - Karunagapally - Karthikapally - - - Pantalam - Tekkumkur - - Punjar – Karappuram - Anchi Kaimals - Edappalli - Parur - - Cranganore – Airur - Talappilli - Valluvanad - Palght - Kollangode – – Vettatnad – - Kurumpuranadi - Kadathanad - - Kurangoth - Randathara - Ali Raja of Cannanore - Nileswaram - Kumbla XV. The Portuguese Period Vasco da Gama’s Expedition (1498) - Cabral - Vasco da Gama’s Second Mission - War between Calicut and Cochin - AlmediaBOOKS - Albuquerque - Successors of Albuquerque - Kunjali Marakkars - Portuguese Acquisition of - Treaty between the and the Portuguese (1540) - Capture of Chaliyam (1571) - Zamorin’s Quarrel with the Kunjalis - Fall of the Kunjalis - Decline of the Portuguese - Effects of Portuguese Contact - Religious History of the Portuguese period - Latinisation of Kerala Church - Synod of Diamper (1599)DC - Revolt at the Coonan Cross (1653) - Revival of the Bhakti Cult XVI. Venad (1314 - 1729) Vira Udaya - Iravi Iravi Varman - Aditya Varma Sarvangantha - Chera Udaya Marthanda Varma - Ravi Ravi Varma - Bhutalavira Sri Vira Udaya Marthanda Varma - War with Vijayanagar - Invasions of Tirumala Nayak - Conflict with Temple Authorities - Umayamma Rani’s Regency - Ravi Varma (1684-1718) - Aditya Varma - Rama Varma XVII. The Rise and Fall of the Dutch Early relations with the Zamorin - Relations with Purakkad and Kayamkulam - Conquest of Quilon (1658) - Dutch Capture of Cochin (1663) - Treaties with Cannanore and other powers - Dutch policy towards Cochin - War of Vettam Succession - Conquest of Chettuvai - Dutch Policy of Intervention - Troubles of the Dutch - Rise of - Triumphs of the Zamorin - The Invasion - Fall of Dutch Cochin (1795) - Causes of Dutch failure - Dutch Administration and Trade - Religious Policy of the Dutch - Effects of Dutch contact XVIII. Kerala Polity and Life in the 16th and 17th Centyries Polity - Kalari - Ankam - Poithu - Kutipaka - Trial by Ordeal - Law of Inheritance - Place of Women in Society - Castes and Communities - Social Evils - of North Kerala - Syrian Christians - Economic Life XIX. Marthanda Varma and Marthanda Varma’s Policy - Suppression of the Pilamar - Absorption of Attingal - War against Quilon - War against Kayamkulam - War against Elayadathu Swarupam - Battle of (1741) - Annexation of Kayamkulam (1746) - Annexation of Ambalapuzha, etc - Rebellion in the North - Battle of Ambalapuzha – Travancore-Cochin Alliance - Troubles on the Eastern Frontier – Administration - Dedication of the Kingdom to Sri Padmanabha - Cultural Progress - Dharma Raja; Relations with Cochin and Calicut - Relations with the Nawab of the Carnatic - Relations with Mysore - Administrative Reforms - Cultural Progress XX. History of Cochin (1500- 1805) Rulers of the Portuguese Period - Dutch Ascendancy in Cochin - Dismissal and Reinstatement of Paliath Achan = Chazhur Dispute - Alliance with Travancore - Mysorean Invasion - Saktan Tampuran (1790-1805) - General Progress in Cochin XXI. The Mysorean Interlude Intervention in Palghat - Haider’s First Invasion of North Kerala - Rebellions in Malabar - Haider’s Second Attempt on Kerala - Haider’s Relations with the British:and the French - Tipu’s Early Triumphs - Tipu’s Conquest of Calicut - in Cannanore - Tipu’s attack on Travancore - End of Mysore occupation - Results of the Mysorean Invasion XXII. The Growth of British Power Early English Relations with Kerala - EnglishBOOKS at Anjengo - Attingal outbreak (I721) - Treaty Between the English and Travancore (1723) - English Factory at Tellicherry - Beginnings of the Anglo French Conflict - Acquisition of Dharmapattanam - Anglo- French Conflict (1739-1749) - Siege of Tellicherry - Fall of Mahe - The Mysorean Invasion and Growth of British Power -Political Settlement in Malabar - Treaties with Cochin and TravancoreDC XXIII. The Challenge to British Supremacy Rebellion of the Patinjare Kovilakam Rajas - Pazhassi Revolt I (1793-1797) - Pazhassi Revolt II (1800-1805) - Martyrdom of the - Revolt of Velu Tampi and Paliath Achan - Attack on Cochin (1809) - Proclamation - Martyrdom of Velu Tampi - Kurichiya Revolt (1812) XXIV. Enlightened Administration in Travancore Dismissal of the Triumvirate - Velu Tampi’s Reforms - Ummini Tampi - Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bai - Gouri Parvati Bai - Swati Tirunal - Utram Tirurial Marthanda Varma - Ayjlyam Tirunal - Visakham Tirunal – Sri Mulam - Regency of Setulakshmi Bai - Sri Chitra Tirunal Balarama Varma XXV. Progress of Cochin Col.Munro - Nanjappayya – Venkata subbayya - Sankara Warrier - Sankunni Menon - Govinda Menon - Other Djwans - R. K. Shanmukham Chetti - Genealogy of Cochin Rulers XXVI. British Malabar Judicial Organisation - Improvement of Communications - Economic Progress - Educational Activities - Local Self Government - Riots - Beginnings of the National Movement - Home Rule Movement - Non Co-operation - (1921) - Birth of Political Journalism-Salt Satyagraha - Civil Disobedience (1932) - Split in the Congress - Debut of the Muslim League - Rise of the Communist Party - Quit Movement - Independence and After XXVII. Political Movements in Travancore and Cochin Early Struggles in Travancore - and Memorials - Swadesabhimani Ramakrishna Piliai - The Cult of Terrorism - Chempakaraman Piliai - Agitation for Civic Rights - Early Activities of the Congress - Nivarthana Agitation - The Struggle for Responsible Government - Punnapra Vayalar Upheavel - Responsible Government in Travancore - Early Political Agitations in Cochin – Early Congress Activities - Electricity Agitation (1936) - Demand for Responsible Government - Dyarchy in Cochin - Rise of Cochin State Praja Mandal - Prajai Mairidal in Office XXVIII. Travancore -Cochin and Kerala Aikya Kerala Movement - Integration of Travancore and Cochin - Rise and Fall of Ministries - Formation of Kerala State - Constitutional Developments in Kerala XXIX. Towards a New Society Kerala Society in the 18th and 19th centuries - Early Administrative and Social Changes -Shanar Agitation - Western Education and the Work of Christian Missionaries - Religious and Social Reform Movements - - Sri - Brahmananda Sivayogi - Swami Vagbhatananda - Vaikuntaswami - Rise of Communal Organisations - Movement for Eradication of -Vaikam Satyagraha - Satyagraha - TempleBOOKS Entry - - Paliyam Satyagraha - Vakkam Abdul Khadir Maulavi - Reform of the Laws of Inheritance and Marriage - Agrarian Reforms - Social Welfare Schemes - Planned Development - Rise of the New Economic and Professional Classes XXX. Literature and Arts Origin of Malayalam -DC Manipravalam - Champus and Sandesa Kavyas - Niranam Poets and Cherusseri - Later Champus - Bhakti Poetry – Attakathas - Kunjan Nambiar and Ramapurath Warrier - Literary Activities of Early Christian Missionaries - Growth of Malayalam Literature in the 19th century - Modern - Novels and Short Stories - Drama - Literary Criticism - Essay and Scientific Literature - Biography and Travelogue - Grammar, Dictionary, History of Language etc. - Historical Works - Contributions to Sanskrit Literature - Ayurveda - Music - Painting - Architecture and Sculpture - Religious Arts - Martial Arts

Bibliography Glossary