December 2010

Edited by Frog Helen F. Leslie and Mathias Nordvig

Published by Folklore Studies / Dept. of , History, Culture and Art Studies University of Helsinki, Helsinki

ISSN/ISSN-L: 1799-4497

Table of Contents Editor‟s Note ...... 4

COMMENTS AND COMMUNICATIONS Eldar Heide Why a Network for Retrospective Methods? ...... 6 Helen F. Leslie and Mathias Nordvig Conference Report: New Focus on Retrospective Methods ...... 7 The : An Obituary ...... 10 Jill Bradley Visual Vocabulary, Visual Strategy ...... 19 Frog Listening to Poetry in a Dead Language: Could dróttkvætt Have Been Trochaic? ...... 23 Daniel Sävborg and Karen Bek-Pedersen Folklorist Network ...... 28 Riikka Nevalainen Conference Report: Jubilee Seminar for the Opening of the Runosong Academy ...... 31

PEOPLE Presentations and Publications ...... 34 Stefan Brink Many Layers in the Medieval Laws of ? – The Possibility of Using Retrospective Methods When Analysing Early Laws ...... 34 Frog The Continuity, Evolution and Transformation of : The Curious Case of Þrymsqviða 34 Narratiiv kui ravi: Riituse-etendus ja narratiivi aktualiseerumine kogemusena [„Narrative as the Cure: Rite Performance and Actualizing Narrative as Experience‟] ...... 36 Who the Devil is Phil? – The Problem of in the Second Merseburg Charm yet again 36 Terry Gunnell Folk Legends, Folk Traditions and Grave Mounds...... 37 Odd Haugen The Text That Never Was: On Reconstruction in Textual Criticism ...... 38 Eldar Heide Working on the Semantic Side of Etymology: The Culture-Etymological Approach ...... 39 My Present Work with Retrospective Methods ...... 40 Terje Planke Reconstructing the Pattern of a Vernacular Tradition ...... 42 Jens Peter Schjødt Criteria for Evaluating Sources for ...... 45

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Eila Stepanova Reflections of Religion, Mythology and Worldview in Laments ...... 45 Daniel Sävborg Scandinavian Folk Legends and Icelandic ...... 46 Clive Tolley Shamanism in Norse Myth and Magic, volumes I–II ...... 47 Vǫlsa þáttr: Pagan Lore or Christian Lie? ...... 48 Yelena Sesselja Helgadóttir Retrospective Methods in Dating Post-Medieval Rigmaroles from the North Atlantic ...... 49 MA-Thesis Projects ...... 51 Triin Laidoner The Flying Trickster of the North: The Legacy of Sámi Noaidevuohta Tradition Reflected in the Borderline Figure Laufeyjarson in Old Nordic Mythology ...... 51 Luke John Murphy Holy Groves, Rocky Places, and Sacral Constructions: The Establishment of Sacred Social Space in -Age Pre-Christian Scandinavia ...... 51 Mathias Nordvig Heterogeneity in the Old Norse World Picture: Diversity and Uniformity in Mythological Genres...... 52 Izabella Wenska Sacrifices among Slavs...... 53

FACULTIES; INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS The Department of Scandinavian Studies, University of Tartu, ...... 54 The Center for Viking and Medieval Studies, Aarhus University ...... 55 Old Norse Studies at the Scandinavian Department, Aarhus University ...... 56

CALLS FOR PAPERS Distant Cultural Differences? – Call for panel proposals for Dynamics of Cultural Differences: 32nd Nordic Conference of Ethnology and Folkloristics ...... 57

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Editor’s Note

This is the founding issue of RMN Newsletter, staff, the first issue is appearing slightly more the newsletter of the Retrospective Methods than two months after the conference. The Network (RMN). This pilot issue is provided intention is to present the emergent form of with a brief introduction because you as its RMN Newsletter according to a basic readership are in a position to shape its form organizational schema of five sections: and emphasis through your interest, support “Comments and Communications”, “People”, and contributions. The RMN is intended to “Faculties, Institutions and Organizations”, bring together scholars interested in using “Reviews” (although no reviews are included evidence from one period for developing an in this issue), and “Calls for Papers”. The understanding of the same or a corresponding orientation of the newsletter is not the phenomenon in an earlier period. In other publication of research articles, but rather words, the network is united by an interest in information about events, people, activities, the problems, approaches, strategies and developments and technologies, and research limitations related to approaching some aspect which is ongoing or has been recently of culture in one period through evidence completed. from another, later period. This includes At this point, the heart of the newsletter is assessments of continuity between historical the People section, which is intended to help periods, historical relationships between researchers keep track of what others with synchronic forms of a tradition in the same or similar interests are doing. The section diverse cultures, and also uses of analogical consists of abstracts of conference comparisons in which parallels are purely presentations, publications and ongoing typological. Because the focus is on practical projects. The emerging generation of scholars and constructive strategies, the network is is extremely important across our diverse multi-disciplinary. The majority of the disciplines and it is important to both be network‟s members are presently in various aware of that generation and to open contact fields related to medieval studies, folklore with it. We therefore include subsections on studies, linguistics, archaeology and history. PhD dissertation projects and MA thesis RMN Newsletter was organized at the first projects which are ongoing or have recently conference of the RMN in September of this been completed. The section Faculties, year. The newsletter is intended to have two Institutions and Organizations is oriented to primary functions: more general information about activities at the level of organizations. The Comments and 1) As a medium for maintaining contact Communications section promises to among widely distributed members of the construct a venue for the presentation of network news, information, discussions and brief 2) As a medium for keeping more contributions to the broader discourse of our generally abreast of activities, research and many intersecting fields. This is intended as a events which are relevant to the members venue introducing problems, questions, and concerns of the network possibilities and approaches for dialogue rather than concluding examinations, analyses Priority was given to the rapid organization or interpretations, regarding which we hope to and publication of the pilot of the newsletter. keep you informed through the publication of Thanks to the support of the many abstracts. Contributions of your own abstracts contributors, Folklore Studies / Department of and engagement in this discourse space will Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, both support the publication and reciprocally University of Helsinki, and its small editorial shape the form and emphases of a newsletter

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that has been organized in response to the correspondingly moved into a new era of interests of RMN members. understanding which allows comparisons and The initial formation of the RMN took diachronic approaches to be assessed with place in 2009 at the 14th International fresh eyes. RMN Newsletter is intended to Conference in , . A large open a discourse across these diverse fields number of its members are therefore united by common interests. Opening this medievalists in Scandinavian Studies discourse will not only benefit scholars interested in how to relate 19th and 20th focusing on different parts of the historical century folklore to traditions reflected in spectrum, but it also appears significant – if medieval manuscripts, runic inscriptions, and not essential – to directions of investigation archaeological material of various periods, as which researchers across these disciplines well to what degree medieval sources from a wish to explore. Christian cultural milieu can offer insights RMN Newsletter is primarily oriented to into pre-Conversion cultures. This was where constructing an informational resource and the RMN began. However, the use of „late‟ discourse space for researchers on an folklore and cross-cultural comparisons were individual basis, connecting them with the devalued in several fields across the mid-20th RMN as an open social network. However, century because of shifts in paradigms in both researchers interested in these fields are very medieval studies and folklore studies. Those often affiliated with departments or faculties paradigms appear to be shifting again, and the which have been marginalized or are RMN has excited tremendous interest among struggling in their institutions. These issues a wide range of scholars in diverse are situated within the broader reality that disciplines. studies in the humanities are under duress in By its first conference in September, the the wake of increasing emphases on „profit‟ RMN had expanded to include a number of by educational institutions, a graduate‟s researchers addressing several cultures in the income as an indication of an education‟s Circum-Baltic region, and membership has „value‟, and changing ideas of „usefulness‟ in continued to increase among researchers of education. These priorities appear these cultures. Diachronic studies of post- increasingly inclined to push studies in the medieval sources were subject to much more humanities, and their role in the maintenance intensive development in these cultural areas of informed understandings of history, culture because textual evidence from earlier periods and heritage, outside the field of an was minimal or nonexistent. When diachronic educational institution‟s responsibility, with study was devalued, strategies for no consideration of the potential long-term approaching the folklore materials continued social consequences which could follow. It is to develop, offering half a century of insights therefore very important for the widely which can now be turned back to the scattered researchers in these fields to possibilities and limitations of retrospective participate in broader social networks of approaches. It is perhaps appropriate that scholars because where a large institution RMN Newsletter is published by Folklore may not listen to a few voices from isolated Studies of the University of Helsinki, which is offices in one of its remote buildings, an the oldest university department of folklore in international chorus may succeed in being the world. The RMN has also recently begun heard. to spread among medievalists concerned with Frog other cultures of Europe. These have University of Helsinki

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Comments and Communications

Why a Network for Retrospective Methods? Eldar Heide, University of Bergen

The purpose of the Retrospective Methods think we can reason in my “manifesto” from Network is to promote and develop the Uppsala conference (Heide 2009, at retrospective methods in historical studies in a http://www.saga.nordiska.uu.se/preprint/), but wide sense. The starting-point is a desire to these are just examples; the bulk of the work make use of folklore and other 19th and 20th on methods remains ahead. In connection century evidence as a supplement in studies of with this, I think the network should span a pre-Christian Scandinavian beliefs. This kind variety of fields and research questions of material has widely been rejected in such because looking at a problem from diverse studies since the inter-war period, which is angles makes it possible to see the issues regrettable, because many problems remain more clearly. In my opinion, a higher level of unsolved, mainly due to a lack of information. methodological consciousness and a stronger Accordingly, we are not in a position to demand for explicitness in claims, methods neglect potentially valuable information. and reasoning is needed in Old Norse studies However, the rejection is no longer based in general, and I hope that the work on upon knowledge of late material and its retrospective methods can contribute to this. potentials and shortcomings (as the rejection Questions that could be addressed in inevitably has led to a low knowledge of these connection with the network include the resources), and in recent years, there has been following: a growing interest in such material and a positive reception of this kind of studies  Under what circumstances are among many scholars. Therefore, in 2009, I retrospective methods possible or felt the time was ripe for an organized effort, preferable? th and at the 14 International Saga Conference  What criteria can be utilized to make in Uppsala, I took an initiative to connect evidence valid for earlier periods? scholars with an interest in retrospective  How can retrospective approaches be methods into a network. The idea is that if we combined with other approaches, e.g. work together, we will have more fun and we comparative approaches? can support and encourage each other, and we  What are the pitfalls and how can they be will have better chances to develop avoided? appropriate methods. In addition, a network  Do we have certain examples of cultural and its activities can make an issue out of this elements or memories that have survived approach, make visible the renewed interest in for long periods of time? late material and retrospective methods and thus make more scholars give these questions Examples of topics may be: a second thought. In my opinion, methodology should be  Interpretations based partly or wholly on given a high priority by the network. Going retrospective reasoning. back from late material will always remain th th  Discussions of how 19 and 20 century problematic, and we must not do it in the folklore can help us understand motifs in same naïve way as the scholars of the early Old Norse literature. 20th century. I gave some examples of how I

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 Discussions of how popular traditions On the latter question, a good deal of work from the 19th and 20th centuries can help has been done to establish a theoretical basis us understand medieval archaeological and reject the hypercriticism of the mid-20th evidence. century; nevertheless a lot of work remains  Discussions of how such traditions can before a philosophically watertight theory is help us reconstruct pre-Christian beliefs. formulated. In addition, most of the scholars th th who on principle reject 19 and 20 century Today, approaches like these are rejected as evidence occasionally make use of it but speculative by many scholars. Nonetheless, in without a methodological basis. This means the study of other problems retrospective that a discussion of retrospective methods is approaches are accepted by most scholars, for not just for a faction in the field; rather it is example: essential to a large part of Old Norse studies. Time will show what the Retrospective  Runic inscriptions from the Methods Network and the renewed effort to and earlier are interpreted in the light of use late material can lead to. So far, I am very 13th century Old Norse sources. happy with what I have seen – the interest in  So are and guldgubber from the network and the conference in September, the and Merovingian the spin-offs from it, and the papers at the Age. conference. They illuminated retrospective  Pre-Christian religious conditions are methods from many angles, and some of them reconstructed on the basis of place names were clear demonstrations of how late and landscapes. material can increase our understanding of the  The religion and culture of the Viking Scandinavian . The future Age are reconstructed on the basis of Old attitude towards late material and Norse literary sources which are (more retrospective methods depends upon how well than) two centuries younger. we are able to make such demonstrations.

Eldar Heide 15th November, 2010

Conference Report: New Focus on Retrospective Methods 13th–14th September, 2010, Bergen, Helen F. Leslie, University of Bergen, and Mathias Nordvig, Aarhus University

In the cosy and historic premises of Bergen speakers and a total of almost 50 participants kystlag, the first conference and official event from a range of different disciplines and of the Retrospective Methods Network was countries, both European and from further held in a former warehouse from the 17th afield, all of which made for a large and century. The conference was a great success: responsive audience for the presentations. the high standard of papers and breadth of The conference and Network has its topics presented bode well for the future of emphasis on the methodology behind the Network. The quality of the conference retrospective reasoning in historical studies in reflected the hard work of Eldar Heide, who a wide sense, for example the exploration of founded the Network in August 2010 at the strategies for using 19th century folklore as 14th International Saga Conference in sources to understand motifs in Old Norse Uppsala, and who was the primary organiser literature or investigations of Old Norse of the conference. The conference hosted 16

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evidence which was common in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when there was little or no consideration of whether such evidence was even appropriate. The presentations were arranged alphabetically by presenter, hence Sirpa Aalto took the baton and gave the conference‟s opening paper on questions of using the Kalevala and the traditional poetry from which it derives as a vantage point for investigations into the Finnish Viking Age. Discussion was lively, to say the least, before moving on to the geographer Hans Antonson, who introduced the use of retrospective methods in landscape analysis. This field was entirely new to many people there. Maths Bertell followed with an argument for the importance of the comparative approach when dealing with sources from recent centuries. Rudolf Simek piloting the Den gode Hensigt toward Bertell selected examples from Old Norse and open water. Photo by Frog. Sámi cultures, addressing their associated

conceptions. Stefan Brink‟s invigorating pagan religion, and the insights which these contribution peeled away various layers of sources can offer. Emphasis was given to early provincial Scandinavian laws. Brink‟s supporting and illustrating the methodological paper demonstrated how retrospective studies with well-chosen examples. It approaches can be used in a modern, therefore seemed wholly in keeping with the analytical way which can offer deep insights priorities of these academic endeavours that into stratified changes in a cultural Eldar Heide, an experienced sailor, led a boat- environment, an analysis which contrasts trip on the squaresail-rigged småjekt Den sharply with work from before the 1960‟s, gode Hensigt on the day before the when these laws were approached uncritically conference. Den gode Hensigt is one of the as sources for information on early boats belonging to the kystlag, a society Scandinavian societies – even societies from established to preserve traditional Norwegian periods hundreds of years before the laws coastal culture. Bergen‟s famous rain held off, were written down. Terry Gunnell, true to and not a single participant was lost at sea on form, maintained this energy and vigour with our voyage, secure in the company of a paper on grave mounds and the folk porpoises. This adventure proved an excellent traditions surrounding them. With a number prelude to the conference, establishing the of stories to keep the presentation lively, relaxed tone which was maintained in the Gunnell explored the importance of atmosphere of the subsequent two days filled relationships between people and the dead or with presentations. other mythic beings inhabiting the landscape, After a short walk along the coast to the wrapping up the morning sessions with a premise of the kystlag, Eldar opened the first discussion that carried over into lunch. day of the conference with a short Odd Einar Haugen presented an overview introduction, placing retrospective methods in of the uses of reconstruction in textual a broad historical context, emphasizing the criticism, and Eldar Heide further increased need for the employed methodologies to be the range of approaches by introducing rigorous and well thought through, stepping etymological studies into the debate. His away from the naïve approaches to folklore

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paper on the cultural-etymological approach provided solid examples of the areas and ways in which scholars from different fields could cooperate in order to utilize late material to further research into earlier historical periods. Yelena Sesselja Helgadóttir followed with an interesting consideration of post-medieval rigmaroles and their relationship to Old Icelandic þulur. Helgadóttir argued convincingly that the medieval material could be reasonably used to anchor the post-medieval material, and the post-medieval material could then The cosy interior of a remodelled warehouse lent to the reciprocally offer insights into the traditions intimate atmosphere of the sessions. From left: Jens of the earlier period. Peter Schjødt and Terry Gunnell. Photo by Mathias Nordvig. The second day of the conference was opened by Terje Planke, who gave a well- final paper of the conference was given by illustrated presentation of the use of twentieth Frog, an enjoyable and detailed study of the century handicrafts in reconstructing boats narrative of Þrymsqviða and the continuity, and sailing techniques of the Germanic Iron evolution and transformation of its myth in Age. Margareta Regebro came next, outlining cultures around the Baltic Sea. her ideas on a methodology for drawing The conference concluded with a meeting motifs out of their context for study. This of the Retrospective Methods Network, discussion was followed by the linguist Janne chaired by Eldar Heide. The discussion was Saarikvi‟s learned paper on using cultural very active, benefitting from a number of reconstruction in relation to proto-languages, suggestions and contributions from a large focussing his discussion on Proto-Sámi and number of participants concerning the future Proto-Uralic. Jens Peter Schjødt‟s paper activities of the network. It was decided that suggested the need for new theoretical another Retrospective Methods Network achievements to be brought to the fore in the conference should be held in three years time study of Old Norse religion, a pertinent topic in 2013, of which Heide is the candidate considering that many of the participants organizer, with the suggestion of an interim work closely with Old Norse sources. Rudolf meeting of members attending the 15th Simek‟s lecture on guldgubber explored the International Saga Conference to be held in semiotics of hand gestures and hand positions Århus, Denmark, in 2012. The meeting had in iconography, arguing for a continuity two additional immediate outcomes. One was between these tiny gold artefacts from the the decision to establish the present Migration Period and the manuscript newsletter, with Frog (University of Helsinki) illuminations of later religious and law texts as editor-in-chief, assisted by Helen Leslie which could offer insights into the meanings (University of Bergen), and Mathias Nordvig underlying different guldgubber image-types. (Aarhus University). The other was a plan for Daniel Sävborg‟s paper then offered a the publication of select papers from the convincing exposition of the use of 19th and conference, which will be organized by 20th century folklore to explain supernatural Heide. episodes found in the medieval Icelandic Many thanks go out to the organizers of Íslendingasögur. The positive and the conference, the administrative support constructive discussion continued and the provided by Elisabeth Akselvoll, and to the

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small team of student helpers from the not for the questions, discussions and debate University of Bergen who did a marvellous of the many participants arriving from many job of seeing that coffee never ran short and different lands. This conference has helped that lunch was ready whenever we were, as kick-start and enrich the possibilities and use well as to Bergen kystlag for having us. All in of retrospective reasoning, and the Network all, it was an interesting and lively display of looks to be a productive and positive space research and ideas which the contributors for scholars from different disciplines and were kind enough to provide, but which approaches to meet and exchange ideas. would not have truly come to fruition were it

The Vanir: An Obituary Rudolf Simek,

Collective Terms for ‘Gods’ in Old Norse heiðinn goð (Hákonarmál 21), or just goð, as In Old Norse, we can find a surprising a clear denomination for heathen gods as number of collective nouns denoting the opposed to the Christian god (Hjalti of heathen gods, indicating that the Skeggjason), leads to the suspicion that it was gods as a group were at least as much part of already either necessary or useful to the heathen understanding of divine beings as distinguish between the same term being used the veneration of individual, named gods. (in the singular) for the Christian god (guð, These collectives, when found in the skaldic masculine) and (in the plural) for heathen poems and possibly also in the older . Even so, there are nearly two dozen mythological poems of the Codex Regius examples in skaldic poetry and more than a (commonly known as Eddic lays) are dozen in Eddic poems (Skírnismál, therefore a valuable source for heathen Vafþrúðnismál, Grímnismál, Alvissmál) of the concepts about the gods of ancient use of the term goð to refer to a plurality of Scandinavia. heathen gods. The various collectives for „gods‟ have The word tífar presents more problems, as been dealt with in detail,1 so that I can limit it is uncertain whether the singular týr could, myself to a short summary of previous besides denoting the old god Týr, also denote scholarship. a single god. The instances from skaldic The most common nouns denoting „gods‟ poetry, however, show that especially in are, hardly surprisingly, the words goð (sing. composite kenningar the word týr seems quite goð), tífar (sing. týr/Týr) and æsir (sing. obviously aimed at „a god‟ (týr) rather than at ǭss/áss). The singular goð is only preserved in „the god Týr‟. Thus, although there are three instances in skaldic verse (Egill: examples of Týr being mentioned as a single Lausavísa 39; Þórarinn svarti: Máhlíðinga god (cf. Týs ǭttungr for the royal descendants vísur 1; Gísli Súrsson: Lausavísa 26), and of the god in 17 and Háleygjatal none of these verses are with certainty older 12), in the majority of cases we should accept than the saga texts in which they are that even in kenningar the likelihood is preserved (Egils saga Skallagrímssonar; greater for týr being used as a singular of the Eyrbyggja saga; Gísla saga Súrssonar). In collective, rather than for the god Týr. the many collective uses, the term goð is The word æsir is the best known among strongly linked with heathen gods (heiðinn the collectives for gods, and also the one goð) mainly in their function as defenders and where the singular is quite frequent, too. A rulers of mankind and their world. The term closer look, however, reveals that the singular

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is mainly used in younger mythographical about a divine descendancy for Jarl Hákon. Eddic poems (Þrymskviða 2 and 15; The term seems to carry connotations of 11, 19, 33; Grímnismal 6 and 44; the ruling, orderly powers and sees them on a Rigsþula 1). In the Vǫluspá and the skaldic mythological level throughout: these gods can poems, the term is, like the other collective lay claim to be the origin of of nouns, only used in the plural (Vǫluspá 17, 24 as well as to be the ancestors of royal and 32; Hákonarmál 16; Vellekla 32), but this houses. usage is still to be found in the other Eddic The collective term bǫnd, on the other poems, too (Grímnismál 30, 42; Lokasenna 3 hand, has often been interpreted as referring and 27; Alvíssmál 16; Þrymskviða 5 and 9). In to the „binding gods‟, whether they bind accordance with these poems, Snorri in his humans through their oaths or physically in Prose uses the term both in the singular cultic practices,5 but skaldic sources show and plural. them as gods defending the (Norwegian) Three other terms are less common in the realm against evil, and Edith Marold has literary texts, but were obviously more pointed out that three out of the ten or so uses frequently used in heathen times as collective combine the term with the verb reka (Egill: terms for „gods‟ more than in medieval lausavísa 19; Steinunn 2; and nið on Harald) literature, namely regin, bǫnd und hǫpt. and one with the verb vesa (anonymous Of these, regin clearly had the greatest lausavísa 8), both meaning „to chase away‟ – currency and is already attested on two pre- averting evil kings as well as robbers and Viking , namely on the Noleby missionaries.6 The use of the term bǫnd shows rune-stone (from Västergötland in Sweden, a strong connotation of cult practices, too, and dated to ca. 600)2 and on the Sparlösa rune- may point towards a concept of gods stone (Västergötland in Sweden; ca. 800),3 protecting the lands as part of the which both talk of the runes as raginakundo conservative heathen revival initiated by „made known through the regin [the gods]‟. Hákon, Jarl of Hlaðir, in the 80‟s and early The alliteration of “runar” and “regin” 90‟s of the 10th century against the Christian apparently led to a popular formula, as it can kings of Norway.7 If Hákon in his massive use be found in stanza 80 of the Eddic poem of against the Christian expansion Hávamál, again at least 300 years later. This actively favoured the term bǫnd, it may also term therefore can also claim the greatest age denote gods „holding together‟ the land in its of all collective terms for gods, but still had heathen customs against the new and foreign wide currency in 10th century skaldic poetry influences. The bǫnd are found only a single (: Ragnarsdrápa 10; Einar: Vellekla 32; time in Eddic poetry (Hávamál 109) and may Holmgöngu-Bersi: Lausavísa 1; Ulfr: thus have had only a very short period of Húsdrápa 2; Glúmr: Gráfeldardrápa 3; usage towards the end of the 10th century. Þjóðólfr: Haustlǫng 7, 10 and 13; Þjóðólfr: The collective noun hǫpt, on the other Haleygjatal 12 and 15; Harald Hárfagri: hand, never addresses the gods as recipients Snæfríðardrápa; whilst Egils Lausavísa 19 of a cult, but rather as a general mythological seems to be of a younger date on linguistic group. In the few instances in which this term grounds)4 and both in mythological and heroic occurs (Þjóðólfr: Haustlǫng 3 and 11; Einar: Eddic poetry (Vǫluspá 41 and 44, Grímnismál Vellekla 16; Eilífr: Þórsdrápa 3; Glúmr: 4, 6, 37, 41; Lokasenna 4, 32, 39, 41; Gráfeldardrápa 1; Kormákr: Sigurðardrápa Vafþruðnismál 13, 25, 39, 52, 55; Hyndluljóð 5), there is a tendency towards usage in 35; 14; Atlamál 22; kenningar for individual gods, although the Helgakviða Hundingsbana ǫnnur 40). Like in etymology seems to point in the same the two runic inscriptions from the 7th century direction as „binding gods‟. Apart from the about the origins of runes, the Vellekla talks

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Haustlǫng (9th century) all the sources may be Lausavísa 3) and the mid-12th century (Einar dated to the years 960–1000. Skúlason: Øxnarflokkr 5). The third instance dates from the mid-10th Vanir as a Collective Term century – Eíriksmál 2 – but unfortunately the One notable item missing from the list of context is most unclear here. Why, then, have eight collective terms dealt with by Marold is the Vanir achieved such spectacular fame in the term vanir, the supposed opponents of the modern times, when the sources are so scant? Æsir gods in the so-called war of the Æsir and It is certainly not because other poetic sources Vanir.8 The Vanir are well established both in are much more full: vanir are mentioned only research and popular opinion as the group of seven times in Eddic poetry, and these gods usually associated with fertility, because instances are limited to five poems: Vǫluspá they include , and their father 24; Vafþrúðnismál 39 (twice), Skírnismál 17 Njǫrðr. If scholars have speculated about and 18, Sigrdrífumál 19 and Þrymskviða 15. as a member of this Vanir family, this has no Moreover, in most of these cases the term basis in the sources whatsoever. turns up in an alliterative sequence of (æsir – The wide modern popularity of the Vanir alfar followed by)9 vísir vanir.10 as a family of gods stands in stark contrast to Rather, the true reason for their popularity the paucity of the sources about them. If is that Snorri gives us, on the basis of these 10 Marold has not mentioned them, then with earlier (or possibly earlier) sources, more good reason, as there are only a total of three detailed accounts of the role of the vanir, instances of the term in skaldic poetry, and which have in the past mainly been taken at two of those are from post-heathen times, their face value and made into the family of namely the 11th century (Þórðr Særeksson: gods commonly known today. In addition,

Table 1. The vanir in ON poetry Term Source Context Meaning vanir Eiríksmál 2 Es mér ór heimi ? hǫlda vánir gǫfugra nǫkkurra vanir Vǫluspá 24 knátto vanir vígspá group of warriors vǫllo sporar vanir Þórðr: Lausavísa 3 goðbrúðr vani Skaði ? vanir Einar: Øxnarflokkr 5 vana brúðr Freyja vanir Vafþrúðnismál 39 heim með vísom vǫnom collective gods ? vanir Skírnismál 17 Hvat er þat álfa, né ása group differentiated from álfar and æsir sona, né víssa vana? vanir Skírnismál 18 Emcat ec álfa, né ása group differentiated from álfar and æsir sona, né víssa vana vanir Sigrdrífumál 18 Þær ro með ásom, group differentiated from men and álfar þær ro með álfom, sumar með vísom vǫnom, sumir hafa menzeir menn. vanir Þrymskviða 15 hvítastr ása – ; synonymous with æsir? vissi hann vel fram, sem vanir aðrir Þjóðólfr: vitta véttr son of Sveigðir and Vana Ynglingatal 3 Vanlanda kom Vafþrúðnismál 39 Í Vanaheimi scópo mythological home of regin and vanir hann vís regin

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there are two composite names preserved with Freyr on the other hand shows little sign of the element van- in ON poetry, namely the being an agricultural god, but rather the personal name Vanlandi mentioned in mighty protagonist of royal houses, his Ynglingatal 3 (9th century?) and the place evident sexual connotations having more to name Vanaheimr in Vafþrúðnismál 39. do with the virility and the power of a ruler than with agricultural fertility. Motz‟s The Description of the Vanir in Old Norse findings can help to understand the obvious Literature faults in the former division of Norse gods The vanir are mentioned so rarely in the into Æsir and Vanir, as she was able to show skaldic poetry of heathen times and even in that there is no inherent difference between Eddic poetry (see Table 1), that most of the the gods ascribed to both groups by Snorri. information about them is actually found in the writings of (see Table 2). Snorri and the Vanir There is, however, another way of The largest number of individual pieces of approaching the Vanir/vanir, namely to information about Vanir in ON literature is, ignore the collective term and look at those by far, to be found in the writings of Snorri gods which are ascribed (by Snorri or Sturluson, namely his (especially otherwise) to this group of divinities. That is in the second book on skaldic composition the type of study undertaken by in called Skáldskaparmál) and in the first her 1996 “study in Germanic Myth” called chapters of his , which is the The King, the Champion and the Sorcerer, first part of . It is therefore which dedicated a long chapter to a somewhat of a surprise to see that Snorri is comparative study of the gods usually actually not overly explicit when dealing with ascribed to the groups of Æsir and Vanir.11 the Vanir under this term: we only learn from She looked at the evidence of poetry, prose Skáldskaparmál 1 that the Vanir are a and even place names concerned with the mythological people (rather than family) in single deities from both assumed groups, and their own right, and it is fairly obvious that selected the categories of 1. Agricultural Snorri, who uses the term only twice in his concerns, 2. Homage paid to the Gods, 3. whole Edda, has, in this instance, used Relation to Wealth, 4. Relation to War, 5. Vǫluspá 24 as the basis for his literary Sexuality, 6. Creativity and Regeneration, 7. embellishment of the war of gods. Relation to Magic Skills, 8. Relation to Sea When dealing with Njǫrðr, Snorri has Travel, 9. Animals of Association and 10. nothing to say about him as being a member Relation to Royal Rule. After studying the of a family or tribe called Vanir, and only evidence, she arrived at the conclusion that: when listing poetic terms for Njǫrðr (Vanaguð,13 Vananið, Vanr), Freyr (Vanaguð, The findings of this study do not support the Vananið, Vanr) and Freyja (Vanagoð, generally accepted view in which the family Vanadís) do the Vanir really come into the of gods is divided into farmers‟ gods – Vanir picture (Skáldskaparmál 6 and 7). None of – and gods of warriors and kings – Æsir – Snorri‟s quotations, however, serve to give into gods of fruitfulness and gods of war. the sources for these ; a likely reason for The findings point instead to the close this is that Snorri had one or more stanzas in relation of the Vanir to the royal office and to the generative and creative powers held mind, but was not sure whether the heiti used exclusively by the Æsir.12 referred to Njǫrðr, Freyr or even Freyja. The most explicit in Snorri‟s Edda She could show that, contrary to popular dealing with the Vanir is also found in opinion, was far more strongly Skáldskaparmál (G57): associated with sexuality than Freyr, and that

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Þat váru uphǫf til þess, at goðin hǫfðu ósætt in that way that they both went to a kettle við þatt fólk, er vanir heita, en þeir lǫgðu and spat their saliva into it. með sér friðstefnu ok settu grið á þá lund, at þeir gengu hvárirtveggju til eins kers ok Then he tells the story about the of spýttu í hráka sínum. poetry, which is made out of this divine saliva. The two lines tell us little about the This was the beginning of it, that the gods Vanir, but it is at least obvious that Snorri had a disagreement with the people called here has used the term vanir as found in vanir, and they arranged a peace-meeting among them and made a truce between them Vǫluspa 24, which mentions a war among the Table 2. The Vanir and related names and terms in ON Term Source Context Meaning Vanir Snorri: Ynglingasaga 4 Óðinn fór með her á hendur Vǫnum Vanir Snorri: Ynglingasaga 4 Fengu Vanir sína ina ágæztu Njǫrðr, Freyr menn Vanir Snorri: Ynglingasaga 4 Þá grunaði Vanir Vanir Snorri: Ynglingasaga 4 Þá er Njǫrðr var með Vǫnum different mythological group Vanir Snorri: Skáldskaparmál 20 þat folk er vanir heitir Vanakvísl Snorri: Ynglingasaga 1 Tanakvísl eða Vanakvísl river Tanais Vanakvísl Sǫrla þáttr (Flateyjarbók) Fyrir austan Vanakvísl í Asía river Tanais Vanaland Snorri: Ynglingasaga 1 Vanaland eða Vanaheimr Vanaheimr Snorri: Ynglingasaga 1 Vanaland eða Vanaheimr Vanaheimr Snorri: Ynglingasaga 4 En er Hœnir kom í Vanaheim Vanaheimr Snorri: Ynglingasaga 12 út í Vanaheimi Vana Snorri: Ynglingasaga 12 konu þá, er Vana hét, út í mother of Vanlandi Vanaheimi Vanlande Ari: Íslendingabók vi. Vanlandi son of Svegðir Vallandi Langfeðgatal Nóregs Fiolnir, Vallande, VisbvR son of Fjölnir (by mistake konunga (AM 415, 4to) instead of Svegðir ?) Vanlandi Snorri: Ynglingasaga 12 Var þeira sonr Vanlandi son of Sveigðir and Vana Vanlandi Snorri: Ynglingasaga 13 Vanlandi hét sonr Sveigðis son of Sveigðir and Vana Vanlandi Snorri: Ynglingasaga 13 hon skuldi síða Vanlanda til son of Sveigðir and Vana Finnlands Vanlandi Snorri: Ynglingasaga 13 var Vanlandi at Uppsǫlum son of Sveigðir and Vana Vanlandi Snorri: Ynglingasaga 14 Vísburr tók arf eptir Vanlanda son of Sveigðir and Vana Wanlande Historia Norvegiae Iste genuit Wanlanda son of Swegthir Vaningi Skírnismál 37 myndac aldregi Freyr unna vaningia vel Vaningi Þulur þrǫndr, vaningi pig; boar Vanadís Snorri: Skáldskaparmál 20 Vanagoð, Vanadís Freyja Vanagoð Snorri: Skáldskaparmál 20 Vanagoð, Vanadís Freyja Vanagoð Snorri: Skáldskaparmál 6 kalla hann Vanaguð eða Vananið Njǫrðr eða Van Vanagoð Snorri: Skáldskaparmál 7 Vanaguð eða Vananið eða Van Freyr

Vananið Snorri: Skáldskaparmál 6 kalla hann Vanaguð eða Vananið Njǫrðr eða Van Vananið Snorri: Skáldskaparmál 7 Vanaguð eða Vananið eða Van Freyr

Vanr Snorri: Skáldskaparmál 6 kalla hann Vanaguð eða Vananið Njǫrðr eða Van Vanr Snorri: Skáldskaparmál 7 Vanaguð eða Vananið eða Van Freyr

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gods, as a name rather than a collective noun 1. Kapítuli for gods (which it seems to be in Vǫluspa 24). [...] Ór norðri frá fjǫllum þeim, er fyrir útan It is only in his Ynglinga saga, and there eru byggð alla, fellr á um Svíþjóð, sú er at only in chapter 4, that the Vanir are ever réttu heitir Tanais. Hon var forðum kǫlluð mentioned outside Skáldskaparmal as a Tanakvísl eða Vanakvísl. Hon kømr til sjávar inn í Svartahaf. Í Vanakvíslum var þá people (again, as in Skáldskaparmál, called kallat Vanaland eða Vanaheimr. Sú á skilr folk, „people‟, not so much a family). And heimsþriðjungana. Heitir fyrir austan Ásíá, although it seems from chapter 1 of Ynglinga en fyrir vestan Európá. saga as if Snorri could refer back to a knowledge of the Vanir, this may only be a 2. Kapítuli learned trick to connect Vanlandi, via Fyrir austan Tanakvísl í Ásíá var kallat Vanakvisl (= Tanais, the river Don), with a Ásaland eða Ásaheimr, en hǫfuðborgin, er supposed people of Vanir. This section of the var í landinu, kǫlluðu þeir Ásgarð. [...] text belongs totally to the “learned prehistory” of Scandinavia that Snorri offers, and has to 4. Kapítuli be seen against the background of these Óðinn fór með her á hendur Vǫnum, en þeir urðu vel við ok vǫrðu land sitt, ok hǫfðu learned histories in the Middle Ages. ýmsir sigr. Herjuðu hvárir land annarra ok gerðu skaða. En er þat leiddisk Vanaheimr and the Learned Pre-History of hvárumtveggjum, lǫgðu þeir milli sín Scandinavia sættarstefnu ok gerðu frið ok seldusk gíslar. The whole story given by Snorri in Ynglinga Fengu Vanir sína ina ágæztu menn, Njǫrð saga 4 is part of his version of the learned inn auðga ok son hans, Frey, en Æsir þar í prehistory of Scandinavia. This medieval mót þann, er Hoenir hét, ok kolluðu hann construction in general, with its aim to allvel til hǫfðingja fallinn. Hann var mikill connect one‟s own history with that of the maðr ok inn vænsti. Með honum sendu Æsir people of Troy is, apart from the Romans, þann, er Mímir hét, inn vitrasti maðr, en mainly known among the Franks and the Vanir fengu þar í mót þann, er spakastr var í þeira flokki. Sá hét . En er Hoenir British.14 The Scandinavian tradition in 15 kom í Vanaheim, þa var hann þegar hǫfðingi particular, which attempts to link the lineage gǫrr. Mímir kenndi honum ráð ǫll. En er of the Scandinavian kings both to Troy and to Hoenir var staddr á þingum eða stefnum, svá the heathen Gods – in their function as the at var eigi nær, ok koemi nǫkkur traditional ancestors of Germanic tribes – has vandamál fyrir hann, þa svaraði hann æ inu been studied repeatedly, both in the versions sama: “ráði aðrir,” kvað hann. Þá grunaði presented by Snorri and in other ON texts, of Vani, at Æsir myndi hafa falsat þa í which Andreas Heusler in his still mannaskiptinu. Þá tóku þeir Mími ok fundamental study from 1908 has listed hálshjoggu ok sendu hǫfuðit Ásum. Óðinn thirteen.16 Despite Heusler‟s damning verdict tók hǫfuðit ok smurði urtum þeim, er eigi of Snorri‟s most complete and elegant version mátti fúna, ok kvað þar yfir galdra ok magnaði svá, at þat mælti við hann ok sagði of the learned prehistory of the Northern honum marga leynda hluti. Njǫrð ok Frey Peoples as an ostentatious learned concoction, setti Óðinn blótgoða, ok váru þeir díar með it is still the basis of all investigation into the Ásum. Dóttir Njarðar var Freyja. Hon var learned concepts of high Medieval blótgyðja. Hon kenndi fyrst með Ásum seið, Scandinavians about their own origins. The sem Vǫnum var títt. Þá er Njǫrðr var með passages relevant to the Vanir and their Vǫnum, þá hafði hann átta systur sína, því at origins or homeland given by Snorri are the þat váru þar lǫg. Váru þeira bǫrn Freyr ok following: Freyja. En þat var bannat með Ásum at 17 byggva svá náit at frændsemi.

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Chapter 1 were used to. When Njörd had been with the [...] Out of the north from the mountains Vanir, he had married his own sister, for this which lie beyond all the inhabited lands, was lawful among them. Their children were there is a river which runs through Greater Freyr and Freyja. But among the Aesir it Sweden which by its proper name is called was forbidden to marry so near with one‟s Tanais. But before, it was called Tanakvisl family. or Vanakvisl. It flows into the Black Sea. The land on the Vanakvisl was called A census of the other numerous sources for Vanaland or Vanaheim. This river divides the learned prehistory of Scandinavia in ON the continents: to the East, it is called Asia, sources reveals that the Vanir are not part of but to the west, Europe. the tradition, but are peculiar to Snorri‟s

version.18 It has been also noted before that Chapter 2 East of the Tanakvisl the land was called Snorri follows a known type of medieval Asaland or Asaheim, but they called the etymology, in which paronomasy can replace 19 capital city of this land . [...] a genuine etymological relationship. He was thus able to establish the typically medieval Chapter 4 etymology of Tana-is [= Don] > Tana-kvisl > Odin attacked the Vanir with an army, but Vana-kvisl. In the Vana-kvisl (the river-arms they resisted him well and defended their or Delta of the Don) there is Vanaland country, and they both achieved victories. (borrowed from the genealogical, but They harried each other‟s land and caused misleading name Vanlandi), which may also damage. When they both became tired of be called Vanaheimr, says Snorri. this they arranged a peace meeting, made If we were to make the mistake of peace and exchanged hostages. The Vanir took their most outstanding men, Njörd the investigating the historical background for Rich and his son Freyr, but the Aesir gave in this fictitious construction – as was (albeit 20 exchange the one called Hoenir, whom they reluctantly) discussed by Heusler in 1909, as called well suited to be a chieftain, a big well as, quite recently and without any man and very handsome. With him the Aesir scholarly restraints, by Heyerdal and his sent Mimir, the wisest of men, and in Swedish co-writer,21 we might arrive at the exchange the Vanir gave the wisest one of Hungarians as the inhabitants of Vanakvisl. their group who was called Kvasir. But This is, at least, where Regino of Prüm, the when Hoenir got to the Vanir, he was careful chronicler of the 9th century, sees the immediately made a chieftain, and Mimir origins of the Ungari, who from the middle of gave him all advice. But when Hoenir was at the 9th century onward started to become a a or a meeting where Mimir was not near, and a difficult decision came up before threat to the Carolingian empire (and thus a him, he always answered the same: “Let competition for the as main threat to 22 others advise”, he said. The Vanir then the empire). He very exactly locates their suspected that the Aesir had cheated them in origins in the boggy delta of the Don (a the exchange of men. Then they took Mimir, paludibus, quas Thanais sua refusione in decapitated him and sent the head to the immensum orrigit), which makes them Aesir. Odin took the head and anointed it identical with the Maeotides paludes with herbs to prevent it from decomposing, [„Maeotian bogs‟] of medieval Latin tradition. and spoke magic charms over it and But shortly afterwards in the same section, possessed it with magic so that it could talk Regino also names the Tanais as the eastern to him and it told him many hidden things. limit of Germanic habitation. Thus, Snorri‟s Odin made Njörd and Freyr temple priests and they were gods/priests among the Aesir. Vanir would, like Regino‟s Ungari or Adam‟s The daughter of Njörd was Freyja, she was a Alani (see below), be the closest neighbours priestess. She first made magic (seiðr) of the Scandinavians in the direction of Asia. known among the Aesir which the Vanir

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Such a historical-geographic location was, (Vanaland or Vanheim, set up by him to however, not the main aim of Snorri‟s writing match Asaland and Asaheim). alone, but rather the homogenisation of all The remaining elements of Snorri‟s names and terms connected with van-: concept of the Vanir may be divided into Vanlandi, which predates Snorri, and the three different parts: vanir as a collective term for deities, were brought together by two main philological 1) As Heusler pointed out, the Latin story constructions: in Gregory‟s Gesta Francorum (II, 7) about a war between the Franks and the a) The etymology of Vana-heimr (> Van- Alans (who lived, according to early landi) and Vana-kvisl (> Tana-kvisl > medieval historiography,23 exactly where Tana-is = Don) to give the cryptic term Snorri placed the Vanir, namely near the vanir, „deities‟, a geographical setting, mouth of the Don in the Maeotidan making them into the Van-ir, „Don-people‟ Swamps) may have served as a model for b) The genealogy concocted around the war between the Æsir and the Vanir. Sveigðir (grandson of -Freyr) and his The use of the rare term vanir in stanza 24 wife Vana [„Don-woman‟] of Vanaheimr of Vǫluspá, which deals with a cryptic war as parents of Vanlandi. the Æsir had to fight, helped him to identify the Alans with these vanir and Apart from Vanlandi as great-grandson of thus make them into the Vanir. Yngvi-Freyr and the term vanir, „deities‟, all of this is, in my opinion, Snorri‟s invention, 2) If we follow Snorri‟s hypothesis of although the traditional dating of where the Vanir lived, namely in the Vafþrúðnismál makes it possible that the northeastern corner of Europe, it follows – name Vanaheimr was also known to Snorri. as every medieval Scandinavian would What Snorri had as the basis for the part of know – they were close to Finns and Sami, the vanir in his exposition of the learned whose outstanding skill was in magic. If prehistory of Scandinavia is easy to Snorri thus claims that the Vanir brought reconstruct: the (personal) name Vanlandi in seiðr into the world, he is but using the Ynglingatal may have served as the trigger, geographical connection which he himself but the medieval etymology of the ON had created. Vanakvisl = ON Tanakvisl, „delta of the Tanais‟, from Latin T(h)anais, „Don‟, gave 3) To identify the members of the Vanir Snorri the possibility to construct Vanaheimr family, Snorri could, for all we know, only as the home of the Vanir. The name use a single , namely vana brúðr Vanaheimr could possibly have already been for Freyja in Einars Øxnarflokkr 5. The in existence (and known to Snorri), having other kenningar he lists for Freyja, Freyr been constructed by the author of and Njǫrðr, namely Vanaguð, Vanadís, and Vafþrúðnismál (at the latest) as the home of Vananið, are not recorded in any skaldic regin and vanir (here both used as general poetry still preserved. However, we need collective terms for „gods‟), and could thus not assume that he made them all up serve as the home of a people („folk‟) called himself: the fact the he ascribes them, in vanir. It is worth noting that Snorri never uses different sections of Skáldskaparmál, to the word „family‟ in connection with the any of the three gods, shows that he was gods, but only once calls them flokk, „group‟, uncertain about the exact meaning of the in the text quoted, and otherwise seems to see kenningar. The known relationship them as a people in a distinct country between the three gods, namely of Njǫrðr as father of Freyr and Freyja, allowed him

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to make these three the protagonists of a Skírnismál is older than Snorri‟s Edda, which group of gods (vanir), who lived in the is by no means certain. Northeast (Vanaheimr) and practised seiðr. Whatever Snorri‟s reason may have been All other elements in his stories about the apart from to create a second tribe parallel to so-called Vanir family of gods can be the mythological-historical tribe of the Æsir, explained by this origin. his literary invention was a success. Although in the Middle Ages his creation was not taken The Vanir as Snorri’s Creation. up by other authors as far as we know, The necessities of the learned prehistory as modern scholarship has accepted the name expanded by Snorri for the Scandinavians as Vanir for Njǫrðr‟s family with such well as the laws (and possibilities) of dedication that I cannot find any criticism of medieval etymology allowed Snorri to this identification before Lotte Motz pointed develop a family of gods from quite meagre out the obvious faults in Snorri‟s assumptions. sources: the collective noun vanir became, However, I believe that these are not Snorri‟s with the help of the names Vanlandi und mistakes that we are dealing with here, but Vanaheimr, a tribe placed within the rather his deliberate creation. As a literary mythological prehistory of Scandinavia, name in medieval ON literature, we shall have which gained its standing as equal to the Æsir to live with the Vanir, because Snorri has (with their home in Asgarðr/Ásíáland) made them immortal. As an element of through these (supposed) place names. heathen Scandinavian religion however, we The kenning vana brúðr for Freyja alone should accept the vanir as a rare collective allowed him to create the members of this term, but bury the Vanir as a family of gods. family: if Freyja was Vana brúðr – a fact No Viking Age heathen Scandinavian, apart which, if the Vanir were placed in the from a handful of skalds interested in arcane Northeast, could be supported by her terminology, would have known what is supposed knowledge of seiðr – so Freyr and meant by vanir, and even these would not Njǫrðr must belong to them as well. The have known which gods to ascribe to a group relationship between Njǫrðr, Freyr and Freyja of them called Vanir. Whatever the as well as the tradition about their incestuous connecting link between the important gods marriages is most likely much older than Njǫrðr, Freyr and Freyja was, it was not the Snorri‟s invention of the family of the Vanir. name Vanir. The Vanir were not alive in The fact that Freyr is called vaningi (whatever heathen days, and as a figment of imagination that really means) in Skírnismál may have from the 13th to the 20th centuries, it is high helped Snorri‟s identification of the Vanir time to bury them now: May they rest in along the way, but this presupposes that peace.

Notes 5. Cf. Jan de Vries: Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte Vol. 1. Marold, Edith: „Die Skaldendichtung als Quelle der 2, 3rd ed. Berlin 1970, 2f; cf. Marold, „Skaldendichtung‟, Religionsgeschichte‟, Germanische Religionsgeschichte. 705. Quellen und Quellenprobleme. Ed. Heinrich Beck, Detlev 6. Marold, „Skaldendichtung‟, 705. Ellmers and Kurt Schier), Berlin, New York 1992, 685– 7. Marold, „Skaldendichtung‟; Folke Ström: „Poetry as an 719 (= Ergänzungsbände zum RGA. Bd. 5). instrument of propaganda‟, Speculum Norroenum. 2. Vg 63; Wolfgang Krause: Die Runeninschriften im älteren Odense 1981, 440–458. Futhark. Mit Beiträgen v. Herbert Jankuhn. I. Text; II. 8. Throughout this article, I shall distinguish the term vanir Tafeln. (Abhandlungen der Akademie der „gods‟ and the name Vanir for Snorri‟s “separate group or Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Philolog.-Histor. Klasse, 3. tribe of gods from the Æsir”. Folge, Nr. 65). Göttingen 1966, Nr. 67; Klaus Düwel: 9. It should be noted that a study of the alfar in the context of Runenkunde. 3rd ed., Stuttgart / Weimar 2001, 42. æsir and vanir is still missing – but this is not the place to 3. Vg 119; Düwel, Runenkunde, 42. go into the role of the alfar as well. 4. Cf. Marold, ‟Skaldendichtung ‟, 714–717. 10. See also the guarded remarks in Klaus von See et. al.: Kommentar zu den Liedern der Edda, Vol. 2, Heidelberg

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1997, 96f., where this is simply seen as a literary interesting Scandinavian variation of the theme, which alliterative formula of no religious consequence. links Trojan descendancy with heathen divine 11. Lotte Motz: The King, The Champion and The Sorcerer. genealogies. Vienna 1996 (= SMS 1), 103–124. 15. Andreas Heusler: Die gelehrte Urgeschichte im 12. Motz, The King, 123f. altisländischen Schrifttum. Berlin 1908, 6–12. 13. Anthony Faulkes (ed.): Snorri Sturluson. Edda. 16. Heusler, Gelehrte Urgeschichte, 13–27. Skáldkaparmá London 1998, 1, 18, gives the mss 17. Bjarni Aðalbjarnarson: Snorri Sturluson: Heimskringla 1, readings vagna (vanga W), but in view of the repetition Reykjavík 1941 (= Íslenzk Fornrit 26), 10–13. under Freyr‟s name only a few lines down, this seems to 18. Heinz Klingenberg: „Trór Thórr (Thor) wie Trōs Aeneas. be a scribal error only. Snorra Edda Prolog, Vergil Rezeption und Altisländische 14. The rich literature on this subject cannot be listed in the Gelehrte Urgeschichte‟. Alvíssmál 1 (1992), 17–54 [= space of a short article, but for further reading, see: Klingenberg, part 1]; Heinz Klingenberg: „Odin und die František Graus: „Troja und trojanische Herkunftssage im Seinen. Altisländischer Gelehrter Urgeschichte anderer Mittelalter‟, Kontinuität und Transformation der Antike Teil‟. Alvíssmál 2 (1993), 31–80 [= Klingenberg, part 2]; im Mittelalter. Veröffentlichung der Kongreßakten zum Heinz Klingenberg: „ Wanderzug nach Schweden. Freiburger Symposion des Mediävistenverbandes, ed. Altisländische Gelehrte Urgeschichte und mittelalterliche Willi Erzgräber, Sigmaringen 1989, 25–43; Michael Geographie‟, Alvíssmál 3 (1994), 19-42 [= Klingenberg, Borgolte: „Europas Geschichten und Troia. Der Mythos part 3]; Klingenberg [part 3]: § 28: “Gelehrte Wanen- im Mittelalter‟, Die deutsche Trojaliteratur des Etymologie – eine Eigenleistung Snorris, soweit ich Mittelalters und der Frühen Neuzeit. Materialien und sehe” (Odins Wanderzug nach Schweden, 33). Untersuchungen, ed. Horst Brunner, Wiesbaden 1990 19. Klingenberg [part 2]: „Odin und die Seinen‟, 48. (Wissensliteratur im Mittelalter. Schriften des 20. Heusler, Gelehrte Urgeschichte, 96–101. Sonderforschungsbereichs 226 Würzburg Eichstätt 3), 21. Thor Heyerdal and Per Lillieström: Jakten på Odin. På 190–203; Hartmut Kugler: „Das Eigene aus der Fremde. sporet av vår fortid. Oslo 2001. Über Herkunftssagen der Franken, Sachsen und Bayern‟, 22. Regino von Prüm: Chronicon, s.a. 889. Interregionalität der deutschen Literatur im 23. E.g. Adam of Bremen: Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae europäischen Mittelalter, ed. Hartmut Kugler, Berlin / pontificum IV, 20: “[...] paludes Scithicas vel Meoticas, New York 1995, 175–193; and, most recently, Beate sive deserta Getharum, aut litus Scithicum, quod Keller: Ursprung und Kontinuität. Studien zum Martianus ait confertum esse multiplici diversitate genealogischen Wissen im Mittelalter. München 2004. barbarorum. Illic, inquit, Gethae, Daci, Sarmatae, Alani, Most of these works, however, do not even mention the [...]”.

Visual Vocabulary, Visual Strategy Jill Bradley, Radboud University, Nijmegen

Societies and cultures are held together by embodiments of values and identities change forms of communication – spoken, written, with circumstances. It not a question of pictorial and performative – that are used in a historical basis for these beliefs, or even group‟s everyday life, social, commercial, whether they are truly believed, but it is the personal and ritual. The form of a cooking reciprocal relationship between society and its pot, the mode of dress and address, a and metaphors that is of essence. The thousand and one aspects of life reflect myths are both the product and reflection of a attitudes and ideas that we rarely think about. society, but also shapers of that society: while More abstract are those areas that deal with changing circumstances and new generations group identity, the shared past, shared views, shape the metaphors to suit the society in beliefs, aims and objectives, values and which they live, the myths and metaphors norms. These are often embedded in the have also contributed to making the society religion and/or myths of the group – the what it is. tradition, the „history‟, the sacred. It is in this It has been frequently remarked that the area that the most basic and essential ideas are myths and religions of many societies have expressed and usually given the patina of age the same elements, for example the sacrificed – „the unalterable and fundamental truth‟. god/king, the slaying of the monster/dragon, There is often an assumption that this is the visit to the realm of the dead, to mention unchanging, „it has always been so‟, but these just a few. This is hardly surprising since

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these are metaphors for good and evil, life and sources have been either the province of the death, renewal, reward and punishment. art historian or used, sometimes inaccurately, However, leaving aside the ethical and to „illustrate‟ a point made in written sources, philosophical discussions on whether such or simply inserted to make a book more abstractions have a „real‟ or absolute attractive. Historians have warned that images character, it is clear that various societies at cannot be regarded as reliable reflections of various times have their own interpretations the past because they often have symbolic of what constitutes good and evil, who should content. This is to deny their intrinsic value as be rewarded and who punished, and what conveyers of ideas: it is precisely this aspect their relationship with a divine entity or that has so much value. It has often been said entities should be. In trying to understand that there is no such thing as „medieval art‟, how people of another age felt, what they and rightly, if by this we mean „art‟ in the believed and experienced, it is less the basic modern romantic sense as the expression of elements of the stories than how they are individual ideas and emotions and as handled and where the emphases lie that tells something highly personal. Medieval us something of the mentality of the times. paintings, carvings, miniatures and sculptures Traditionally written sources have been are not the result of a „genius‟ giving form to used in historical research and are still his innermost thoughts and feelings, but rather regarded by many as the most reliable – they are the expressions of communal ideas, indeed the common usage of „history‟ and thoughts and experience. How far into society „prehistory‟ is based on the availability of such ideas reached and were accepted varies, written sources. Archeology, aided by the and we can see different treatments of a resources of modern physical and chemical subject for different publics. Likewise, the research, has reached a degree of acceptance, same subject can be treated differently but visual and oral sources are still regarded according to the effect that the makers wanted by many as suspect and unreliable, far too to have on a particular group. dependent on interpretation and mutability. In Trying to enter the „medieval mind‟ – in fact it is this that can make a very valuable itself a gross oversimplification – can never contribution to our understanding of the past. be achieved; we carry with us too much of our It is often forgotten that written sources own cultural and social baggage. Even if we change – we have only to look at the various deliberately set aside, as far as possible, our versions we have of an enormous number of own methods of thought, our own values and texts, including that most essential work for , and indeed our own hubris in trying to medievalists, the Bible. It is true that oral and think we can recreate the mind of another, we visual sources can make more overt use of are still driven in our research questions by emotive aspects, but written sources are the preoccupations of our own times. Our equally, if not more, open to manipulation: for concern for the quotidian past is a reflection any source we need to bear in mind the of the interests of today, as is the attention purpose for and circumstances under which it given to gender, marginality and mentality. came into being, for whom it was intended This is not to say that these are just academic and who brought it about. fashions, but more that each generation of My own concern is the use of visual researchers into the past spotlights a different sources while not denying the value of other aspect, approaches the past in a different way sources, for certainly in trying to understand and, perhaps through these approaches and the medieval mentalities – and I use the plural aspects and their historiography, we can hope emphatically – we need every source we can to gain a little more insight. We cannot hope find, especially if we are trying to understand to experience what someone from a thousand general ideas and not an elite culture. Visual or so years ago experienced, nor even to see

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what, and certainly not how, he saw. Middle Ages visual means were aimed at However, we can try to understand a little of making Bible stories, hagiography and what he thought, or what he was intended to doctrine real and immediate, they had to think, and in this images can give us valuable reflect not only the ideas that the Church clues. Images, however, are more than simply wished to propagate but also to make those representations: they are the conveyers of ideas comprehensible by giving them a form ideas. They have their own vocabulary and that could be recognised. In many cases this validity that is frequently complementary to involved building on an existing visual texts, sometimes confirming or contradicting vocabulary, but by giving visual and concrete them, but independent of them. Nor is the form to ideas and stories they acquired a vocabulary static or absolute, but varying with reality and a consequent validity. People saw society and changing through time. Just like with their own eyes the personages of words, images are used to broadcast a sermons and tales; they also saw the horrors message and must take into account the visual of hell and the wonders of heaven. To see vocabulary of the intended audience. such things, to identify with the figures There are several reasons for using images shown, was a powerful factor in belief. as an historical source: the first of these is that Abstractions were translated into concrete depictions almost always give an accepted forms and in the process of translation the view. Written sources, especially those of an idiom of the time had to be used. The educated elite, can give a limited or personal depictions of not only demons and devils but viewpoint or deal with matters that were felt also of Jews, demonstrates that the idea of unsuitable for, or not the concern of, the more physical deformity was thought to reflect general public. Illuminations were seen by the inner defects and can also give us an idea of literate, but not necessarily very learned, how the physically deformed were regarded. while the paintings and statues in churches, or In visual representations not only do at least some of these, were seen by the public particular attributes define the role of a figure, at large. It could be argued that such „public‟ but also the situation depicted, the angle of a works represent what the Church, or other head, a gesture and the arrangement of the patron, wanted to be seen (and believed), but composition all add to a particular expression such things are some of the few sources for of attitude and the relationships as they were popular piety and belief. A great deal can be perceived. learned about popular belief and custom by If we regard medieval painting and such things as statues of saints, frescos, sculpture as a form of semiotics, we have to reliefs, pilgrims‟ badges and other religious acknowledge that the normal relationship souvenirs, and these indicate an acceptance of between sender, message and receiver is what the Church taught. While it is true that asymmetrical. Usually little is known of the much had been suppressed, I think we can get immediate sender and often even less of the an idea of belief, popular and elite, from a receiver, the message itself is frequently careful and close examination of the various altered, damaged, incomplete or out of visual sources available to us. context, while the connection between A second important advantage of visual signifier and signified might have been lost or sources is they can reveal attitudes, ideas and obscured over time. Context is of vital customs that were taken for granted and importance, both the wider context of the receive little or no mention in learned written political, social, economic, religious and sources, just as today looking at intellectual worlds in which an image was advertisements, posters, and government made, but also the more immediate context of issued pamphlets can reveal a great deal about an iconographic programme and the way in society and its attitudes. If, as I believe, in the which it is placed. In the Beau Dieu portal of

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Notre Dame d‟Amiens, we see there are three When the metaphor changes, then a change of depictions of Christ, one above the other, each ideas is signalled. It is again only when we giving a different aspect. The closest to the consider a wide range of works that we can church-goer, both physically and see these aspects. Individual works can be psychologically, is Christ the teacher, with idiosyncratic, not reflecting a generally held Christ the sacrifice coming to judge above, idea – the more often we come across an idea and finally Christ pronouncing sentence on expressed in a particular way, the more we mankind. The divinity and the masculinity of can glimpse what people thought and how each image increases with distance, from the those thoughts took expression. If we consider human aspect of God as a caring and loving the crucifixions of the Sacramentary of teacher, to the sacrifice both human and Gellone and the Eisenheim altarpiece we can divine, to the all-divine Judge. The skill in see there is an enormous difference in the way placing the images, from identification to the the same subject is handled: one shows a very divinely incomprehensible power tells us masculine, triumphant and living Christ, the much about the message the Church was other the twisted, tortured dead body and the trying to put across here – a message that grief of the bystanders; in one the viewer is would be enormously impaired if we regard invited to share the triumph of God, in the the three images in isolation. This is other he is asked to share Christ‟s suffering. something that is frequently forgotten today However it is only when we consider other when we have excellent close-up works of the same period – and the photographs, spotlighting and reproductions. intervening periods – and see whether these What was the total effect? How much could differences are found in them and how they the man or woman hundreds of years ago grow and develop, that we can say the have seen? What was close and what was relationship between the Christian and Christ distant? What was invisible, but known to be has altered. In looking for clues we need to there? Only when we consider these questions acknowledge the strange, the odd, those can we begin to try to understand what was things that do not make (immediate) sense to being said, and in what terms. the twenty-first century mind, search for what Using images as historical sources means meaning they had for the people for whom letting go of ideas of aesthetic value and and by whom they were made, and to looking at them as means of communication, consider the enormous body of apocryphal, of propaganda even. We need to consider who pseudographical, hagiographical works and was responsible for the array of images, in exempla, now known only to scholars but what circumstances they were made and who which in former times were the stuff of tales, was the intended audience. The simplicity or legends and sermons. This is reciprocal: not complexity of a message was often dependent only can these texts sometimes explain the on for whom it was intended. There was no images, but the images show how people point in trying to convince the illiterate and/or visualised these things, what they found poorly educated with images that referred to important in the stories – and this can vary concepts of which they had no knowledge; if from place to place and period to period. In a they could not recognise the elements of the time when literacy rates were generally low, visual vocabulary then the message was and for a period for which we have so few wasted. Obviously people gradually became sources for popular culture and beliefs, aware of new elements and in this way images are an invaluable source as indicators images can also show how ideas spread and of what people were deemed to know and were accepted, how they were adapted for a believe. particular public and how they changed when These ideas are dealt with in more detail in the metaphor was no longer appropriate. the monograph You Shall Surely Not Die. The

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Concepts of Sin and Death as Expressed in Middle Ages, Katariina Mustakallio and the Manuscript Art of Northwestern Europe, Christian Krotzl (eds), Acta Instituti Romani c.800–1200 (Brill, Boston and Leiden, 2008, Finlandiae, vol. 36, Rome 2010 pp. 195–214), ISBN 978 90 04 16910 4). For those who and a briefer discussion of the accessibility of want a shorter example of the use of visual works to a medieval audience can be found in sources there is “Fraternal Rivalry and Moral “The Eye of the Beholder. Religious Art and Patronage” (in De Amicitia. Friendship ans its Medieval Audience” (Desipientia 14 Social Networks in the Antiquity and the [November 2007]: 28–33).

Listening to Poetry in a Dead Language: Could dróttkvætt Have Been Trochaic? Frog, University of Helsinki

The title of this contribution will probably be Sources for early Germanic poetry – and provocative to many of my contemporaries, skaldic poetry in particular – offer little or no raising a question which seems to have been indication for their voicing and exactly how largely forgotten. The intuitive and automatic metrical stress interacted with lexical stress negative response which the question and phrasal stress (cf. Gade 1994), thus we probably provokes is symptomatic of what we naturally approach them through the poetries think we know about a performance tradition and poetics of modern languages with which in a dead language – a tradition which we can we are familiar. Jaan Ross and Ilse Lehiste only access through the silence of texts (2001) found that modern native speakers of embodied in manuscripts. This is a problem Finnish and Estonian approached traditional characteristic of the degree to which the vernacular oral poetry according to this documented verbal facade of extant Old principle: they invariably asserted lexical Norse poetry dominates our field of vision, stress as metrical stress. However, in this case veiling the fact that these poetries were orally the readings can be compared to performed, and we must look beyond the documentations of performance in 19th and individual verbal elements that we parse and 20th century oral cultures from which they we interpret if we hope to hear these poetries collected. These reveal that the poetry was even as they may have been heard. My sung according to a consistent trochaic purpose here is not to answer the (probably rhythm, with rules governing the placement of irresolvable) question posed in the title, but stressed syllables within a troche according to rather to approach it from a new perspective. their quantity, long syllables occurring on the My strategy is a simple one: to approach (metrically stressed) lift and short syllables on dróttkvætt with an analogical comparison to the (metrically unstressed) fall, with a flexible Finnic (or Balto-Finnic) tetrameters recorded opening position. Thus in example (1), lexical predominantly in the 19th and 20th centuries, stress corresponds to metrical stress because then to briefly frame that comparison in the the first metrical position is not governed by evolution of Old Norse poetics. Finally I will quantity constraints and the stressed syllables return momentarily to the Finnic analogy and of vanha Väinämöinen are long, whereas in the possibility that the quantity-based example (2) lexical stress contrasts with distribution of stressed syllables could have metrical stress because the stressed syllables been an areal feature. This overview is both of iän ikuinen are short, although the „sense‟ swift and brief owing to limitations of space, of lexical stress clearly remained relevant for passing over many issues which merit the accomplishment of alliteration (metrically detailed discussion. stressed positions underlined):

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(1) 'Va-ka 'van-ha 'Väi-nä-möi-nen, Árnason 1991: 169–172.) It implies a fluid „Steady old Väinämöinen‟ continuity in articulating syllables in performance, according to which transitions (2) 'Tie-tä-jä 'i-än 'i-kui-nen between syllables of adjacent words were not „Sage, of age eternal‟ articulated more clearly than transitions between syllables within a single word, much Ross and Lehiste (2001: 116) suggest that, as Matti Sadeniemi observed that the “[i]f we did not have authentic sung folksongs rhythmic-melodic performance template, in the Kalevala metre, we might not be able to according to which the Finnic trochaic reconstruct the position of metrical stress.” tetrameter was conditioned and performed, This suggestion should give us pause when leveled the stress patterns of spoken language considering poetries in dead languages: the and the relative significance of syllables range of assumptions which we import into a within a line: reading of a written text may not accord with the sensitivities of the original poets and their [...] for a listener who does not know the audiences, and although Modern Icelandic, language, it is impossible to observe the for example, is very close to Old Norse, a difference between the line-types vaka quantity shift in the language eventually vanha Väinämöinen and tietäjä iänikuinen; both are sung with the same ictus positions. nullified differentiations of quantity in However, it is precisely the use of stressed syllables essential to dróttkvætt and alliteration which indicates that the root related meters (Kristján Árnason 1991: 171– words play an important role in the 172). In other words, it was based on a formulation of the sung line. (Sadeniemi sensitivity foreign to the later language, and 1951: 95.) as such is difficult or unlikely to be „heard‟ by a later speaker – outside of the analysis of Like dróttkvætt, this is essentially syllabic unvoiced written forms or as an intellectual verse, and Sademiemi‟s observation should be exercise. recognized as a warning against the overhasty The identification of lexical stress with assumption that the lexical or sentence stress metrical stress provided the foundation for of spoken language will correlate with the Sievers‟ (1893) scansion of Germanic four- distribution of stressed positions in footed meters (such as the Old Norse eddic performance, and especially the assumption meter fornyrðislag). Sievers‟ typologies have that e.g. alliterating syllables necessarily drawn increasing criticism across recent receive metrical stress in performance. It years, and the relevance of his analysis of should also be pointed out that the rhythmic- Germanic tetrameters to dróttkvætt, with its melodic template holds centrality in the six-syllable lines, is highly questionable. Finnic alliterative tetrameters, and the Kristján Árnason has drawn attention to primacy of that template in performance evidence of „cohesion‟ in dróttkvætt and other results in a regular statistical deviation from skaldic meters but not found in eddic meters. the ideal, rule-governed distribution of the „Cohesion‟ describes the phenomenon by quantity of stressed syllables in relation to which adjacent syllables of separate words metrical position, even in the most could effectively share phonemes, allowing a conservative regions and among the most light syllable to function as a heavy syllable skilled poets – e.g. the famed 19th century by assimilating the onset of the following Arhippa Perttunen exhibits deviation in ca. word. Cohesion could only be realized in the 2.7% of the thousands of lines of verse articulation of performance and is indicative recorded from him (Sadeniemi 1951). The of a different manner of voicing and Finnic traditions were also widely recorded, articulating dróttkvætt poetry. (Kristján revealing that conventions are localized and

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exhibit clear regional patterns rather than The most common type is presented in (3) being unified. The meter is most rigorously and seems to have a naturally trochaic syllabic in the northern regions of Karelia trimetric rhythm, whereas the strengths of the (close to the White Sea), with flexibility second and third positions are inverted in (4), constrained to the opening metrical position making a trimetric reading problematic. A of the line, and, passing through regions to the third, infrequent line type is: south, the number of positions exhibiting flexibility in the number of syllables (5) 1 2 3 4 5 6 increases, penetrating from the second troche W S S W S W even into the third in Estonian regivärss, and reaching a degree of flexibility among the Lines of this type give the impression of Setu that leaves its relationship to northern being trimetric, but consisting of an iamb forms of the common meter difficult to followed by two troches. Tomas Riad (2009) recognize. (Frog & Stepanova in press.) has argued that a characteristic of Germanic However the conventional degrees of poetry is flexibility in where stress falls flexibility and ranges of variation are within a metrical foot. This would justify the explained, the essential tetrametric rhythmic inversion of a troche to an iamb in an template, with four metrical feet to a line, otherwise regular tetrametric meter if such a nonetheless remains recognizable across these rule were relevant to dróttkvætt. However, singing traditions. this explanation is not satisfying for (4) in Dróttkvætt is a not a tetrameter; most which an identification of a lexically strong probably it was a triameter, with three position with metrical stress presents an metrical feet to a line. A line is comprised of opening foot of one syllable followed by a six syllables, and following Kristján dactyl and a troche – which might not seem Árnason‟s (1991) analysis, it can be described significant in light of other early Germanic as consisting of three (quantitatively) „strong‟ stress-based meters were it not for the fact and three „weak‟ positions. Each of these is that the six-position structure is consistently characteristically filled by a heavy or a light maintained as essentially syllabic. The syllable, respectively, with certain rule- maintenance of the six-position structure governed ranges of variation (e.g. characterizes the rhythm of dróttkvætt with „resolution‟, which allows two light syllables very limited flexibility, much as in the Finnic to function metrically as a heavy syllable in a tetrameter, and variation related to, for strong position). Lines are characterized by a example, syllabic quantity, appear heavy penultimate syllable followed by a light subordinated to the six-position structure. syllable, which gives the impression of a This implies that lines were composed and troche. This is consistently preceded by a performed according to a consistent rhythmic- weak as the fourth position in the line, which melodic structure of six-positions (or set resonates with formulae in dróttkvætt which I thereof), suggesting that the rhythmic-melodic have outlined elsewhere (Frog 2009: 233– template associated with oral performance 236). The majority of dróttkvætt lines can be could take precedence over the patterning of described according to the following types strong and weak positions in a line. If this (S=strong position, W=weak position): were the case, it presents the possibility that not every line should be statistically expected (3) 1 2 3 4 5 6 to easily resolve into a distribution of six S W S W S W strong and weak positions, as in the Finnic tetrameter – i.e. a certain degree of metrical (4) 1 2 3 4 5 6 irregularity may have been normal rather than S S W W S W evidence of „corrupt‟ texts.

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The statistical predominance of the feature to which poets and audiences alternating pattern of strong and weak remained sensitive even where the mode of positions in (3) implies that this pattern was performance blurred the boundaries between most well-suited to the rhythmic-melodic syllables, making it necessary to integrate it template. As in Finnic poetries, the syllabic into an (essentially) syllabic dróttkvætt meter. constraints increase further into the line, This would correspond to the phenomenon insofar as the final three positions are regular, discussed by Kristján Árnason (in press) of after which the first position in the line the continued integration of alliteration into appears the least likely to vary. This implies assimilated and emerging meters throughout that the first position was weighted with the history of Icelandic poetics. corresponding metrical stress – which would This hypothesis is highly speculative. not be surprising in a language with initial However, a trochaic rhythm emerges quite stress. The second metrical position appears clearly in the tetrametric hrynhent (also the most flexible, as the „strength‟ of this exhibiting cohesion) which appears to have position can be exchanged with either the been made up in part as an alternative to the following position (4) or the one preceding it (presumably) trimetric dróttkvætt (Kristján (5) (cf. Frog 2009: 238–242). If, as in the Árnason 1991: 84–86). Kristján Árnason Finnic tradition, lines of different types could (1991: 149–150) points out that hrynhent be performed according to common rhythmic- exhibits (less frequently) the same inversion melodic templates similar to (3), it implies of strong and weak in the second and third that a strong in the initial position of the line positions in the line as in (4). If hrynhent was allowed a strong immediately following it in performed according to a trochaic rhythmic- rhythmic-melodic position to be metrically melodic template, that template and the unstressed, balanced by a weak in the third, sensitivity to balancing strong and weak stressed position (4). Similarly, an opening positions within it would seem to have been „weak‟ position would assume (dramatic or anticipated by dróttkvætt (whatever other rhetorically compelling) exceptional weight, models are proposed for it). Similarly, Kari but the redistribution of strongs and weaks in Gade‟s (1995: 244) observation that the poet (5) does not appear explicable according to a of Pétrsdrápa aspired to a fully trochaic simple sequential relationship to the rhythm in dróttkvætt “oblivious” to preceding position, but rather to maintaining a conventions of syllabic quantity may not balanced distribution of strong and weak reflect changes in the rhythmic-melodic positions in the line, as discussed by Kristján templates of performance, but rather a waning Árnason. This balancing of strong and weak significance of or sensitivity to the metricality positions indicates a sensitivity to the of syllabic quantity within the meter differentiation and deployment of syllabic subordinated to that template. Potential signs quantities within the rhythmic-melodic of corresponding quantity-based phenomena template which also maintained relevance and are also in early rímur poetry, implying that it currency for stress-based eddic meters. did retain relevance and continued to be However, this does not necessarily mean that integrated into new meters, but the quantity a balanced deployment of these positions shift in the language nullified the relevant necessarily corresponded to the stress-patterns differentiations of quantity (Kristján Árnason of the rhythmic-melodic template – it only 1991: 171–172), following which such indicates their significance to the poetic rhythms could no longer be maintained. aesthetic. In other words, the general Comparison with the Finnic tetrameters significance of distributions of strong and above have been considered as merely weak positions in Germanic poetry may have analogical – as informative of the established this as a centrally valued aesthetic potentialities of a poetic system in the

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rhythms of performance. However, it may not parallels in four-footed meters, alliteration, be wholly accidental that two adjacent and basic principles of epic presentation. linguistic-cultural groups exhibit trochaic Whether or not this hypothesis can be proven, meters with rules governing the quantity- it raises interesting questions concerning the based distribution of stressed syllables, even presuppositions we import into a medieval if the rules themselves are not identical. The text, and the rich, dynamic cultural history to long history of cultural contact in the Circum- which it may belong. Baltic is reflected in a broad range of patterns of linguistic interference, such as the isogloss Acknowledgement: I would like to thank Debbie Potts of initial stress, which emerged in the for her comments in preparing this contribution for Germanic languages while probably going publication. back to the Finno-Ugric cultural heritage in Works Cited Finnic languages (Koptjevskaja-Tamm & Frog. 2009. “Speech-Acts in Skaldic Verse: Genre, Wälchli 2001: 638–640), as well as the Formula and Improvisation”. In Versatility in corresponding aesthetic priority of alliteration Versification: Multidisciplinary Approaches to in Finnic and Germanic poetics, which does Metrics. Ed. Tonya Kim Dewey & Frog. Berkeley not appear attributable to either a Finno-Ugric Insights in Linguistics and Semiotics 74. New York: Peter Lang. Pp. 223–246. or Indo-European heritage (Roper 2009: 90– Frog. 2010. Baldr and Lemminkäinen: Approaching 93; Frog & Stepanova in press). Such the Evolution of Mythological Narrative through isoglosses can potentially be extended to the the Activating Power of Expression; A Case Study traditions of short, terse epic narrative in Germanic and Finno-Karelian Cultural Contact strategies resulting in the roughly and Exchange. PhD dissertation, London: University College London. corresponding length of epics in Norse, Finnic Frog. Forthcoming. “Circum-Baltic Mythology? – The and Slavic traditions – in contrast to Homeric Theft of the Thunder-Instrument (ATU 1148B)”. In epic, Beowulf or Heliand (cf. Frog 2010: 235) Baltic Worldview: From Mythology to Folklore. Ed. – as well as evidence of exchange of Joseph Harris & . Vilnius. mythological conceptions and narrative Frog & Eila Stepanova. In press. “Alliteration in (Balto-) Fennic Languages”. In Alliteration and material. Such general patterns of stimulation, Culture. Ed. Jonathan Roper. Houndmills: Palgrave interference and exchange appear to be a MacMillan. function of a protracted history of ongoing Gade, Kari Ellen. 1994. “On the Recitation of Old contact between adjacent cultures and should Norse Skaldic Poetry”. Studien zum not be over-simplified to „borrowing‟. (Frog Altgermanischen: Festschrift für Heinrich Beck. Ed. . Ergänzungsbände zum forthcoming.) Although the scope is very Reallexikon der germanischen Altertümskunde 11. different when considering thousands of years Berlin: de Gruyter. Pp. 126–51. of contact and interaction between cultures, Gade, Kari Ellen. 1995. The Structure of Old Norse and the types of interference which could dróttkvætt Poetry. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. underlie these patterns are rarely explored, Kristján Árnason. 1991. The Rhythms of dróttkvætt and Other Old Icelandic Metres. they might considered akin to the kind of Reykjavík: University of Iceland, Institute of interference suggested for balancing strong Linguistics. and weak positions in dróttkvætt or the Kristján Árnason. In press. “Alliteration in Iceland: integration of alliteration into different meters From the Edda to Modern Verse and Pop Lyrics”. across the history of Icelandic poetics – In Alliteration and Culture. Ed. Jonathan Roper. Houndmills: Palgrave MacMillan. because the aesthetics were assessed in Riad, Tomas. 2009. “Accents Left and Right”. In relation to other poetry and poetics with Versatility in Versification: Multidisciplinary which individuals naturally brought them into Approaches to Metrics. Ed. Tonya Kim Dewey & comparison. In this case, of course, the Frog. Berkeley Insights in Linguistics and similarities could be wholly coincidental, but Semiotics 74. New York: Peter Lang. Pp. 123–146. they would fall into the same basket with

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Ross, Jaan, & Ilse Lehiste. 2001. The Temporal Sadeniemi, Matti. 1951. Die Metrik des Kalevala- Structure of Estonian Runic Songs. Phonology and Verses. FF Communications 139. Helsinki: Phonetics 1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. Sievers, Eduard. 1893. Altgermanische Metrik. Halle: Niemeyer.

Old Norse Folklorist Network Daniel Sävborg, University of Tartu, and Karen Bek-Pedersen, University of Aberdeen

The Purpose of the Network solving problems concerned with the use of The network aims to bring together scholars: late sources in Old Norse studies, the purpose of the network partly coincides with the  who are interested in using folklore purpose of the Retrospective Methods theories and methods in their Old Norse Network. The conference in Bergen in 2010 research. also gave rise to the idea of this network. The  who want to use the late recorded precursor is more generally focused on the legends, folktales, poems and other issue of retrospective studies, not specifically folklore to interpret and illuminate the folklore, and its emphasis is heavily on Old Norse texts and conditions. developing methodology, rather than on  who want to use the Old Norse source specific issues. The Old Norse Folkloristic material in studies of later-day folklore. Network is not a competitor but a  who want to examine traditions, stories, complement to its precursor. poems and beliefs in Northern Europe The network comprises both scholars who over a long period and take into account have their fundamental roots in Old Norse both the Old Norse material and later philology and scholars with their basic roots traditions and records. in folkloristics. The only essential condition is that the scholar has an interest in combining Background the fields. Both post-doctoral scholars and During the 20th Century Old Norse philology doctoral students are welcome. has been strongly textually oriented. This is especially evident in saga scholarship, where Suggestions for Some Themes for the the book-prose ideology of “The Icelandic Activities of the Network School” made the issue of the origin of I. Meeting the Other World in the saga individual sagas into an issue of direct literature. influences from other written works. The focus has had methodological advantages by  Are there at this point general patterns reducing the scope for unwarranted and homogenous tendencies in the assumptions and speculative reconstruction. alleged saga genres Íslendingasögur and But, it has also meant that folkloristic fornaldarsögur? Are there differences knowledge and methods have been neglected. between these groups, as several scholars Scholars have generally failed to take account claim? If so, what sort of differences are of the extensive material of later records of there and how can they be explained? Are folk belief and folklore. An important purpose there at this point chronological of the network is to emphasize the relevance differences in Norse literature, e.g. of these methods and sources for Old Norse between (presumably old) Eddic poetry studies and through discussion try to solve the and High Medieval saga literature or problems inherent in this. In the aim of

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between the classical and the post- of the fornaldarsögur? Is there as a classical Íslendingasögur? distinction at all between and giants  Are Sage and Märchen useful concepts in the saga literature and in later tradition here, and is the distinction between them (legends and folktales)? (as Max Lüthi has described it), relevant  The conception of the haugbúar? Is the for the understanding of tendencies and terrible and evil haugbúi of the sagas and differences in the saga literature, as some the farm-protecting haugbúi (mostly scholars recently have claimed? related to the gårdstomte) in later  How much of the supernatural elements Norwegian and Orkney (hogboon) did the authors and audiences of the sagas tradition the same thing at all? Or is only believe in? Cf. Ármann Jakobsson‟s and the term the same? How are the haugbúar Vésteinn Ólason‟s different opinions on that are mentioned in the Norwegian laws this point in the case of Bárðar saga related to these (possibly different) types? Snæfellsáss. Is this question of  The conception of ? In the Edda importance at all for the interpretation of elves are a kind of god, but in modern the saga literature? Is it of importance for Icelandic folklore they are small invisible the standard distinctions between beings in the hills, and elves in Swedish classical and post-classical sagas? In folklore are even more different. Do they precisely this case the issue of belief have the same origin at all? How could contra non-belief in the supernatural the change be explained? Is it possible to elements has been seen as a demarcation reconstruct the conception of elves using criterion by e.g. Vésteinn Ólason. How later traditions? strong are the arguments for this opinion?  Wolves, witches and werewolves in Old Norse literature, courtly poetry and later II. How much continuity is there between the folklore – how are these traditions Icelandic sagas and later folklore? related? Which is the origin of the tales about these creatures and to what extent  An example could be the conception of have the different traditions and genres trolls. A starting point for discussion can influenced each other? be Ármann Jakobsson‟s article in Saga och sed, which examines the relevant III. Are “saga-like” phenomena in later cases of the sagas but doesn‟t take the recorded folk tradition independent of the folkloristic aspect into account. The contemporary learned literature with its article raises several critical and knowledge about the medieval saga literature? fundamentally important issues. Or are folk legends and folk belief, on the  Can we interpret the beliefs and contrary, strongly influenced by the learned conceptions about trolls of the medieval literature and by written versions of the saga authors from later traditions (in folk Icelandic sagas? Are the elements connecting tales and folk legends) about trolls? the Old Norse tradition with the late recorded  How are the concepts of trolls and giants folklore in fact fakelore? How can we related to each other? In Old Norse distinguish them from each other? Is it at all tradition and in later folklore? How are legitimate to make such a distinction? Even the wise giants of the Edda, whose folklore of a learned origin lives on, after all, women were the most beautiful and in folk tradition. became the wives of the gods, related to the giants of the folktales and folk  Is the tradition of Grotti Finnie and legends? How are the giants of these Lucky Minni in Orkney folklore an old traditions related to the trolls and giants tradition of the same roots as the tradition

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of the mill Grotti and giantess Fenja and with Odin? Or is this legend created Menja? In that case these legends and the entirely in late, Christian times, when Old Norse Grottasöngr would be entirely gods become pure „fairy tale‟-characters? independent versions of the same old  Is this a parallel to those mythological Grotti tale. Or have legends about Grotti tales of the Norse literature which cannot Finnie and Lucky Minni arisen under the be found elsewhere, such as the story of influence of translations of the Edda and Þrymskviða or as Snorri‟s description of the learned literature on Grotti, Fenja and Thor‟s trip to Útgarðaloki? Menja?  The Ætternisstapi in , These are only proposals to begin with. We which was translated into Swedish in look forward to comments and more 1664, is usually claimed to have given proposals! When the plans for the first rise to all the Swedish folk legends and meeting have become more concrete the local traditions of ättestupor. At least the topics will be more specified on the basis of term has almost certainly come from the other ideas and comments. translation of Gautreks saga, a fact that in turn gives interesting information about The Activity of the Network how quickly a motif in learned literature It seems natural to begin the activities as soon can be spread far and wide and go deep as possible. Right now, we are preparing a into the oral folk tradition. But is the number of applications to primarily Nordic, motif of the ättestupa (apart from the Swedish and Estonian funds. Ideas about word itself) in the Swedish folk legends funding from e.g. Danish, Icelandic, also borrowed from the learned literature Norwegian, British, American or EU funds or may it have old roots, independent of will be received with gratitude! the learned literature? Several foundations are generous with  Are local legends and traditions in funding for initiating research, international Iceland on certain sites about saga heroes networking and “exploratory workshops”. genuine unbroken oral tradition from the These funds also have the purpose of Middle Ages, or are the traditions/legends cooperation between scholars from several influenced by the late saga editions? And countries, why we are not as bound by if so: to what extent? national funds. Therefore we have put emphasis on this initially. This activity will IV. Can late recorded folklore give us mean a fairly intensive discussion in a smaller information about ancient myths and group, rather than traditional lectures to a traditions of pagan gods and of the wider audience with the accompanying supernatural / fantastic beings that are not question and answer session. Since our mentioned in the sagas and otherwise would network, and in a sense our approach, is fairly be lost to us? Or are we dealing with new, it seems to be an advantage to give traditions of late origin? priority to the discussion between active scholars rather than to individual  An example is the extensive folk legend presentations and a more passive listening to complex in Scandinavia about Odin‟s the presentations of completed projects. It wild hunt and Odin as a skogsrå hunter. should be possible to get funds for these kinds Is there a tradition that goes back to of workshops or networking meetings already medieval / ancient time and to genuine during the spring. We hope to welcome you Odin traditions, even though the all to Tartu in 2011! It usually takes more ancient/medieval literature doesn‟t time to get funds for conferences, and the mention anything like this in connection foundations are often nationally oriented. It

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requires more planning, but it is likely that we Foundation. For more information on this may have a conference in 2012. That network, please contact: conference can also invite people from outside the network and be open to a wider Daniel Sävborg audience to attend. Again, the Department of Professor of Scandinavian Studies Scandinavian Studies will be happy to host University of Tartu this event. Folklore studies has a strong [email protected] position at Tartu University and there are good opportunities to make new contacts and or collaborations. In the first phase we are applying for Karen Bek-Pedersen funding from the Riksbankens jubileumsfond, Lecturer in Early Scandinavian Studies Nordforsk, Nordiska ministerrådet, NOS-HS, University of Aberdeen Eesti Teadusfond / Estonian Science [email protected] Foundation and European Science

Conference Report: Jubilee Seminar for the Opening of the Runosong Academy 8.–10.10.2010, Kuhmo, Riikka Nevalainen, Runosong Academy

The Juminkeko Foundation established a folk directed towards methodological development music research center, the Runosong and raising the level of research. Preservation Academy (Runolaulu-Akatemia), on the 10th work of the endangered tradition includes of October 2010. The International Jubilee collecting materials and developing and Seminar for the opening of the new center maintaining archives. In connection with this, was held on 8.–10.10 in Kuhmo, Finland. revitalization of the runosong culture is The founding of the Runosong Academy is carried out in villages of Viena Karelia, a direct of the work and Russia, and in the region of Kainuu, Finland. collection-oriented research which the Juminkeko Foundation has undertaken in the Kainuu region and Viena Karelia for more than two decades. Juminkeko‟s objectives include the preservation of Kalevalaic traditions and culture, and international cultural exchange on these subjects, especially between Finland and the Republic of Karelia. The Runosong Academy‟s main interest is focused on the oldest regional singing tradition, runosong, which lies at the foundation of the kalevalaic tradition and forms a common root of Finnish and Karelian cultural heritage. The Runosong Academy‟s activities can be divided into three main categories; research, preservation and revitalization. Research into the Balto-Finnic song and singing traditions Runosong Academy Director Pekka Huttu-Hiltunen in general and runosong in particular is giving the opening words. Photo by Klaus von Matt.

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Presentations were in Finnish, Russian and English, with the simultaneous translation of all papers (as well as the questions and comments of the following discussion) into the other languages in order to insure mutual understanding across such a wide range of scholars. Approaches to the topics were interdisciplinary. Runosong and singing as well as the kantele were tackled from several subject areas and research traditions, including ethnomusicology, cultural studies and linguistics. The first part of the seminar was dedicated to analyzing the communicativeness and Seminar audience. From front: Director Pekka Huttu- content of different song and singing Hiltunen, Professor Pekka Suutari, Andreas Kalkun, traditions in Finno-Ugric and Gaelic Mari Sarv. Photo by Klaus von Matt. traditions, and in more recent Nordic history. Approaches included the analysis of the Revitalization also entails the development of compositional units in poetry and metrics in pedagogical materials and methods, including folklore, analyses of different types of the training of doctoral students. improvisation, the singer‟s role in The themes of the seminar were “Song and performance and the role of the performance Singing as a Cultural Communication” and context, the interconnectedness of story, “Ontrei Malinen‟s kantele” (the traditional remembrance, and melody as well as two harp). The first title also refers to the addresses of wedding traditions of different Runosong Academy‟s new research project, cultures from the perspective of funded by the Academy of Finland, which communicative functions. Concepts and will be implemented in collaboration with the methodological questions related to the University of Tampere (Department of Music analysis of narrative material and to the Anthropology). archaic content in Finno-Ugric traditions were The twenty-four speakers and numerous tackled in the keynote presentations of participants of the seminar were researchers Professor Jarkko Niemi and Professor Tamara and specialists from the diverse universities Krasnopolskaya in particular. Critical and research institutes of seven countries. approaches to the archive materials and the Keynote presentations were given by Dr. John history of runosong research in Setumaa and Shaw from the , Karelia were offered by Janika Oras, Andreas , , with the paper, Kalkun, Liudmila Ivanova and Maari “What do Songs and Singing Reveal in the Kallberg. Elina Niiranen offered a cultural Gaelic Culture?”, Professor Tamara approach to the change of song repertory in Krasnopolskaja from Petrozavodsk State Viena Karelia in a historical context, and Conservatory, Republic of Karelia, Russian Professor Pekka Suutari focused on the Federation, speaking on “Laments as a Form contemporary musical scene of Petrozavodsk of Cultural Communication”, Professor and the questions of identity and possession Jarkko Niemi from University of Tampere, related to cultural heritage. The possibilities Finland, discussing “Narrative Singing opened by applying analytic methods with Traditions of the Nenets”, and Professor new technologies to songs and interpretations emeritus Heikki Laitinen from Sibelius of communicative characteristics were Academy, Finland, who presented his paper introduced by Svetlana Kosyreva. Three entitled “Kantele” with great energy.

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presentations focused on Karelian yoik traditions, and two on folklore and song genres in Karelian Pomor‟e. Professor emeritus Heikki Laitinen‟s keynote speech on the kantele opened the second half of the seminar and its second theme. His approach to the kantele was cultural-historical, while Timo Väänänen‟s presentation introduced a new cross-cultural project focusing on manifestations of the family of instruments related to the kantele in different cultures. Rauno Nieminen also offered perspectives on researching the Professor emeritus Heikki Laitinen discussing the kantele (the traditional harp) as an object in material instrument through construction and culture and as an image in both traditional and modern reconstruction. culture. Photo by Klaus von Matt. Treating and discussing the seminar‟s topics as multifaceted cultural phenomena development work are collaboration between was a good reflection of the Runosong educational institutions and international Academy‟s extensive research field, and its meetings of specialists that are put into promotion of interdisciplinary approaches and practice in seminars arranged once or twice the further development of methods and each year. analytical tools. Both themes of the jubilee The program seminar program is available seminar will find their continuation in the at: www.runolaulu.fi/perustamisseminaari. international research projects that begin early Papers from the seminar will be published next year. early in 2011 in the Runosong Academy‟s Central in the Runosong Academy‟s seminar publication series. research work and methodological

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People

Presentations and Publications

Many Layers in the Medieval Laws of Scandinavia? The Possibility of Using Retrospective Methods When Analysing Early Laws Stefan Brink, University of Aberdeen

Paper presented at New Focus on Retrospective Methods, organized by the Retrospective Methods Network in cooperation with the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 13–14 September 2010.

Before ca. 1960 the Scandinavian provincial flirting with, the paradigm called the laws were uncritically used as sources for an Urgermanische Recht, and thus the idea of a early Scandinavian society, even a Viking common Urrecht for . This Age – sometimes even older! – society. After „cleansing‟ of the research field has been a this, with the settlement of romantic and necessity and has had a great impact. It is now uncritical approaches to sagas and laws, time to go forward, and to ask diachronic peaking in the 1950‟s and 60‟s, first by questions again about the laws. I have been German then Scandinavian scholars, a working with a couple of Scandinavian common stance became that the laws mirrored provincial laws for some time, and found society at the time when they were written interesting aspects in them that I assume down (hence mainly the 13th and 14th represent different layers in the laws and that centuries). The new focus in research was to may be the result of older and newer laws find common features with continental laws, edited together. I will in my paper present to see the Scandinavian laws in a European some cases where it may be discussed context. To analyze the laws retrospectively, whether we can suppose layers of different to use the laws looking back, and to discuss age in some medieval Scandinavian them within a Germanic context, became very provincial laws, and thus approach them using unfashionable, especially since you then retrospective methods. could be accused of subscribing to, or at least

The Continuity, Evolution and Transformation of Myth: The Curious Case of Þrymsqviða Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at New Focus on Retrospective Methods, organized by the Retrospective Methods Network in cooperation with the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 13–14 September 2010.

This paper investigates what types of insights narrative content. There is a striking certain traditions which are recorded as late as discontinuity in its verbal and potentially the 19th and 20th centuries can offer into the intertextually referential relationships to other curious eddic poem Þrymsqviða. Þrymsqviða poems and to Þórr-traditions recorded in has long been the center of debate owing to a medieval Iceland, as opposed to the complete number of peculiarities variously on the levels lack of references to the poem or its narrative of poetic form, narrative strategy and „events‟ in other early sources. This paper

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offers an overview of these peculiarities, 1148b are associated with aetiologies and drawing particular attention to indications that belief traditions related to rain, drought, the the poem exhibits a broad range of strategies adversary‟s fear of thunder, and/or the that appear to be unconventional for other hostility between thunder and the adversary. eddic poetry, such as poetic features which Þrymsqviða is the only of these traditions in are nearer later poetic traditions, or strategies which the god‟s role remains subordinated to unconventional for early presentations of other figures and it exhibits no connection mythology, such as referring to the god between Þórr‟s hammer and thunder, rain, as both one of the Æsir and lightning, or as an object feared by giants (uniquely) one of the Vanir in parallel lines (who do not fear the thunder of Þórr‟s chariot (stanza 15), or the peculiar description of the and agree to return the hammer after the necklace of the mythic Brísings bursting as no wedding). When Þrymsqviða is situated more than a vivid expression of Freyja‟s between the Circum-Baltic tradition of ATU anger – a motif which in the vital 1148b and the later popularity which the mythological system would have constituted a Þrymsqviða narrative found in a Christian cosmological event. Although individual cultural milieu, it appears that Þrymsqviða elements of the narrative are broadly was a burlesque of traditional mythological traditional, their uses often contrast with material oriented to a Christian audience and conventional expectations, such as most probably composed in Iceland in a expressions of Þórr‟s power and might with period very near to that when it was written his appearance in a wedding dress. down. The lack of early evidence for this Eddic poetry is conventionally considered narrative contrasts sharply with its later to have gone largely or wholly extinct as an popularity in a Christian cultural milieu, oral tradition by the end of the 13th century, where it was translated into the rímur whereas rímur poetry is considered to have tradition (one of three known mythological emerged in the 14th century. When these two narratives, all burlesques) and into the only hypotheses are juxtaposed, it implies that mythological ballad. At the same time, there was a period of a few decades to several Þrymsqviða belongs to the tradition known as centuries during which there was no tradition tale-type ATU 1148b, „The Theft of the of oral narrative poetry in Iceland – for the Thunder-Instrument‟, found across both only time in over 1,000 years of its history. Finno-Ugric (Finnic, Sámic) and Indo- Unusual compositional features of European (Germanic, Baltic) cultures. ATU Þrymsqviða, which set it apart from the eddic 1148b was otherwise recorded in the Circum- corpus, anticipate the later rímur tradition and Baltic across the 19th and 20th centuries (and in some cases might even be described as one example form 5th century Greece). It „experimental‟. Rather than assuming the clearly forms a coherent system in the death of eddic poetry, Þrymsqviða may be an Circum-Baltic, of which Þrymsqviða forms an example of a „new‟ poetry, a song of an independent branch. Comparison reveals a emerging or transitional genre, and evidence high probability that there was another of the evolution of the cultural activity of tradition of ATU 1148b current in Germanic poetry in Iceland in the mid- to late-13th culture, associated with Þórr‟s visit to the century. giant Geirrøðr. Other traditions of ATU

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Narratiiv kui ravi: Riituse-etendus ja narratiivi aktualiseerumine kogemusena [‘Narrative as the Cure: Rite Performance and Actualizing Narrative as Experience’] Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper published in Mäetagused 45 (2010): 7–38 (http://www.folklore.ee/tagused/nr45/frog.pdf). [Estonian with summary in English]

This paper addresses theoretical issues of of the tietäjä are approached as a synthesis of narrative in an attempt to approach the an early cultural , which can be semantics of understanding underlying the described as „shamanistic‟, and models which performance of certain healing rites. The first appear to have been introduced predominantly section of the paper introduces the term through Germanic culture in which narrative power to refer to the cultural load incantation performance (rather than soul developed by narratives and narrative journeys) provided a primary means of strategies and develops a framework for interacting with the unseen world. The paper approaching healing rite performance as the approaches conceptual foundations for how application of strategies which actualize these various magical practices were narrative as experience. The Finno-Karelian understood to work by the ritual specialists tietäjä tradition is discussed in relation to who employed them. These comparisons offer shamanic rite performance and memorized the possibility of insights into how narrative traditions of incantations, particularly those power may play a role in shaping the which incorporate historiolae. The traditions evolution of a tradition over time.

Who the Devil is Phil? – The Problem of Baldr in the Second Merseburg Charm yet again Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at the 45th International Congress on Medieval Studies organized by the Medieval Institute of Western Michigan Universitym May 13–16, 2010, Kalamazoo, Michigan, U.S.A.

The typographical error of “Phil” for “Phol” god. No other name for Baldr has been in the conference program led me to uncover preserved. The first half-line of the SMC, to the “Phil” of the Second Merseburg Charm which balder refers back, is „Phol and (SMC), giving rise to a slightly more complex Wodan‟. If this development toward paper than originally proposed. The SMC has exclusivity were widespread, it is probable been a nexus of academic activity resulting in that „Phol‟ was a name for the Baldr- a veritable library of scholarship – first and equivalent in Old High German. In the SMC, foremost because the SMC is one of the most Phol (*Vol) appears to be the masculine significant sources for Old High German counterpart of Volla, sister of Friia. Volla is mythology (which are decidedly few), while equivalent to Old Norse , and Friia to the term or name balder occurs in the second . In medieval Scandinavia, Frigg was the line. This paper offers a survey of balder- wife of Odin, their son was Baldr, and Fulla cognates in Germanic languages to show that was Frigg‟s handmaiden. Wodan–Friia–Volla it functioned as a common noun and survived form a set of figures associated by definable only in poetry and ritual contexts (and certain relationships and participating in a system of proper names). In Scandinavia, this nominal narrative activity with Phol. This paper argues use of baldr developed sufficient exclusivity that the etymological cognates of these three that it could function as a proper name for a figures, Óðinn–Frigg–Fulla form a

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corresponding set with similar associations in Frigg. If the SMC accurately reflects definable relationships and participating in a conceptions in the vernacular tradition, that common system of narrative activity. Baldr tradition may have been markedly different can be situated in the relationships and system from traditions reflected in medieval of narrative activity corresponding to Phol‟s Scandinavian sources. Phil („Fylle‟), cognate (in contrast to other figures – e.g. Freyr). with Phol, appears in a Swedish charm of the This paper argues that Óðinn‟s role in the SMC-type recorded in the 19th century. systems of narrative material associated with Correlation with Phol presents the possibility Baldr‟s death constitutes a development in the of continuity in the tradition of both the mythological system. This process is mythic figure and the association of that associated with Óðinn‟s rise to a central mythic figure with the SMC charm-type. position in the mythology. It argues that Phol Óðinn was not as significant in medieval was a significant figure in the mythological Sweden. There is the possibility that the system and was subordinated to Óðinn, vernacular mythology in Sweden may not shifting his relationship from companion to have undergone the same processes of „son‟. The exclusive use of Baldr rather than a evolution as in West Norse. Fylle presents the Phol-cognate broke down the association of possibility that traditions of mythology may Baldr[Phol]–Fulla as a divine pair in Iceland. have varied much more across Germanic The process of subordinating status extended Scandinavia than is generally assumed. to the shift of Fulla from sister to servant of

Folk Legends, Folk Traditions and Grave Mounds Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper presented at New Focus on Retrospective Methods, organized by the Retrospective Methods Network in cooperation with the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 13–14 September 2010.

As is well known, the Grimm brothers and deeply-rooted folklore – both traditions and others directly inspired by them, such as legends – can survive for a very long time Wilhelm Mannhardt, saw folklore as indeed. One of the questions is how we decide something that often contained “survivals” of the age and origin of such traditions that have pagan mythology and pagan rituals. With the only been recorded in potentially recent times. growth of understanding in the field of In the following paper, I mean to follow up on folkloristics over the two centuries that earlier work carried out by Håkon Schetelig followed, scholars have come to be more and examine those legends and traditions wary of blindly accepting such approaches. concerning grave mounds from later times, This especially applies to literary scholars and and especially traditions concerning offerings historians who have questioned the possibility of ale and bread made to gravemounds on that pagan material could survive so long in a holy days (something that continued until Christian world. The latter approach comparatively recently), and legends which nonetheless also has its drawbacks, not least deal with the sacrality of gravemounds and because it contains a comparatively bad luck that can befall anyone who does not superficial understanding of the time it takes respect them. If nothing else, this material for Christian attitudes to take root, and of how provides us with a useful insight into the way commonly has tended to blend the construction of grave mounds changed the with existing mindsets, rather than replace local landscape and the way it was understood them. Furthermore, it is clear that some by people.

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The Text That Never Was: On Reconstruction in Textual Criticism Odd Einar Haugen, University of Bergen

Paper presented at New Focus on Retrospective Methods, organized by the Retrospective Methods Network in cooperation with the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 13–14 September 2010.

The editing of classical and medieval texts addressed the same issues in his Éloge de la has often taken the form of a reconstructive variante (1989). enterprise, in which the editor tries to trace Some scholars among the new philologists the text back to its original, removing errors seem to believe that a reconstructive approach and innovations in the manuscript to texts is either inadvisable or impossible. transmission as he goes through the preserved Nobody will contest that it can be difficult, in material. This program is what Karl some cases virtually impossible, to Lachmann (1793–1851) succinctly formulated reconstruct the filiation of a classical or in 1817: medieval text, nor that some editors have been too optimistic in their reconstructions. Wir sollen und wollen aus einer hinreichenden Menge von guten However, this should not be taken to mean Handschriften einen allen diesen zum that a reconstruction per se is inadvisable. Grunde liegenden Text darstellen, der In this talk, I will discuss what rôle entweder der ursprüngliche selbst seyn, oder reconstruction has – and should have – in ihm doch sehr nahe kommen muss (ed. textual criticism, as I most recently did in a Müllenhoff 1876: 82). talk held in Trento (Haugen 2009). Should

On the basis of a sufficient number of good textual critics limit their investigation to a manuscripts, we should and we must build a single, preserved manuscript, or should they text which reflects all of these, a text which aim at trying to put the text into context? The either would be the original text or a text latter position, among other things, entails which would come very close to the placing the text in a diachronic context of original. manuscript transmission.

In this approach, the copying of manuscripts Works Cited is understood in a biological sense, as a Bédier, Joseph. 1928. “La tradition manuscrite du Lai filiation in which the process of copying the de l’ombre: Réflexions sur l‟art d‟éditer les anciens text is modelled on a tree turned upside-down, textes.” Romania 54: 161–96, 321–56. (Rpt., Paris: Champion, 1929, 1970.) a stemma codicum, with the original on top Cerquiglini, Bernard. 1989. Éloge de la variant: and the preserved manuscripts on the Histoire critique de la philologie. Paris: Seuil. – In branches below. praise of the variant: A critical history of philology, Lachmann‟s programme, which was more translated by Betsy Wing, Baltimore: Johns or less unchallenged in the 19th century, met Hopkins University Press, 1999. th Haugen, Odd Einar. 2009. “A quarrel of the ancients with increasing criticism in the 20 century, and the moderns: On the merits of Old and New notably by the romanist Joseph Bédier (1864– Philology in the editing of Old Norse texts.” On 1938), who published an important article in Editing Old Scandinavian texts: Problems and the journal Romania (1928). In the last couple Perspectives, eds. Fulvio Ferrari og Massimiliano of decades, this criticism has been renewed by Bampi, 9–37. Labirinti 119. Università degli Studi di Trento: Dipartimento di Studi Letterari, scholars within the so-called New Philology, Linguistici e Filologici. introduced around 1990 in the U.S. and in Müllenhoff, Karl, ed. 1876 [1969]. Kleinere Schriften France. In an oft-cited volume of Speculum, zur deutschen Philologie von Karl Lachmann. Stephen G. Nichols recommends that each Kleinere Schriften von Karl Lachmann, 1. Berlin. manuscript should be studied on its own terms Nichols, Stephen G. 1990. “Introduction. Philology in a manuscript culture.” Speculum 65: 1–10. (1990), and in France, Bernard Cerquiglini

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Working on the Semantic Side of Etymology: The Culture-Etymological Approach Eldar Heide, University of Bergen

Paper presented at New Focus on Retrospective Methods, organized by the Retrospective Methods Network in cooperation with the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 13–14 September 2010.

In this paper, I will try to put forward a better because it happened to change little in the explanation of an approach that has been vital development of the different languages). to my use of late material in historical 2) The relationship between the different reconstruction but that has proven difficult to meanings (in the different languages) is understand for many. hard to understand. When an etymologist studies an inherited word, he or she seeks to answer two In such cases, experts on the semantic field(s) questions: in question – like us – rather than specialist etymologists have the best chance to increase 1) What was the original form of the word, our understanding. However, in such cases, or the root from which it is derived? we should reason in the etymological way. 2) What was the original meaning? We should insist that:

Etymologists generally are very competent at  All the attested forms be seen as input in answering the first question – the formal part the calculations, even the late ones, – because the basis of etymology is the because knowledge of the regular sound changes that  All the forms must be derived from a are identified in comparative / historical common origin because they are linguistics. However, they cannot possibly be attestations of the same word or root. equally competent on the semantic part, because, in principle, knowledge of all These principles are not controversial in cases semantic fields is required: techniques of where the semantics are easy – i.e. when crafts, house construction, ship building, specialist etymologists can handle the fishing, farming, religious life and questions alone – so why should they be in superstitions, judicial systems, weather, the other cases? Either the principles are cosmos, cooking, child care, etc., etc. – from reasonable or they are not. The common ancient times until modern times. This, of origin does not have to be a single, clear-cut course, is beyond the reach of any single meaning; a cluster of notions may be good scholar. enough. Of course, some attestations This means that etymologists should work sometimes have developed a long way from in larger groups than is customary, and seek the origin but still they have to be taken into more advice from non-etymologist specialists. consideration and explained. We should not But it also means that there is an unexploited allow ourselves simply to ignore the evidence “space of research” for scholars who are not that appears not to fit in, as is often done. first and foremost etymologists but who have In my opinion, this approach is essential to basic knowledge of etymology and are the utilisation of late material in historical experts on certain semantic fields. I am reconstruction because it provides a way of thinking of cases where: reasoning in which even late attestations have a place. In my work, late attestations of the 1) The same word or root indisputably is root found in the Old Norse word gandr have present in several languages (usually been decisive in this kind of reasoning.

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Another candidate may be the níð complex, is probably the case with Óðinn in Old Norse whose origin and essence is poorly sources, Odens jagt in southern Scandinavian understood. A systematic comparison of all late traditions, and Das wütende Heer „the the information we have of Gothic neiþ and Wild Hunt‟ in late German traditions; and the modern German Neid „envy‟, Old Norse níð alfar / elves etc. in northern European „disdain, insult‟, and Old High German nīd Medieval sources and folklore – and with „hostility, grudge, anger‟ can probably many other topics. increase our understanding of this. The same

My Present Work with Retrospective Methods Eldar Heide, University of Bergen

I believe that we can develop more innovative add the specification that dry ground is ideas and arguments if we alternate between a included in the reflection image, which can variety of questions and materials. In that way explain why one (in most accounts) reaches we can try out more perspectives and get the same kind of dry land no matter whether more diverse input into our hermeneutic one accesses the through gaps in circles. One of my articles that includes the ground or by jumping into water. I also retrospective reasoning will appear any time discuss islands that seem to have their now, with the title “Holy Islands and the liminality mostly from being off-shore; i.e. far Otherworld: Places beyond Water”, in a book away from the society, and the relationship with papers from a seminar organized by the between this and the otherworld entrances in CMS at the University of Bergen. In this the middle of the society (e.g. grave mounds, article, I attempt to demonstrate that there is a wells etc.). I argue that in both cases going to connection between holy islands and notions the otherworld is going beyond the realm that of the otherworld beyond water. I believe that we usually (can) access. Our horizontal range the essence of holy islands is their location on is long, so therefore we have to go a long way the other side of water. One has to cross water horizontally to reach the otherworld. to get there and in this respect holy islands are Downwards, however, our range is very parallel to the otherworld, which very often is limited, so even when the downward placed beyond water, horizontally or entrances to the otherworld are next to us, the vertically. The liminality of certain islands otherworld is very far away. The article is an seems to be related to this. They resemble the attempt at understanding some of the logic otherworld in the mentioned way but are behind the major interfaces between this located in this world. Thus they have an world and the otherworld and in particular intermediate position and are ideal as points behind the watery interfaces. It seems that of contact with the otherworld. I also suggest going across water – horizontally or vertically that some islands are “super-liminal”: Those – was a more common passage to the that either are reachable on foot and thus in a Scandinavian gods, especially Óðinn, than has way belong to the mainland although they are hitherto been realized. The material for the islands, and those that sometimes are discussion is the Old Norse corpus, including submerged or only occasionally surface. I the legendary sagas, supplemented by a support Holmberg‟s [Harva‟s] theory that the considerable amount of folklore and other late main source of the idea that there is an material. otherworld underneath us is derived from the Most of my recent work with retrospective experience of seeing an inverted reflection of methods has been on the god Loki. He this world in calm water. To this explanation I remains one of the riddles of Old

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Scandinavian religion but still the rich late traditions we also find Loki as a name of the tradition about him has been ignored for a fairytale character the Ash Lad, who has a lot century, with very few exceptions. I have in common with the mythological Loki. There been examining and increasing this material is no reason to believe that Loki ever was with information from folklore and dialect identical with the Ash Lad but they overlap a archives throughout northern Europe since lot, and probably did even in the middle ages. 2006. I intend to write a monograph covering The Ash Lad may help us understand the the total corpus of Loki but that is years into discrepancy between the two Lokis because the future. Before that, I will publish a series the same surprising dualism can be found of articles. The first will be ready for within the Ash Lad as within the combined submission this year (probably to Arkiv för evidence of Loki. The most common term for nordisk filologi), with the title “Loki, the the Ash Lad – Oskefis(en) / Ask(e)fis(en) – Vätte and the Ash Lad: A Study Combining also refers to a vätte under the fireplace, Old Scandinavian and Late Material”. Then similar to Loki in late traditions. Hence, an article on the etymology of Loki and an neither Loki nor the Ash Lad is only a article about the connection between Loki and narrative character; both are a vätte under the spiders or spider-like creatures will follow. In fireplace, too. This parallelism makes it very the first article, I attempt to: problematic to reject the vätte Loki of late traditions. There must be a model of  Discern a coherent pattern in the late understanding that can contain both forms of evidence of the Old Scandinavian god Loki and both forms of the Ash Lad. I Loki. propose that the narrative characters are  Demonstrate that this pattern must reflect derived from Vätten, in this way: ancient, common Scandinavian ideas.  Find a model of understanding that can 1) There was a notion of a luck-bringing overcome the discrepancy between this vätte living under the fireplace, tending the material and that of the Old Norse Loki, fire and receiving sacrifices, called Loki, one in which both are integral parts, Oskefis(en), or other. illuminating each other. 2) Vätten‟s designation could be given to a  Demonstrate that this model can increase human who would often sit by the fire, our understanding of the Old Norse Loki, especially the youngest boy in the family. regarding problematic details and 3) This mummy‟s boy provided material passages as well as the overall character. for overlapping myth and fairytale characters who turn everything upside- In the late Scandinavian traditions, Loki down: Loki of the myths and the Ash Lad seems to be mostly a vätte „domestic spirit‟ of the fairytales. living under or by the fireplace, helping the farmers with the farm work and attracting Accordingly, the interface between the vätte wealth to the farm. There are strong reasons Loki and the myth Loki may be found in the to believe that such notions of Loki also myth Loki‟s childhood, at the fireside. existed in the Middle Ages. Factors within the Unfortunately, we have very limited late corpus and its relation to other late information of the early days of the material point in that direction, and essential mythological Loki. But it seems that all three parts of it can be anchored to medieval “stages” of Loki can be discerned in both the material. But this vätte Loki is not consistent late and the medieval material when we look with the impression that we get from the Old for them, and not only for a member of Norse myths and therefore it is hard to accept Óðinn‟s court. Thus, this multi-layer the late material. However, in the late understanding may increase our

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understanding of Loki in the Old Norse Scandinavian dialects. The Medieval sources. The parallel between Loki and the manuscripts do provide some information Ash Lad and the abundant information of the about the emergence of this sound but in latter may be a key to the understanding of order to understand how and why it arose, it Loki‟s role in the mythology. For both seems that the only way is to combine this characters, it seems that there is not really a information with what can be reconstructed contradiction between their beneficial and from comparisons of the modern dialects. damaging sides because both sides derive Right now, I am working on the terms for from the characters being essentially “semi- Viking ships. Very few of those terms have otherworlders”. Because of this, letting them plausibly been connected with actual ship into the establishment amounts to opening it types or depictions of ship types from the to the otherworld powers and thus implies its Middle Ages. A major reason for this seems downfall. But, this is inescapable because to be that the scholars have failed to sort the they, for the same reason, are the only ones terms into periods. I assume that if we sift out capable of bringing absolutely necessary the terms that only occur in poetry not in objects and persons from the otherworld. – prose, we are left with the terms that belong Both characters‟ connection with Vätten to the early Viking age, and that only they under the fireplace make them ideal as links should be connected with ships and depictions to the otherworld. from that period. Thus, I am departing from In addition, in a recently published article the 13th century written record and going back (“Tjukk l – Retroflektert tydeleggjering av 2–4 centuries from there. But I supply this kort kvantitet. Om kvalitetskløyvinga av det approach with contemporary runic evidence. gamle kvantitetssystemet.” Maal og minne PDF files of my articles appear on my 1/2010, pp. 3–44), I attempt to explain the website, http://eldar-heide.net, as soon as they retroflex flap (“thick l”) of the central come out.

Reconstructing the Pattern of a Vernacular Tradition Terje Planke, Norwegian Maritime Museum

Paper presented at New Focus on Retrospective Methods, organized by the Retrospective Methods Network in cooperation with the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 13–14 September 2010.

My main approach to the reconstruction of connected to each other. Using younger boats and sailing techniques from the Iron traditions as a methodological inspiration, I Age has been through the studying of have reconstructed the patterns from Iron Age handcraft traditions of the 20th century. I have traditions. In this paper, I will compare these done this in two ways. First of all, I am two methods through empirical examples studying traits from younger traditions to taken from traditional boatbuilding from the understand the traditions from the Iron Age. 8th and the 20th centuries. My preconception has been that there is a In understanding the Scandinavian Iron continuous thread over this long period of Age, we lean on several categories of sources: time, but this has not always proven to be the artefacts, rock art or texts from different case. This approach must therefore be periods of time. In addition, there are the conducted with care. My other method has vernacular traditions of recent times. been to investigate the broader pattern of new However, is there a factual traditions to understand how different Wirkungsgeschichte, or a history of effect elements or traits within a tradition are

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The pattern of an object is often not recognized by the craftsman, but might be studied and analyzed. Here, the pattern of the Sogna-boat is illustrated to show how each part becomes a manifestation of the other parts and fits together through the procedures of the boat builder. Photo by Planke (1994 / 2010).

(Gadamer 2000), which connects us with Theoretical Approach them? Is it possible for us to reconstruct their By studying different vernacular 19th and 20th knowledge, as long as it is in conflict with our century traditions of boat building, I have own preconceptions? discovered that the sum of traits within each My broader aim is to discuss the possibility tradition makes out a distinct pattern. The and extent of a connection between excavated different traits, such as the use of raw boats from the Iron Age and the late material, tool technology, and the shape and vernacular traditions of boat building. The physical structure of the boats, are strongly discussion is empirically based on both my interwoven. These traits are also connected doctoral and my post-doctoral projects where with the intentions of the boat builder and his I studied traditional boatbuilding and work procedures. When one trait within the reconstructed the third small boat from the pattern changes, I have documented how Gokstad Viking ship find (Planke 1994, 2001, other traits change as well. But is it also 2004). The aim of the latter study was not possible to reconstruct such patterns for Iron only to reconstruct the structure and shape of Age ships? The theory is under development. the hull, but also the perspectives and It might be seen as a form for introspective procedures of the boat builder who made the functionalism, or maybe as a form of boat in the late 800‟s AD. hermeneutics focused on objects where the

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own tradition. To understand what‟s beyond the horizon of living, vernacular traditions today, I am investigating relationship between different traits that make up the pattern. In this way of reasoning, the answer to Iron Age technology is not to be found within the different vernacular traditions today. The vernacular traditions may rather help us ask good questions that provide the answers themselves.

Works Cited Gadamer, Hans-Georg 2000: Sandhed og metode. Gruntræk af en filosofisk hermeneutik. Systime Academic, Århus. Planke, Terje 1994: Sognebåten. Bygging, formforståelse og kunnskap. Hovedfagsoppgave i Etnologi, UiO, Oslo (upublisert). The remains of the third Gokstad boat from the late Planke, Terje 2001: Tradisjonsanalyse. En studie av 800’s AD look like a mess. I am trying to reconstruct a kunnskap og båter. Doktorgradsavhandling, UiO, meaningful pattern based on the relationship between Oslo the fragments. Photo by Planke (2003). Planke, Terje 2007: Historisk rekonstruksjon av mønstre. In: Festskrift 2007. Årbok. Maihaugen. Planke, Terje 2008: Bygningens mønster – om pattern defines the whole to be something sammenhenger i et kulturminne. In: By og Bygd more than just the sum of its parts. XLI. Årbok for Norsk Folkemuseum I believe that the vernacular traditions and Rolf, Bertil 1991: Profession, tradition och tyst the application of these indeed is a good kunskap. Nya doxa. starting point for interpreting archaeological evidence, but that it must be conducted with care. When I introduce the concept of pattern, it is as a means to help understand past cultures on their own terms, reducing the weight of my own preconceptions. The concept of pattern helps me reconstruct the shape, the material technology and physical structure as well as the procedures of work that all together make up the boat. The aim is to understand each trait, material or functional, in relationship to the The third Gokstad boat has been reconstructed and rigged through reconstructing other traits, rather than the pattern. Tradition has been crucial to interpreting the sources through asking judging them from my questions rather than answering them. Photo by Planke (2010).

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Criteria for Evaluating Sources for Old Norse Religion Jens Peter Schjødt, Aarhus University

Paper presented at New Focus on Retrospective Methods, organized by the Retrospective Methods Network in cooperation with the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 13–14 September 2010.

All scholars concerned with Old Norse historian of religion, some of the possibilities religion know that by far the largest part of that we need to consider. In order to do this, the written sources used for reconstructing however, it will be relevant first to discuss the pre-Christian religion is composed two or notion of religion in the two cultural settings three centuries after the official involved. Having done that, it will be possible Christianisation. A prerequisite for using to get a clearer understanding of the reason these sources is then that we can assume some why some pagan elements, apparently in a sort of continuity from pagan to Christian relatively easy way, could continue to exist, times. Such a claim seems to be not only far into the high Middle Ages but uncontroversial since there is general right up to modern times. In order to decide agreement that a change of religion does not what is due to pagan tradition and Christian happen overnight. On the other hand, in terms influence, we cannot, as I have argued in of the medieval sources, it has been objected earlier articles, avoid the notion of that Christian ideas and notions have comparativism. But, we also have to consider „polluted‟ the pagan myths and the the „context‟: to what extent is it meaningful descriptions of pagan rituals. This seems to be to interpret rituals, proverbs, legends etc. as true, as there is no doubt that Christianity part of the pre-Christian context? influenced at least the higher social strata of My conference paper will address these the Nordic societies long before the official and other questions, and even if no definite conversion. answers can be given, it seems to be If it thus seems to be certain that both necessary to approach the whole problem of continuity and „break‟ are at stake, it will be folkloristic material in connection with pre- an important task of the historian to decide Christian Scandinavian religion from a new what is what and what are the means available perspective, using some of the more recent to us to make qualified decisions. In my paper theoretical achievements. I will discuss, from the point of view of a

Reflections of Religion, Mythology and Worldview in Laments Eila Stepanova, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at Baltic Worldview: From Mythology to Folklore, organized by the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore in collaboration with the Center of Research in Imagination at Grenoble’s Stendhal University, July 8–10, 2009, Vilnius, Lithuania.

Known the world over, laments are one of the „occasionally‟, or outside of ritual contexts, oldest genres of oral ritual poetry and are still although funeral laments will be the focus. found in some cultures of the present day. The objective of this paper is to open a They are usually performed by women during discussion of relationships between Karelian a ritual – e.g. funerals, weddings, and and Lithuanian lament traditions as departure ceremonies for men conscripted representative examples of Finnic (otherwise into military service. In traditions addressed known as „Balto-Finnic‟) and Baltic in this paper, laments could also be performed traditions, respectively. It will focus on

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representations of vernacular religion or similar features. These features occur on all “belief systems” as these are reflected through levels, from the elementary aspects of poetic the poetic features, images and motifs of both language – their stylistic and grammatical Karelian and Lithuanian laments. features, poetic images and metaphors, This paper introduces the tradition of building up to larger motifs and more Karelian laments in the broader context of comprehensive aspects of ritual activities. Finnic and Baltic lament traditions. All Finnic This shows that although the language of the lament traditions utilized special kinds of tradition was different in each culture, they improvisation. They were not learned by were utilizing remarkably similar systems of heart, but rather were created during the traditional referentiality necessarily rooted in process of oral performance. Laments were the history of each tradition. Moreover, these created anew in each concrete situation, but traditions reflect common conceptions of within the conventions of the traditional death and the otherworld, where the ancestors lament register (i.e. language of the poetry) of the community meet the newly deceased. and motifs. Lithuanian laments were These traditions appear to share certain correspondingly improvised. significant features of mythology, worldview As a consequence, representations and and beliefs, which are unlikely to be reflections of religion, mythology and accidental, and within a broader Circum- worldview in these laments are not static, but Baltic context of comparison, they may be rather retain vitality for the people who use two poles forming an axis on the vast them, even if that validity is to varying historical plane of Finnic-Slavic-Germanic- degrees (according to the individual) bound Baltic contacts. up with the poetic system and its applications. [An expanded version of this paper will be This paper will examine common published under the title “Reflections of mythological and religious features which Belief Systems in Karelian and Lithuanian may be found in Baltic and Finnic lament Laments: Shared Systems of Traditional traditions, offering an overview of relevant Referentiality?” in the proceedings from the aspects of both traditions. Karelian and conference.] Lithuanian lament traditions share numerous

Scandinavian Folk Legends and Icelandic Sagas Daniel Sävborg, University of Tartu

Paper presented at New Focus on Retrospective Methods, organized by the Retrospective Methods Network in cooperation with the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 13–14 September 2010.

My paper argues that Scandinavian legends why they are usually seen as very different (sägner) recorded in the 20th and 19th from the “classical” Íslendingasögur, whose centuries often explain supernatural episodes realism is linked to an origin in an oral in Íslendingasögur better than comparison tradition that was perceived as essentially with other medieval sagas. Saga scholars have historical. The post-classical sagas, with their in many cases come to wrong conclusions many fantastic motifs, are in contrast seen as from the narrow focus on literature unhistorical, pure fiction, influenced primarily contemporary with the Íslendingasögur. The by written literature like fornaldarsögur and interest in supernatural motifs is a riddarasögur. Sometimes this is certainly characteristic feature of the “post-classical” correct. But, in most post-classical Íslendingasögur. This is an important reason

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Íslendingasögur, such parallels are very few paper I give examples of such cases and show and superficial. how my perspective leads to an interpretation A concrete example is Bárðar saga that differs from the traditional one. Snæfellsáss. It is full of trolls and giants, and Such an interpretation of the parallels may the standard explanation has been an also have an impact on the perception of influence from the fornaldarsögur. But an Íslendingasögur in general. The view of the episode like the one where a female post-classical saga as bookish fiction which recites a stanza with a list of the landmarks emerged under the influence of the written which shall show the fisherman Ingjaldr the fornaldarsaga and riddarasaga is hardly best fishing-ground, cannot be explained by sustainable. Nor is the contrast between the such literary influences. But there are supernatural orientation and the realism of the Norwegian legends, recorded in the 20th classical saga evident. The stories in the later century, where a fisherman meets a legends about encounters with the supernatural being, who in a stanza lists the supernatural were also seen as basically true, landmarks which will show him the best and these stories were a part of the image fishing-ground. There are many other people had of a real past. There is reason to supernatural saga episodes which have close believe that this also applied to many of the parallels in later Scandinavian legends. In my motifs of the post-classical sagas as well.

Shamanism in Norse Myth and Magic, volumes I–II Clive Tolley

Monograph published in 2009 in the series Folklore Fellows Communications, volumes 296–297, Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica.

Volume I: xxvi + 590 pp. ISBN 978-951-41-1027-6 Volume II: xiv + 288 + xvi pp. ISBN 978-951-41-1029- (hard) and 978-951-41-1028-3 (soft). 0 (hard) and 978-951-41-1030-6 (soft).

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Medieval Norse written sources present acts sources in revealing the true nature of pre- of magic and initiation, performed both by Christian practices? In this study, Clive humans and by gods. The summoning of Tolley presents the main features of Siberian spirits, journeys to the otherworld, the taking shamanism and examines the Norse texts in of animal shape, and drumming are some of detail to determine how far it is reasonable to the features of these rites that suggest some assign a label of “shamanism” to the human form of shamanism was practised in pre- and divine magical practices of pre-Christian Christian Scandinavia. But what exactly are Scandinavia. Norse “shamanism”, it is the features of shamanism that are being argued, in many cases resides mainly in the compared? And how reliable are the Norse imaginative tradition of the poets.

Vǫlsa þáttr: Pagan Lore or Christian Lie? Clive Tolley

Paper published in Analecta Septentrionalia: Beiträge zur nordgermanischen Kultur- und Literaturgeschichte, , Klaus Böldl & Heinrich Beck (eds.), Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde 65 (2009), 680–700. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Vǫlsa þáttr has been seen by a number of evidence, regarded as significant by scholars – but not all – as exhibiting a rare proponents arguing both for and against the survival from pagan times, preserved in a presence of genuine pagan tradition, may be remote corner of Norway. There are interpreted as indicating the presence either of analogues from antiquity, such as Dionysiac such genuine pagan tradition, or of rites, but a close examination of these shows antiquarian artifice on the part of the author. It many discrepancies, particularly in the is, in the main, the wider context, including fundamental area of what, from a pagan factors such as the date of composition and religious perspective, the purpose of the rite the literary type of the tale, that incline me to would be. Some folklore parallels are also to regard the þáttr as the product of a time much be found, but these prove scantier than might closer to Flateyjarbók than to paganism (I am be expected. On the other hand, literary far from seeking to argue against the survival parallels appear stronger: a generally similar of genuine pagan traditions in Norse literature pattern of „benighted yokels‟ is found in in general). The investigation I have Gautreks saga, and the theme of Óláfr as the attempted here suggests that we should strong suppressor of paganism is found exercise great caution in using this text as widely in other sources. The þáttr is evidence for any form of genuine paganism, remarkably well constructed, which itself or indeed wholly refrain from doing so. The appears the result of artifice, not of being a author of the piece is, in my view, to be representation of genuine folk custom. The congratulated for pulling off such a finely verses might be viewed as ancient, but there is crafted piece of literary artifice with its nothing to actually indicate that they are, as a verisimilitude of Norse paganism that it has detailed look at some of the expressions kept scholars wondering if it might, against shows. all the odds, be a record of genuine pagan Vǫlsa þáttr presents an interesting rites. methodological problem: the very same

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Retrospective Methods in Dating Post-Medieval Rigmaroles from the North Atlantic Yelena Sesselja Helgadóttir, University of Iceland

Paper presented at New Focus on Retrospective Methods, organized by the Retrospective Methods Network in cooperation with the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway, 13–14 September 2010.

A number of post-medieval Icelandic þulur from those in Old Icelandic þulur, and textual and Faroese skjaldur (and occasional Shetland parallels between the old and post-medieval verses), which were mainly written down in þulur are only occasional. My claim is that the 19th–20th centuries, have Old Icelandic similarity of genre and compositional parallels, found chiefly in the þulur of Snorra principle, together with occasional – though Edda, but also in verses in some sagas. It is not numerous – textual parallels, provides a tempting to use these Old Icelandic texts to clear analogy, which is sufficient for using anchor the rigmaroles1 in question in Old Old Icelandic þulur as anchors. Icelandic literature and thus postulate their Textual connections between most old roots, as suggested by Jón Samsonarson Icelandic post-medieval rigmaroles (along (1979, 1991) and Terry Gunnell (2001, with many Faroese and some Shetland ones) 2007).2 Questions concerning applications of form a dense net, which is another distinctive retrospective methods in this context include: feature of the post-medieval rigmarole tradition in the North Atlantic.4 On the basis  How close should these Old Icelandic of this net, and combining comparative and parallels stand to the post-medieval retrospective methods, it should be possible to rigmaroles to be used as anchors? postulate old roots even for the rigmaroles  How far back is it possible – and sensible that do not have direct Old Icelandic parallels. – to bring in other rigmaroles, which I discuss the pro and contra of dating these belong to the same tradition as the rigmaroles back to the pre-Reformation rigmaroles mentioned above but which period or all the way back to the Icelandic do not have Old Icelandic parallels Commonwealth – or even earlier times. preserved into our day, to be used as “One should only try to reconstruct notions anchors? not narratives”, claims Eldar Heide (2009).5  Some rigmaroles mainly contain lists of Each folk singer and his audience has, heiti (names or poetic synonyms), others however, a notion of the narrative performed, have narrative elements. To what extent which is passed from generation to is it possible to reconstruct narratives? generation. This notion could be used to reconstruct essential characteristics of the The enumeration of heiti and/or short narrative in question. My experience of narrative elements, organized by semantic and reconstructing a short narrative on the basis of phonic similarity, is an identifying feature of the Fair Isle / Orcadian Grýla-verse and the rigmaroles under consideration. This same kindred verses from old and modern Iceland, compositional principle is distinctive of Old the Faroe Islands, Shetland and Swedish Icelandic þulur; the post-medieval Icelandic Lapland, can serve as example. I suggest the rigmaroles, also named þulur, have existence of a narrative with a male supposedly developed out of them.3 However, counterpart of Grýla, at least as early as prior the heiti in the post-medieval þulur (and to the Reformation – and likely to the time of closely related Faroese skjaldur) are different Old Icelandic literature.

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Notes 1. The word rigmarole(s) is not used specifically to denote Mumming in the Nordic Area. Ed. Terry Gunnell. poetry in modern English. Here I follow Jakob Jakobsen Uppsala. Pp. 275–326). who uses it both about a post-medieval Icelandic þula 3. As I showed in: Yelena Yershova, 2003, “Postmedieval and some comparable Shetland verses in his Icelandic þulur: Evolution of the Genre” [in Russian] “Introduction” (see his An Etymological Dictionary of the (Atlantica 5: 158–178). Norn Language in Shetland, Lerwick 1985, vol. I, pp. 4. Yelena Sesselja Helgadóttir, 2008, “Íslenskar þulur og xcv, ci). færeysk skjaldur: er allt sama tóbakið?” (Frændafundur 2. Jón Samsonarson, 1979, “Jólasveinar komnir í leikinn” 6. Ed. Turið Sigurðardóttir, Magnús Snædal. Tórshavn. (Íslenskt mál 1: 150-174) and 1991, “Marghala Grýla í Pp. 175–199) and forthcoming, “Shetland Rhymes from görðum vesturnorrænna eyþjóða” (Lygisögur. [Ed. Gísli the Collection of Dr. Jakob Jakobsen” (in the papers of Sigurðsson, Örnólfur Thorsson]. Reykjavík. Pp. 48–54). the Faroese-Shetlandic Conference on Dr. Jakob Terry Gunnell, 2001, “Grýla, Grýlur, “Grøleks” and Jakobsen, Scalloway, May 12–13, 2006). Skeklers: Medieval Disguise Traditions in the North 5. Eldar Heide, 2009, “More Inroads to Pre-Christian Atlantic?” (Arv 57: 33–54) and 2007, “Masks and Notions, after All? The Potential of Late Evidence” (Á Mumming Traditions in the North Atlantic” (Masks and austrvega. Ed. Agneta Ney, Henrik Williams, Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist. Gävle. Pp. 361–368, here 366).

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People

MA-Thesis Projects

The Flying Trickster of the North: The Legacy of Sámi Noaidevuohta Tradition Reflected in the Borderline Figure Loki Laufeyjarson in Old Nordic Mythology Triin Laidoner, University of Iceland Supervisor: Terry Gunnell. This study is a final assignment towards an MA-degree in the field of Old Nordic Religion at the University of Iceland (Háskóli Íslands), completed in the summer semester of 2009.

The purpose of the thesis is to discuss the Loki in previous academic research, and a possible Sámi influences on Old Norse chapter which discusses research into Sámi mythology, substantially revolving around the religious attitudes, the Sámi way of life, and different aspects of the Sámi shamanic Sámi relations with the . The study practice of noaidevuohta and its possible culminates with a detailed analysis of those connections with the complex mythological typically Sámi-like features which seem to be figure of Loki Laufeyjarson as he appears in inherent in Loki‟s character, and these are Old Nordic sources. What will primarily be explained in the light of the noaidevuohta focused on is the duality and liminality of this tradition. A further perspective into the Sámi figure, something which has always made it magic arts is taken through Loki‟s apparent impossible for him to be placed in a clear-cut role as a trickster, since similar figures seem framework, and which in spite of several to exist in the parallel world of the noaidi (the attempts has meant that academic discussions Sámi witch/sorcerer) and appear in the about his character have still not found a folktales of the Sámi. The suggested satisfactory denouement. The present thesis perspective that Loki might be better carefully re-examines all of the primary understood in the context of noaidi-like literary sources concerning Loki, as well as figures or tricksters, both of which are found all the possibly Loki-connected in Finno-Ugric (Sámi) tradition, but rather archaeological finds and place-names, these rarely occur in Germanic culture, makes it providing us with additional clues as to the possible to approach Loki from a new angle areas in which this figure may have been and draw several tentative conclusions about known. This is followed up with an overview his dualistic nature and possible development of the development of approaches taken to in the northern parts of Scandinavia.

Holy Groves, Rocky Places, and Sacral Constructions: The Establishment of Sacred Social Space in Viking-Age Pre-Christian Scandinavia Luke John Murphy, University of Iceland Supervisor: Steve Ashby. This thesis was submitted for the M.A. in Medieval Studies at the Centre of Medieval Studies, University of York (U.K.) on the 2nd of October 2009.

This thesis seeks to examine the constitutive space in pre-Christian Viking-Age factors for the establishment of sacred social Scandinavia. This is to be achieved by the

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examination of worship-ritual places, which, space is established. The first are open-air, it will be argued, certainly constitute sacred „natural‟ places, whose sacral value was social space. As such, evidence for different invested on the basis of spatial liminality. The classes of worship-ritual place from second type of worship-ritual place is archaeological, textual, and toponymic cosmologically central: buildings located corpuses will be examined, and a selection of within farmsteads, where space was types of worship-ritual place are to be engendered with sacral value by the action of selected to serve as an illustration of sacred sacred acts. Sacral value was invested in these social space. places only for the duration of such acts, and The investigation of these worship-ritual was therefore imbued on the basis of temporal sites will then be conducted, and the primary liminality. It will therefore be concluded that conclusions can be summarised as follows: sacred social space in pre-Christian Viking- two primary types of worship-ritual place can Age Scandinavian was based on a sense of be distinguished, as categorised according to spatial liminality, a detachment from the the methods by which their sacred social human centre of the cosmos.

Heterogeneity in the Old Norse World Picture: Diversity and Uniformity in Mythological Genres Mathias Nordvig, Aarhus University Supervisor: Pernille Hermann. This research project is a 3/5 year graduate to post-graduate program of study for the acquisition of a degree of MA/PhD at the Aarhus Faculty of Arts, Aarhus University. The PhD dissertation is scheduled for submission in June 2013; the MA-thesis will be submitted in June 2011.

My research project is based on literary gradually became an important issue during analyses of the primary sources to Old Norse the 12th century and particularly in the 13th mythology: Snorra Edda, Eddic poetry and century, Christian interpretation and Ynglinga saga in Heimskringla. It is an consciousness about the heathen material investigation of notions of heterogeneity in permeated different genres with which to treat Old in these quite different this potentially troublesome subject in types of medieval texts. The question of medieval Icelandic literature, and eventually heterogeneity in Old Norse cosmology is resulted in the kind of Old relative to the text that relays information that is accessible in the literature as we know about the mythology. The world picture that it. The movement, as I see it, goes from the one may deduce from reading such texts as historiographic treatment of Old Norse the Eddic poems, Snorra Edda and Ynglinga mythological material in Ynglinga saga, saga in Heimskringla is not a homogenous compressing the cosmology into a completely one. One can hardly say that, even though Christian world picture, over retro-fitted there are many commonalities in the different heathenry and quasi-historical renderings in texts, the world picture of Old Norse the ars poetica of Snorra Edda, to the fabulae cosmology in one text corresponds directly to of Eddic poetry – stories which were perhaps that in another. As such, the overall world considered more fantastic than real in the 13th picture is more heterogeneous than century. My work so far has resulted in one homogeneous. The purpose of this project is article which I hope to have published next to examine the primary circumstance that I year: “Lord and Monster: Snorri‟s explanation see as instrumental in the writing down of Old of heathenry in Ynglinga saga in connection Norse mythology: genre. As recording and with Óðinn, Njǫrðr and Freyr as the „founding use of the mythology and the pagan past fathers‟ of the ”. This article makes

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up one fourth of my up-coming MA-thesis, the World of the „Lesser Narratives‟ in while the rest is divided into two sections, one Skáldskaparmál”, and “Unfolding Myth and on Snorra Edda and one on Eddic poetry, Space: Between Cosmology and Narrated respectively: “Cosmology in Snorra Edda: Space in Eddic Poetry”. From Eschatological Space in to

Sacrifices among Slavs Izabella Wenska, Adam Mickiewicz University Supervisor: Grzegorz Pełczyński. The project is expected to be completed by the end of June 2011 at the Institute of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań.

The aim of this thesis is to discuss the idea of known from the folkloristic sources. I will sacrifices among Slavs by comparing pay special attention to small, everyday archaeological evidence from the Early sacrifices (for example those dedicated to Middle Ages with folkloric material from the demons or ancestors). I will argue that 19th century. The first chapter will refer to sacrifices were an inherent part of everyday folk culture and its aim will be to provide life (the anthropology of everyday life), some preliminary suggestions as to why it conducted on a daily basis during, for may have been possible to maintain archaic example, the preparation of food, practices and anachronisms. Throughout my consumption etc. Sacrifices perceived as discussion I will refer to a number theoretical phenomena can be divided in various ways. I perspectives employed in fields such as decided to divide them into sacrifices made anthropology, folkloristics, psychology, within the house, farm property, or village archeology, and philosophy. One of my (orbis interior), and sacrifices made outside of inspirations for this work is W.J. Ong‟s theory these areas, such as in forests, by lakes, etc. of orality and literacy. In the second chapter I (orbis exterior). My main points of reference will describe alleged sacrificial practices here will be the interpretations of such rituals among the pagan Slavs by conducting an put forward by a Russian scholar B.A. analysis of archaeological deposits found in Uspienski in his book Kult św. Mikołaja na the Western Slavic world. Although most of Rusi [„The Cult of St. Nicholas in Rus‟]. my case studies will be drawn from the area Ultimately, the thesis will seek to answer the inhabited by the Western Slavs, I will also following question: Is there any continuity in seek parallels elsewhere in the Slavic world. the sacrificial rituals among Slavs from My aim is not to make a comprehensive Medieval times to 19th century folk culture? It catalogue of all known Slavic sacrificial is my hope that this M.A. thesis will be deposits from the Early Medieval times but another step towards the reconstruction of rather to provide some key examples. The ancient Slavic beliefs and that it will shed third chapter will refer to sacrifices that are new light on the problem of Slavic sacrifices.

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Faculties, Institutions and Organizations

The Department of Scandinavian Studies, University of Tartu, Estonia

Revitalization of a department

The Department of Scandinavian Studies has changelings in Swedish legends. As part of been without a professor since 2005. There the plan to have more Old Norse scholars in has been very little research activity and the coming years, we now offer an MA course concentration has been almost exclusively on (also open to BA students) in Icelandic teaching. In September of this year, I took up language and literature of which Old Norse the post as professor of the department. It was philology is an important part. Hopefully this clearly stated that my main task was to means that in the years to come, more improve the research situation. A lot has students will choose Old Norse topics for happened since then, and even more is going their theses. on now. Most of it is of importance for Old For the first time in five years, the Norse scholars. Department now has an active Research The Department will have a distinct profile Seminar. A version of my own paper from the from now on, focussing on two main fields: RMN conference in Bergen was presented there, and another folkoristic paper will be 1) “Sweden in Estonia”, that is: Swedish presented in January by Siiri Tomingas- Livonia in the 17th Century (with a lot of Joandi. The discussion has involved the whole important Swedish poets in Tartu, for academic staff of the department as well as example) and the Estonian Swedes; the MA students. The department has also 2) Old Norse Literature, Language, Culture started a series of scientific guest lectures, and History. something that has been missing for several years. Here, too, the focus is on medieval The second field is, of course, the most topics. In November, a guest lecturer from important for the members of the Centrum för medeltidsstudier, Stockholm Retrospective Methods Network. Several University, will give a lecture on Norse people at the department are already working Medieval Greenland. in this field: I, Daniel Sävborg, the new An activity which is also going on now and professor of Scandinavian Studies; PhD of importance for RMN members is the student Andres Mutso, working with skaldic founding of an interdisciplinary poetry and runic inscriptions; Dr. Kristel seminar/network for pre-modern studies at Zilmer, presently doing post-doc research in Tartu University, which includes participants Bergen, but still part of the Department of such as, for example, Ülo Valk and Jonathan Scandinavian Studies in Tartu; PhD student Roper from the Department of folklore. The Mart Kuldkepp, writing his dissertation in the initiative for this seminar was taken by the field of “Sweden in Estonia” but also Department of Scandinavian Studies and the translating numerous fornaldarsögur into meetings take place in the library of the Estonian and participating in a smaller project department. The seminar has received a lot of on byskupasögur; while PhD student Siiri interest: there has never been anything like it Tomingas-Joandi has a relevant folkloristic in Tartu before. The group meets 1–2 times theme for her doctoral dissertation (though per month, and at each meeting one of the not in the Old Norse field per se) on members gives a talk which is discussed.

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Although this may not seem to be very which we hope also to found in 2012. In much compared with the activities in the addition, there are plans for a project on the Medieval Centres and Scandinavian copying and revision of Old Norse departments in Scandinavia or , we manuscripts and an examination of what sorts have a lot of plans for expanding our of changes are taking place there. activities here in Tartu. The establishment of The Department of Scandinavian Studies at the Old Norse Folklorist network is of course the University of Tartu hopes to become a an important part of these plans, and I am hub of activity for the investigation, research that Tartu is the coordination centre of and analysis of Old Norse materials, their this network. Plans for workshop meetings relationships to later folklore, and the and conferences of this network are outlined diachronic processes which underlie the in the “manifesto”, published elsewhere in relationships between them. this issue of RMN Newsletter. In collaboration with the Department of Folklore Studies, the Daniel Sävborg Department of Scandinavian Studies in Tartu Professor of Scandinavian Studies is also planning a conference in 2012, and University of Tartu also a common course for the degree of PhD,

The Center for Viking and Medieval Studies, Aarhus University

Aarhus University is the second largest at Aarhus University is a collaboration university in Denmark. It has strong academic between different departments at the traditions in science, health and social university. At the moment it involves the science, theology, humanities and the arts. Department of History, the departments of Aarhus University is as an organization Pre-Historic, Medieval and Renaissance oriented towards international cooperation Archaeology, the Department of Studies of which actively seeks to develop bonds to Religion and the Scandinavian Department. other international academic institutions. Together, these departments offer an array of Since Aarhus is an old Viking town, it is only English language MA-courses in Viking Age natural that Aarhus University is also a major history and archaeology, Old Norse literature center for Viking and Old Norse studies, with and the history of religion, as well as summer a vibrant interdisciplinary environment and schools, seminars, conferences and PhD- events directed at both students and scholars. courses. For more information and contact, The Center for Viking and Medieval Studies please visit: http://viking-oldnorse.au.dk/en

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Old Norse Studies at the Scandinavian Department, Aarhus University

Old Norse research in the Scandinavian staff is currently made up of one associate Department at Aarhus University is primarily professor (Lektor), one post-doc and two literary and cultural-historical. Our faculty‟s PhD-students: research covers a broad range of Old Norse genres – sagas, myths, history, Eddic and Bergdís Þrastardóttir (MA, PhD-student). skaldic poetry – and is centered on Research interests: Þættir, Icelandic sagas, methodological and theoretical issues, such as saga genres, oral tradition and oral narratives. genre, discourse, orality/literacy, memory culture, as well as critical text editing and Pernille Hermann (MA, PhD, Assoc. Prof.) translating. Our research is interdisciplinary Research interests: Old Norse prose literature, and often carried out in cooperation with memory culture, orality and literacy. historians, historians of religion, archaeologists and linguists on both a national Mathias Nordvig (BA, grad/ PhD-student). and international basis. Old Norse studies in Research interests: Old Norse literature, the Scandinavian Department encourages Eddic poetry, the Prose Edda, myths and international cooperation between researchers mythology, orality and literacy. and students through visiting Professorships, teaching exchange, frequent seminars and Rolf Stavnem (MA, PhD, Post-doc). conferences. Over the last few years several Research interests: Skaldic poetry, orality, international scholars have been affiliated narrativity, text-edition, translation. with the Department. The Scandinavian Department offers regular BA and MA For more information, please visit: semester courses on Old Norse subjects, as http://nordisk.au.dk/forskning/forskningscentr well as annual summer schools. All teaching e/oldnorsestudiesinthescandinaviandepartmen in Old Norse subjects is in English, and t includes international guest lecturers. Our

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Calls for Papers

Distant Cultural Differences? Call for panel proposals for Dynamics of Cultural Differences: 32nd Nordic Conference of Ethnology and Folkloristics, June 18–21, 2012, Bergen, Norway

The 32nd Nordic Conference of Ethnology and past?” thereby making it into a Folkloristics is to be arranged in Bergen, methodological section (which could be based Norway in June 2012. The theme for the on empirical cases). Another possible theme conference is Dynamics of Cultural could be to discuss or question the existence Differences. They have just made a Call for of “History of effect” or actual tradition panels, and I think it would be appropriate if through long time spans, where the continuity someone within the Retrospective Methods is to be questioned because of radical cultural Network did something to make a panel change, as the case is between Iron Age within our common field of interest. One society and later, different kinds of effect would be to challenge the Folkloristic Christianity. But these are only some instant (and Ethnological) absence from retrospective thoughts or suggestions. Maybe we could use of the sources of tradition. Another pool ideas together and organize different benefit could be to recruit new members to suggestions within the network, and make one our network; Ethnologists and Folklorists that or more group proposals? share our interests, but have no one to play It is normal that these conferences have with. some Scandinavian language panels and some The key is to make a good proposal for a panels in English. See: http://bergen2012.no/ panel that fits with the main-theme; for more information. “Dynamics of Cultural Differences” and one that at the same time captures our more-or- Call for panels submitted by Terje Planke, less common field of interest. One suggestion Norwegian Maritime Museum might be to do something on the theme “How [email protected] to understand cultural differences in a distant

RMN Newsletter is oriented to constructing an informational resource and discourse space for researchers of diverse and intersecting disciplines. It welcomes and encourages its readership to engage in that discourse space and also promotes an awareness that participation will support, maintain and also shape this emergent venue. Please submit contributions to RMN Newsletter electronically in *.doc, *.docx or *.rtf formats. Frog University of Helsinki [email protected]

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