Lindsay Hopper
Historic Selective Breeding has led to Canine Breed Discrimination and
Stereotyping
Aquila – The FGCU Student Research Journal Volume 3 Issue 1 (2016)
DOI 10.24049/aq.3.1.2
© 2016 Hopper
Distributed under Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0
OPEN ACCESS Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal Historic Selective Breeding has led to Canine Breed Discrimination and Stereotyping
Lindsay Hopper
Florida Gulf Coast University, College of Arts & Sciences, Fort Myers, FL 33965
Faculty mentor: Nicola Foote, Ph.D., M.A., Florida Gulf Coast University, College of Arts & Sciences, Department of Social Sciences, Fort Myers, FL 33965
ABSTRACT Although human discrimination is taboo, dog discrimination proliferates. This article will examine how it is rooted in the history of selective breeding. As canine breeding has evolved, society has come to expect certain characteris- tics and qualities of each selectively created breed. As a result, entire breeds are often held subject to preconceptions based on anecdotal incidents, and the prime example of such are Pit Bulls, who are subject to wide scale discrimi- nation, as they are prohibited in cities across the country and are subject to stereotypes based on isolated incidents. Other breeds, besides Pit Bulls, that suffer from the same misconceptions are German Shepherds, Rottweilers, and Doberman Pinschers. This article is an exploration of the progression of breed discrimination through the examina- WLRQ RI OHJLVODWLYH DFWV QHZVSDSHU DUWLFOHV FDVH VWXGLHV DQG FDQLQH VWDWLVWLFV 7KH H[DPLQDWLRQ FRQ¿UPV WKH SUHV- ence and widespread advancement of canine breed discrimination and stereotyping across various aspects of society.
Key Words: Canine Breeds, Stereotyping, Discrimination, Selective Breeding, Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, German Shep- herds, Doberman Pinschers INTRODUCTION against these breeds in legislative acts, breed restrictions On October 9, 2000 in Los Angeles, California a six week in insurance contracts, and adoption from animal shelters. old baby girl was mauled to death by the family’s Pomera- This story of breed discrimination started hundreds nian dog (Los Angeles Times para. 1-3). Pomeranians are of years ago when humans began selectively breeding YHU\VPDOOGRJVRIWHQZHLJKLQJQRPRUHWKDQ¿YHSRXQGV dogs. Breeds were created to perform certain tasks in KRZHYHUWKH\DUHVWLOOPRUHWKDQFDSDEOHRILQÀLFWLQJVXE- society, including, but not limited to, aid in hunting and VWDQWLDOELWHZRXQGV /RV$QJHOHV7LPHVSDUD
15 Hopper DOI 10.24049/aq.3.1.2 of abuse and maltreatment. This was proven in a study recognized through this DNA means that there are four conducted by the research director for the National Canine distinct groups, and time periods, where dogs genetical- Research Council, where, in the majority of dog bite fatal- ly split from wolves. To put the difference of DNA se- ities, the dogs were subject to “poor ownership/manage- quences into perspective, human DNA is only one percent ment” practices, such as being chained outside (Holland different from that of chimpanzees, so the one percent para. 12). Through the use of legislative acts, newspaper difference between dogs and wolves is vast. DNA differ- articles, case studies, and canine statistics, the informa- ences develop through species evolution over thousands tion presented will explore how historic selective breed- of years. Therefore, the one percent difference puts the ing led to canine breed discrimination and stereotyping. divergence of dogs from wolves, and their domestication, Research concerning selective breeding is as old as DV HDUO\ DV RQH KXQGUHG WKLUW\¿YH WKRXVDQG \HDUV DJR the practice itself, dating back hundreds of years. The It is often assumed that breeds arose simultaneously original divergence of dogs from their ancestral wolf with the domestication of dogs; however, this is inaccurate. populations is not well documented. The fossil record of Many claim this because dogs are depicted throughout this original divergence is also blurred due to the simi- human evolution, from the ancient Roman and Egyptian larity in bone structure between the original dogs and manuscripts to seventeenth century paintings, and these wolves (Ostrander 5). While the beginnings of breeding depictions often resemble modern breeds (Ostrander 7-8). are not well-documented, the origin of breeds are. Breeds However, these depictions do not actually show different became isolated and distinct groups beginning in the breeds because breeds must be genetically isolated from mid-nineteenth century, and they progressed to the over one another. That did not happen until the mid-nineteenth three hundred breeds recognized today (Ostrander 8). century. Genetic isolation through reproductive separation Breeds were selected to contain certain characteristics is not a new concept, but when it comes to the origin of that were passed down through their genes. These genes, breeds, it is a fairly recent trend. Breeds are distinguished DV ZHOO DV WKH FKDUDFWHULVWLFV WKDW GH¿QH WKH EUHHGV DUH by very small genetic differences, and these genetic dif- well-documented and widely accepted (Ostrander 8). ferences are possible because of how diverse the ancestral While the origins of breeds, and the breeds themselves wolf populations were. While the breeds became repro- have been researched, the connection between them ductively isolated from one another, each breed still con- and breed discrimination has not been fully explored. tained the ancestral wolf genes. This explains why there There are many newspaper articles, legislative acts, can be so many unique dog breeds. In the development and statistics that depict canine stereotypes. Newspaper RI GRJ EUHHGV WKH YDULDWLRQ LQ WKH < FKURPRVRPH GH- articles and statistics on this topic illustrate society’s creased. The diversity decreased in dog breeds because promotion and demotion of widely applied stereotypes it is much easier to control and select males that contain (Gayle para. 7; “Pit Bulls are just about the Nicest Dogs the particular characteristics being sought after. Males are there are” para. 30; Smith para. 3). Stereotypes are be- used when selecting for particular traits because a single coming more apparent which is evident in legislative male can be used to breed with many females over a sin- acts, as well as insurance and housing breed restrictions gle year, producing a large number of litters that possess ³3XEOLF +RXVLQJ $XWKRULW\%UHHG 6SHFL¿F 3ROLFLHV´ his distinct traits (Ostrander 8). As the practice of selec- “Miami-Dade County Code of Ordinances”). This pa- tive breeding progressed, the distinction between breeds per will examine not only the origin of breeds, but the grew as their gene expression started to differentiate. development and contemporary occurrences of the dis- Distinct breeding methods have been recognized and FULPLQDWLRQ DQG VWHUHRW\SHV DJDLQVW VSHFL¿F EUHHGV improved over the past few centuries to the point where there are now hundreds of recognized breeds. The suc- HISTORY OF SELECTIVE BREEDING cess of selective breeding developed the most diverse To understand selective breeding of dogs, the origin of subgroup of animals. Each breed possesses its own spe- WKHLU GRPHVWLFDWLRQ PXVW ¿UVW EH XQGHUVWRRG 7KHUH DUH FL¿F WUDLWV WKDW VHSDUDWH LW IURP RWKHU EUHHGV ZKLOH WKH multiple theories on the timing and placement of early breed itself remains relatively constant with little to no dog domestication. Domestication was thought to have VLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFHVGXHWRWKHVXFFHVVIXOUHSURGXFWLYH ¿UVW RFFXUUHG OHVV WKDQ ¿IWHHQ WKRXVDQG \HDUV DJR DF- isolation. Breed success accelerated between the late eigh- cording to fossil remains; however, DNA testing between teen and early nineteen hundreds as breed clubs began to wolves and dogs pushes that date back by over one hun- form (Ostrander 41). These clubs recognized breeds es- dred thousand years (Ebdrup para. 16). The mitochondri- tablished from “well documented standards” including al DNA sequences of dogs and wolves was analyzed and WKH ³HVWDEOLVKHG VSHFL¿F VL]H VKDSH FRORU DQG EHKDY- sorted into four different clades, with one clade exhibit- ior” (Ostrander 41). Breed clubs were important because ing a one percent difference (Ostrander 5). A clade is a they “created the opportunity for new breeds - because type of grouping of organisms in a phylogenic tree, which small changes in morphology would require a new set of shows the relationship between the evolving organisms standards as each individual breed is supposed to breed and their ancestors. The fact that there are four clades true; further, they genetically separated the breeds by
16 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal requiring the parents of each new puppy to be a regis- grew, the aggressive stereotype grew as well. Many do tered member of the same breed in order for the puppy not easily see them as nice, family dogs because of the to be eligible for registration” (Ostrander 41). These two dogs’ continuous use in the police force (Sarkauskas para. factors had large impacts on breed development as they 2). Even though German Shepherds made the transition strengthened the concept of different breeds and were from working dog to family dog, their authoritative role extremely strict in their acceptance. As breed clubs be- contributed to discrimination, just like that of the Pit Bull. came a societal fad, the drive to own a dog that met all of Discrimination against these breeds and their owners is ev- these criterion grew. Society adapted to the development ident in legislative acts and housing authority restrictions. of the breeds to the point where they recognized the dif- ferences between breeds, and in turn, chose their favorite. CASE STUDIES Pit Bulls, German Shepherds, Rottweilers, and Do- SOCIETAL OUTLOOKS EHUPDQ3LQVFKHUVDUHRIWHQVLQJOHGRXWLQEUHHGVSHFL¿F Breeds have grown to be recognized by specif- legislation and in housing and insurance contracts. In cit- ic morphological and behavioral features. This, in turn, LHVDFURVVWKHFRXQWU\VSHFL¿FEUHHGVDUHKHOGWRGLIIHUHQW KDV VSHFL¿F SURV DQG FRQV IRU WKH ³VHOHFWHG´ EUHHGV standards or are banned. For example, Pit Bulls are banned The breeds that are preferred by society are deemed the in hundreds of cities due to misconceptions of their breed highest while all the others are dropped lower. This also +ROODQGSDUD ³%UHHG6SHFL¿F/DZV6WDWHE\6WDWH´ KDSSHQVZKHQFHUWDLQEUHHGVPDLQWDLQVSHFL¿FIXQFWLRQ- ³3XEOLF+RXVLQJ$XWKRULW\%UHHG6SHFL¿F3ROLFLHV´ $Q- al roles in society. Certain breeds were created to serve other instance of this is Miami-Dade County where there VSHFL¿FIXQFWLRQVLQVRFLHW\RUWKH\ZHUHDVVLJQHGWKHLU is a Pit Bull Ban. The Miami-Dade County ordinances on roles based on the traits they possessed. The function of Pit Bulls do not allow any new Pit Bulls into the county, these breeds impact how society views them, such as how DQGWKRVHDOUHDG\WKHUHPXVWEHFRQ¿QHGLQDFDJHWKDWLV some may view the German Shepherd as intimidating at least six feet tall while in the home, and must wear spe- EHFDXVHLWLVXVHGE\DXWKRULW\¿JXUHV7KHUROHVEUHHGV FL¿FUHVWUDLQWGHYLFHVZKHQRXWVLGH DGGLWLRQDOO\WKHRZQ- SOD\ LQ VRFLHW\ GLUHFWO\ LQÀXHQFH KRZ WKH\ DUH YLHZHG HUPXVWSD\IRUD¿IW\WKRXVDQGGROODULQVXUDQFHSROLF\LQ The differentiation among breeds, as well as their varying case the dog bites someone (Miami-Dade County Code of roles, opens the door to discrimination and stereotypes. Ordinances Sec. 5-17.1 - 5-17.7). This restriction forced Breeds do not only suffer because of stereotypes many Pit Bull owners to surrender their pets to shelters based upon their characteristics, but also from the char- where most are euthanized. Ordinances like this result in acteristics of their owners. In the mid-twentieth centu- the pointless deaths of thousands of Pit Bulls a day all ry, Pit Bulls were associated with upper to middle class because the breed is stereotyped based on outliers. Hous- white families. They were referred to as “nanny dogs” ing complexes and insurance agencies are also prejudice because of their “friendly nature, loyalty, and stability” WRVSHFL¿FEUHHGV3OXVWKH2UODQGR+RXVLQJ$XWKRULW\ (Holland para. 1). Pit Bulls were known as the perfect where “dog breeds including Pit Bull, Rottweiler, Chow, family dogs since they were often depicted in family Boxer, Doberman, Dalmatian, and German Shepherd are portraits with children and seen in movies such as The considered vicious or intimidating breeds and are not al- Little Rascals (Frosek 2). However, in the late twentieth lowed” (Public Housing Authority Sec. Orlando). These century, Pit Bulls began the transition from loving fam- ordinances and bans are not based on size or strength of ily pet, to feared guard dog. Pit Bulls became the breed VSHFL¿FEUHHGVEXWRQSXEOLFRSLQLRQVWKDWWKHGRJVDUH of choice for lower class men who were often involved too dangerous to live in the area. These restrictions unfair- in illegal activities, such as gangs and drug distribution ly target the breeds that humans spent hundreds of years (Holland para. 3-4). Pit Bulls were then bred, and used, perfecting for the traits that now detrimentally mark them. WRLQWLPLGDWHULYDOJDQJVJXDUGSURSHUWLHVDQG¿JKWRQH Humans discriminate against the morphological and another to the death (Holland 3). In order to achieve such behavioral characteristics that were initially sought af- aggressive behavior in dogs that previously served as the ter during selective breeding. Pit Bulls, who were once caretakers of children, they were often neglected, abused, viewed as nanny dogs because they were so good at watch- and left chained outside (Holland 3). With this transition ing children, are now viewed as the devil dogs of society. in ownership, Pit Bulls began to be looked down upon by The breeds’ once positive attributes are now reversed and society, just like their owners. Similar to Pit Bulls, people used against them as the dogs are taught by their owners stereotype German Shepherds based upon their owners. WR¿JKWWRWKHGHDWKLQDQH[KLELWLRQRIOR\DOW\DQGDJJUHV- In the nineteen-seventies, German Shepherds were intro- sion. Doberman Pinschers and Rottweilers are also used duced to the US police and military forces (“Dogs for Law in these extreme circumstances and they too, suffer from Enforcement” para. 4). Many people found the dogs to be the same negative connotations. German Shepherds are intimidating and frightening as they accompanied police also sometimes used in illegal activities; however, they are RI¿FHUVRQSDWURO &DUPRG\SDUD $VPHGLDSRUWUD\- most often on the other side of the law working alongside als of German Shepherds used in perpetrator take-downs police and military personnel. The exhibition of their size
17 Hopper DOI 10.24049/aq.3.1.2 and strength for intimidation also results in some negative heavily regulated, many people do not want to take on associations. Regardless of which role they are playing, the task of trying to own one. This causes these breeds all members of these breeds suffer because of society’s to be euthanized more, on average, than other breeds. FKRLFHLQFUHDWLQJWKHPWREHXWLOL]HGIRUVSHFL¿FSXUSRVHV At any given time, Pit Bulls make up one-third or more RI VKHOWHU SRSXODWLRQV DQG VHYHQW\¿YH SHUFHQW RI 3LW PROBLEMATIC STEREOTYPES Bulls are euthanized immediately upon intake (D’Addio The stereotypes that these breeds suffer from often arise para. 4). Up to one million Pit Bulls are euthanized each from misconceptions. The most widely claimed stereo- year, which equates to just under three thousand a day types include those centered on bite statistics, the “kill- (D’Addio para. 5). Pit Bulls are suffering and dying en er” status, and the unfamiliarity of the circumstances mass because of human stereotypes that are the direct re- VXUURXQGLQJWKHDWWDFN%LWHVWDWLVWLFVDUHÀDZHGEHFDXVH sult of the characteristics that humans had bred them for. they most often put the Pit Bull as number one on the list; however, this is not accurate. Dog bite statistics most of- CONCLUSION ten do not depict statistics at all; they show the most pub- 6HOHFWLYHEUHHGLQJRIFDQLQHVEHJDQZLWKWKH¿UVWGRPHV- licized attacks that are usually based on the severity of tication of the dog, as humans tried to create dogs that the bite. In studies that stretch across breeds, small dogs were less like their wolf ancestors. However, the selec- such as Dachshunds, Chihuahuas, Jack Russell Terriers, tive breeding period focused on for this research is that and Cocker Spaniels showed more aggression and bit which occurred in the last two centuries. Since the de- more people than large breeds (Vilibert para. 2). A study OLEHUDWHDUWL¿FLDOVHOHFWLRQUHVXOWLQJLQWKHFUHDWLRQRIWKH from the journal Applied Animal Behavior Science found hundreds of breeds known today began then. Breeds were that Dachshunds were the most aggressive breed where selectively created as certain traits were sought after and ³RQHLQ¿YHKDYHELWRUDWWHPSWHGWRELWHDVWUDQJHUDQG bred into the gene pool until all subsequent puppies pos- one in twelve have lashed out at their owners” (Vilibert sessed the selected traits. Traits that were sought after in- para. 1-2). In that same study, Pit Bulls and Rottweilers cluded physical characteristics, such as size and strength, were found to demonstrate “average to below average” and behavioral characteristics, such as temperament and aggression (Vilibert para. 4). The “killer” status that Pit aggression. As breeds started to be recognized based off Bulls and the aforementioned breeds are often attributed of these selected traits, certain stereotypes simultane- to is also false. Large breed dogs are not the only breeds ously developed. Prejudices also advanced because of that have killed humans, although they are often portrayed the tasks assigned to each breed, such as Pit Bulls used in the media that way. There are documented incidents of as guard dogs and German Shepherds as police dogs. Pomeranians, Jack Russell Terriers, and Cocker Spaniels Likewise, attacks performed by individual members of mauling people to death (“The Breeds Most Likely to Kill” certain breeds have led to stereotypes where the entire SDUD ,QDVSHFL¿FH[DPSOHDQHZERUQFKLOGGLHVDIWHU breed is essentially blamed for the individual dog’s ac- being bitten by the family’s Jack Russell Terrier (“Week- tions. Breed discrimination progressed to a point where Old Baby Dies After being Bitten by Jack Russell” para. it is overwhelmingly evident in current legislative acts, 7KLVFDVHVWXG\H[HPSOL¿HVWKHIDFWWKDWDOOEUHHGVRI newspaper articles, case studies, and canine statistics. dogs, not just the large ones, are capable of killing. While Pit Bulls have killed humans, they are not the only breeds WORKS CITED that have done so and because of this, the “killer” ste- “AKC: Dog Breeds.” American Ken- reotype should not be attributed to them alone. Another nel Club. Web. 16 Apr. 2016. component of stereotypes that is often overlooked is the “Baby Girl Killed by Family Dog.” Los Ange- circumstances the dog was in prior to the attack. In a study les Times. Los Angeles Times, 09 Oct. 2000. conducted by the American Temperament Test Society on ³%UHHG6SHFL¿F /DZV 6WDWHE\ 6WDWH´ 'RJV%LWH Pit Bull attacks, eighty-four percent of the dogs suffered org. Lynn Media Group. Web. 16 Apr. 2016. from neglect and abuse and eighty-six percent of the dogs “Dangerous Dog Breeds.” DogsBite.org. Lynn Media Group. were unneutered males (“Pit Bulls are just about the Nic- Carmody, Deirdre. “Six Police Dogs to Be As- HVW'RJV7KHUH$UH´¿JXUH 7KLVVWDWLVWLFVKRZVWKDWWKH VLJQHG WR &HQWUDO 3DUN´ 7KH 1HZ 18 Aquila - The FGCU Student Research Journal ian. Guardian News and Media, 29 Feb. 2016. Sarkauskas, Susan. “From Working Dog to Fami- Holland, Joshua. “Pit Bulls Used to Be Considered the ly Pet: Police Dogs in Retirement.” Daily Her- Perfect “Nanny Dogs” for Children -- Until the Media ald. Paddock Publications Inc., 31 Aug. 2014. Turned Them Into Monsters.” Alternet. 30 Jan. 2013. Smith, Christine. “Pit Bull Mickey Mauls Child; Jones, Layla A. “From Abused to Adored, Al- Judge Lets Dog Live but It Can’t Be Adopted.” ¿H WKH 7KHUDS\ 3LW %XOO´ 3KLOO\FRP 3KLO- Baltimore Post-Examiner. Baltimore Post-Ex- adelphia Media Network, 23 June 2014. aminer, 31 Mar. 2014. Web. 06 Apr. 2016. “Miami-Dade County Code of Ordinances.” Miamidade. “The Breeds Most Likely to Kill.” Dog org. Bite Law. Kenneth M. Phillips. Ostrander, Elaine A., and Anatoly Ruvinsky. The Genetics of Vilibert, Diana. “The 3 Most Aggressive the Dog. 2nd ed. Wallingford: CAB International, 2012. 'RJ %UHHGV 0D\ 6XUSULVH 19