Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Home , Insular area, Mariana mallard, Mount Lamlam

June 1987

NTIS order #PB87-205829 Recommended Citation: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas, OTA-F-325 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 1987).

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 86-600595

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325 (order form on p. 443) Foreword

The United States has political, economic, humanitarian, and strategic interests in sustained economic development of U.S.-affiliated Caribbean and Pacific islands. Despite a U.S. commitment to support the economic vitality of these islands, most have become less self- reliant in food and fiber production, and now depend increasingly on Federal funding for jobs, public welfare, and food and other goods and services to the islands. Interest in the development of increased self-reliance in U.S.-affiliated islands has grown significantly in the last two decades. After 16 years of negotiation, the Congress, the United Nations and three governments emerging from the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands —the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Common- wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands—approved agreements redefining their relationships with the United States. The remaining agreement, with the Republic of Palau, is expected soon, thus terminating the only remaining trusteeship created by the United Nations after World War II. Concomitant with the interest in development of island self-government has been concern over development of self-reliance. Similarly, the economic well-being of the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands has come under increasing scrutiny due to the growing strategic importance of the Caribbean Basin, and the implementation of the Caribbean Basin Initiative, Several factors contributing to the growing dependence of U.S.-affiliated islands include: scant natural resources and long distances between islands and sources of inputs, products, or markets; rapidly growing populations; tropical resource characteristics with generally high natural productivity but extreme vulnerability to disruption; and common histories of significant resource degradation. Despite the latter, the economic constraints posed by size and isolation of many of these islands dictate that much of the productive sector be based on renewable resources—agriculture, aquiculture, fisheries, and tourism. Renewable resource development can help foster self-sufficiency, but certain approaches are not compatible with sustained development (e. g., harvesting resources until long-term productivity is lost, resources are depleted, or the environment is degraded). Similarly, policies, programs, and projects that seriously conflict with local cultures and customs are likely to be counterproductive. The Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, in 1984, requested the Office of Technology Assessment to conduct an assessment of the constraints to development of insular resource-based enterprises, and the opportunities to improve sustainable renewable resource development and management on the U.S.-affiliated islands. The House Commit- tee on Interior and Insular Affairs endorsed the request. The assessment identifies and dis- cusses in-depth some constraints and opportunities to integrated management of renewable resources on these islands. OTA greatly appreciates the contributions of its advisory panel and workshop participants assembled for the study, and the authors of the commissioned papers. We are especially grateful for the time and effort donated by the numerous contributors who served as reviewers and as liaisons from the insular governments and other government agencies. In addition, we would like to thank those from within OTA who provided assistance, particularly Dr. Gordon Law of the International Security and Commerce Program. As with all OTA studies the content of the report is the sole responsibility of OTA.

iii Integrated Renewable Resources Management for U.S. Insular Areas Advisory Panel Fernando Abruna Jerome McElroy Soil Scientist (retired) Department of Business Administration and Puerto Rico Economics John S. Corbin Saint Mary’s College Aquiculture Development Program Dieter Mueller-Dombois Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Department of Botany Resources University of Hawaii Eric Dillingham Robert Owen Farmer Chief Conservation Officer (retired) U.S. Virgin Islands Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Lucius G. Eldredge Maria T. Pangelinan Micronesian Area Research Center Saipan Farmers Cooperative Association University of Guam Frank Peterson Sam Falanruw Department of Geology and Geophysics Department of Resources and Development University of Hawaii Yap State Government Allen Putney Michael J. Gawel Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Chief of Marine Resources Management Program Federated States of Micronesia West Indies Lab Michael Hamnett Ralph Schmidt Pacific Islands Development Program Forest Division East/West Center Food and Agriculture Organization Stanley Hosie Rome, Italy Foundation for the Peoples of the South Ace Tago Pacific Pacific Management and Research Carolyn Imamura Associates planning and Programs Edward Towle Pacific Basin Development Council Island Resources Foundation Robert E. Johannes Patrick Williams Division of Fisheries Research Commissioner of Agriculture CSIRO Marine Laboratories U.S. Virgin Islands Shelley M. Mark Adrian Winkel Department of Agriculture and Resource Former High Commissioner Economics Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands University of Hawaii John Matuszak VI Cooperative Extension Service College of the Virgin Islands

NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the reviewers. The reviewers do not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full responsibility for the report and the accuracy of its contents. iv OTA Project Staff on Integrated Renewable Resource Management of U.S. Insular Areas

Roger Herdman, Assistant Director, OTA Health and Life Sciences Division

Walter E. Parham, Program Manager Food and Renewable Resources Program

Alison L. Hess, Project Director

Analytical Staff Patricia J. Durana, Research Analyst1 David S. Liem, Analyst 2 Eric Passaglia, Special Assistant and Spanish Translator Meriwether Wilson, Research Analyst2 Susan J. Wintsch, Contracted Editor Benjamin Yarofmal, Research Assistant4

Clerical Staff Patricia Durana5 Rebecca Erickson6 Sally Shafroth7 Administrative Assistants Carolyn Swann Nellie Hammond Secretaries

1From August 1985. 2From January 1985 to May 1986. 3From June 1985 to September 1985. 4From May 1986 to August 1986. 5From October 1984 to August 1985. 6From August 1985 to November 1986. 7From November 1986. CONTENTS

Page Chapter l. Executive Summary ...... 3 Chapter 2. Introduction ...... 39 Chapter 3 Island Structure and Resource Systems ...... 49 Chapter 4. Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ...... 83 Chapter 5. Islands As Integrated Systems ...... 131 Chapter 6. Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ...... 185 Chapter 7. Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture...... 221 Chapter 8. Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ...... 275 Chapter 9. Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ... ..3l9 Chapter 10. Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ...... 347 Appendix A. Maps of the U.S.-Affiliated Islands ...... 369 Appendix B. Other U.S. Island Possessions in the Tropical Pacific ...... 373 Appendix C. U.S. Military Presence in U.S.-Affiliated Islands ...... 377 Appendix D. Integration of Traditional and Modern Law...... ,...... 381 Appendix E. Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Carribbean and Pacific Islands ...... 384 Appendix F. Summary of Regional Workshops ...... 406 Appendix G. Commissioned Papers ...... 426 Appendix H. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms ...... 429 Index ...... 437 Chapter 1 Summary CONTENTS

Page Introduction ...... 2 Insular Resource History and Trends...... 6 Insular Renewable Resources ...... 7 Islands as Integrated Resource Systems...... : ...... 9 Constraints to the Sustainable Development of Renewable Resources . . . . 10 Opportunities for the Sustainable Development and Use of Renewable Resources ...... 11 Development Goals and Strategies ...... 13 Introduction ...... 13 Agriculture, Agroforestry and Forestry ...... 13 Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture...... 18 Technologies To Support Resource Development ...... 21 Preharvest Control Technologies ...... 21 Food Preservation and Processing ...... 22 Market Development ...... 22 Cooperatives ...... 22 Vertical Integration of Operations ...... 22 Technologies To Support Resource Sustainability ...... 23 Agriculture ...... 23 Fisheries ...... 23 Technologies To Support Resource Recovery...... 26 Integrating Technologies , ...... 26 Planning/Policy Considerations ...... 28 Summary of Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ...... 30 Congressional Oversight and Federal Agency Coordination Issues ...... 30 Data Collection and Information Management Issues ...... 32 Research Issues ...... 33 Education, Extension, and Training Issues ...... 35 Incentive Issues ...... 36

Table Table No. Page l-1. Population, Land Areas, and Estimated U.S. Federal Expenditures in U.S.-Affiliated Islands...... 5

Figures Figure No. Page l-1. U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands and Neighboring States ...... 3 l-2. U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands and Neighboring States ...... 4 l-3. Micronesia and the United States: A Comparison of Size ...... 5 l-4. Erosive Energy Buffer Systems on Islands ...... 10 Chapter 1 Executive Summary

INTRODUCTION The U.S.-affiliated tropical islands include of Micronesia (FSM), and the Republic of Palau Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) in the Pacific (figure 1-2). All of these islands, in the Caribbean (figure l-l) and American Sa- except Puerto Rico, are very small (table l-l); mea, Guam, the Commonwealth of the North- the Micronesia island groups are distributed ern Marianas Islands (CNMI), the Republic of over an area as large as the conterminous the Marshall Islands (RMI), the Federated States United States (figure I-3) but have an aggregate

Figure 1-1 .—U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands and Neighboring States

ATLANTIC OCEAN Miles 1 I I I 1 0 200

LESSER ANTILLES Virgin Puerto Islands Rico U.S.\ Anguilla ,*%I .%

Jamaica Republic St. Martin O Antigua St. Kitts t ?

;Dominica

CARIBBEAN SEA St. Lucia h St. Vincent ● Q Barbados Aruba ● Curacao a..

SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1986 4 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 1-2.— U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands and Neighboring States

State of Hawaii

Tropic of Cancer .- —. —--——— . — — —— — - -— ——— — — — - — — —— — — — — —- -—————

North Pacific Ocean

SOURCE Adapted from a map prepared by the State of Hawaii Department of Planning and Economic Development, 1984 land area less than that of Rhode Island. The eligible for some international aid; the United U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands also are distant States retains responsibility for national defense. from major foreign population centers. The majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands As commonwealths, Puerto Rico and the have developed dependence on Federal fund- CNMI have autonomous governments, but are ing to provide jobs, to support public welfare, voluntarily associated with the United States. and to import food and other goods and serv- The USVI, American Samoa, and Guam are un- ices to the islands. Several factors common to incorporated territories with semi-autonomous the U.S.-affiliated islands have contributed to this dependence: governments. The FSM and RMI, which (along with the CNMI and Palau) comprised the former 1. lack of full political status and benefits of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, have re- States; cently signed compacts with the United States 2. scant natural resources and large distances to become Freely Associated States. This sta- between islands and sources of inputs, tus allows the islands free control of internal products, or markets; affairs, assures them fiscal aid, and makes them 3. rapidly growing populations; Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 5

Tabie 1-1.— Population, Land Areas, and Estimated U.S. Federal Expenditures in U.S.-Affiliated Islands

1984 Land area Approximate number Estimated U.S. Federal Insular area Population a (sq. mi.)b of islandsb expenditures, 1984C Puerto Rico...... 3,270,000 3,425 4 $5,420 million U.S. Virgin Islands...... 107,500 132 66 $ 387 million Guam ...... 119,800 209 1 $ 768 million American Samoa ...... 35,300 77 7 $ 61 million Northern Mariana Islands...... 18,600 182 21 $ 103 million Marshall Islands...... 34,900 70 1,225 Federated States of Micronesia ...... 88,400 279 607 $ 163 million Palau ...... 13,000 179 350 SOURCES a Land Use Planning Report, 13(46):365, November 25, 1965; U S. Department of State, 1984 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, report to the United Nations on administration of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1965 b U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1976); U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- tion, The Virgin Islands Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979); US Department of State, Annual Reports for American Samoa, Guam, and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1980. C U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Federal Expenditures by State, FY 1985 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government printing Office, 1986) Includes: 1) Grants to State and local governments, 2) Federal salaries, 3) payments to individuals, 4) procurement, and 5) other

Figure 1-3.—Micronesia and the Contiguous United States: A Comparison of Size

NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS

\ <

4 MARSHALL I , ISLANDS Yap 9 Colonia \ * Truk ● Majuro = Kobor. - ● Kolonla

Kosrae FEDERATED STATES OF. . MICRONESIA I PALAU

SOURCE Adapted from H F Nufer, Micronesia Under American Rule: An Evaluation of the Strategic Trusteeship (1947-1977) (Hicksville, NY Exposition Press, 1978) 6 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

4. tropical resource characteristics with gen- ple, harvesting resources to the point where erally high natural productivity but ex- long-term productivity is lost, resources are treme vulnerability to disruption; and depleted, or the environment is degraded is ulti- 5. common histories of resource degradation. mately counterproductive. Similarly, policies, programs, and projects that seriously conflict Despite the United States’ past and present with local cultures and customs are likely to commitment to the economic vitality of the be counterproductive. U.S.-affiliated islands, most have become less self-sufficient in food production over the past several decades. This dependence amounts to Insular Resource History and Trends a complete reversal of precontact tradition. Be- fore European discovery, the inhabited Pacific Although the histories of the peoples and settlement of the U.S.-affiliated island areas are and Caribbean islands were self-supporting. diverse, certain common factors exist: People subsisted on the available marine and terrestrial natural resources and extended fam- 1. on most islands, relatively large indigenous ily systems provided for members unable to pro- populations were sustained by island re- vide for themselves. sources before western contact and rem- Changes occurred with colonization and the nants of traditional agriculture and fish- increasing influence of foreign cultures. Colo- ery practices still exist on many islands; 2. all of these islands were colonized or nial policies and practices over several centuries, the introduction of new fishery and ag- administered by foreign nations whose ac- ricultural technologies and cash economies, tivities primarily were designed to exploit military occupation and use, and the advent of island resources; and tourism, all have affected island resource sys- 3. all of the islands have been of some strate- tems and uses. Growing populations on many gic importance to the United States and islands represent an added stress on an already most remain so. limited resource base. The islands share common renewable re- High levels of financial aid from the United source problems, including both natural (e.g., States during the last two decades have not ful- flooding, landslides, and other natural hazards) and manmade resource degradation. Defores- filled the intention of fostering modern, self- tation and soil-moving for agriculture and con- sufficient island economies. Largely directed struction have caused heavy soil erosion on toward social support programs, generous aid many islands and adversely affected the sur- packages may have reduced local incentives to rounding coral reefs. Numerous island species pursue that goal. are near extinction, and others have already A self-sufficient economy meets as many do- gone extinct, due partly to habitat loss (e.g., mestic needs as possible, and generates export removal of mangroves), to overexploitation revenue to pay for the imports required for a (e.g., hunting of fruit bats), and to introduction desired or acceptable standard of living. De- of exotic competitive or predatory species (e.g., velopment of an active productive sector on the brown tree snake, mongoose). Increasing hu- islands may foster increased self-sufficiency. man population density, combined with inade- The economic constraints posed by size and quate sewage treatment, and introduction of isolation of many of these islands dictate that agricultural and industrial chemicals has re- much of the productive sector be based on nat- duced freshwater and nearshore water quality ural resources—e.g., agriculture, fisheries, and on many islands. Oil spills have damaged near- tourism. shore environments in both the Pacific and the Renewable resource development can help Caribbean. foster self-sufficiency, but sustainable develop- Turtles, nearshore fish and shellfish, and cer- ment precludes certain approaches. For exam- tain tree species have been overexploited in Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 7 many island areas. Despite attempts to recover ● efforts to culture species (e.g., aquiculture, declining populations, poaching by local in- culture of crops currently gathered from habitants and foreign nationals continues. Dy- the wild); and namite and chlorine bleach used by Pacific ● efforts to enhance existing renewable re- fishermen to “fish” have long-term destructive sources (e.g., artificial reefs, enrichment effects on the reef and lagoon areas. Dredging planting of forests). and mining in nearshore areas has resulted in Sustainable renewable resource management the loss of many mangrove areas and coral depends not only on the capability of the eco- reefs, which in turn may adversely affect near- logical resources, but also on the availability shore fishery potential. Shipwrecks, heavy sedi- of skilled labor and willingness to engage in mentation, and anchor gouges have caused sig- resource management and development activ- nificant degradation of coral reefs and seagrass ities. Many young adults seek education and beds near many islands. employment opportunities in the U.S. main- Puerto Rico’s nearshore waters have been land. Despite substantial outward migration, heavily exploited and very nearly overfished. remaining populations are rapidly growing. Similarly, even modest increases in fishing ef- Many of those who remain depend on ex- fort could surpass the natural capacity of waters tended family relationships and social support around the USVI. While good data on harvest programs to supply their needs. Most formal levels and production capacities in the Pacific labor is captured by local governments and are lacking, there is evidence of depletion in services for the public sector and its employ- the nearshore environment, particularly around ees. Wages, security, and prestige are higher urban centers. in government employment. Skilled labor, train- More exotic resource problems remain in the ing, and interest in the agriculture and fisheries Pacific islands, American and Japanese mili- sectors are low on all the islands. tary ordnance from World War II still litter some of the islands, presenting a hazard to hu- Insular Renewable Resources mans and inhibiting the use of some lands. Chemical repositories on Johnston Island have Characteristics of island resources—soil, leaked military chemicals into the groundwater. water, vegetation, and wildlife—determine the Nuclear testing in the Marshalls has rendered uses and technologies that may be implemented several islands virtually uninhabitable. Efforts productively and sustainably. U.S.-affiliated is- are being made to restore these islands to lands may be categorized into four groups with habitable conditions. Although surface nuclear common resource characteristics: tests have been banned; other islands still are 1. high volcanic islands: peaks of undersea used as nonnuclear practice bombardment volcanoes (both active and dormant), often targets. surrounded by fringing reefs; Concerns have increased over adverse trends 2. low-lying atolls: composed entirely of coral- in resource use resulting in efforts to maintain line reef limestone enclosing a lagoon; or enhance resources on many of the U. S.- 3. raised limestone islands: primarily lime- affiliated islands. These concerns have been ex- stone, originally formed in waters sur- pressed in a variety of ways, including: rounding older volcanic islands and now above sea level; and ● efforts to maintain the resource base (e. g., 4. continental islands: geologic extensions of coastal resource management); ● continents or parts of certain undersea efforts to restore the renewable resource mountain ranges. base (e.g., reforestation, captive breeding of endangered populations); All of the islands are within the tropical cli- ● efforts to redirect use to underused re- matic region characterized by warm, relatively sources (e.g., outer reef fisheries); stable temperatures and commonly high humid- 8 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment A low-lying atoll island in the Marshall Islands, built on the inside edge of an encircling coral reef. ity. Precipitation levels vary widely among the Chemical weathering of soils predominates islands. Rainfall has high kinetic energy and, on tropical islands causing accelerated leach- thus, greater ability to erode soils than in tem- ing of soil nutrients. Resultant soils generally perate regions. Further, the islands are vulner- are nutrient-poor regardless of parent rock type. able to major disturbances—hurricanes and Further, the chemical composition of the re- typhoons (e.g., the western north Pacific resulting soils often is imbalance so that many ceives an average of 26.3 typhoons per year), food or tree crops will exhibit stunted growth which can have devastating effects on re- or will not survive. sources, infrastructure, and populations. Because of differing histories of formation Freshwater availability is determined largely and geology, the nature and extent of renewa- by island structure. Atolls have no natural sur- ble resources on the islands vary. However, face water and retain little groundwater due their insular ecology leads to certain common- to highly permeable soils. On the other hand, alities among resource systems: flash flooding and heavy erosion is common on high islands where slopes are steep. Hydro- ● richness in endemic species, logic systems are much more complex on con- ● species-richness of forests, tinental islands, corresponding to their more ● value to science disproportionate to their complex geology. size, are infertile, barren, and actively eroding.

● vulnerability to disruption, and flow and movement of animals, allowing re- ● vulnerability to overexploitation. colonization and recovery of degraded areas. Thus, the value of individual ecosystems in- Islands as Integrated Resource cludes not only the particular resources they systems contain, but also their essential functions in the insular ecology. Island ecosystems are closely interrelated. Is- land terrestrial ecosystems, structured topo- Unmodified island ecosystems generally are graphically from highland forests to coastal at equilibrium. However, environmental ma- vegetation, sequentially buffer the erosive nipulation or modification generally is neces- forces of heavy tropical rainfall and rapid run- sary to accommodate human populations. If off and protect nearshore marine ecosystems such modifications allow the natural flow of from excessive freshwater intrusion and sedi- energy, freshwater, and nutrients through the mentation (figure 1-4). Similarly, the combina- system the natural equilibrium still may be tion of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and littoral maintained. Options exist in the methods and vegetation serve to reduce the erosive energy types of modifications to be enacted; selection of wave action, thereby protecting shorelines of a development approach which mimics or from erosion and providing the basic conditions acts in concert with the desired natural proc- for island expansion. Organic matter also is ess will result in fewer impacts on associated transported among these ecosystems via water ecosystems. 10 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 1-4.— Erosive Energv Buffer Svstems on Islands

I Saltwater and storm surge buffer system

SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1986

Traditional island societies demonstrated a Constraints to the Sustainable keen sense of the interrelated nature of the is- Development of Renwewable Resources land ecosystems: activities were designed to mimic natural ecosystems and preserve related A number of physical, biological, geographi- environmental functions. Damaged areas were cal, and socioeconomic factors constrain sus- left fallow allowing natural recovery processes tainable renewable resource development and to restore productivity. Present population pres- management on U.S.-affiliated islands. Physi- sure coupled with human economic desires pre- cal constraints that particularly affect small is- clude most resource uses which rely on time land agriculture and land-based aquiculture are for recovery. Alternative methods include aban- limited availability of land and water resources. doning degraded lands, or expending consid- Low fertility of tropical soils, occasional tor- erable money, energy, and effort to reclaim sites rential rainfall, distinct dry seasons on some (e.g., reforestation). islands, and mountainous topography of high volcanic and continental islands may preclude The U.S.-affiliated islands’ renewable re- some types of agricultural activity. Physical sources still provide many goods and services, constraints to fisheries development include however, they have not become the basis of via- low productivity of offshore tropical waters and ble, modern economies. A variety of factors limited extent of productive nearshore areas. constrain efforts to achieve this goal. Many nearshore resources already are being Ch. 1—Executive Summary • 11 exploited near or beyond sustainable levels. Ma- migration and reluctance of the islanders to rine ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to nat- work in some types of employment creates a ural and human disturbance, often requiring demand for alien immigrant workers, whose long recovery periods. presence may create social tensions. Added to these constraints are the lack of reliable data on the status of island terrestrial Opportunities for the Sustainable and marine renewable resources, and incom- Development and Use of plete understanding of the “mechanics” of trop- Renewable Resources ical ecosystems. The development strategies and technologies designed for temperate fish- Opportunities exist for expanding the role of eries and agriculture are not readily transfera- renewable resources in the economic devel- ble to tropical settings. Failure to appreciate opment of the islands, and for reducing the this may explain why many “western” attempts islands’ heavy dependence on imports and to manage and develop resources in tropical U.S. aid. settings have not been successful. Warm temperatures and generally favorable Geographically, the Pacific islands are ex- climates characterize most of the U.S.-affiliated tremely isolated. Transportation in general is islands in both the Pacific and Caribbean re- difficult and unreliable. These factors, com- gions. The islands are capable of sustaining bined with small size or lack of formal markets high agricultural and aquatic productivity. The for export products, and proximity of major mangrove, seagrass, and coral reef ecosystems Asian competitors, make it difficult or impos- of these islands are highly productive and rich, sible to achieve economies of scale. Such con- and interactively support populations of eco- straints are much less severe in the Caribbean. nomically valuable marine organisms. Sustainable resource development is limited Nearshore marine resources show signs of not only by the inherent nature of tropical re- stress in both regions. However, the success sources, and island geographic settings, but also of the Japanese in Micronesia during the man- by several socioeconomic characteristics of the date period suggests there is unrealized poten- islands. In the Pacific, certain resource owner- tial in the Pacific for marine resource develop- ship and use traditions constrain access to re- ment, particularly through expanded use of sources by “outsiders,” including other is- underexploited and migratory species. Aqua- landers, who may be interested in developing culture may have some potential in the U. S.- the resource. Commercial development of re- affiliated islands to supply both local and ex- sources, in particular, is contrary to traditions port markets. Both regions have appropriate of harvesting for immediate subsistence use sites for pond, estuarine, or offshore culture only, and of sharing any harvesting excess with systems. However, significant constraints to needy relatives or friends. aquiculture development exist, including high cost of inputs, difficulty in obtaining juveniles, The skills and knowledge needed for sustaina- and lack of aquiculture extension services. ble resource development is also scarce on these Thus, aquiculture has not been developed to islands. Environment and resources play a mi- any great degree in the U.S.-affiliated islands. nor role in school curricula, or are entirely neglected. Education at all levels is primarily ori- The high islands of the Pacific and Puerto ented toward liberal arts. A preference exists Rico also have significant terrestrial resources. for government employment rather than in the There is potential for making traditional agri- fisheries and agriculture sectors which are per- cultural methods more productive and for in- ceived as “lower status. ” Many who do not find troducing new crops and technologies to the government jobs, migrate to the mainland U.S.-affiliated islands. Agroforestry, a landuse United States, and many who leave the islands system that integrates or rotates growth of to pursue higher education never return. Out- woody perennials and nonwoody crops or ani- 12 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Off/cc of Technology Assessment

Growing numbers of tourists visit the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands to enjoy their natural beauty and explore cultural and historic sites. (Pictured here: Truk Lagoon.) reals was traditionally practiced on many U. S.- The natural resources of tropical islands also affiliated islands. Incorporating trees into more may contribute to economic development through productive agricultural systems can optimize tourism. Tourists are attracted to the islands landuse while retaining the advantages of a for- because of their warm climates, coral reefs, est (watershed protection, erosion control, wild- beaches, flora and fauna, and spectacular scen- life habitat). ery. Tourism and related industries currently comprise the major economic sector of the Commercial agriculture still is considered USVI, and tourist presence in the Pacific re- desirable for the U.S.-affiliated islands. Even gion is growing rapidly. Tourists provide rev- small islands may become successful produc- enue by purchasing food, services, and island ers of specialty crops attractive to world mar- handicrafts. Although tourism has created envi- kets. Pohnpei black pepper, for example, has ronmental and social problems in the past, it penetrated U.S. gourmet markets. Coffee, nuts, has the potential to contribute significantly spices, essential and perfume oils, cacao, and to the economic self-sufficiency of the U. S.- certain ornamental plants, fruits, and vegeta- affiliated islands. Ideally, the tourism industry bles are all high-value crops which have mar- would be planned and developed to maximize ket potential. economic benefits to the islanders and mini- Ch. l—Executive Summary ● 13

mize negative environmental and social ing reduced unemployment and outmigration, impacts. improved lifestyles for islanders, and maintenance of biological diversity. If development Successful and sustainable renewable re- is sensitive to island traditions and practices, source development may assist in increasing it can also contribute to the retention of rich the self-sufficiency of the U.S.-affiliated islands. cultural heritages. There are many other potential benefits, includ-

DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND STRATEGIES Introduction ing many natural ecosystem functions. Com- mon Pacific island systems are: Imports constitute the bulk of island consumption, thus, to increase self-sufficiency ter- ● culture of wetland tare, ritories must either produce enough to satisfy ● atoll pit taro culture, local consumption, or generate export earnings ● mixed “tree gardening, ” to balance imports, or both. In view of the con- ● intermittent tree gardening, straints to agricultural development and in- ● “lanchos” (weekend farms) and backyard creasing depletion of nearshore marine re- gardening, and sources on many islands, total self-sufficiency ● traditional open canopy culture. is probably not attainable. A more attainable In the U.S. Caribbean, little indigenous agri- goal may be to improve the islands’ long-term culture remains, but traditional agriculture sys- productive capacities through optimal use of tems have been brought into Puerto Rico and land available for food production (taking into the USVI by “down-island” migrants such as account other land use requirements), redirect- the French herb farmers from neighboring St. ing marine harvest to include certain underex- Barthelemy who practice a specialized form of ploited species and offshore areas, and further polyculture of herb and tree crops. development of culture techniques. Strategies for agriculture or fisheries development could Despite the success of traditional systems, be tailored to nonmarket, semicommercial or most modern attempts to develop agriculture on full commercial production as appropriate. the islands largely have followed the U.S. ex- What is appropriate may vary among islands ample of consolidated, capital-intensive mono- and will depend on many geographical, eco- culture requiring imported fertilizers, pesti- logical, and socioeconomic factors. cides, irrigation or drainage systems, and mechanization. Although efforts to develop The integrated management of renewable re- agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands sources for sustained yields requires a blend have been introduced as small-scale projects of strategies for resource development as well for limited-resource farmers, many have been as for resource conservation, recovery, and unsuccessful for reasons including: replenishment. Strategies simply to increase harvests of already overexploited resources ● lack of markets, may raise yields initially, but will ultimately ● low market prices, lead to depletion that may be irreversible. ● technologies dependent on imported inputs, ● lack of management skills among farmers, Agriculture, Agroforestry, • diseases and pests, and and Forestry ● a general lack of commitment by the U.S. Traditional forms of agriculture remain on and local governments. many islands, especially in the Pacific. These Agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean forms evolved to be productive while retain- islands historically centered around major 14 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas —

Photo credit: C Hodges Eighty percent of American Samoan households engage in small-scale agriculture, commonly an indigenous polyculture as pictured here. export crops including such commodities as Major constraints to agricultural develop- sugar, tobacco, and coffee. Most of this type ment which apply to all of the U.S.-affiliated of agriculture was abandoned as markets de- islands generally fall into the following cate- clined and soils became degraded. Development gories: biophysical, economic, infrastructural, of modern agriculture in the U.S. Caribbean and sociocultural. Major biophysical con- has seen some success, especially in dairy and straints are low soil fertility, limited or irregu- beef production, and vegetables and fruits. Still, lar water resources, and limited arable land of Puerto Rico annually imports about 1.2 billion suitable soil types and level topography. Land dollars’ worth of food. Most farm operators in tenure systems, characterized by fragmented the USVI and Puerto Rico also engage in off- landholdings and clan influence over use rights, farm wage-earning activities. Many lands have are primary cultural constraints. Economic been abandoned, and agriculture has adapted constraints include the small size of domestic to resource loss by reducing farm size and ef- markets for agricultural products, availability fort, replacing capital-intensive inputs, and of high-paying alternate employment, low so- changing the composition of output from ex- cial esteem of farming, high cost of imported port crops to domestically consumed products. livestock feed and other inputs, and in tourism- Ch. 1—Executive Summary c 15 dominated islands, the relatively low value of sumption, although “surplus” commodi- agricultural lands compared to other uses (i.e., ties may be sold. Traditional cropping or commercial real estate). Undeveloped infra- gathering techniques commonly are used, structure on some islands (i.e., lack of rural farm and the number of crops produced usually roads, scarcity of transportation to markets) is greater than in commercial smallholder also pose constraints. systems. Successful tropical island agricultural sys- 2. Semicommercial smallholder: Individual tems generally exhibit characteristics which or family members regularly producing mimic and extend natural ecosystem processes commodities for the market, but only on by providing for water and nutrient flow, and a part-time basis. Farming mayor may not maintaining a canopy to protect and enhance be regularly directed to home consumption (the farmer may have a full-time wage job soil quality at critical periods. An agricultural system which incorporates a diversity of crop in the money economy). Commodities species and varieties strengthens the system’s sometimes are produced using modern resilience to disruption from pests and disease technology, 3. Commercial smallholder: Individual or outbreaks and, further, provides a variety of family member(s) producing solely or sub- products throughout the year despite erratic stantially for the market. Commercial weather patterns. For such systems to be readily adopted, they should be based on tradition- smallholders typically are full-time produc- ally used systems and require minimal exotic, ers who derive their principal livelihood nonrenewable inputs such as fossil fuel energy from farming. Commodities are normally or derived chemicals. produced using modern technology. The range of crops is much narrower than for Major characteristics of ecologically and eco- the subsistence smallholder, The commer- nomically sustainable systems include: cial smallholder may have a few wage employees, but most would rely solely on un- ● mimicking natural systems through polycultures that incorporate perennial species, paid family labor. 4. Large-scale commercial farming: Usually ● optimization of agroecosystem components (e.g., maximizing recycling of locally characterized by significant investment in available plant nutrients and natural main- operation, and use of paid wage and sal- tenance of soil moisture) rather than max- ary workers. Ownership commonly would imization of total yield, be corporate in form, with production . provision of farmer and consumer secu- using modern, high-input technology. Out- rity in areas prone to natural disaster and put per unit of land or labor would tend in areas with small and erratic markets, to be much higher than for smallholder and agriculture. ● emphasizing incremental changes from “Large-scale” commercial farming on the is- traditional agricultural systems to ease and lands is not large by continental U.S. standards. speed adoption. Commonly, field farming of over 20 acres or Although farm size, type of technologies ap- annual gross sales over $20,000 is considered a large-scale operation for the U.S.-affiliated plied, and farming goals are not directly related, islands. Most farming in the U.S. Pacific is sub- agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands can be classified into four general types that comprise sistence and semicommercial; in the U.S. Carib- a continuum of farming systems: bean islands, small-scale commercial and semicommercial farming is prevalent. In Puerto 1. Subsistence smallholder: Family (or clan) Rico, several large-scale enterprises exist, but member(s) producing solely for family con- the most recent of these (a large rice project 16 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas on the north coast and one Israeli-sponsored farmers in the pacific, and increase income for vegetable and fruit development on the south small-scale or semicommercial farmers in both coast) have failed. For the most part, island ecol- the Pacific and Caribbean areas. Modest acre- ogies and economies are not conducive to large- age is required for smallholder operations, scale farming. which rely heavily on family labor. Policies and technologies which would raise subsistence Strategy: Support and Protect sector productivity and strengthen urban mar- Nonmarket Agriculture kets for local farm products could assist in gradually expanding nonmarket production to semi- Nonmarket (subsistence and part-time) agri- commercial production. culture provides the basis for good nutrition and a cadre of people who will retain the inter- Several common characteristics of traditional ests and skills allowing future upgrading to systems might be integrated with modern prac- semicommercial and commercial systems. tices to achieve more productive agricultural systems with commercial potential. Improved Most subsistence agricultural systems are cultivars of traditional crops, as well as the in- characterized by high crop diversity, are well troduction of new crops and technologies may adapted to natural conditions, are strongly be appropriate for development efforts. Trees rooted in local culture, and make maximum use could be incorporated with crops in new, more of local resources. These systems generally are productive versions of traditional agroforests, stable, sustainable, and ecologically benign. space would be used as efficiently as possible, They often provide beneficial environmental and crop combinations designed to maximize services, such as soil stabilization and habitat overall productivity on a sustainable basis. Sim- protection. ilarly, livestock could be penned and fed agri- Without a conscious effort to preserve such cultural wastes, thus providing a supplemen- food production systems, even relatively sta- tary protein or income source and a supply of ble systems may become rare or disappear organic matter to re-apply to fields. along with the rich genetic heritage they rep- Commercial small-scale operations may be resent. Most traditional systems already are handicapped by small and unstable markets or declining. Potential mechanisms to support inadequate transportation services. Moreover, nonmarket agriculture include: small producers commonly are not able to pro- • consideration of the impacts of develop- duce uniform quality products, do not have ac- ment on traditional agriculture (e.g., as cess to adequate capital, and lack marketing a component of environmental impact skills. Thus, development of small-scale farm- statements); ing systems probably would require strong gov- ● provision of research and extension serv- ernment and private sector support for credit, ices for backyard gardeners; and identification and extension of appropriate ● enhanced game management to protect technologies and crops, and identification and traditional agriculture and provide an alter- creation of market outlets. nate source of protein for low-income Development of smallholder agriculture is families. likely to benefit the large number of subsistence Development projects that might have adverse farmers (Freely Associated States), semicom- impacts on traditional agricultural systems mercial, and part-time farmers (American could be redesigned. Samoa, Guam, the CNMI, Puerto Rico, and the USVI) in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Further, it Strategy: DeveIop Smallholder is likely to be more compatible with the present Agriculture land tenure systems than would large-scale farming. Smallholders tend to produce a large Development of smallholder agriculture range of commodities which may alleviate mar- could generate cash income for subsistence keting constraints in small size markets. Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 17

Photo credit” Office of Technology Assessment This semicommercial mixed polyculture on St. Thomas, USVI, provides more than 30 crops, including tree crops, for the farmer’s subsistence and for sale in a roadside stand. cases, improvements in management alone may increase yields. Strategy: Develop Intensive Commercial Farming Highly productive, commercial agriculture could be developed on a smaller scale in other Although subsistence and semicommercial farms may satisfy many local food needs, addi- island areas. Certain carefully selected crops and modern technologies could be adapted to tional commercial and competitive operations tropical island ecology. Where appropriate, in- are needed to generate cash to pay for imports. The high input requirements of large-scale com- creased mechanization for tillage, seeding, spraying, and harvesting could be made avail- mercial agriculture limit its applicability on able as agriculture develops. most of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Large parcels of land with uniform soil types are scarce An alternative to improved pasturage and in the Pacific territories; where they occur in more intensive field farming is cultivation in the Caribbean, they are expensive. Local mar- controlled environments. Various types of con- kets to absorb large product volumes are also tainer and site-controlled agriculture, ranging lacking, export potential is difficult to achieve, from small containers to permanent green- and transportation is poor. Although these fac- houses, offer potential for development of in- tors all constrain the development of large-scale tensive agriculture in the smallest U.S.-affiliated commercial farming, particularly in the Pacific, islands. Controlled-environment cultivation selective opportunities for such development may overcome some constraints posed by land exist. On Puerto Rico some large-scale farm- and freshwater availability, high land prices, ing is possible. New technologies, including unproductive and highly erodible soils, and pest drip irrigation and improved pasture technol- and disease outbreaks. Such technologies ogies, may be needed to increase productivity (hydroponics, greenhouses, and shadehouses) and raise the quality of crops and livestock already have been implemented on some is- with large-scale commercial potential. In some lands with varying degrees of success. Yields 18 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

from container agriculture commonly are very Strategy: Develop Research Programs high although labor and water requirements Relevant to Island Needs also are high. In order to accelerate agriculture develop- Tropical greenhouses permit growth of crops ment, research programs need to be directed that cannot withstand heavy rainfalls typical to specific goals relevant to island development, of the tropics. Shadehouses are used through- Although the need for research is widely rec- out the islands for tree and perennial crop ognized, the research capacity of many U.S. propagation and may also be used to grow cool- island institutions is limited. Research is hin- season crops sensitive to high temperatures and dered further by inadequate or unavailable long day lengths. Hydroponics—a totally con- baseline data and skilled research staff. The trolled system with artificial growth media, and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has high capital requirements—is probably feasi- designated research institutes for tropical agri- ble only for certain high-value herbs and vegeta- culture (the Tropical Agriculture Research Sta- bles. Such systems have been successful in the tion in Puerto Rico and the Tropical Fruit and U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands and on Guam, Vegetable Research Laboratory in Hawaii) and and are technically suitable for other islands for tropical forestry (the Institute of Tropical where water supplies are adequate. Forestry in Puerto Rico and the Institute of Pa- cific Islands Forestry in Hawaii). However, Very high-value specialty crops offer another funding for these institutions has declined in possible commercial agricultural opportunity recent years. for many islands: spices, essential oils, specialty Research performed by local institutions fruits and vegetables all have development po- could be supplemented by taking advantage of tential and some (e.g., Pohnpei black pepper) research performed by other regional institu- have already penetrated world gourmet mar- tions. Research performed by the University kets. High returns to labor and management of the South Pacific, the South Pacific Commis- are possible from small plantings. Strict qual- sion, the Caribbean Agriculture Research and ity control would be necessary which may ini- Development Institute, and other regional re- tially require private joint ventures or govern- search institutions can provide useful informa- ment management. tion. It probably would be to the advantage of small island governments to establish cooperative relationships with appropriate interna- Strategy: Develop Commercial Forestry tional research institutions or major universi- Commercial forestry development may be ties that can assist in basic research. possible on some lands unsuitable for other uses. The forestry program in Puerto Rico, a Nearshore Fisheries and cooperative operation with the U.S. Forest Serv- Aquaculture ice, has had considerable success in species enrichment of forests and in increasing total for- Islanders have harvested tropical aquatic est cover. The USVI Urban Forestry Program organisms for a tremendous range of utilitar- provides mahogany culled from roadside plant- ian, symbolic, and ornamental functions since ings to small-scale furniture and crafts produc- prehistoric times. The sea was important as a ers. Forests in the Pacific islands commonly food source in the Caribbean and supplied an are used for construction materials, charcoal, estimated 90 percent of the Pacific islanders’ and fuelwood, but little forest maintenance, en- animal protein. Fishing was an integral part richment, or reforestation is practiced. of traditional high island socioeconomy and es- Reforestation or afforestation of severely sential to life on atolls. Today, as in the past, degraded lands may renew soil productivity to marine resources still supply a large percent- allow profitable use of these lands. age of consumed protein. Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 19

Photo credit: C. Wahle Nearshore fishing takes place primarily in the vicinity of coral reef ecosystems, a major feature of atolls and tropical nearshore waters.

Tropical nearshore environments are biolog- ance of many island people. Further damage ically complex and variable. Ecologic structure to these resources and/or resource depletion and composition vary widely within and among through overcapitalization of fisheries may islands, even over short distances. Neverthe- have an extremely high opportunity cost in less, nearshore ecosystems in the islands gen- terms of public assistance, food imports, and erally comprise three distinct, but intimately social costs of diminished self-esteem. interrelated habitats: 1) mangrove forests, 2) The major constraints to nearshore tropical seagrass meadows, and 3) coral reefs. Many animals migrate among the habitats during differ- fisheries development include inadequate knowledge of complex ecosystems, inherently ent times in their life cycle, and nutrients are limited productivity of offshore waters, and vul- efficiently captured, retained, and recycled. However, these systems are highly susceptible nerability of tropical fisheries to natural and to disruption and degradation by natural or human disturbances. Equipment maintenance manmade stresses. Natural recovery processes and servicing, and problems of transporting in- can take decades once the source of stress is puts and exports also hinder development. Sci- removed. entific information on the current status of nearshore marine resources is fragmented and Nearshore resources effectively are the so- inconclusive. Without concise data on resource cial security reserve and unemployment insur- distribution and abundance, the concept of op- 20 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas timum sustainable yield is mere technical Strategy: Develop Aquaculture jargon. Aquiculture, the cultivation of aquatic organ- Most research and classical models of marine isms in fresh, brackish, or marine waters, be- biological systems have been based on conti- gan over 2000 years ago in China. Interest in nental shelf areas of the Northern Hemisphere. aquiculture is apparent in the U.S.-affiliated The physical differences between reef slopes tropical islands. Aquiculture offers a potential of oceanic islands and continental shelves, and mechanism to supply fishery products to local the diversity and complexity of tropical sea fish- markets, increase job opportunities and income eries reduce the value of these biological and in rural areas, generate export dollars, and sup- bioeconomic models. The effects of selectively plement marine resources through reseeding fishing certain species, fishing the same spe- programs. cies at different depths, the relationships be- Systems range from low maintenance marine tween nearshore and offshore stocks, and fish enclosures to intensively managed hatcheries population dynamics, are less well understood and raceways, and from subsistence produc- in tropical than in temperate waters. tion to production for commercial markets. Ap- plicability of these techniques may depend on Strategy: Support Subsistance and many factors: including availability of appro- Small=Scale Commercial Fisheries priate sites; technology, capital, and labor re- Nearshore marine resources are susceptible quirements; and market potential. to overexploitation, thus, technologies that sim- Sea ranching involves collecting and grow- ply increase nearshore harvests probably will ing wild or cultured stock—usually sessile or have long-term negative impacts on fisheries’ sedentary species—under managed natural potential. The productive capabilities of near- conditions. This carries the benefit of a secure shore systems have already been exceeded in food source, but also the risk that natural stocks many areas and are being approached rapidly will be collected too rapidly, reducing natural in others. Therefore, little potential exists for productivity. Control and conservation meas- significant, sustainable expansion of these ures may mitigate this problem, fisheries. Culture in natural waters includes bottom and Subsistence and small-scale fisheries are near-bottom intertidal and subtidal culture of nonetheless important for their food-, income-, sedentary species (clams, oysters, conch, sea- and employment-generating potential. As near- weed). This is practical only where natural sup- shore resources have come under greater pres- plies of phytoplankton are sufficient to serve sure, fishermen have increasingly moved off- the food needs of cultured species–generally shore and/or made more use of migrating these areas are restricted to larger islands. Sea- pelagic species sometimes found in lagoons and weed cultivation, on the other hand, may be at reef edges. Such resources, as well as other well suited to small, remote islands, since the underexploited species (possibly shark, deep- thalli can be sun-dried and stored for many water shrimp, and other species beyond reefs) months. probably offer opportunities in the U.S. Carib- bean and Pacific for expansion of small-scale Culture of marine fish in floating net pens fisheries—commercial, recreational, or subsis- or cages is possible where space is available tence. Development policies in both areas em- in protected estuaries and bays. Several spe- phasize underused marine resources. In some cies of finfish could form the basis for maricul- cases, it might be possible to develop fisheries ture in the Pacific and Caribbean. for species not desired locally, but valuable as A variety of crustaceans (prawns and shrimp) export commodities. However, even underex- and fish (rabbitfish, milkfish, mullet, redfish, ploited resources can become quickly depleted tilapia) are suitable candidates for fresh or salt- without careful management. water pond culture on U.S. islands. Commer- Ch. 1—Executive Summary “ 21

also high-value species for the aquarium trade, and bait fishes to supply tuna fisheries. All of these forms of aquiculture are possible in tropical environments, however, adaptive research is required to test the applicability of specific culture systems to local environments and species. Technologies must be socially acceptable and economically feasible. Logistical constraints such as difficulties in supplying inputs and delivering products should be considered. Land availability constrains the development of extensive pond aquiculture on most islands. Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment However, semi-intensive commercial opera- Techniques have been developed at the Micronesia tions may have some potential. Such opera- Mariculture Demonstration Center in Palau for culture of giant clams— unique among farmed animals in that tions, which are already being developed in they derive their nutrition from symbiotic algae Puerto Rico, are characterized by smaller, more embedded in their mantles and thus require no engineered and managed ponds, more supple- supplemental feeding. mental feeding, and higher stocking densities than extensive systems. Intensive culture involving even higher degrees of environmental cial ventures based on pond aquiculture have control and technical expertise probably is not been developed on Guam and Puerto Rico. yet feasible for most U.S. islands. Aquiculture These have had mixed success, but interest in development in many island locales may be this form of aquiculture remains high. There most successful where simple methods are used is potential for expansion of pond farming in to produce high-value species to supply hotel both regions not only to raise food species, but and tourist facilities.

Several constraints to resource development pest- and disease-resistant crops is a traditional might be addressed through appropriate tech- strategy that might be more widely applied on nologies for food storage, processing, distribu- the islands following development and field tion, and marketing. In general, reduction of trials. Certain traditional cropping systems also crop losses and maintenance of product qual- serve to control pests, i.e., polyculture (with ity is easier than expanding and intensifying some plants serving as pest barriers), field and sustainable production. Tropical diseases, crop rotation, and careful timing of plantings. pests, and spoilage all take a toll on crops and Chemical controls are easily applied and im- livestock before and after harvest. Nearly 30 mediately effective, but may destroy the natu- to 40 percent of island crops may be lost to a ral balance between pests and their natural combination of these factors. predators, leading to more severe problems in the future. The effectiveness of chemical con- Preharvest Control Technologies trols generally is short-lived and environmental Appropriate pest, disease, and weed control contamination poses a serious risk. can contribute to reduction of losses and dam- Biological control employs the use and ma- age, and thereby, effectively increase yields and nipulation of natural predators to control pests, marketability of crops and livestock. Use of and may be preferable to chemical controls. —

22 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

However, considerable research, experimenta- There is potential for development of regional tion, and field trials will be necessary to iden- markets in the Pacific, but this will depend on tify appropriate control agents. A balance of strengthened transportation services, and estab- biological and chemical controls, and polycul- lishment and/or revision of quarantine regula- ture may offer the best long-term pest/disease tions. In the Pacific, Guam and the CNMI have control strategy. Highly skilled and motivated better export potential because of air transport agricultural extension services will be integral links with Japan. Currently, Japanese markets to the success of this strategy. Strong quaran- remain closed to Micronesia exports because tine programs to prevent reinfestation could of strict quarantine regulations. complement such efforts. Removal of import tariffs from Caribbean basin countries has seriously reduced the poten- Food Preservation and Processing tial for export of fresh produce from Puerto Improved storage and transportation could Rico. To increase exports under these condi- greatly reduce postharvest loss of agriculture tions, Puerto Rico probably will need to both and fishery products to spoilage, insects, rats, reduce production costs and improve product and other pests. Refrigeration can achieve these quality to become more competitive. results, but generally it is constrained by lacking or irregular power supplies. Newly devel- Cooperatives oped solar-powered refrigeration systems offer some promise for cold storage at remote Cooperatives seem to be a practical way of localities; however, development costs would organizing and mobilizing capital and people be high initially. in developing communities. Local producers might be encouraged to expand crop produc- Other methods of food preservation and proc- tion if cooperative processing and/or market- essing range from traditional sun-drying and ing facilities guaranteed sale of surplus pro- smoking of fish and coconut meat to modern duce. Agriculture and fishery cooperatives can freeze drying and canning technologies. Some also competitively purchase supplies, services, processing and preservation methods are prac- and equipment that individuals cannot afford. ticed on the islands, and others which are not The more highly organized cooperatives pro- yet practiced might be applicable. However, vide fully integrated programs for their mem- most modern processing technologies are bers, and cover equipment purchases, offer energy-intensive and therefore expensive. assistance in processing and marketing, and Establishment of regional or local cooperative even research and development. food processing centers may make processing more affordable. While some cooperatives are successfully operating on the islands (e.g., Saipan Farmer’s Market Development Cooperative Association), others have struggled or failed. Local governments might encourage Steps to develop local markets for island prod- their development through investing in infra- ucts could include gradual increases in the use structure and providing tax benefits and tech- of locally produced commodities for federally nical assistance. funded programs, for U.S. military personnel, and for tourists. Currently, only limited Vertical Integration of Operations amounts of island products enter into these markets. Several factors hinder greater reliance Contract farming to vertically integrate small on local products by these sectors, including farmers with large agricultural production/ irregular and limited supplies, and irregular processing and marketing operations is likely product quality. to help increase food production on U.S.-affili- Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 23 ated islands. Small farmers contract with a large benefit both producers and consumers. There company to raise products, which the company are several successful, vertically integrated agri- purchases at a guaranteed price, processes, and cultural enterprises in Puerto Rico. Black pep- markets. The company may also provide per production on Pohnpei is also integrated, farmer-contractors with some agricultural in- although the processing and marketing unit is puts and production assistance. Such enter- government run. prises are capable of economies of scale and

TECHNOLOGIES TO SUPPORT RESOURCE SUSTAINABILITY Agriculture cannot be a productive sector of soil-conserving technology is appropriate for island economies if soils become too nutrient- application in a specific area. depleted or if soil erosion is uncontrolled. Max- imum economic yield cannot be attained offshore if marine resources are harvested indis- criminantly. Many technologies supportive of The development of local soil amendments resource sustainability are aimed at minimizing may be necessary to offset the nutrient drain- depletion, and at regulating use of resources. ing effects of commercial agriculture technologies. Most soils in the islands are relatively Agriculture nutrient poor due to a variety of factors, thus, the need for fertilizers (organic or commercial) Soil Conservation to produce and sustain commercial yields is im- Soil erosion and degradation is greatest in perative. conventional clean-tilled row-cropping, par- Despite evidence that tropical soils respond ticularly when fallow periods are short, Pre- much differently to such fertilizers than tem- vention might include lengthening fallow perate soils, and despite the potential adverse periods to take advantage of the natural regener- impacts of fertilizers on groundwater and ma- ation capacity of the ecosystem, restricting and rine ecosystems, commercial fertilizers are controlling burning, and applying soil-conserv- commonly used on the islands. Research is ing cultivation and culture practices (i.e., ter- needed on other methods of maintaining soil racing, contour farming, mulching, conserva- fertility such as green manuring, intercropping tion tillage, and planting of soil-conserving with legumes, fallow periods, and crop rota- crops and hedgerows). tion. The possibility of using municipal wastes Each technology has advantages and dis- as compost also might be explored. Evidence advantages. For example, conservation tillage suggests that the efficiency of commercial fer- contributes to reducing soil erosion and labor tilizers may be increased if they are used in and equipment requirements, and increases soil combination with organic fertilizers and/or moisture retention. However, this technique re- mycorrhizae, or with zeolite minerals. lies heavily on herbicides for weed control and creates potential habitat for pests. Contour Fisheries farming is inexpensive, but becomes less effective as the inherent potential for erosion in- For many Pacific islands, management of re- creases. Steep lands can be terraced, but surface sources to ensure sustained yield is even more compaction and pending may result. Terrace imperative in the marine than in the terrestrial construction is expensive and may require re- environment. These resources provide for moval of topsoil from large areas. Considerable many subsistence needs and represent a food expertise will be needed to determine which reserve in the event of natural calamities. 24 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Plastic mulches, applied here on St. Croix, USVI, serve to inhibit weed growth and enhance soil moisture retention.

Modern Regulatory Measure Parks Although marine resource management was Ultimately, some extremely sensitive ecosys- traditionally practiced by islanders, rigorous tems may have to be given special status as ma- scientific efforts to manage these resources are rine parks or reserves. Ecosystems such as coral relatively recent. These commonly involve reg- reefs and mangrove forests which are impor- ulatory measures to restrict harvest methods tant habitat for many marine species and are and seasons in order to conserve individual highly vulnerable to degradation are prime can- stocks and to restrict access to critical habitats. didates. As yet there are few protected marine The Caribbean Fishery Management Council areas in the U.S. island territories. If success- has placed restrictions on types of gear that may fully sited, established, and managed, marine be used for harvest and has established mini- parks and reserves could protect critical areas, mum permissible sizes for some species. Other and also provide a source of recruitment for restrictions on seasons or areas are also possi- restocking exploited surroundings. ble, but have not been enacted. Modern management efforts in the Caribbean and the Pa- cific are also limited in that they focus on single Traditional Management Methods species or groups of species rather than on en- While fishing efforts might be limited by any tire ecosystems. or all of the above methods, enforcement is dif- C/I. I—Executive Summary . 25

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

The Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Refuge in Palau, encompassing 640 acres, includes considerable open marine areas and unique marine lakes. ficult in tropical areas where species numbers western technologies and by economic pres- are high, and catch and market data are scarce. sures of commercialization. Biologists also know less about tropical than Existing TURFS may contribute to fisheries temperate fisheries. Despite attempts to protect conservation in the U.S. Pacific islands. Man- overexploited resources, western cultures agement schemes and regulations recognizing largely have been unable to manage tropical traditional marine tenure in the islands could reef fisheries efficiently. Traditional manage- be established. Private enterprises, such as sea- ment measures are a part of village lore in some weed and giant clam farming, pearl culture and Pacific islands. Some management measures, trochus fisheries, would be likely to respond reveal a sophisticated knowledge of ecological well to exclusive ownership. In areas where relationships. Traditional use rights in fisheries TURFS have lapsed, local management and en- (TURFS) of the Pacific islands are based on the forcement responsibilities could be instituted. principle of limited entry and other conservation strategies. TURFS continue to play a ma- TURFS cannot, however, guarantee success- jor role in some island cultures. On some is- ful conservation. TURF systems are diverse and lands, they have been seriously disrupted by some are more useful in fishery management 26 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas than others. TURFS pose an impediment to cial reef habitats enhances overall fisheries commercial tuna fishermen who obtain bait fish productivity or merely increases local popula- from these areas, often with great difficulty. tions by attracting fish from elsewhere is not TURFS may also impede nearshore harvest of known—there is evidence for both results. migratory pelagic species. FADs are anchored buoys placed beyond reefs to attract pelagic fish. Although catch rates are Artificial Habitats significantly increased by their deployment, the impact of FADs on regional fish stocks and the Management of marine resources for sus- sustainability of high catch rates have not been tained yields might also involve use of artifi- evaluated. Until such questions are answered, cial reefs and fish aggregation devices (FADs). artificial reefs and FADs probably cannot be Artificial reefs range from scrap automobiles determined to contribute to fisheries manage- and tires to specially designed and engineered ment for sustained yields. structures. Whether the introduction of artifi-

Extensive degradation of terrestrial resources adverse impacts. They are valuable resources and overexploitation of nearshore marine re- that may take up to 100 years to recover natu- sources is apparent in many insular areas. Pro- rally, if at all. Where possible, restoration is grams aimed at resource restoration and re- costly and success is not guaranteed. covery will likely be important to long-term ecologic and economic stability of the U. S.- As the nearshore resources of the Pacific and affiliated islands. A primary cause of soil and Caribbean regions are becoming overfished or land degradation has been forest clearing, thus, degraded, the idea of enhancement and reseed- revegetation programs represent a potential ing of these resources is gaining attention. Res- strategy for improving terrestrial productivity. toration of marine resources generally means Traditional and commercial agroforestry, short restocking of selected species. Farming, or or long rotation forestry, or growth of ground aquiculture of marine organisms may become important to restock or reseed depleted fish- cover in the form of nitrogen-fixing legumes all offer possible options. Selection of plant spe- ery stocks. However, without appropriate con- cies and of rotational strategies is critically im- trols on subsequent harvests, a reestablished portant to the creation of stable and produc- population may be exploited at a greater than tive ecosystems. Reforestation or afforestation optimal rate and possibly reextinguished. of degraded lands brings many benefits aside from products. Forests contribute to reducing Integrating Technologies wind erosion, protect and improve soil fertility, regulate soil water and contribute to flood Many technologies for renewable resource control. They also provide wildlife habitat. development can be integrated with technol- Agroforests provide the additional benefits of ogies for energy production and conservation, mixed cropping. waste treatment, or with each other. Potential exists for development of energy integrated Like terrestrial forests, mangrove and sea- farms, and operations that integrate aquicul- grass habitats have suffered extensive damage. ture with agriculture, waste treatment, and Success of natural or induced recovery schemes energy production. is variable, but recovery programs represent management options. Few attempts are currently being made to restore such habitats. Energy Integrated Farms From an ecological viewpoint, the best strat- Energy integrated farming offers a means of egy is probably to protect these habitats from transforming animal and crop wastes into use- Ch. 1—Executive Summary . 27

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Slurry from biogas digesters can be directed through aquaculture— here, tilapia and water hyacinth culture—before being discharged through agricultural irrigation systems, providing numerous additional benefits to energy generation. ful products. Organic matter is fermented into Use of energy-integrated farming technol- biogas (a methane-rich gas mixture) and a thick ogies in the near term will probably be limited slurry in oxygen-free digesters. Completely fer- to a few farmers with large manure supplies mented slurry is virtually odorless, has reduced and sufficient water resources for system oper- harmful organisms, and retains the fertilizer ation. Within 8 to 10 years, small-farm biogas value of the original materials. It can be used units could probably be implemented more as a livestock feed additive, potting soil, and widely. Energy derived from animal and crop fertilizer. Biogas can be used to generate light, wastes, wood, and other plant materials offer and to operate stoves, refrigerators and even a potentially important substitute to imported modified gas engines. oil for many islands.

The quantity of useful products depends on Aquaculture/Energy Production the amount and type of organic matter, diges- tor capacity, and ambient temperature. Abroad Systems scope of applications are possible, ranging from Considerable energy is needed to pump sea- small, single-household digesters, to huge water to mariculture farms. If such farms could “high-tech” complexes requiring corporate be integrated with powerplants, which pump backing. Widespread application is constrained and discharge large quantities of water for cool- by lack of large livestock operations, design and ing, considerable savings might be realized. operation expertise, and capital. Powerplants and mariculture systems could be

63-222 0 - 87-2 OL. 3 28 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

designed to maximize benefits. Water pumped pact of Free Association) tend to be too gen- from under the thermocline is relatively rich eral to provide real guidance to decisionmakers. in nutrients for aquiculture and would provide Planning processes may go awry for these and cooling for the powerplant, other reasons, including: Integration of aquiculture with innovative ● inadequate “in-house” planning expertise forms of energy production that exploit the and heavy demand on existing island energy of the sea (i.e., ocean thermal energy planners, conversion systems, wave energy systems and ● inadequate problem specification, hypersaline solar ponds) may also be possible ● lack of understanding of natural processes, once such systems become more readily avail- ● inadequate specification of management able. Integration of aquiculture with these tech- alternatives, nologies may enhance their economic feasibil- ● use of planning as a substitute for man- ity for some islands. agement, ● lack of resources for planning, and ● lack of understanding of the social and po- Waste Treatment Systems litical contexts in which plans are to be im- Cultivation of seaweeds or other aquatic plemented. plants has been integrated with water treatment in the United States and has potential for ap- Information Procurement plication on tropical islands. There may also and Management be opportunities for increasing agricultural productivity with land application of sewage A primary obstacle to the development of sludge, treated wastewater, and municipally de- baseline ecological surveys is the cost of data rived compost. collection, storage, and retrieval. Since few islands can afford a major data acquisition effort, an initial priority could be to ensure col- Planning/Policy Considerations lection of data essential to program implemen- Improved resource management planning re- tation. An incremental approach could then be taken to collect desirable data, this could em- quires careful consideration of development constraints and opportunities as well as numer- phasize the use of island residents as sources of resource-related information, ous other factors: information needs, possible sources and management, choice of strategies Within many governments, data are collected for plan implementation, and the role of tradi- by more than one agency, sometimes resulting tional law and local people in management in duplication of effort. Data maybe collected planning and implementation. in different formats and on different scales mak- Each of the U.S.-affiliated island governments ing sharing of information difficult. Opportu- has designated a Planning Office to compile nities to ameliorate these problems include re- information on factors affecting economic de- organization or centralization of data collec- velopment and to present a framework for ration, storage, and processing responsibilities, tional development planning. A number of and ensuring coordination among various agen- plans analyzing resource management and de- cies that currently share these responsibilities. velopment activities have been prepared in each An island-by-island assessment of data collec- island area either by these offices (e.g., Coastal tion could be a first step toward identifying op- Zone Management plans) or by the United Na- portunities for data sharing, and for collabora- tions. However, different plans are rarely cen- tion on new data acquisition. tralized or aggregated. The 5-year comprehen- Traveling workshops could provide short- sive development plans prepared by the Freely course training on information collection and Associated States (under the terms of the Com- mapping techniques. Distribution of data to —

Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 29 users may be facilitated with data lists and in- be supported at given levels of technology and ventories; reproduction of reports, air photos, amenity, also has been used to help identify crit- and maps; workshops and seminars; and par- ical resource use decisions. ticipatory approaches to planning. Benefit-cost and multi-objective analyses both Analytical Planning Techniques attempt to encompass the array of secondary and intangible benefits and costs from alter- Restriction of resource use to activities with native programs or projects. Benefit-cost anal- minimal adverse impacts is currently the dom- ysis incorporates value judgments regarding the inant approach to resource management on the translation of unquantifiable variables and so- U.S.-affiliated islands. In the short run, there- cial preferences into money values. Multi- fore, environmental impact statements (EISs) objective planning does not force all effects into will probably remain the primary technique the same measurement units, but relies on deci- used for resource and plan assessments. Sev- sionmakers’ assignment of relative or weighted eral “off-the-shelf approaches to impact assess- values for each category of impact. ment make it a relatively cost-effective and simple procedure. A review of procedures for Although based in science, interpretations of conducting EISs could help planners develop factors such as custom, skills, innovativeness, those most relevant to island environments. likely technology and institutional capability Post-project evaluations are one way to reveal come into play in making the ratings. Thus, the strengths and weaknesses of current EIS each technique depends on expert judgment procedures. and public participation as well as on manipulation and interpretation of scientific infor- Environmental impact analysis, however, is mation, a short-term investigation of the likely impacts of previously identified policy or project op- Participatory Approaches to tions and, thus, does not permit evaluation of Planning and Management the full range of development alternatives. Other methods are being developed to allow The need to incorporate public participation consideration of environmental and resource in resource development planning is based on information early in resource development several factors: 1) local knowledge and under- planning, including resource suitability anal- standing of an area’s natural systems often com- ysis, carrying capacity analysis, extended ben- plements or exceeds scientific knowledge, 2) efit/cost analysis and multi-objective analysis. public participation in resource-related plan- Few of these techniques have been applied to ning and policymaking may yield benefits in U.S.-affiliated islands. If such methods were compliance and enforcement of local regula- fully developed and implemented, however, tions; and 3) actions that respect people’s pri- repeated EISs might be rendered redundant. orities and that are planned with local input and approval are more likely to succeed than Resource suitability analyses, which can actions that require intensive regulation and range from simple map overlays to complicated enforcement. computerized geographic information systems, provide information about the supply of re- Generating public participation in resource sources at various levels of suitability for vari- management projects can be extremely time- ous uses. Such analyses generally comprise a consuming and costly. In order to tap local method of delineating landscape or seascape sources of information, it usually is necessary units on a map and assessing the capability of to give equally in return. The following condi- these areas to sustain an array of potential uses tions have been suggested as guidelines for pub- without unacceptable degradation and given lic participation in resource management: certain levels of management and technology. 1. long-term presence to understand a com- Carrying capacity analysis, a method of deter- munity’s structure, build rapport, and fos- mining the optimal human population that can ter mutual respect; 30 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

2. local involvement in all aspects of a project local belief and custom. Traditional resource from design to implementation, as well as management tenets often have ecologic ra- respect for local input and objectives; tionale. 3. local participation in concrete activities A formalized system for incorporation of Pa- from which people can gain tangible ben- cific island custom into a system of law appro- efits; and priate for use in island societies could include: 4. education and research activities in which explicit recognition in constitutions, statutes local people are equal partners with gov- and case law of the value and primacy of cus- ernment, project staff, and professionals. tom; recognition of custom whenever a new law is adopted; and court adherence to the con- Modern Law and Traditional Custom stitutional and legislative mandates to preserve Custom is a valued asset of U.S.-affiliated is- custom. Judges knowledgeable of local customs land communities. Values such as respect for could use that knowledge in decision and rule- traditional leaders, consensus-based dispute making in a way that ensures preservation of resolution, and significance of clan member- customary values and principles. Further, they ship have survived the impact of colonization could recognize that access to resources is a and modernization, and form a significant part part of the livelihood of island peoples, and that of the identity of island peoples. The opportu- complex systems of ownership and use have nity exists to blend traditional management evolved that do not resemble western concepts methods and the democratic system as Micro- of ownership. In resolving resource-related dis- nesia develops self-government. One advantage putes, judges may wish to delay intervention of retaining traditional methods of guiding so- until traditional leaders are consulted and other cial behavior is that these require no legisla- methods of dispute resolution are exhausted. tive decree or policing—they are ingrained in

SUMMARY OF ISSUES AND OPTIONS FOR THE U.S. CONGRESS

Economic growth of the U.S.-affiliated is- ● by providing additional assistance in the lands is likely to be largely dependent on the areas of data collection and management, sustainable development and management of planning, education, extension, training, renewable resources, and on a tourist indus- and research. try that is compatible with development and Various options exist within all of these areas management goals. As the primary policy- to improve and expand Federal support for agri- making body for the islands, Congress can fos- culture, forestry, fisheries, and aquaculture deter pursuit and achievement of these objectives velopment on the islands. in a variety of ways: ● by tuning appropriate Federal agencies and Congressional Oversight and assistance programs to the special situa- Federal Agency Coordination Issues tion and needs of islands; ● by coordinating the work of agencies re- This study reveals important links among sponsible for various aspects of resource renewable resource use, environmental pro- management on the islands; tection, island cultures, political systems, and ● by making opportunities for Federal assis- economic development. However, no single tance directed at developing sustainabil- congressional subcommittee of the House Com- ity of resource uses readily apparent and mittee of Interior and Insular Affairs, or of the more easily available to islands; and Senate Committee on Energy and Natural re- Ch. 1—Executive Surnmary ● 31 sources is structured to deal with all of these lands which could represent the relevant Fed- interrelated issues as they apply to resource eral territorial policy and resource-related Fed- management on the islands. Activities related eral agencies. This group could assess current to the U.S. islands, moreover, are spread through insular participation in Federal resource pro- many programs of USDA, the National Oceanic grams, identify means for integrating programs and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and within and among agencies into more effective the U.S. Department of the Interior (USDOI), and cost-effective packages and suggest fund- making coordination and congressional over- ing priorities for technical assistance from the sight difficult. The USDOI’s Office of Territorial agencies. Representatives could serve as insu- and International Affairs (OTIA) is responsi- lar government contacts with Federal agencies. ble for promoting the economic, social, and po- Finally, Congress could designate the U.S. litical development of the U.S.-affiliated islands Man and the Biosphere Program (U.S. MAB) and for analyzing, developing, and coordinat- as the lead coordinating agency for Federal ing USDOI’s policies and programs pertaining resource-related activities on the islands and to international activities. encourage increased coordination between To take advantage of the OTA findings in this U.S. MAB, OTIA and other Federal agencies, assessment, mechanisms are needed to coordi- in addition to those already involved in U.S. nate and perhaps increase appropriate support MAB activities. Research on the ecology and of Federal island-related activities and to facili- rational use of small island ecosystems has been tate congressional oversight of these activities. identified as a priority for U.S. MAB support. Increased support for the U.S. MAB islands Option: New Congressional Subcommit- program could allow expansion of research and tees.—Congress could establish new House and training in the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially Senate subcommittees to deal with integrated in the Pacific, where the MAB Directorate has resource management on the U.S.-affiliated is- 1 been inactive, and could improve coordination lands. These would provide focal points within of federally supported, resource-related activ- Congress where approaches to island resource development could be handled and integrated. ities in the islands. This could benefit island officials and strengthen Option: Review Effectiveness of Federal Is- existing links between the U.S. Government land Programs.—Many executive agency pro- and the U.S.-affiliated islands. The importance grams focused on island resource issues receive of the islands to national security will probably favorable comment from island resource man- increase in the next decade, making such links agers, planners, and government representa- more important. Alternatively, Congress could tives, some do not. To help determine which establish a congressional Joint Territorial Pol- approaches have worked best in the islands and icy Study group to analyze island matters re- which ones should be modified to improve their quiring congressional action. chances of success, Congress could direct USDA, NOAA, and USDOI each to evaluate the Option: Increase Federal Program Coordi- effectiveness of their own programs related to nation.—Congress could hold oversight hearings on OTIA coordination of Federal agencies renewable resource management on the islands, programs and plans for activities in the islands. and to appear at oversight hearings related to Alternatively, or in addition, Congress could island issues. authorize and support establishment of an In- Alternatively Congress could direct the Gen- teragency Coordinating Group on Resource and eral Accounting Office to conduct such re- Economic Development in U.S.-affiliated Is- views. While individual agencies are familiar with their own programs’ details and likely could perform reviews more easily, there may I Moving in this direction, the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs established a new Subcommittee on Insular be advantages to having an outside agency per- and International Affairs early in the 100th Congress. form the task, 32 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Data Collection and data management needs of the islands, includ- Information Management Issues ing both equipment and personnel needs. At subsequent hearings, Congress could determine A first requirement for resource and eco- appropriate actions. Such an analysis has long nomic development planning in the U.S.-affili- been needed and could foster improved link- ated islands is to collect comprehensive and ages between the Federal agencies and island up-to-date resource, economic, and social data governments. However, it maybe argued that and make it easily accessible to planners. Tech- immediate direct action to collect needed data niques also are needed to store, synthesize, ana- is preferable to “another study. ” lyze, and manipulate data in ways useful for resource development planning. With the mod- Option: Assess Federal Data and Informa- ern, reasonably inexpensive computer systems tion Programs Likely To Be of Benefit to the available today, data storage, synthesis, analy- U.S.-Affiliated Islands.–Congress could di- sis, and dissemination are not insurmountable rect USDOI to lead another, perhaps subse- problems. quent, interagency task force with island representation to assess the data/information and Existing natural resource databases on most programs of each Federal agency likely to ben- islands generally are inadequate, as are the efit islands in integrated renewable resource appropriate economic and social data needed management and planning. A summary of find- for informed judgments on future island devel- ings could be published, and congressional opment. Efforts to collect data in several broad hearings held. This action could reduce the areas could greatly assist planners. For exam- possibility of duplicating data collection efforts ple, in order to minimize the possibility that or of overlooking Federal programs that could economically or environmentally inappropri- be applied appropriately to the islands, as well ate agricultural technologies are introduced on as expedite island resource-related planning islands, and to determine which production activities. technologies have the greatest chance for ready and profitable adaptation, there is a need for Option: Establish Regional Information specific information on existing farm operation Clearinghouse(s).–Congress could establish, methods. Before new aquiculture or fisheries or support one or more existing regional island technologies are introduced, similar marine re- centers (e.g., the Pacific Basin Development source use data must be collected. While local Council, East-West Center, Micronesia Area departments of marine resources collect aquatic Research Center Information System, Eastern and fisheries data in the Caribbean, there is no Caribbean Center) to act as a clearinghouse for: data collection and aggregation structure for Federal announcements on new programs per- the Pacific Islands. taining to islands; island government an- The U.S.-affiliated islands also have difficulty nouncements; similar international program in- identifying what island-relevant Federal data/ formation; market information on agriculture information programs exist, and which of vari- and aquiculture; and information on specialty, ous Federal agencies house what kinds of data background, and availability of various island that might be useful for resource planning. experts. Once gathered, this information could be assessed and disseminated to island gov- Option: Analyze Island Databases and In- ernments. formation Management Systems.—Congress could direct USDOI to lead an interagency task Such a structure could facilitate and speed force with island representation to conduct communications between the continental a critical evaluation of the natural resource, United States and the affiliated islands, and pos- social, and economic databases, and data-han- sibly between the Pacific and Caribbean re- dling methodologies for the various U.S.-affili- gions. However, development of this network ated islands. The task force could report to Con- would require additional funding at a time gress on the status of island databases and on when new funding is scarce. Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 33

Option: Reactivate USDA Minor Economic tion. An aquiculture database also could be de- Crops Computer Database.—USDA previously veloped at the University of Puerto Rico, or maintained a database on minor economic another appropriate Caribbean institution. crops, many of which could grow in tropical Option: Training in Data Collection, Manage- climates. This database no longer is kept ac- ment, and Use.—Congress could direct USDOI tive, and no other similar database is known in cooperation with USDA to arrange periodic to exist. Congress could direct USDA to reactivate, update, and maintain this database, and training programs on computerized data management techniques and analysis at the land- continue to include information on: climate and grant institutions on U.S.-affiliated islands and soil conditions necessary for various crops, on Hawaii for data managers/users from island crop yields, nutritional and medicinal properties of various crops, and their potential for in- governments. Such programs could integrate current island databases, expanding their use- tercropping and for use in agroforestry. fulness. The database provides one mechanism for Where no local data collection expertise is information sharing between the Caribbean and Pacific islands, and historically costs little to available, U.S. agencies could allocate funds for a local person to work side by side with Fed- maintain. eral data collectors. This on-the-job training Option: Develop Small-Scale Island Farmer could emphasize the need for sensitivity to and Fishermen Profiles.—Congress could di- eventual interpretation of data. rect the USDA Extension Service to gather data and prepare profiles of small-scale farmers in the U.S.-affiliated islands for use in the proc- Research Issues ess of identifying environmentally appropriate and economically beneficial agricultural tech- Island governments have limited capability nologies for introduction to the islands. While to conduct research on other than critical local needs, and this constrains progress in sev- such profiles are being developed the rate of new technological implementation might be eral areas of sustainable resource development. While insular research centers in tropical agri- slowed, but the risk of unsuccessful introductions also may be reduced. In addition, Con- culture and island forestry exist, there are no gress could direct the Sea Grant Marine Exten- corresponding centers for tropical aquiculture research. Funding for Sea Grant research, sion Service to develop Artisanal Fisheries moreover, has been declining and program rep- Profiles, similar to the farmer profiles. resentatives in Puerto Rico and Guam have lit- Option: Fisheries Statistics Collection.— tle capability to direct research towards the Congress could provide funding to the Pacific needs of other islands. Fisheries Development Foundation for island fisheries statistics collection programs, under Federal research organizations have consid- either the Saltonstall-Kennedy grant program erable expertise in resource-related fields and technologies. However, little research is ori- or appropriations to the Central, Western and ented to tropical environments, and still less South Pacific Fisheries Development Act. Sea is aimed at the social and cultural aspects of resource atlases could be prepared using these the U.S.-affiliated islands. The findings of and other data, perhaps by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which has prepared atlases for resource-related research conducted in the tem- some Pacific islands. perate continental United States do not commonly apply to tropical island areas. Reliance Congress could also direct the USDA Na- on such research in the implementation of Fed- tional Agricultural Library to provide assis- eral programs on the islands results in “envi- tance to the Micronesia Area Tropical Agri- ronmental misfits. ” This has caused some of culture Data Center at the University of Guam these programs to fail and may even cause hard- to include appropriate aquiculture informa- ships to island inhabitants. 34 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Federal agency research designed for a trop- grant institutions on the U.S.-affiliated islands. ical environment relates mostly to renewable This would allow for suitability testing of cer- resource management in tropical developing tain temperate technologies in tropical environ- countries (i.e., U.S. Agency for International ments, and would likely strengthen the island Development (AID) research). The islands ben- land-grant institutions’ activities in integrated efit little from this relevant renewable resource renewable resource planning and management, research. as well as the United States’ overall competence in tropical natural resource management. Option: Increase Regional Research and Travel costs for research exchange between is- Information Dissemination Activities.—The land and U.S. continental researchers would East-West Center was formed in 1972 to pro- be high however, reducing the Title XII funds vide analysis of social, political, and other is- available for research. sues for Asia and the Pacific. Congress could direct the East-West Center to increase resource Congress also could direct the U.S. Depart- research and analysis for the U.S. Pacific is- ment of State to assist insular government lands and increase funding for such activities. research organizations in establishing cooper- Similarly, Congress could accelerate the devel- ative relationships with regional and interna- opment of the Eastern Caribbean Center to pro- tional research institutions or major universi- vide similar services for the U.S. Caribbean ties which can help with broad strategic and islands. basic research. Option: Screen U.S.-Funded Research for Option: Extend Section 406 Programs and Applicability to Tropical Islands.—Congress Funding to All Tropical Land-Grant Institu- could direct USDA’s Office of International Co- tions.—Congress could extend Section 406 of operation and Development and its Forestry Sup- the 1966 Food for Peace Act to cover all tropi- port Service to screen U.S.-funded research for cal land-grant institutions, and provide fund- findings in agriculture, aquiculture, forestry, ing to pursue the section’s two major goals, and other renewable resource areas that can which are: 1) to provide USDA and land-grant be applied to the U.S. tropical islands, and to scientists with tropical experience and train- provide this information to the islands. AID, ing, and 2) to provide foreign nationals with for example, has accumulated a storehouse of a place to learn techniques and methodologies information on tropical resource management from U.S. specialists under tropical conditions. planning and development in the tropics, large Extending funding beyond the two original parts of which might benefit island governments. tropical institutions to receive Section 406 research funds (the Universities of Hawaii and A small screening committee within USDA Puerto Rico) to the five additional tropical land- could use the department’s Current Research grant institutions that now exist (in Guam, Information System to identify planned or on- American Samoa, FSM, CNMI, and the Virgin going research of potential benefit to the is- Islands) could substantially increase tropical lands, and could suggest to appropriate re- agricultural research in the United States and searchers possible means of addressing issues its territories, and give island residents local of relevance to the islands in their projects. access to training they commonly must seek Small modifications in some USDA-funded re- hundreds or thousands of miles away. How- search plans may result in significant contri- ever, it may take years for these schools to be- butions to tropical island agriculture if re- come as productive in research as the Univer- searchers keep island problems in mind. sities of Hawaii and Puerto Rico, during which time substantial funds must be committed. Option: Link Tropical and Nontropical Land-Grant Institutions.–Congress could di- Option: Expand Tropical Agricultural, For- rect AID to develop a mechanism whereby Title estry, and Aquiculture Research.—Congress XII-funded research activities of tropical land- could direct USDA to increase support for ap- Ch. 1—Executive Summary ● 35

plied research in agriculture and forestry de- reach remote and outlying populations. Simi- velopment conducted by the tropical agricul- larly, the Marine Advisory Services of the Sea ture research stations and the institutes of Grant programs at the Universities of Hawaii tropical forestry in Puerto Rico and Hawaii. and Puerto Rico lack the staff and funds to pro- Congress could also increase support for basic vide assistance to other U.S.-affiliated islands, and applied NOAA Sea Grant research in vari- although both are interested in doing so. ous aspects of aquiculture and fisheries. Option: Develop Environmental Education Congress also could direct NOAA to estab- Programs.–Congress could direct the U.S. De- lish one or more Institutes of Tropical Aqui- partment of Education’s Office of Education culture Research in the U.S.-affiliated islands Research and Improvement, in cooperation to serve as a center for tropical aquiculture with various island government units and pro- technology development. The center could be grams involved in environmental education, to associated with established Sea Grant institu- assess ecology curricula materials for poten- tions, but still be mandated to serve other tial use in island schools. Where appropriate, islands. financial assistance could be provided to disseminate identified materials and to develop Education, Extension, and primary and secondary school ecology cur- Training issues ricula. Sustainable resource development programs, Development of an “environmental ethic” in and maintenance of aesthetic, productive envi- this way could reduce the need for regulatory ronments depend heavily on an educated, eco- and incentive programs to maintain environ- logically aware public, technologically capable mental quality; however, some regulatory meas- and informed practitioners, and skilled manures and incentives are still needed to prevent agers. While education is well-developed in the resource and environmental degradation in the U.S.-affiliated islands, few primary and second- short term. Early education in ecology could ary school curricula specifically address island also spark student interest in resource-related ecology, agriculture, or fisheries, or the rela- careers. tionships between environment and develop- Option: Increase Island Training and Exten- ment, and between resources and traditional sion Services.–Congress could direct USDA, cultures. Moreover, most Pacific island colleges NOAA, and USDOI to develop joint training are 2-year community colleges necessitating off- workshops for field extension agents in the is- island undergraduate and graduate level study. lands, and to apprise extension agents of the Even where research information is available, assistance opportunities offered by both local and technologies appropriate to island condi- and Federal agencies. tions have been identified, implementation can Congress also could direct USDA to increase fail if the pertinent information is not extended support of insular agricultural extension pro- to potential practitioners. In part because grad- grams to allow expansion to remote popula- uate education is weak or absent, technologi- tions. Congress also could direct NOAA to in- cally trained personnel and people capable of crease Sea Grant assistance in training and providing training or technical advice are extension for aquiculture, fisheries, and ma- scarce on most islands. rine resource management for islands having Island extension offices tend to be small, un- Sea Grant representatives, and to make such derfunded, and overworked, all of which hin- services available to the other U.S.-affiliated der their effectiveness in technology transfer. islands. This will require identification and In addition, neither local land-grant colleges funding of new personnel. nor local governments in the Pacific have ade- Congress also could direct the U.S. Fish and quate funds to maintain the staff needed to Wildlife Service and NOAA Office of Sea Grant 36 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

jointly to supply a resident scientist to the re- ingful grades indicative of agricultural gions to provide expert advice on aquiculture product quality. species introductions, and to conduct the nec- Congress could also direct the Department essary backup research. of Commerce to have NOAA’s Office of Sea Grant programs assess aquacultural marketing Incentive Issues and economics issues for island aquiculture Incentives, or removal of disincentives may development. be necessary to encourage island peoples to Option: Establish Insular Resource Man- undertake new or potentially high economic agement Cost-Sharing Programs.—Congress risk activities. These could initially include could establish and authorize a new USDA pro- availability and knowledge of potentially prof- gram to provide cost-sharing and technical itable technologies (provided by research and assistance to individuals undertaking federally extension) and ability to implement them (pro- approved agriculture, soil conservation, for- vided by education and training). Incentives estry, fishery, and aquiculture activities. Lo- can be technical (marketing assistance), or fi- cal administration of such a program would nancial (cost-sharing). Agricultural producers, mitigate travel and other problems. for example, must have accurate, thorough market information, and may need help in access- Option: Analyze Income and Other Support ing markets for their products. Cost-sharing Programs.–Congress could direct USDA and programs have, in some cases, formed the ba- the Department of Health and Human Services sis for local government activities to develop (DHHS) jointly to analyze eligibility formulae resource enterprises. for social aid, and nutritional and other impacts of such aid. If there are large numbers of peo- Some analysts argue that eligibility for and ple who participate, but do not substantially participation in U.S. income support programs benefit from aid programs, support funding creates a disincentive to investing money and could be gradually reduced, or partially labor in resource-related enterprises in the U. S.- redirected to cost-sharing programs. affiliated islands. Congress could direct USDA to assess and Option: Marketing Assistance.—Congress report on the current and potential role of lo- could direct USDA’s Agricultural Marketing cal produce in island school hot lunch and other Service to assist insular governments through food and nutrition programs, addressing ques- three major programs: tions of nutrition, and possible economic im- 1. the Federal-State Marketing Improvement pacts, and suggesting a target level for home- Program, which provides funds to States grown contributions, Increased use of locally to solve marketing problems through Fed- grown foods in such programs could provide eral-State cooperation; markets and incentives for expanded island 2. Market News, which provides timely in- agricultural activities and thus, increased eco- formation on prices, demand, movement, nomic benefits to the islands. However, local volume, and quality of all major agricul- storage and refrigeration facilities may not be tural commodities; and adequate to assure regular delivery. Food ac- 3. Agricultural Product Grading, which pro- cessibility at open markets may also decline. vides producers and marketers with mean- Chapter 2 Introduction CONTENTS

Page Insular Relationships to the Federal Government ...... 39 Commonwealths...... 39 Unincorporated Territories ...... 40 Freely Associated States ...... 40 The Importance of U.S.-Affiliated Islands to US. National Security ...... 41 Economic Development in U.S.-Affiliated Islands: The Problem ...... 41 Ecological Factors ...... 42 Geographical Factors...... 43 Socioeconomic Factors ...... 43 Goals of Renewable Resource Management and Development ...... 45 Chapter 2 References ...... 46

Tables Table No. Page 2-1. United States-Insular Area Relationships ...... 39 2-2. General Characteristics of Islands ...... 42

Figure Figure No. Page 2-1. Comparison of Typical Population Pyramids ...... 44 —

Chapter Introduction

INSULAR RELATIONSHIPS TO THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT The U.S.-affiliated tropical islands have a is represented by a nonvoting Resident Com- wide range of relationships to the U.S. Govern- missioner. The Resident Commissioner and ment (table 2-1), Two are commonwealths— Delegates sit in the House of Representatives, Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands have a voice in legislation pertaining to their (NMI)–having local autonomy but voluntarily islands, and can vote in Committee. While the associated with the United States. The U.S. Vir- territories are eligible for many Federal pro- gin Islands, American Samoa, and Guam are grams on the same basis as a State, the islanders unincorporated territories (to which only cer- do not contribute to the national treasury tain provisions of the U.S. Constitution have through Federal income taxes, been expressly extended) under the administra- Determination of U.S. policy for the territo- tion of elected Governors. Finally, the Repub- ries is within the jurisdiction of Congress. Al- lic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), and the Fed- though Congress has given the Secretary of the erated States of Micronesia (FSM) (which, Interior certain authorities and responsibilities together with the NMI and the Republic of toward these territorial governments (exclud- Palau form the former Trust Territory of the ing Puerto Rico), and many Federal programs Pacific Islands) have signed agreements with are available to them, the territories are not the United States to become Freely Associated 1 agencies or instrumentalities of the Executive States. Branch of the Federal Government. The peoples of Puerto Rico and the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands are Commonwealths U.S. citizens, those of Palau and American Samoa are U.S. nationals. Guam, American A U.S. commonwealth is an autonomous Samoa and the USVI are represented in the U.S. government in voluntary association with the Congress by nonvoting Delegates. Puerto Rico United States. It is responsible for its own welfare and has full legislative authority. Puerto 1Although Puerto Rico is a Commonwealth of the United States, Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship in 1917 it is referred to as “Estado Libre Asociado” or free associated and Puerto Rico’s Constitution was approved state. This should not be confused with the legal relationship defined by free association with the Freely Associated States by the electorate in 1952. The Northern Mari- in the Pacific. ana Islands in effect became a commonwealth

Table 2-1.—United States Insular Area Relationships

Relationship to the Insular area Initiation of U.S. administration United States Puerto RICO ...... 1898 (ceded to the United States) Commonwealth U.S. Virgin Islands 1917 (purchased from Denmark) Unincorporated territory American Samoa 1900 (ceded to the United States) Unincorporated territory Guam ...... 1898 (ceded to the United States) Unincorporated territory Northern Mariana Islands 1946 (U.S. Strategic Trusteeship) Commonwealth Marshall Islands 1946 (U. S, Strategic Trusteeship) Freely Associated State Federated States of Micronesia 1946 (U.S. Strategic Trusteeship) Freely Associated State Palau 1946 (U.S. Strategic Trusteeship)) Strategic Trusteeshipa a Expected to become Freely Associated State in 1987 SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment 1987

39 40 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

in 1978,2 but remained officially a part of the dissolved, the United States retains its respon- Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until its sibility to promote the economic advancement dissolution in 1986. and self-reliance of these islands. The trusteeship was intended as a temporary Unincorporated Territories arrangement under which the United States ac- Unincorporated territories are not integral cepted the responsibility of advancing the TTPI parts of the United States and no promise of —politically, socially, economically, and edu- statehood or a status approaching statehood is cationally—toward greater self-reliance, includ- held out to them. Only certain parts of the U.S. ing undertaking obligations to: Constitution apply to unincorporated territo- . . . promote the economic advancement and ries. And, unlike States which write their own self-sufficiency of the inhabitants, and to this constitutions, the laws and principles that pre- end shall regulate the use of natural resources; scribe the nature, functions, and limits of a ter- encourage the development of fisheries, agri- ritorial government are determined by Con- culture and industries; [and] protect the inhabi- gress (13). tants against the loss of their lands and resources (Trusteeship Agreement for the United Guam was annexed from Spain at the close States Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Ar- of the Spanish-American War. Although rela- ticle 6(2)). tions between the Government of Guam and The United States also was charged with pre- the U.S. Government also are conducted under paring the Micronesians for a political status the jurisdiction of the Department of the In- of their own choosing. terior, residents of Guam elect their own officials. Most aspects of the U.S. Constitution ap- Civilian administration of the TTPI was the ply to Guam. Similar to Guam, the American responsibility of the Department of the Interior, Samoa Government is semiautonomous and but each administrative district was given the operates under a constitution adopted in 1960. opportunity to determine its own form of gov- American Samoa has been administered by the ernment and degree of independence from the United States since 1900. The U.S. Virgin Is- United States. By January 1981, each emerg- lands were sold by the Danish Government to ing entity had installed a constitutional govern- the United States in 1917. U.S. citizenship was ment with democratically elected officials. granted to Virgin Islanders in 1927, The Commonwealth of the Northern Mari- ana Islands was established and separated from Freely Associated States the other existing TTPI entities in 1978, al- The Freely Associated States, along with the though some relations between the Northern Northern Mariana Islands, comprise the Trust Marianas and the U.S. Government continued Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), the last under the jurisdiction of the Department of the of 11 trusteeships established under United Na- Interior. Two of the remaining political enti- tions’ sanction after World War II. Despite pre- ties—the FSM (Yap, Truk, Pohnpei, and Kos- liminary agreements, the Compact of Free rae), and the RMI—have signed Compacts of Association with the Republic of Palau has not Free Association with the United States; the yet received 75 percent Palauan approval in a FSM and RMI compacts were approved by the United States in early 1986 and put into effect plebiscite vote and, therefore, has not been ap- 3 proved by the United States or the United Na- at the end of the year. tions. Until the Compact with Palau is approved Free association allows the polities full con- by the United Nations and the trusteeship is trol of internal and external affairs while de- — ‘The Northern Mariana Covenant (Public Law 94-241) was 3Because approval of a Compact of Free Association with the passed by Congress in 1976, but the major part of the Covenant Republic of Palau is expected shortly, Palau shall be referred did not become effective until 1978 when the Commonwealth to as a Freely Associated State in the remainder of this assess- government was installed. ment unless otherwise indicated. Ch. 2—Introduction . 41 fense and security responsibilities are delegated ing from the United States (15 years for the RMI to the United States. They become eligible for and FSM and 50 years for Palau) part of which foreign aid from international organizations, must be directed to planning long-term eco- such as the Asian Development Bank. Finally, nomic development. they are guaranteed a specified level of fund-

THE IMPORTANCE OF U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS TO U.S. NATIONAL SECURITY The U.S.-affiliated islands are of considerable Although the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands importance to national security, and the United do not play an important role in current or pro- States is committed to their defense and to jected Department of Defense programs, they maintaining lines of communication to and might likewise be viewed as the United States’ through them. The islands vary in strategic im- fourth border. According to the Annual Report portance, but all represent the U.S. presence of the Secretary of Defense to Congress for fis- in spheres of strategic interest. cal year 1986, at least 30 percent of U.S. trade is conducted with the nations of East Asia, and The U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands are of five of our mutual security treaties link us with special security significance to the United States, East Asian countries (9). Only a few islands (e.g., primarily because of their close proximity to Guam, Kwajelein) have major U.S. bases; the Caribbean and Central American countries. U.S. Navy, however, has a keen interest in cer- Puerto Rico is of particular significance due tain contingency base rights in the Northern to the presence of major naval installations Mariana Islands and Palau. (See app. B for a there and its location astride major routes of brief discussion of military installations and communication. The Caribbean area has been activities in the U.S.-affiliated islands.) viewed as “America’s third border” and, thus, expansion of inimical forces or influence in this area is likely to be viewed with alarm (9).

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS: THE PROBLEM U.S. policy towards the insular areas is revenues. For example, the Federal portion of founded on common interests in the creation Micronesia government revenues ranges from of close and mutually beneficial relationships 30 percent (CNMI) to 87 percent (FSM) (17). between the insular governments and the U.S. Puerto Rico is a notable exception, deriving Government. As such, the United States has at- nearly two-thirds of its annual operating bud- tempted to encourage political self-determina- get from internal sources (10). Nearly $5 bil- tion and promote economic advancement and lion are spent annually by the U.S. Government self-reliance in the territories while protecting in direct financial assistance and under Fed- its national security interests in the Pacific and eral programs to the territories (16). Much of the Caribbean. Thus, applicable Federal pro- these funds are used, in turn, to purchase food grams are extended to some or all of the terri- and other goods and services, primarily from tories, and their special needs are recognized the United States. Imports greatly exceed ex- in direct assistance to the territories. ports on many islands, and on most local food production has been declining. A combination Many U.S. islands are highly dependent on of geographical, socioeconomic, and ecologi-

U.S. financial assistance for local– Governmentu cal factors hinder the sustainable management —

42 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

and development of renewable resources in the pared to most temperate soils, and to the nutri- U.S. territories (table z-2). ent needs of the high-yielding crops used in intensive agriculture. For example, three-quarters of Puerto Rico is covered by relatively infertile soils (i.e., soils rated 6 or higher on a 1 to 10— The nature of tropical land and nearshore re- best to worst–scale of soil productivity) (12). sources constrain the applicability of resource development and management technologies Not only do infertile soils require greater which have been developed for temperate areas. amounts of fertilizer per acre for crop and pas- The islands have considerable diversity in soil ture management, but they require more fre- types and, although fertile soil types exist on quent applications. A deficiency of organic ma- some islands, soil fertility generally is low com- terial in infertile soils hinders their ability to adsorb needed plant nutrients. Consequently, plant nutrients may be lost to leaching and erosion during heavy rains. Much of the land is Table 2-2.—General Characteristics of Islands not suitable for clean-cultivated crops due to Ecological characteristics: erosion hazards. However, land management ● small size, practices which include soil building through ● narrow range of natural resources, a good fertility program and erosion control ● little natural organic biological diversity, ● distance from continents and external competition may increase soil fertility over time. fosters species endemism, ● generally little overall climatic variability, but potential Moreover, past poor land-use practices have for climatic upsets, degraded land resources in the U.S. Caribbean ● ecologic vulnerability, and and Pacific and have resulted in significant ● tendency toward ecologic instability when isolation is breached. amounts of abandoned land. Colonial histories Geographical characteristics: of each of these areas contain an era of land ● relative isolation; exploitation for agricultural export which re- ● a completely circumferential sea frontier and EEZ, giv- sulted in loss of vegetative cover over large ing a high ratio of EEZ to island land mass resulting in very high importance of sea v. land resources; areas and intensive production of only a few ● no internal land transport option to link the islands mak- crops. Most of the local soils have minimal fer- ing up a polity or to link the island to other countries, tility. Once cleared, continued exposure to only air and sea transport; and . no interior hinterland or central terrestrial core area that strong sunlight, heavy rainfall, and erosion re- is essentially distant from the sea such that coastal duced their marginal fertility further. resource planning and management is essentially synonymous with national resource planning and man- The consequences of this land degradation agement. are widespread. Erosion rates have increased; Socioeconomic characteristics: for example, soil erosion rates in the Caribbean ● more dependent on foreign trade than large countries and having less influence on the terms in which that have reached as high as 18 times the U.S. aver- trade is carried on; age (14). Land clearing on many islands has re- ● a narrow range of resources and, hence, specialized sulted in turbid, erratic, and intermittent stream economies; ● heavily dependent on one or more large foreign com- flow. Erratic freshwater flows and siltation panies; from land runoff endangers coral reefs and ● dependent for key services on external institutions such other nearshore productive marine ecosystems. as universities, regional training facilities, banking and marketing arrangements; Mangrove forests, which serve as natural ● a narrow range of local skills and specific difficulty in matching local skills with jobs; filters and as breeding grounds for many aquatic ● difficulty in providing some infrastructure services as species, have been overexploited for timber in there may be costly diseconomies of scale in the provi- many areas and some have been destroyed by sion of such services; and ● a small Gross Domestic Product such that import sub- impacts from development activities. The loss stitution industries may face special difficulties. of mangrove forests further exposes marine SOURCE: E. Towle, The Island Microcosm, prepared for the U.S. National Park ecosystems to degradation. Thus, the physical Service under contract to the US. Agency for International Develop- ment, 1983. potential for local food production may be de- Ch. 2—Introduction ● 43 clining along with the incentives to undertake 100,000 inhabitants. Large population centers sustainable resource development. in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands charac- teristically are 10,000 to 20,000. The Microne- Tropical ocean nutrient levels are lower than sia islands are scattered widely over 3 million in temperate regions and primary biological square miles of the Pacific Ocean—an area as production is correspondingly reduced. Con- large as the contiguous United States, yet, their versely, the coral reef environment has high total land area is about two-thirds that of Rhode levels of biological activity made possible by Island. Modern concepts of mass production, organisms which increase available nitrogen distribution, marketing, and competition can- and recycle nitrogen and other nutrients within not be applied on such small scales. Moreover, the ecosystems. Despite seemingly large reef transportation and communications by conven- and lagoon areas, the size of the U.S. islands’ tional means is difficult and expensive. productive nearshore areas is smaller than in other islands where commercial fisheries have developed (e.g., the Bahamas). The continen- Socioeconomic Factors tal shelf of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Is- All of the island territories exhibit a high ra- lands combined is less than 3,000 square miles, tio of imports to exports, particularly in food. of which less than half is considered highly The high level of imports compared to local pro- productive. The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands duction means that funds transferred to the ter- are not associated with continental shelves, but ritories have little impact on economic devel- with steeply sloping drop-offs into deep ocean. opment. These funds leave the economies in A substantial submerged reef area exists (ap- payments for imports. Due to rapidly growing proximately 14,287 square nautical miles) near populations and rising aspirations, reducing the Pacific islands of Yap and Truk, and has consumer demand for imported products seems been the site of a highly productive fishery in unlikely. the recent past (18). Population growth rates in the U.S.-affiliated Coral reef systems and the associated sea- Pacific and Caribbean islands increased con- grass beds and mangrove swamp forests are siderably faster than the 4.2 percent U.S. pop- responsible for much of the islands’ nearshore ulation growth between 1980 and 1984 (8). Only fisheries potential. Unlike temperate areas, Puerto Rico, with a growth rate of 2.3 percent, nearshore tropical fish stocks tend to be diverse was below the United States for this period (8). and diffuse, rarely aggregating in large schools Such population growth rates maybe supported or beds (for invertebrates). The multispecies na- only by readily available emigration opportu- ture of most tropical fishery stocks means that nities; for example, 2 million Puerto Ricans live catches often contain a mixture of high-value in the mainland United States (1) and more and less desirable species. American Samoans live in the United States Perhaps beneficial for sustained populations than in Samoa (7). At the same time, migration of nearshore species, the rugged coral reef to- into the islands from the United States and sur- pography makes it impossible to use towed, rounding islands is high. nonselective gear (e.g., trawls) employed in Present and future human needs and labor many commercial fisheries. However, these availability are reflected, in part, by an island’s and most other tropical island ecosystems are overall demographic pattern. Population pyra- more vulnerable to degradation than most tem- mids (figure 2-1) for many islands have a shape perate systems. more like those of developing countries than developed countries. For instance, nearly 50 Geographical Factors percent of most island populations are below 15 years of age, creating a large sector depen- Of the U.S.-affiliated islands, only Puerto Rico dent on the working age population (2,3,4,5,6,7). contains a population significantly greater than This indicates that each year increasing num- 44 ● Intergrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 2-1 .—Comparison of Typical Population Pyramids h 85+ 80 84 75 79 70 74 65 69 60 64 55 59 50 54

40 44 1 35 39 30 34 25 29 20 24 15 19 10 14 59 04 iT 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 56 6 54321 01 23456 654321012 3456 Percentage of total population Percentage of total population Percentage of total population Developed Developing Region with substantial country country out-migration of the working-age population SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987. bers will enter the work force and the demand mal labor is captured by local governments and for goods and services will increase signifi- services for the public sector and its employ- cantly. ees. Wages, security, and prestige are higher Such population distributions can be altered in government employment. Skilled labor, train- quickly either by in-or out-migration, but where ing, and interest in the productive sectors of the people come from or go to poses additional agriculture and fisheries are low on all the concerns. The major urbanized centers—most islands. of which are on coastlines—are growing rap- Land tenure systems and opportunities for idly whereas the rural population is decreas- acquiring land pose considerable obstacles to ing. Consequently, the choice of technologies commercial development of renewable re- will be influenced by the changing population sources. Traditional values of Micronesians characteristics in island rural and urban areas. and Samoans place great prestige on land and Sustainable renewable resource management other resource use rights. This results in in- depends not only on the capability of the eco- creasing fragmentation of parcels over time, logical resources, but also on availability of as ownership is retained in families that have skilled labor and willingness to engage in re- increased in size. In addition, land often is com- source management and development activi- munally held in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific is- ties. Although all of the islands have rapidly lands. Acquiring land for commercial use— growing populations, many young adults seek where the products of the property are not to education and employment in the U.S. main- be used for subsistence and sharing—may be land. Many of those who remain either depend difficult or impossible. For example, a recent on extended family relationships or social sup- U.S. District Court decision upheld an Amer- port programs to supply their needs. Most for- ican Samoan law that communally owned land Ch. 2—introduction ● 45

(90 percent of the land area) can be transferred growth forestlands in Puerto Rico may cost only to a person of at least 50 percent Samoan $1,000 to $2,000 per acre and land values in blood (11). (See app. C for a discussion of in- the U.S. Virgin Islands have exceeded $10,000 tegration of modern and traditional legal sys- per acre (14). tems in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands.) Further, rapidly appreciating land values re- In the more developed—and more western- duce incentives to derive productive use of ized—islands of Guam, Saipan, Puerto Rico, lands held for speculation. Consequently, much and the U.S. Virgin Islands, fee-simple land land lies idle awaiting development, Puerto ownership is more common. However, on these Rico maintains a law against private individ- islands competing land uses, such as residen- uals or corporations holding more than 500 tial and tourism development, push land values acres and, in general, the land is in small hold- beyond the reach of many potential entrepre- ings. Nearly 85 percent of the land ownerships neurs, The price of rural land has come to re- are less than 48 acres (15). flect scarcity rather than productivity. Second-

GOALS OF RENEWABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

Increasing the economic self-reliance of the ● provision of employment, especially in ru- islands is the most often stated objective of ral areas, renewable resource development in the U. S.- ● provision of stable incomes for commonly affiliated islands. However, self-reliance should risk-averse producers, not be interpreted to mean economic independ- ● reduction in consumer food prices, ence, but rather a healthy interdependence ● reduction in rural or outer island to urban within regional and world economies. Economic migration, self-reliance can be defined as an economy’s ● development of private sector technical capacity to produce to meet as many domestic and managerial skills, needs as is economically feasible and to gain ● stabilization of personal and national rev- the revenue, through exports, to pay for the enues through diversification of local pro- imports required to support an acceptable stand- duction, and ard of living. Even with this definition, increas- ● safeguarding valuable human and natural ing self-reliance in economies heavily depen- resources. dent on outside aid and with large (in relation to resources) and growing dependent popula- Thus, resource development projects and tions will be extremely difficult.4 technologies that can contribute to the achieve- A mechanism for increasing economic self- ment of several of these objectives while offer- reliance is to develop a skilled and active pri- ing acceptable yields and profitability y are preferred to those designed solely to maximize vate sector, Efforts to undertake such develop- yields or profits. ment reflect myriad subgoals, including:

4Unless resident populations are stabilized (through reduction In addition, a number of conditions (which in population growth rates or continued free emigration), sub- also can be thought of as goals) under which stantial improvements in self-reliance are unlikely, Technologies directly related to population growth are outside the scope of renewable resource and other development this assessment but have been addressed in another OTA assess- must be evaluated for acceptability may be de- ment, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, World rived. Generally, development policies, pro- Population and Fertility Planning Technologies: The Next 20 Years, NTIS order #PB 82- (Springfield, VA: National Technical grams, and projects are sustainable and, thus, Information Service, February 1982), desirable if they: 46 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

● do not reduce the long-term productivity decision as to which objectives will receive pri- of the resources involved; ority, which resources and areas will be devel- . do not degrade nearby or “downstream” oped, and which technologies and technology environments, be they terrestrial, riverine, systems will be encouraged or implemented de- or marine; pend on far more than feasibility and profit- ● do not irrevocably reduce future develop- ability; they depend on the acceptability of their ment options; and economic, social, political, and environmental ● do not unacceptably conflict with local cul- impacts. tures and customs. Few forms of economic development can satisfy all of these objectives and conditions. The

CHAPTER 2 REFERENCES

1. Colon, Rafael H., “The Puerto Rico Government 11. Pacific Islands Monthly 57(8):9, August 1986. Position on Section 936,” Puerto Rico Business 12. Pico, R. The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chica- Review, special supplement, April 1985, pp. 1-4. go, IL: Aldine Publishing Co,, 1974). 2. Connell, J., Country Report No, 3: Federated 13. Taitano, C. “Guam: The Struggle for Civil and States of Micronesia (Noumea, New Caledonia: Political Rights, ” Politics in Micronesia (Suva, South Pacific Commission, 1983). Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of 3. Connell, J., Country Report No. 12: Northern the South Pacific, 1983). Mariana IsZands (Noumea, New Caledonia: 14. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- South Pacific Commission, 1983). ment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest 4, Connell, J., Country Report No. 6: Guam (Nou- Resources, OTI%-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. mea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commis- Government Printing Office, March 1984), sion, 1983), 15. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 5. Connell, J., Country Report No. 13: Palau (Nou- Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Puerto mea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commis- Rico, vol. 1, part 52 (Washington, DC: U.S. sion, 1983). Government Printing Office, 1984). 6. Connell, J., Country Report No. 8: Marshall Is- 16. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the lands (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Census, F’ederaZ Expenditures by State for Fis- Commission, 1983). cal Year 1985 (Washington, DC: U.S. Govern- 7. Connell, J,, Country Report No.—: American ment printing Office, 1986). Samoa (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacif- 17. U.S. Department of State, 1985 Trust Territory ic Commission, 1983). of the Pacifi”c IsZands, 38th Annual Report to the 8. Land Use P]anning Report 13(46):365, Nov. 25, United Nations (Washington, DC: U.S. Depart- 1985. ment of State, 1986). 9. Loftus, S. A., “Impacts of U.S. Military Presence 18. White, M,, Chief, Marine Resources, Kosrae on U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned State Government, Federated States of Microne- paper, 1986. sia, personal communication, September 1986. 10. Ortiz-Daliot, J., Director, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, personal communication, September 1986. Chapter 3 Island Structure and Resource Systems CONTENTS

Page

Island Formation ...... ● ...... ● ...... 49 High Volcanic Islands ...... 49 Atoll Islands ...... 50 Raised Limestone Islands ...... 51

Continental Islands ...... ● ...... 51 Prevailing Climate ...... 52 Introduction ...... , , ...... ,..., . . . 52 Winds ...... ,...... 52

... . .-...... 52 Precipitation ...... 90 +9+ Temperature ...... 54 Disturbances...... ,...... 54 Island Hydrology...... ,, 55

High Volcanic Islands ...... ,.0. . . . . 58

Atoll Islands ...... ,.., ...* 59

Raised Limestone Islands ...... ● .*. 59

Continental Islands ...... ,, 59

Island Soils...... 60

Renewable Resource Systems in U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands ...... 63

Common Characteristics of Tropical Island Resources ...... 63

Major Island Resource Systems ...... 67

Efforts To Sustain Resources on U.S.-Affiliated Islands ...... 74

Efforts To Maintain the Resource Base ...... ,.,...... * 75

Efforts To Restore the Renewable Resource Base ...... 76

Efforts To Redirect Use of Underused Resources ...... 76

Efforts to Culture Species...... 76

Enhancement of Existing Renewable Resources ...... 77

Chapter 3 References ...... 0 78

Tables Table No. Page 3-1. Mean Annual Precipitation Level and Temperatures...... 53 3-2. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant Species With Historic Range in the U.S.-Affiliated Troical Islands...... 65 3-3. Ecosystems Present on the U.S.-Affiliate Islands ...... 68

Figure No. Page 3-1. Depiction of Island Types...... ,...... 50 3-2. The Hydrologic Cycle ...... 57

3-3. Ghyben-Herzberg Lens ...... $,...... 58

Boxes Box 3-A. General Characteristics of Tropical Climates ...... 53 3-B. EI Nino ...... , ...... 56 . 3-c. Common Characteristics of Island Soils ...... 61 Chapter 3 Island Structure and Resource Systems

ISLAND FORMATION Islands in tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean deeply incised with stream valleys because of and the Caribbean Sea commonly bring to mind erosion from running water (figure 3-1 (A)). only white sandy beaches backed with a fringe Some volcanoes are still active such as Pagan of coconut palm trees. Yet, a close examina- Island in the Northern Mariana Islands; some tion of the form and geology of the islands are dormant such as Sariguan in the Northern shows that major differences exist between is- Mariana Islands; and others are extinct such land types that significantly affect opportuni- as Pohnpei or Kosrae. Measured from the sea ties for renewable resource management and floor to the island summits, these volcanoes rep- development. These fundamental differences resent some of the highest mountains in the play an important role in determining what world. The predominant rock forming the vol- kinds of technologies can be applied that are canic islands is basalt, a dark-colored igneous likely to prove productive for island residents rock rich in minerals containing silicon, alu- over the long term and which others, though minum, calcium, magnesium, and iron as dom- perhaps leading to short-term gains, ultimately inant elements. may produce long-lasting adverse impacts on Once volcanoes reach the ocean’s surface, the island resource base—the soil, water, vegetation, and wildlife. marine organisms like corals, algae, and sponges start to grow and reproduce on the bot- Details of the geologic formation of the is- tom of the sunlit, warm nearshore waters that lands are beyond the scope of this assessment. surround the new island. In the early stages of Nevertheless, a simple fourfold classification growth, the marine organisms of the colony of island types based on their geology should grow on one another until they reach the sur- assist the reader in assessing potential impacts face of the water. Coral structures that are close to an island’s environment from proposed tech- to the island (generally within one-quarter of nological applications. In addition, it should a mile from shore) and often surround it, are help to improve understanding of why island- called fringing reefs. Such reefs may become ers, past and present, have chosen particular barrier reefs if the central island begins to sub- methods of resource use. merge. Barrier reefs generally are 1 to 5 miles Although many of the islands’ origins relate offshore and are separated from the island by largely to volcanic processes, their name clas- a lagoon which is relatively deep (60 to 300 feet) sification only partly reflects this. The four cat- (40). egories of islands used in this assessment are: Many volcanic islands over geologic time high volcanic islands, atolls and low coral is- have slowly subsided beneath the ocean sur- lands, raised limestone islands, and continen- face. The living marine organisms of the sur- tal islands. rounding reefs in many cases have been able to grow rapidly enough to keep their surfaces High VoIcanic Islands at or near sea level, thus offsetting the rate at which the volcanic island subsides. Through High volcanic islands are the cone-shaped this process, the reefs can maintain their exis- peaks of volcanoes (perhaps 1,000 feet or more tence even when the enclosed island gradually in altitude) that extend upward from the ocean sinks below the ocean’s surface. With the dis- floor. The conical shape is preserved best on appearance of the central island, the ringlike young volcanic islands; older islands become reef complex then becomes an atoll.

49 50 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 3-1 .—Depiction of Island Types

A: High Volcanic Island

Ocean surface

B: Atoll Island

Internal drainage

C: Raised Limestone Isiand

Solution Internal drainage cavities /

Ocea

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986

Atoll Islands Submarine landslides, wave action, currents, tides, and storms commonly produce or maintain breaks in the atoll thereby providing boats Atolls are low-lying, narrow, ring-like coral or ships with passages connecting the open sea reefs composed of highly permeable coralline with the shallow lagoon (figure 3-I (B)). limestone (calcium carbonate) derived from the remains of marine reef organisms. Individual Growth of atoll reefs is greatest on their wind- atoll islands occur as part of the atoll reef and ward sides where the food supply is highest for rise only a few “feet to a few tens of feet above reef organisms. Storm and wave action carry mean high tide. For example, the highest point reef or atoll fragments into the atoll’s lagoon in the Marshall Islands is 25 feet above sea level and pile them on the reef above the water level on Likiep Atoll (40). Atolls enclose a lagoon of to form islands. This sediment source keeps the several feet to several hundred feet in depth. waters of the atoll’s lagoon shallow. . Ch. 3—/s/and Structure and Resource Systems c 51

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment A low-lying atoll island in the Marshall Islands, built on the inside edge of an encircling coral reef.

Some low coral islands in Micronesia form Because of their origin, raised limestone is- on top of coral pinnacles and are not associ- lands may contain exposed land surfaces of ated with lagoons. These islands, such as Nama older volcanic rocks. Like high volcanic islands, and Kili, otherwise resemble atoll islands. they are also likely to have fringing reefs along their coasts. Raised Limestone Islands The porous limestone layers are composed Raised limestone islands consist of nearly mostly of calcium carbonate which dissolves horizontal beds of coralline limestone that origi- over time as plentiful tropical rainfall moves nally were formed in the waters surrounding downward through the permeable beds. Solu- older volcanic islands. Over geologic time, the tion cavities like sinkholes and caves result (fig- marine limestone beds have been raised above ure 3-1 (C)). sea level by upward moving volcanic islands, or by lowering of the sea level. The extensive Continental Islands uplifted limestone beds of Guam, for example, now reach about 500 feet above the sea surface. Continental islands are extensions of conti- Many such islands have prominent wave-cut nents or of certain undersea mountain ranges. terraces carved into the limestone layers in- The rocks comprising such islands are of a dicating times during the Pleistocene ice age much wider variety than those of the other is- when the sea level was different than it is today, land types and signify a more complex geologi- times when continental glacial ice sheets in re- cal history. Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Is- gions closer to the poles were thicker or thinner. lands, for example, are part of the Antilles, a 52 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

sea-floor mountain range geologically associ- Continental islands do not have a character- ated with the structure of the extreme south- istic form. They may, however, have a border eastern part of the United States. Similarly, of fringing reefs or lagoons with barrier reefs Palau is the surface expression of the eastern like those of high volcanic islands and raised extremity of a continental-type mountain range limestone islands. running-from west to east in Indonesia.

CLIMATE of islands increases their vulnerability to disturbances, however, their existence indicates The majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands lie that these areas possess a highly effective ca- in the Northern Hemisphere, with American pacity for recovery. Samoa being the only U.S. Territory in the Southern Hemisphere. All of the islands are Winds within the tropical marine climatic region, between the Equator and 23.5° north/south lati- The northeast and southeast tradewinds pre- tude. Weather changes in tropical climates are vail upon the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. complex and may occur frequently(4). Further, The tradewinds converge in the equatorial considerable climatic differences may exist be- trough of low pressure forming what is known tween island areas. Differences in the amount as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and seasonality of rainfall, wind, and tidal con- [4). The low pressure of this area gives rise to ditions exist throughout the Pacific and Carib- the sporadic cloudiness and frequent rainfall bean area. While tropical climates are charac- associated with tropical regions. The ITCZ terized by warm, often wet, fair weather, they shifts during the year accompanied by seasonal are equally known for producing major distur- changes in the direction and intensity of the bances such as cyclonic storms.1 winds. For example, the islands in the Carib- Overall weather patterns may be predictable bean experience relatively consistent winds (e.g., temperature, rainy seasons, tropical storm year round; however, the direction changes seasons, and afternoon rainstorms), however, from a slightly stronger northeast wind during tropical weather also may be highly variable. winter months to a southeast wind during sum- The high level of solar radiation received by mer months. Guam experiences a similar sea- tropical areas gives rise to this variability. High sonal wind shift, receiving the strongest winds energy levels may allow the rapid formation during winter months. American Samoa, in the of storm systems and sudden rainfall, and may southern hemisphere, also experiences season- also affect wind patterns and occasionally ality in winds, receiving the southeast trade- ocean currents. The high energy level of tropi- winds with relative consistency for 9 months cal air masses means that even small trigger of the year (46). The Northern Mariana Islands mechanisms may produce disturbances (4). receive strong northeast tradewinds for 9 months of the year, November through June, The action of the ocean may compound im- while July through October is marked by more pacts of sudden storm system formations. The variable winds. These islands also lie on the ocean also may serve to transfer impacts of eastern fringe of the Asiatic monsoon circula- weather or other natural events such as earth- tion system (47). quakes to islands some distance from the source of the disturbance. The small size and isolation Precipitation

1The term cyclonic storms will be used in this text to cover Precipitation levels in the tropical climatic such weather formations as typhoons and hurricanes. region generally are high, however, variations Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 53 exist among islands (table 3-1). Variation also may exist in the geographic distribution of precipitation on a single island. The variation in rainfall amounts among island areas largely is attributable to topographical differences, island size, and geographic location. Generally, as latitude increases rainfall patterns become more seasonal, with annually occurring dry periods. The seasonality of rainfall patterns is attributed, at least in part, to the shifting of the ITCZ and the associated change in the moisture content of the atmosphere in relation to island location. High islands generally receive larger levels of rainfall due to an orographic effect; air is forced up and over a topographic feature causing condensation of atmospheric moisture and gener-

Table 3-1. —Mean Annual Precipitation Level and Temperatures

Mean annual rainfall Polity/island Latitude (inches) Puerto Rico ...... 18° Na 40-200a U.S. Virgin Islands ...... 18° Na 40- 60a f American Samoa...... 14° Se l00-200b Guam ...... 13° Ne 80- 95C Northern Mariana Islands . . 14° N 75-121 d 20.5° Ne Marshall Islands ...... 5° N 135g 12° Ne (Majuro) Federated States of Micronesia: Kosrae ...... 5° 30' Ne 227g g Pohnpei ...... 7° Ne 190 Truk ...... 5°-7° Ne 139g Yap ...... 6°-12° Ne 122g Palau ...... 7° 30' Ne 147g

SOURCES:a D. Smedley, Climates of the States: Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands, U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, Climatography of the United States No. 60-52 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961). b U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- tion, Office of Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa Coastal Manage- ment Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980. c U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- tion, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impect Statement, vol. 1, 1979. d U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- tion, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of the Northern Mari- anas Islands Coastal Resources Management Program and Final Environmen- e tal Impact Statement, 1980. J.E. Maragos, "Coastal Resource Development and Management in the U.S. Pa- cific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, Washington, DC, 1986. f Caribbean Research Institute, Waterplan:A Comprehensive Water Management Framework for the U.S. Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Water Resources Center, June, 1979. g National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Boulder, CO, rainfall data— measured at one location for each island area—does not reflect variation in geographic distribution. 54 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. in.S(dar Areas

ally precipitation. Islands of lower altitude de- seasonal temperature fluctuation. Diurnal tem- pend in part on the convective force of the air perature changes commonly are greater than over the island to promote rainfall; the moist those experienced from one season to the next air is heated over the island and rises to a point (29). at which condensation occurs. Guam and the Western Caroline islands of Yap and Palau are subject to a monsoon-like The major climatic disturbances associated pattern with dry spells often occurring between with the island areas take the form of cyclonic December and June (15). Other islands such as storms. Cyclonic storms, which severely affect Pohnpei experience less variation in rainfall Puerto Rico and the USVI, generally develop patterns, receiving generally stable amounts over the southern North Atlantic Ocean east throughout the year. High average rainfall in of the Lesser Antilles (4,36). Those most affect- the central Carolines (100 to 130 inches/year) ing Micronesia originate in the central tropi- promotes lush vegetation. On coral islands the cal Pacific Ocean (4). Prediction of cyclone rainfall partially compensates for the inherent paths can prove difficult because of the varia- small freshwater storage capacity (2,40). bility of wind patterns in the tropical region. Considerable variation in precipitation re- The Caribbean islands generally receive fewer gimes exist between Puerto Rico and the USVI, cyclonic storms than the Pacific islands north despite their proximity. Puerto Rico receives of the Equator, which lie in a major path of cy- a mean annual rainfall of 65 to 70 inches, while clonic storms (4). Tropical cyclones are frequent the USVI recieves a mean annual amount of events in the Mariana and Western Caroline approximately 40 inches. The topographic fea- Islands of Yap and Truk (24), but less common tures of Puerto Rico, larger land mass and in the Eastern Carolines, the Marshalls, and mountain peaks in excess of 4,000 feet, promote American Samoa (7,13). Cyclonic storms are both convective and orographic precipitation. not considered a severe problem on Pohnpei, These features contribute to Puerto Rico’s sig- although four cyclonic storms have hit the is- nificant variation in the geographic distribu- land in this century, most recently in May of tion of precipitation that gives rise to a num- 1986. ber of different environments ranging from a tropical rainforest (Luquillo) to an arid southwest coast. Although the USVI receives both orographic and convective stimulated precipitation, the much smaller land area and lower elevations result in a less marked variation in precipitation distribution. Both island areas experience a relatively dry season that generally occurs between December and April.

Temperature Island climates are strongly influenced by the persistently high levels of solar radiation received throughout the year as well as by the tempering effect of the surrounding ocean waters. The ocean acts as a heat sink/source to regulate temperature variation through the Satellite image courtesy of C. Wahle year. During warmer seasons the ocean retains Cyclonic storms are relatively frequent events for many energy and during the cooler seasons is able U.S.-affiliated islands and often cause severe damage to release energy, resulting in relatively little to island populations and ecosystems. Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 55

Cyclonic storms develop from tropical de- on land. Storm wave assault may cause coastal pressions when pressure and temperature con- erosion, fragmentation of corals, slumping of ditions are favorable. These storms may pro- reef framework, and abrasion and scouring of duce winds of 60 to 200 miles per hour and the reef (39). Secondary effects include the loss generally are accompanied by heavy rainfall of biota dependent on the physically damaged and thunderstorms. The storm is generated by systems (55). Structural damage to the reef the release of energy through massive conden- framework was minimal after Typhoon Pamela sation of water vapor. The bodies of water sur- passed Guam in 1976, but damage to living coral rounding the tropical areas experience their and algal communities was intense and wide- highest temperatures in the late summer months spread on the deeper forereef slope zone (13). providing the energy levels necessary for the Recovery of the affected ecosystems generally generation of a cyclonic storm (30). Thus, such is slow because the base from which to build disturbances generally occur during late sum- is so small (9). mer and autumn when the ITCZ is shifting A less common but equally destructive dis- towards land south of the Equator. However, turbance of tropical oceans is the tsunami. exceptions do occur. For example, on Yap, cy- Tsunamis, also known as seismic sea waves, clonic storms are most frequent during the tran- may be produced by earthquakes, landslides, sitional months (particularly November) when or volcanic eruptions on the ocean floor and the tradewinds are returning. Cyclonic storms may reach velocities of up to 500 mph and that pass quite near or over an island can cause heights of up to 115 feet as they hit the shore- severe destruction. The high winds and torren- line. Both the Pacific and Caribbean U. S.- tial rainfall may cause wind damage, flooding, affiliated islands are located in seismically ac- landslides, and loss of life. Puerto Rico was se- tive areas. The Pacific Ocean is ringed with verely damaged by a cyclonic storm in 1928; earthquake-producing trenches and active vol- the vortex of the storm moved southeast to canic areas. However, the deep waters sur- northwest affecting the entire island. rounding the islands preclude major disruption Cyclonic storms may have both primary and by tsunamis (39). The narrow continental shelf secondary effects on the island ecosystem. Pri- structure of the Caribbean islands generally mary effects include physical damage to the reef does not allow the tsunami to build sufficient and shore areas and land erosion. High winds height to cause major disruption. However, the and torrential rainfall may cause destruction tsunami remains a potential hazard for islands.

ISLAND HYDROLOGY Many tropical islands receive high levels of and liquid phases. The components of the rainfall annually; some, however, exhibit semi- hydrologic cycle important to tropical islands arid conditions. Even with high levels of rain- are: fall, islands are not necessarily exempt from ● Precipitation: Water added to an island’s surface and groundwater shortages. An island’s surface from the atmosphere (e.g., rain, fog, topography and geology largely determine and dew). where rainfall will accumulate and how long ● Evaporation: The process by which water it will remain available. is changed into vapor. In the context of the The fundamental, unifying concept in under- hydrologic cycle, the most important form standing water movement in islands is the of evaporation in a quantitative sense is hydrologic cycle (figure 3-2). The cycle is a dy- that from the seas and oceans. Its return namic, conceptual model that relates the con- as precipitation is the main source of water tinuous movement of water through the vapor for islands. Because islands surfaces are small in comparison to the ocean surface, The Sun is the driving force behind the hydro- evaporation from islands contributes a logical cycle. It causes the evaporation of water small part to overall precipitation. from the ocean surface. The water vapor may ● Transpiration: The process by which condense to form clouds and ultimately return water passes through a living plant and to the Earth’s surface as precipitation. Some enters the atmosphere as vapor. precipitation evaporates again as it falls. ● Infiltration: The process whereby water soaks into the soil layers. Water reaching the surface of a watershed— ● Percolation: The downward flow of water the fundamental geographic unit of hydrology through soil and permeable rock forma- where an area of geographically low land is tions to the water table. partly surrounded by relatively higher lands— ● Runoff: The portion of precipitation that may follow one of four courses. First, it may flows downhill on the island’s surface to remain on the surface as pools or as surface reservoirs and catchments and ultimately moisture that evaporates back into the atmos- to the ocean (l). phere. Second, precipitation reaching the ● Retention: The proportion of water that ground may flow over the surface into depres- is held in the substrate after recharge and sions and channels to become surface runoff transpiration. in the form of streams. Surface runoff expressed Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 57

Figure 3.2.—The Hydrologic Cycle

Condensation

ion

Transpiration Surface .

Water table

f Lake I / River.,... A-

Water passes continuously through this cycle from evaporation from the oceans into the atmosphere through precipitation onto the islands and eventual runoff into the oceans. Human use of water may modify this cycle at virtually every point. SOURCE: H Hengeveld and C. DeVocht, Urban Ecology 6(1-4):19, 1982. as rivers or streams, generally occurs only af- The amount of rainfall that can infiltrate the ter evapotranspiration and soil and ground- soil is determined largely by the permeability water recharge have been satisfied or when pre- of soil (governed by the size and interconnec- cipitation is heavy. Third, precipitation may tiveness of the spaces within the soil or rock infiltrate the land’s surface directly and perco- layers) and the amount of water already present late downward to groundwater where it may in those spaces. For most soils, infiltration rates be stored. Fourth, it may recharge the soil and are highest at the beginning of a rainstorm be partly recycled through evapotranspiration.2 when the soil is dryest, gradually decreasing Shallow groundwater can move upward to the with time. Some infiltrated water will be re- soil surface and plant root zone by capillary tained near the surface by capillary forces. action where it is taken up by plants and trans- Where percolation and/or infiltration rates are pired, or it can move laterally until it intersects high relative to annual precipitation, no run- the land’s surface as a spring, or by under- off will take place (e.g., sandy, calcareous soils). ground flow into streams, ponds, or the ocean. Commonly, the water will percolate downward —- where it will enter into groundwater storage. 2The combined processes of evaporation of water from the land and vegetation surfaces and transpiration of water vapor through Water that exists below the surface of the plant leaves. Earth in interconnected openings of soil or rock 58 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 3-3.—Ghyben-Herzberg Lens Island Shallow Deep well wells... —,,— Water table \ Ocean

NOTE: Diagram is vertically exaggerated for Illustrative purposes, SOURCE: R.J. Ordway, Earth Science and the Environment (New York, NY: Van Nostrand, 1974),

is called “subsurface water. ” That zone, where to that of an iceberg. The basal contact of the the pores of the sediments and rocks are filled fresh water with the seawater is transitional. with water, is called the groundwater zone. The For every 1 foot of groundwater that is situated top surface of this zone is called the water ta- above sea level, approximately another 40 feet ble. Between the water table and the surface will exist below. Many small, drier islands and of the Earth is the “zone of aeration,” where atolls may have only a 20:1 ratio, and some may the pores of soil and rock contain some water have no fresh water lens (34). Therefore, small but less than total saturation. The water table changes in the altitude of the groundwater ta- commonly rises and falls with time as the avail- ble correspond to large changes in the thick- ability of water at the surface changes. ness of the fresh water extending below sea level (32). Groundwaters storage beneath oceanic islands has certain special characteristics that The lens tapers from being thickest at the is- differ from continental areas. Fresh water that land’s center to being thinnest at the island’s has percolated downward through the soil to edge. Close to the shoreline the entire lens may a level below which it saturates all of the inter- be brackish from tidal induced mixing of sea- connected pores and openings in bedrock or water and fresh water. As a consequence, salt- in consolidated sediments forms a lens com- tolerant trees commonly grow near an island’s monly referred to as the Ghyben-Herzberg Lens edge, above the thinnest part of the freshwater (figure 3-3). The groundwater table is the top lens, and salt-intolerant trees, like breadfruit, of this lens and is situated above sea level be- grow better toward the center of atolls (40). cause the fresh water is less dense than the seawater that saturates the rocks below. The High Volcanic Islands groundwater lens extends a greater distance below sea level than above in a manner similar Basaltic rocks forming the main part of high volcanic islands may be quite permeable be- —.— 3While the term groundwater covers all subterranean water, cause of the numerous joints, cracks, and bed- fresh, brackish or saline, the groundwater that is most limiting ding planes they contain (35). Consequently, in the island context is fresh water and thus is the focus of interest. precipitation can be trapped quickly by these —

Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 59

Atolls Coralline limestone atoll islands and low coral islands are highly permeable and, thus, readily accept heavy rainfall. Most atolls rise only a few feet to a few tens of feet above mean high tide and, because of their narrow dimensions, the groundwater lens beneath them is not large. Storms can drive saltwater onto and over some atolls thereby contaminating the fresh groundwater lens with seawater. Salt carried in sea spray can build up in atoll soils, but where rainfall is heavy over short periods of time salt will be flushed from the soil (40).

Raised Limestone Islands Raised limestone islands are lithologically similar to atolls in composition and permeability. Raised limestone islands generally are considerably larger than atolls, thus, the freshwater lens beneath is larger. Precipitation on these raised islands quickly moves downward through the porous rock and along openings formed by solution along joints and bedding planes. The vertical distance from the land’s surface of raised limestone islands to the water Photo credit: A. Vargo table may be as much as several hundred feet The steep slopes of high volcanic islands, such as depending on the island’s elevation. Contami- American Samoa, predispose island communities to nation of the fresh groundwater lens by sea- flood and landslide hazards. water is most likely to be limited to nearshore areas affected by storm surges. rocks and a thin soil cover. Nevertheless, dur- Natural surface-water supplies from streams ing heavy rainstorms, large amounts of water and ponds are sparse on limestone islands be- still run off such islands quickly because of the cause of the rock’s high permeability. However, generally steep slopes, the small size of water- springs may occur along the shore near sea level sheds, and sometimes because of the small to- where the groundwater flows laterally into the tal amount of water storage space in the rocks. sea. Larger solution features like caves and sink- Large amounts of erosion are common in such holes are common on such islands. situations. Flash flooding from high rainfall of short duration flowing through narrow stream Continental Islands valleys often is a serious problem. Continental islands have the most complex High islands that are either active or dormant hydrologic systems of all the island types be- volcanoes may emit some of the groundwater cause of their complex geologic origin. Ground- as steam and water vapor at holes or fissures water infiltration rates, in general, will be much called fumaroles. Groundwater in contact with more variable on continental islands than on rocks having elevated temperatures is likely to volcanic islands, atolls, and raised limestone contain large amounts of dissolved solids that islands. For example, Puerto Rico is a continen- commonly precipitate around hot springs (32). tal island with a wide variety of rock types, each

63-222 0 - 87-3 QL. 3 60 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas with differing porosity and permeability. It is Typically, continental islands have a core of the composite of these characteristics plus lo- igneous rock with limited aquifer development cal climatic variations that make up the island’s in the zones of fracture and faulting. Alluvial overall hydrologic system. As such, continen- and limestone deposits commonly occur around tal island hydrology does not lend itself to a the flanks of the island’s core to produce coastal simple description of the sort suitable to other plains which may be of considerable size (e.g., island types. Puerto Rico’s coastal plain extends nearly 4 miles in width). Rainfall is most plentiful in the Some parts of continental islands have a lo- mountainous regions and diminishes toward cal geology and lithology similar to the other the coast promoting significant variation in pre- island types. In these cases, the workings of the cipitation levels between coastal and mountain hydrology will parallel the other island types. areas. Major coastal aquifers may exist in some Such would be the case for volcanic and lime- areas, recharged by precipitation on the allu- stone terranes. But where terranes of other vium as well as by streamflow from upper lithologies exist major differences can occur. watersheds (28).

ISLAND SOILS Soils form from the chemical and physical soils will have limited productivity or will not breakdown of rocks and minerals. Limestone survive. In some soils, silicon and iron concen- and basalt and the alluvium derived from their trations are so low, and aluminum so high that erosion constitute a large part of volcanic and the composition of bauxite, an aluminum ore, limestone islands’ surface material, while on is approached or reached. continental islands a wider range of rock types exist. Chemical weathering processes predom- On islands where the annual rainfall is lower inate where precipitation is high and physical (southwestern Puerto Rico and much of the Vir- weathering processes predominate where pre- gin Islands) and where the temperature gener- cipitation is low; a continuum exists between ally remains high year-round (average of 800 the two extremes. Where chemical weathering to 850 F), physical breakdown of rocks and soil processes predominate, soils largely are de- minerals plays an increasingly larger role in pleted of nutrients regardless of the parent rock soil formation. In this process, the particles be- type. come smaller but their chemical composition is less affected and leaching of soil nutrients Many soils that form in hot, wet tropical areas is more limited. Physical disintegration can oc- have significant fertility problems. This is the cur in a number of ways; for instance, salts and case for most parts of many Pacific islands and certain minerals in small cracks in rocks and much of Puerto Rico. Under such conditions, soil particles expand when wet (hydration) and chemical weathering of parent rock materials contract when dry (dehydration), thus causing is the predominant soil forming mechanism. grains to break (5). And, of course, the growth High temperatures, high precipitation levels of plant roots is a powerful agent in breaking (approximately 50 inches and above) and the up rock and soil particles. action of plant roots combine to accelerate leaching of nutrients from the rock and soil In drier areas where rainfall is seasonal, nu- mineral particles, transforming the primary trients needed by many plants commonly are minerals to secondary minerals. The second- in the soil but become available to the plants ary soil minerals are composed largely of alu- only if sufficient water is available (6). If most minum, silicon, iron, oxygen, and water (16). of the water evaporates from the soil surface The chemical composition often is imbalance rather than percolating downward into the soil, so that many food or tree crops planted on such dissolved solids or salts can accumulate as Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems c 61

tions, the availability of nutrients, and particularly of important trace elements can be a problem (28). On high islands where slopes are steep, much of the rainfall runs off in streams rather than percolating into the ground. The soils that form on slopes remain shallow and can be more easily eroded than those on flatter lowlands (6). The presence of soil organic matter from plant litter and roots plays a key role in maintaining soil productivity because it: ● contributes to the development of soil ag- gregates, which enhance root development and reduce the energy needed to work the soil; ● increases the air- and water-holding capacity (porosity) of the soil, which is necessary for plant growth and helps to reduce erosion; ● releases essential nutrients as it decays; ● holds nutrients in storage until the plants need them; and ● enhances the abundance and distribution of vital biota (45). Soils formed from basaltic rocks in their early stages of chemical weathering can be quite fertile. Where annual precipitation is below 50 inches such soils can support high agricultural productivity; above 50 inches fertility decreases rapidly as leaching increasingly removes soil nutrients. As the weathering process continues, soil fertility will decrease even at the lower rainfall levels. Thus, geologically old, inactive volcanic islands generally will have soils with serious fertility problems and often aluminum toxicity as they become very acidic (pH 4.0). Those islands having geologically recent volcanic activity are more likely to have soils of higher fertility derived from basaltic lava flows and ash deposits. Where volcanic islands are still active or where they have been active re- crusts at or near the land surface in concentra- cently it is less likely that sufficient time has tions that few plants can tolerate (21). Similarly, elapsed for natural vegetation to develop to con- if the groundwater table is high, evaporation vert the rock materials into soil especially if pre- of the groundwater may occur, which also re- cipitation is low. sults in accumulated salts in the soil. Thus, soils in drier zones tend to be alkaline such that even Where rainfall is heavy the layer of weathered with irrigation systems and fertilizer applica- rock and soil material may become thick. Land- slides sometimes occur in such areas where fertile soils is a way of partly offsetting the in- heavy rains saturate this weathered zone and fertility problem. Soils formed on coralline lime- where the slope of the land is steep. Landslides stone atolls are composed of sand and silt-sized of this sort are more common on high volcanic particles of limestone and, consequently, are islands and continental islands than on raised alkaline (pH 7.5 to 8.5). The soils’ lack of abun- limestone islands. Puerto Rico, for example, in dant amounts of clay-sized particles results in 1981 and 1985 experienced severe landsliding their poor water- and nutrient-holding ability. on the south side of the island after saturating Decomposition of soil organic matter produces rains. weak acids that in turn help dissolve the limestone soil particles (40). Soils formed from the weathering of limestone even where precipitation is moderate are Alluvial soils are those formed of eroded composed of the residual insoluble minerals sediments that have been transported by run- that have accumulated as the limestone dis- ning water. These sediments are deposited solves (32). In this solution process the result- along floodplains and at the mouths of streams. ing soils are highly leached and, therefore, have The composition of the alluvium and, thus, the fertility problems. Maintaining an adequate soil is a reflection of the eroded and weathered supply of organic matter in highly leached, in- rocks of the watershed. For example, in a wa- Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 63 tershed comprised mostly of limestone, the al- functions (see above). Because of their topo- luvium on which the soil forms will be mostly graphic position and nearness to the ocean, limestone. Such soils are not likely to have some have a high salt content. Others, when greater fertility than the watershed soils, but drained and exposed to air, become acid as cer- they will have the advantages of being mostly tain sulfide minerals oxidize, adversely affect- on relatively flat land and closer to “significant” ing plant growth. groundwater resources. Certain atolls, including some of those in the In low-lying wet areas, depressions some- Marshall and Caroline Islands, are known for times are filled with a mixture of fine-grained their rich deposits of rock phosphate. These de- sediment (clay, silt, and shell fragments) and posits and soils have formed over time from decaying plant materials (peat). These dark col- dung or “guano” deposited on the atoll by fish- ored, wet, soft deposits formed under anaero- eating birds. Mild acids formed from the de- bic conditions generally are called “muck” composition of organic matter carry the guano soils. They are common beneath swamps and, (phosphate bearing organic material) down- thus, are restricted mostly to atolls and to lands ward in the soil to limestone layers where the of low relief surrounding some high volcanic acids are neutralized and the calcium phos- islands, raised limestone islands and continen- phate is deposited (40). Many of these phosphate tal islands. The organic matter assists in hold- deposits have been mined over the years and ing added plant nutrients in a form available exported for agricultural use. to living plant cover and provides other useful

RENEWABLE RESOURCE SYSTEMS IN U.S.-AFFILIATED TROPICAL ISLANDS The island ecosystems and the efforts to sus- Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands regula- tain, enhance, conserve, or restore these re- tions (47). However, regulatory efforts often sources represent major positive factors of the were minimally effective and resources gener- U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. Each island eco- ally were well protected only on islands remote system contributes to the supply and effective from human populations (14). sustained use of island renewable resources (9). Island biological resources provide both direct Common Characteristics of Tropical and indirect benefits to the inhabitants. The Island Resources small size of islands makes them easier to study as complete systems, and thus makes it possi- Endomism of Species ble to integrate management of island resources (9) Tropical forests have a history of species- 0 richness, and endemism. Puerto Rico has 547 Local government efforts to maintain exist- native tree species, approximately the same ing resources are numerous, including such ac- number found in the continental United States. tions as the creation of parks and protected The U.S. Virgin Islands has between 800 and areas, regulation of resource use, and develop- 1,000 native plant species and several hundred ment planning in coordination with sustaina- introduced or exotic species (44). The Western ble use of local resources. The new entities Pacific islands are especially rich in rare en- emerging under the Compacts of Free Associa- demic species; for some tree species only one tion now will have the opportunity to develop or two individuals are known4 (44). In many similar resource management programs. Pre- viously, resource management and regulation, 4 For example, there are only a few individuals left of a native including protection of endangered species and Pacific tree Tabernaemontana rotensis (M. Falanruw, pers. critical areas, fell under the jurisdiction of the comm., 7/86). 64 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Value to Science Island ecosystems provide values to science disproportionate to their small size. Because of the high rates of endemicity, islands may provide species of particular scientific interest for botanical and zoological investigation. The clearly defined boundaries facilitate study of species migration, competition, adaptation, and extinction. General principles of evolution can be derived from island studies (44). The genetic resource represented by the unique island biota, although on a smaller scale than continental areas, represents potential gene banks of tropical species. Johnston Atoll is of particular scientific interest because of its geographic isolation and age (26). It is an an- cient reef and, except for Wake Island, is the Photo credit: J. Bauer only atoll of the Marcus-Necker ridge still sur- Habitat modification has reduced the range of the viving in shallow water (app. B), The atoll has Puerto Rican parrot significantly. The only known remaining habitat for these birds, pictured here in an ar- been designated a National Wildlife Refuge in tificial nest, is in the Caribbean National Forest. order to protect the nesting seabird populations and well-developed coral reefs (26). cases the insular bird and mammal life also are endemic. Examples include the Puerto Rican Vulnerability to Disruption parrot and the Mariana fruit bat. The isolation and small size of islands, which The number of species an island can accom- foster species endemicity and limit population modate is proportionate to island size (i.e., a size respectively, contribute to island species’ greater number of species may live on a larger vulnerability to disruption. Populations that island); however, the number of species present evolved with limited competition or predator/ on the island also depends on distance from prey relationships often cannot survive when colonizing sources (i.e., continents or other is- forced to compete; further, small populations lands) and diversity of island habitat (9). Islands have lower capacities for recovery. Although tend to develop new varieties and species that isolation offers some protection from natural are found nowhere else (endemic species). This introduction of competing species, the impor- occurs as populations develop characteristics tation (intentional or not) of animals, insects, of adaptation to the isolated island environ- and diseases has reduced island indigenous ment. The small size of the island limits the plant and animal populations (12,23). Guam’s species populations, thus, any reduction in hab- bird population has been declining steadily itat size, such as by human development, even- since World War II; the main culprit is thought tually may lead to extirpation or extinction of to be the brown tree snake. The snake is be- some species (table 3-2). Environmental pertur- lieved responsible for severely reducing avian bations easily may affect an entire population. populations on Guam. The introduction of the The distance of islands from colonizing sources snake has been estimated to have occurred in affects the probability that an extirpated popu- the early 1940s, however the method or reason lation will naturally reestablish. for its arrival is not clear. Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 65

Table 3-2.—Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant Species With Historic Range in the U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands

Where Common name Scientific name Historic rangea Status endangered Mammals: Little Mariana fruit bat Pteropus tokudae Western Pacific (Guam) E entire Mariana fruit bat Pteropus mariannus mariannus Western Pacific (Guam) E Guam (Rota, Tinian, Saipan, Aguijan) Dugong Dugong dugon East Africa to southern E entire Japan, including RMI, CNMI, FSM, and Palau West Indian Manatee Trichechus manatus U. S. A., Caribbean Sea South America E entire Caribbean Monk Seal Monachus tropicalis Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico E entire Hawaiian Monk Seal Monachus schauinslandi Hawaiian Archipelago E entire Blue Whale ... Balaenoptera musculus Oceanic E entire Bowhead Whale ...... Balaena mysticetus Oceanic (north latitude) E entire Finback Whale ...... Balaenoptera physalus Oceanic E entire Humpback Whale ...... Megaptera novaeangliae Oceanic E entire Right Whale, ...... Balaena glacialis Oceanic E entire Sei Whale . . Balaenoptera borealis Oceanic E entire Sperm Whale ...... , Physeter catodon Oceanic E entire Birds: Guam Broadbill ., Myiagra freycineti Western Pacific Ocean (Guam) E entire Mariana Crow Corbus kubaryi Western Pacific Ocean (Guam, Rota) E entire Micronesia Kingfisher ...... Halcyon cinnamomina cinnamomina Western Pacific Ocean (Guam) E entire Mariana Mallard . ., Anas oustaleti West Pacific Ocean (Guam, Mariana Islands) E entire Micronesia Megapode Megapodius Iaperouse West Pacific Ocean (Palau, Mariana Islands) E entire ( = La Perouse’s) Tinian Monarch ...... Monarcha takatsukasae Western Pacific Ocean (Mariana Islands) E entire Mariana Common Moorhen (= Gallinule) ...... ,..,. Gallinula chloropis guami Western Pacific Ocean (Mariana Islands) E entire Puerto Rico Nightjar ( =Whip-poor-will), Caprimulgus noctitherus Puerto Rico E entire Puerto Rican Parrot ...... Amazona vittata Puerto Rico E entire Puerto Rican Plain Pigeon ., ...... Columba inornata wetmorei Puerto Rico E entire Piping Plover . . . . Charadrius melodus USA (Great Lakes, northern Great Plains, E Great Lakes Atlantic and Gulf coasts, PR, Vi), Canada, watershed in IL, Mexico, Bahamas, West Indies IN, Ml, MN, NY, OH, PA, and WI and Province of Ontario; All other range locations Guam Rail ...... Rallus owstoni Western Pacific Ocean (Guam) E entire Ponape Mountain Starling...... Aplonis pelzelni Western Pacific Ocean (Caroline Islands) E entire Vanikoro Swiftlet, ., ., Aerodramus vanikorensis bartschi Western Pacific Ocean (Guam, Rota, Tinian, E entire Saipan, Aguijan) Least Tern ...... Sterna antillarum USA (Atlantic and Gulf coasts, Mississippi E range in con- River Basin), Greater and Lesser Antilles, tiguous States Bahamas and Mexico Nightingale Reed Warbler ...... Acrocephalus Iuscinia Western Pacific Ocean E Mariana Islands Bridled White-eye ...... Zosterops conspicillata Western Pacific Ocean (Guam) E entire conspicillata Ponape Greater White-eye ...... Rukia Iongirostra West Pacific Ocean (Caroline Islands) E entire Reptiles: Culebra Island Giant Anole . . Anolis roosevelti Puerto Rico: Culebra Island E entire Mona Boa ., . . . . . Epicrates monensis monensis Puerto Rico T entire Puerto Rico Boa, ... , Epicrates inornatus Puerto Rico E entire Virgin Islands Tree Boa ...... Epicrates monensis granti U.S. and British VI E entire American Crocodile ...... Crocodylus acutus USA (FL), Mexico, South America, Central E entire America, Caribbean Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Southeast Asia, Australia, Papua New Guinea, E entire Pacific Islands Monito Gecko ., ... ., Sphaerodactylus micropithecus Puerto Rico E entire Mona Ground Iguana ... Cyclura stejnegeri Mona Island T entire St. Croix Ground Lizard Ameiva polops U.S. Virgin Islands E entire 66 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Table 3.2.—Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant Species With Historic Range in the U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands—Continued

Where Common name Scientific name Historic rangea Status endangered Sea Turtles: Green, ...... Chelonia mydas circumglobal tropical & temperate seas and T entire oceans Hawksbill. ., ., ., . . Eretmochelys imbricata tropical seas E entire Kemps Ridley ( = Atlantic) ...... Lepidochelys kempii tropical and temperate seas in Atlantic Basin E entire Leatherback . . Dermochelys coriacea tropical, temperate & subpolar seas E entire Loggerhead ...... Caretta caretta circumglobal in tropical & temperate seas & T entire oceans Olive Ridley (= Pacific) . . . .Lepidochelys olivacea tropical and temperate seas in Pacific Basin T entire Golden Coqui ...... Eleutherodactylus jasperi Puerto Rico T entire Plants: Prickly-Ash . . Zanthoxylum thomasianum Northern Puerto Rico E entire Beautiful Goetza, Matabuey . . . . Goetzea elegans Puerto Rico E entire Vahl’s Boxwood ...... Buxus vahli Puerto Rico E entire Palo de Ramonb . . . Banara vanderbiltii Puerto Rico E entire Hayun Lagu, Trokon guafic . Serianthes nelsonii Guam, CNMI E entire

Species Removed from the Endangered and Threatened Lists (for informational purposes only, not codified in the Code of Federal Regulations) Where Reason Common name Scientific name Historic range Prior status endangered for delisting Palau Dove ...... Gallicolumba canifrons West Pacific Palau Islands E entire recovered Palau Fantail ...... Rhipidura Iepida West Pacific Palau Islands E entire recovered Palau Owl .,, , ,,, ,, .,,,,,.., .,, .., .., Pyroglaux podargina West Pacific Palau Islands E entire recovered a Historic Range indicates the known general distribution of the species or subspecies as reported in the current scientific literature. The present distribution may be greatly reduced from this historic range. SOURCE: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, January 1966. [for all but the following] bEcology USA, “Recent Actions Under the Endangered Species Act, ” 16(3):24, Jan. 16, 1987. cEcology USA, “Recent Actions Under the Endangered Species Act, ” 16(4):32, Mar. 2, 1987.

A primary method of protecting island fauna listing as “endangered” already possessed that is through the maintenance of appropriate hab- status and protection under local law (42).5 itat. However, the small size of islands means that park and protected area designs need to Vulnerability to Overexploitation make optimum use of limited land area and may Island species are particularly vulnerable to need to combine protection of fauna and flora. overexploitation, often because the base from Undisturbed sanctuaries may be necessary for which to build generally is small. Several is- those species that cannot tolerate disturbance land species have been exploited to the extent as opposed to those that maybe integrated into that they are now endangered (table 3-2). The parks with recreational potential. Some ex- Mariana fruit bat, Pteropus mariannus mari- tremely vulnerable species may only be effec- annus, is considered a great delicacy in the tively protected on islands remote from human Marianas and bat populations on some islands population. have been heavily exploited. Overexploitation Surveys of many island areas still are needed of fruit bat populations on Guam resulted in to determine the incidence of endemism, and increased exploitation of fruit bat populations the status of native species. The importance of on other islands, including Yap, to satisfy the quarantine regulations and enforcement can- market. Consequently, Yapese fruit bat popu- not be understated in island areas (23). Local lations were severely reduced and in 1980 the governments can play a major role in identify- hunting and exportation of these animals was ing and protecting rare, threatened and endan- 5 gered species. A native Guamanian plant spe- S. nelsonii has been listed as Endangered under the Endan- cies, Serianthes nelsonii, while pending Federal gered Species Act, effective 3/20187. Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems c 67

lides on steep slopes. The topography generally precludes timber harvesting operations but may allow some agroforestry practices. Upland forests are important as wildlife habitat and in maintaining watershed function. These forests may enhance the watershed by increasing interception of rainfall, increasing percolation, improving infiltration, and reducing the rainfall impact on the soil. Upland forests are not easily reestablished once cleared, often leading to chronic erosion problems. Mountainside submontane rain forests are comprised of predominantly broad-leaved trees with an even canopy, many epiphytes, and in some areas with abundant undergrowth including tree ferns and small palms. Forests of this type are found on several of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Some of the remaining submontane forests have been disturbed, such as one present on Truk, which now covers approximately only 2 acres on the top of one volcanic island. Cloud forest (also called dwarf, elfin, or moss forest), a specialized, highly vulnerable upland forest, has developed on high ridges and mountain tops on some islands. These forests, kept moist by the constant presence of cloud formations, generally are composed of gnarled or dwarfed trees burdened with mosses and lichens. The ground commonly is covered with Photo credit: E. Petteys club mosses and ferns. Cloud forests are high Overexploitation of the Mariana fruit bat has severely in endemic species and are extremely vulner- reduced populations in the Pacific. Despite protective legislation, poaching continues to threaten remaining able to disruption. Endangered status recently fruit bat populations in some island areas. has been proposed for two plant species, Cy- athea dryopteroides and hex cookii, endemic to Puerto Rico’s cloud forests of the Central Cor- banned. The species was placed on the Endan- dillera (11). Although cloud forests are present gered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant list on several of the islands, their areal extent is and given “endangered” status in 1984. Popu- extremely limited. lations in some areas are in recovery stages (22). Implications for Management.—Upland forests are important for watersheds, contrib- Major Island Resource Systems ute to erosion control, provide habitat for wildlife, and often contain many endemic species. Upland Forests While development of forestland may be nec- The higher parts of most high islands in the essary for provision of goods and services to U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Caribbean originally island populations, such activities might be were covered by dense forests (9). The remain- preceded by objective analyses of the cost of ing higher elevation forests are important in artificially providing those services which will contributing to control of erosion and lands- be lost because of development. Development —

68 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Table 3-3.—Ecosystems Present on the U.S.-Affiliated Islands

Island Areas Puerto Rico USVI American Samoa Guam CNMI Cloud forest Present on May have been Undisturbed forma- Possibly on top of Mount Tapachau, mountain tops present on tion on top of Ta’u Mount Lamlam Saipan; other is- mountain tops lands unknown Submontane rain. Formerly on higher None Midelevation ridges None None forest mountains and as secondary growth Lowland rainforest Little remains None Remains on steep Scattered remains of Lava forest on north- slopes limestone, species- ern island rich forest Riverine and swamp Limited extent None Limited amount Present along rivers, In ravines on smaller forest remains present along moist ravines; islands streams mostly in south Subtropical moist/ Little remains Limited areas in None None None seasonal forest mountains or remote areas Subtropical dry Present, little of Present, considera- None None None forest original ecosystem bly reduced from original extent Savanna and Considerable man- Present in former Present as early Extensive fire- Extensive natural grasslands made areas main- agricultural areas sere after dis- adapted areas in formation in north- tained as pasture turbance south ern islands, man- or ground cover made on Saipan and others Scrub Present, often as Present Present on on Mata- On rocky limestone Coastal volcanic secondary growth fao and Piao moun- coast and some rock in north and tains, Tutuila southern areas limestone coast in south Wetlands Some rivers, and Saltwater ponds in Streams and coastal Some streams and Saltwater and fresh- marshes, and some bays behind man- marshes; lakes on rivers; reed swamps; water marshes, saltwater marshes groves Ta’u and Anu’u saltwater and fresh- freshwater lakes on occur behind man- water marshes; man- Saipan and Pagan, groves made lake brackish on Pagan Mangrove forest 25 mi2 scattered Forests only on St. Pala lagoon Small areas, particu- Limited areas in around coast Thomas and St. (stressed) on Tutuila, Iarly Apra Habor southern islands Croix and on Aunu’u

Atoll/beach forest Present in some Present Widespread, special Common, includes Present on some of and scrub areas types on Rose Atoll some endemics the southern islands and Swain’s island

Lagoons/shallow Behind barrier reefs Extensive in bays, Lagoons on Rose Cocos lagoon Shallow lagoon in- bottoms and other offshore inside reef and Atoll, Swain’s Island side some reefs on features along shelf and Tutuila Saipan and Tinian

Coral reefs Barrier, fringing and Bank barrier reef Main islands largely Barrier reef near Fringing reefs com- patch reef areas, and algal ridge; also bordered by fringing Cocos island, variety mon in southern is- most damaged fringing barrier and reefs; some of patch and fring- Iands, some patch reef complex- damaged ing reefs elsewhere, damaged es; some damaged some damaged

SOURCE: A.L. Dahl, “Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Technologies To Sustain Renewable Resources in the U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, Washington, DC, 1986. could be redirected from areas where forest- forest. The vulnerability of cloud forests to dis- provided services (i.e., important watersheds) turbance is so extreme that these forests can- are critical to the island and its inhabitants. Fur- not withstand development activities. ther, additional benefits maybe derived when required development is done in such a way Lowland Forests as to protect or maintain the natural function of the-vegetation, thereby maintaining or only Lowland forests, which grow on hillsides and slightly reducing the services provided by the in coastal plains, are composed mostly of nu- Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems c 69

Table 3-3.—Ecosystems Present on the U.S.-Affiliated Islands—Continued

Federated States of Micronesia Marshalls Palau Kosrae Pohnpei Yap Truk

None None Present on mountain At highest ele- None None top vations

None None At midelevations, At midelevations None Limited area on top some disturbed of one volcanic mountain None Limestone, Present with many Present, most areas Species-rich forests, Present, disturbed species-rich endemics, nearly undisturbed most are disturbed disturbed or replaced None Along rivers and Along rivers and in- Dense along rivers, Present, inland of Present, inland of inland of land of mangroves inland of mangroves mangroves mangroves mangroves None None None None None None

None None None None None None

On smaller islets of Present on clay Present Present often from Now predominant Present some atolls soils, and where burning on clay soils, or fire-maintained where frequently burned

Some on northern Outer edges of Present On rocky coasts and Present in some Present islands limestone forest, some ravines degraded areas rocky coasts and strip mined areas Freshwater pond on Streams, rivers, Short streams, and Streams, rivers, Freshwater streams, Low swamps and Lib; tidal saltwater lakes, ponds, other freshwater lakes, ponds, ponds, swamps, and marshes marshes swamps, fresh- habitat swamps, and marshes water and saltwater marshes marshes In depressions on a 11,513 acres in 3,859 acres around 13,562 acres along 2,894 acres on Yap, 3,315 acres around few atolls estuaries and along island coast and estuaries, and some on Elato main islands coasts of archi- some on Pingelap and Woleai Atolls pelago Atoll Largely replaced by In a few areas be- Present behind On high islands, On atolls and be- On atolls, islets; and coconut and bread- hind beaches and beaches largely replaced by hind beaches, often in some coast areas fruit, except on on Kayangel Atoll planted trees replaced by coconut some northern atolls Large open lagoons, Lagoons within Some shallow la- Extensive lagoon Some shallow la- Over 2,000 mi2 closed lagoon in barrier reef, also goons inside reef with seagrasses, goons within reef including atoll Namorik Kayangel Atoll and and atoll lagoons and atoll lagoons lagoons Helen Reef Islands built by Barrier, fringing Largely surrounded Extensive barrier Wide, fringing reefs, Major barrier reef coral reef eco- and patch reefs; by fringing reef reef enclosing la- outer atoll islands with islet enclosing systems, some rich and diverse; goon with fringing lagoon with complex damaged also some atolls; and patch reefs, and structures, outer some areas outer atoll islands atoll islands; con- damaged siderable damage

merous species of fast-growing trees. Many of Lowland rain forests are important for water these reach 80 to 120 feet in height and exhibit catchment and for building soil nutrients and a closed, uneven canopy and little undergrowth. humus, often growing on and giving rise to the Lowland rain forests occur on many of the U. S.- best island soils. They have the highest timber affiliated islands and most of these have been production potential of any island forest, how- disturbed, some to great extent. The lowland ever the land they cover often is under pres- forests of Kosrae and Palau probably represent sure for competing uses such as agriculture and the least disturbed communities. human settlements. These activities, plus log- 70 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

with this type of forest. What remains today is mostly in mountainous regions with lesser amounts existing in the dry foothills (27). The conversion of land to agricultural purposes resulted in the clearing of the majority of this forest type. Subtropical dry forest, a drought-resistant forest with many species and commonly with an understory of shrubs, also is found in the U.S. Caribbean. This type of forest is slower growing than the moist forest type. Sixteen percent of Puerto Rico was once covered by this vegetation type, mostly on the southern side and forest communities were distinguished between those growing on coastal areas and those of limestone soils (9). Five percent of the original forest type remains today primarily because of the conversion of land to agricultural purposes (54). In the Virgin Islands this type of forest covered nearly three-quarters of the island (9). Today few original forest stands remain, most areas having been once cleared for grazing lands or other agricultural purposes. Forests of this type along the immediate coastal strip may be important in filtering runoff from the land and thus preventing or reducing coastal pollution from sedimentation and agricultural chemicals. Generally, relatively large areas are needed to maintain production and regeneration making the conservation of such forests difficult. Smaller areas, if effectively protected, may be managed to conserve this forest type (27). ging, have caused significant genetic resources Implications for Management.—These for- and wildlife to be lost. Continuing disturbance, ests are important for water catchment, soil and a lack of seed sources, and competition from humus building, and offer timber production introduced plants impede recovery, which potential. However, the relatively flat lands oc- might take decades under good conditions (9). cupied by this forest type generally are under pressure for competing uses such as agricul- The drier Caribbean climate produces a type ture. Development and management activities of lowland forest not found in the U.S. Pacific might be directed to allow profitable use for islands. The tree species of subtropical moist timber and agroforestry production while main- or seasonal forests are more resistant to drought taining the natural functions of the forest. Lands and may lose some leaves in the dry season. needed for other agricultural pursuits could be Sixty percent of Puerto Rico originally was cov- designated, so as to maintain sufficient amounts ered with this type of forest; this is down to of natural and modified forest area. Abandoned 15 percent today (54). In the U.S. Virgin Islands, agricultural areas could be reforested to restore about 25 percent of the land area was covered soil fertility. Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 71

Freshwater Wetlands activities could take precautions to protect the Wetlands and freshwater island environ- wetland environment, or be redirected to less ments include freshwater marshes and reed vulnerable areas. swamps, lakes, rivers and streams with aquatic plants, and freshwater fauna. Dense forests of Grass and Fern Savanna Lands hydrophytic species also occur along rivers and Savannas composed of grasses (commonly in swampy areas inland of mangrove forests. Miscanthus, or sword grass) or fern (Gleichenia) Forests of this type occur in American Samoa, are found on many islands, alone or in asso- Guam, Northern Marianas, Pohnpei, Kosrae, ciation with scattered trees and shrubs. A num- Truk, Yap, Palau, and Puerto Rico. These for- ber of endemic plants may be found in these ests are important in contributing to erosion areas. Many grasslands are maintained by fre- and flood control along streambanks and thus quent burning, often to attract game species, prevention of pollution of water supplies. or provide pasture for domesticated animals. Marsh and stream vegetation slows runoff, It is believed that the habitat has long been contributing to erosion and flood control and present in areas such as southern Guam and reducing water turbidity. They also may pro- Babelthaup (Palau) although to a considerably vide a filtration system which buffers reefs and lesser extent than at present (15). lagoons from terrestrial sedimentation and pol- Ferns and grasses tend to contribute to ero- lution. sion control and some areas may be used as Wetland environments have been recognized pasture land for livestock. However, improve- as critical areas in island coastal management ment often is necessary to allow profitable use programs and as such are accorded some de- as pasture. Regrowth generally is rapid after gree of protection (46,47,48,49,50,51). These burning, however, repeated burning degrades environments also provide critical habitat for the soil by removing the organic content; and many wildlife species, including some that are there is risk of fire spreading to adjacent more federally protected under the Endangered Spe- valuable forest types. cies Act, Implications for Management.—Primary These ecosystems may be very restricted on management attention should be given to fire small islands and are generally quite vulner- control and public education on the ecological able to disturbance. Some systems have evolved impacts of frequent burning. Management or to adapt to a wide salinity range, or to tem- development activities could involve active im- porary disappearance, regenerating when con- provement of those areas which might be used ditions permit. However, recovery from severe profitably for pasture, or agriculture, or for stress, such as from agricultural chemicals or urban and residential development; and en- heavy sedimentation, may be very slow even courage reforestation of other areas. Such after sources of stress are removed (9). reforestation schemes could consider using fire tolerant species. Implications for Management.—Wetland environments provide critical habitat for many wildlife species and are important in contrib- Strand and Beach uting to erosion and flood control. Through mit- Vegetation comprised of a few widely distrib- igation of erosion and flooding they provide for uted species of trees and shrubs, including some the protection of nearshore areas from pollu- endemics, occupies the sand and rubble along tion and extreme freshwater discharge. Gen- the coastal beach strand close to sea level. This erally, wetland plant species are quite vulner- is the major vegetative formation on atolls and able to disruption and recovery may be slow; low coral islands. This coastal fringe contrib- wildlife species may be extirpated if alternate utes to stabilization of the coastline and offers wetland habitat is not available. Development protection from storm damage and salt-spray 72 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

to inland areas. Strand forest and scrub can be able atolls and low coral islands. Enrichment found to some extent on all U.S.-affiliated is- of existing stands with more desirable or prof- lands. In many areas the forest has been cleared itable species may offer an opportunity to pre- to allow for development. This type of forest serve some protective functions as well as pro- has the capability to recover or recolonize read- vide a food or income source. ily when disturbance or stress is removed (9). In some areas much of the strand and beach Mangrove Forests vegetation has been removed and replaced with Mangrove forests are characterized by salt- more economically profitable plant species. On resistant trees, some with stilt roots or pneu- many of the Marshall Islands, for example, matophores, growing in the intertidal range areas formerly occupied by beach and strand vegetation now are planted largely with coco- along ocean shores or estuaries. Nutrients from nut palms and breadfruit trees. terrestrial runoff and the leaves falling from the trees provide food and shelter for marine life Implications for Management.—Strand and living among the roots. A significant amount beach vegetation contribute to retardation of of mangrove forest area remains in the U. S.- coastal erosion as well as protection of inland affiliated Caribbean islands; nearly 25 square areas from salt-spray and storm damage. De- miles of mangrove forest is scattered around velopment activities could strive to maintain Puerto Rico’s coastline. While scattered man- some extent of this vegetation zone for its pro- grove trees occur along the coast of the U.S. tective function, particularly on more vulner- Virgin Islands, mangrove forests only survive Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems ● 73

Mangrove forests are important in the maintenance of the nearshore coastal water quality. They are important for many marine species that are dependent on the protected habitat for food and shelter (8). They also trap and stabilize sediment from runoff, thus building land and protecting the coral reefs and lagoons from pollution. Mangroves may regenerate after short-term physical disturbances such as storms, however longer term disturbances such as changes in runoff can destroy a forest. Reestab- lishment of mangroves has been practiced in Florida and Puerto Rico indicating that, if conditions are appropriate, the forest can regenerate in a period of 10 to 15 years. An oil-damaged mangrove stand in Guam has been successfully rehabilitated through a replanting program. The program involved removing the damaged trees and replanting seedlings that were harvested from an undisturbed area of the forest. How- ever, regeneration of clear-felled areas in South- east Asia has not been successful (9). Implications for Management.—Mangrove formations are important for a variety of functions including, filtration of freshwater, wildlife habitat, nutrient provision for nearshore marine life, erosion control, and limited timber production. Development activities which Photo credit: C. Wahle would remove mangroves should be redirected Mangrove forests, found to some extent on most of the to other areas, and timber harvesting should U.S.-affiliated islands, provide important habitat and be limited to sustainable yields. nursery areas for many marine and terrestrial species. The extent of these forests has been significantly reduced through human development activities. Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows commonly are found in association with coral reefs and provide shel- at Salt River, St. Croix and Jersey Bay, St. ter and nursery areas for many marine species. Thomas; the larger mangrove areas have been Lagoon bottoms and other shallow coastal cleared for development (9). waters support seagrass and algal beds. The In the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, Pohn- sand and mud bottoms create habitat for many burrowing and benthic organisms (9). pei and Palau have the largest extent of mangrove forests (13,652 and 11,513 acres respec- Algal and seagrass meadows are highly pro- tively), followed by Kosrae (3,859 acres), Truk ductive ecosystems that serve as “pastures” for (3,315 acres), and Yap (2,894 acres) (9,56). Amer- many commercially important marine species ican Samoa has limited mangrove forest areas (9) and appear to foster an increased variety (130 acres) (56), one of which (Pala Lagoon) is of reef fishes (20). They also act to stabilize bot- under stress from nearby development. In the tom sediments and thus help prevent coastal Northern Mariana Islands there are only small erosion. To some extent they may absorb or- mangrove areas and they may be threatened ganic wastes, however heavy sedimentation by dredging and development. can cut off light and smother the bottom (9). 74 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Implications for Management.—Seagrass that at least 40 percent of American Samoa’s meadows contribute to the retardation of households exploit the nearshore fisheries for coastal erosion, provide habitat and feeding a part of their food (46). This level is estimated grounds, and may absorb some organic wastes. to be as high as 90 percent in the Caroline and Destruction of seagrass meadows generally is Marshall islands (17). a repercussive impact from other actions. For The physical structure of the coral reef pro- example, increased sedimentation from devel- vides a natural breakwater which retards shore- opment activities may smother bottom commu- line erosion (20) and provides for the replenish- nities and boat anchors may remove large ment of beach sand; as wave action scours the patches of seagrass. Recovery is slow from such reef structure, particles break off and are car- disturbances. Seagrass meadows could be pro- ried to shore. Coral reefs also represent a ma- tected through appropriate actions incorpo- jor tourist attraction and valuable recreational rated in development activities, such as efforts resource for activities such as diving and snor- to reduce erosion, or establishment of perma- keling. nent moorings in frequently used areas. Destructive fishing practices (e.g., dynamit- Coral Reefs ing, bleaching), coastal development activities that increase freshwater discharge or turbidity Although tropical waters commonly have low of nearshore waters, or expulsion of thermal nutrient levels, coral reef areas are sites of high or chemical effluent all may cause reef destruc- biological productivity. Coral reef areas, asso- tion. Pest outbreaks such as the crown-of-thorns ciated with most of the U.S.-affiliated tropical starfish (Acanthaster plancii) similarly damage islands, are among the most productive of trop- coral reefs. While the values of coral reefs are ical marine areas (55) and represent a highly well understood, enforcement of protective reg- valuable resource. ulations still poses a problem in some areas. The reef areas provide shelter and habitat as Implications for Management.—The diverse well as a nursery for many marine organisms. benefits provided by coral reefs, including en- Hundreds of edible varieties of fish including hancement of fishery potential, marine species jacks and some species of snapper, commonly habitat, protection from shoreline erosion, are members of the reef community, as are beach sand replenishment, and recreational many mollusks and crustaceans (17,41,52). Har- value, clearly demonstrate the importance of vesting of nearshore marine resources takes this nearshore marine structure. Activities place primarily in the vicinity of coral reefs and which are known to have adverse impacts on seagrass beds (20) and thus much of the near- coral reefs should be discontinued through an shore fishery potential corresponds to the ineffective regulation and enforcement program. terrelation of the coral reef, seagrass meadow, Coral reef management should consider sus- and mangrove forest ecosystems. tainable multiple use of the resource: allowing The nearshore waters of many of the U. S.- recreation (snorkeling, fishing), fishery, and affiliated Pacific islands support important sub- tourist use of reef areas while affording neces- sistence fisheries. A recent survey indicated sary protection.

EFFORTS TO SUSTAIN RESOURCES ON U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS The favorable climate of the U.S.-affiliated perience an annually occurring dry period, the islands of the Pacific and Caribbean contrib- warm temperatures and generally substantial utes to conditions capable of sustaining rela- rainfall common to the islands allow a contin- tively high rates of aquatic and agricultural uous growing season. Puerto Rico has features productivity. Although some island areas ex- that allow cultivation of subtropical crops. The Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 75 climate and esthetic characteristics of tropical Caribbean National Forest, federally estab- islands also make them prime tourist attrac- lished in Puerto Rico’s Luquillo Mountains in tions, and in some cases tourism and related 1903, originally consisted of 18,000 acres and, enterprises comprise a large part of the island was the first tropical National Forest (10). Sub- economy. sequently, additional tracts of land were protected under the Commonwealth forest system. Tropical island ecosystems offer a wide variety of products and services to island inhabi- Today there are 14 protected forests on Puerto Rico comprising nearly 100,000 acres of pro- tants. The importance of these ecosystems to tected forestland. the quality of life has long been understood by the islanders and traditional practices were in- The United Nations Man and the Biosphere extricably linked to the workings of nature. As Program (UNESCO-MAB), established in 1971, modernization increased and less conservative works to promote international scientific co- practices were adopted, some of the unique is- operation and the study of human interaction land environment was transformed or dam- with the environment. Biosphere reserves are aged, Nevertheless, some undisturbed areas re- part of a worldwide network of protected land main today. and coastal environments and enfold many functions including conservation, research and Efforts to maintain and enhance existing re- monitoring activities, education and training, sources have resulted as concerns have in- and cooperative efforts with various scientific creased over adverse trends in resource use, degradation, and associated productivity loss. organizations. The design of the biosphere re- In some cases, these concerns have prompted serve attempts to integrate conservation with surrounding socioeconomic needs. There are the development of resource sustaining man- three designated biosphere reserves within the agement plans which provide for the creation of parks and protected areas, regulation of re- U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands: Luquillo For- source use, consideration of development’s im- est (28,112 acres) part of the Caribbean National Forest on Puerto Rico; Virgin Islands National pacts on the environment, and investigation of Park (15,188 acres) on St. Johns Island in the alternatives to heavily exploited resources (see app. E). U.S. Virgin Islands; and Guanica Common- wealth Forest Reserve on Puerto Rico (9,930 acres). The only designated biosphere reserve in the U.S. Pacific islands is located on Hawaii Efforts To Maintain (43,53). Resource Base Local and National Wildlife Refuges have Traditional subsistence economies embodied been established on many of the U.S.-affiliated conservation of critical renewable resources. islands. In some cases entire islands are desig- As economies shift from subsistence to cash nated as refuges, such as Howland, Baker, and populations increase, the impacts of rapid Jarvis, and Rose atolls in the Pacific. Habitat growth on renewable resources becomes evi- loss has been implicated as a major cause for dent. Attention is now being given to mecha- loss of wildlife species (51), thus, through the nisms to protect and maintain critical renewa- establishment of wildlife refuges native fauna ble biological resources. Resource areas and and flora may be afforded protection. wild populations which suffered past degradation have been examined in order to develop Similarly, the harvesting of corals and other sessile marine animals is restricted in the methods to maintain their viability. In some waters of u. S.-affiliated islands in the Carib- areas, resources, although perhaps modified by bean by various Federal and Commonwealth human activities, remain in good condition. statutes. Conchs and four species of sea tur- Regulatory or conservation actions instituted tles (hawksbill, green, leatherback, and logger- at both the local and Federal level have acted head) are protected from harvesting because to preserve areas of critical importance. The of their endangered species status (55). 76 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

The Coastal Management Plans created by cover the Puerto Rican parrot have been ongo- many of the U.S.-affiliated islands contain pro- ing since 1968 (54). visions for establishment of Areas of Particu- lar Concern–areas recognized to fulfill valu- Efforts To Redirect Use Of able functions (ecological, social, esthetic) in the island ecosystems. These areas are being Underused Resources protected on some islands, and uses to which Although many renewable resources have they are best suited are being encouraged. For suffered degradation from overexploitation, example, the Commonwealth of the Northern some seem to be underused: exploited at rates Mariana Islands Coastal Management Program below their maximum sustainable yield. Some contains plans to assure adequate water flow, local governments are working to identify these nutrient levels, and oxygen levels for man- resources and redirect resource use. For exam- grove/wetland environments. These environ- ple, current fisheries development policy in ments are recognized to be important in natu- Puerto Rico emphasizes underused resources, ral drainage patterns and as wildlife habitat (47). such as swordfish, which may help divert fish- In addition, progress has been made in the ing effort from overexploited nearshore stocks last few years in the preparation of resource (20). inventories in some of the U.S.-affiliated is- Many nonfood resources of the U.S.-affiliated lands. Some are already complete and others Pacific islands, such as pearl oysters, have been are underway (9). However, a need for biologi- underexploited since World War II because lit- cal inventories still exists on many of the is- tle effort has been made to develop their po- lands. Such information can assist in creating tential. The success of the Japanese pearl cul- protected park areas that in turn can help re- ture prior to World War II suggests that such duce resource overharvesting (55). an operation is viable, given proper planning and management. Although the status of the Efforts To Restore the Renewable species introduced by the Japanese is not Resource Base known, several species of pearl oysters occur naturally in Palau, Yap, Truk, and Pohnpei, and Despite the fact that population needs exceed black-lipped pearl oysters have been found in the supply of renewable resources on most is- high densities near some atolls in Pohnpei State. lands, interest in conservation exists. Many basic marine conservation measures developed Further opportunities exist to develop unin the West in the past century were tradition- derused land, plant, and animal resources. For ally practiced in the Pacific islands. Examples example, a survey of Guam’s agricultural land include establishing closed seasons and restrict- resources indicated that no more than 2 per- ing the kinds of fishing gear allowed (15,25), cent of the land is actively cultivated (23); this percentage may change seasonally and in re- Federal and local efforts to increase forest lation to market and climate conditions (33). area in Puerto Rico have been quite success- In Puerto Rico, abandonment of coffee planta- ful. Since 1981, the Puerto Rican Forest Serv- tions and farmlands, particularly on steep ice, with technical assistance from the U.S. For- slopes, released 1.1 million acres which are now est Service, has taken an active role in potentially available for forestry and agrofores- promotion of resource conservation and for- try activities and recreation (44). estry development (10).

Other cooperative efforts involve species re- Efforts To Culture Species covery programs. For example, efforts focused largely on the bird population of Guam are be- Another avenue to reduce stress on natural ing carried out in conjunction with the U.S. Fish populations and environments is to develop cul- and Wildlife Service (23). Similar efforts to re- ture systems for those species currently har- Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 77 vested on a fishing, hunting, or gathering ba- Finally, native and naturalized plants have, sis. The success of culture systems may depend over time, adapted to a range of environmental on more than just the biological factors of the conditions (2). They represent a reservoir of desired species. Considerations include the genetic resources that could be used in plant availability of primary research, development selection programs, and might allow expansion of appropriate techniques, technical assistance, of agriculture to infertile, saline, and degraded and sociocultural and economic factors. lands. Biological inventories that characterize plant species composition (e.g., nutritional, The level of interest in aquiculture of numer- medicinal values) and land race characteristics ous species that already are a part of islanders’ are needed in many areas to promote this ef- diets is high in all of the islands. Most island fort (27). groups have done preliminary work to determine the feasibility of culturing a number of Enhancement of Existing marine and freshwater species of fish and shell- Renewable Resources fish (31). Developing culture techniques for such organisms can transform them from roles of Programs to enhance existing resources have only subsistence importance to those of eco- developed concurrently with interest in alter- nomic importance. Of course, if markets ex- natives to heavily exploited resources. For expand faster than culture activities, increased ample, in 1984, one-third of Puerto Rico was pressure may be put on natural populations due covered by forest, mostly in second-growth to their increased value. Despite the growing forests, fruit tree plantations, and shade trees interest in and knowledge about aquiculture for coffee. These forests supply little useful tim- of warmwater species, numerous projects have ber, although they provide excellent watershed been unsuccessful. protection, wildlife habitat, and recreational and esthetic opportunities. Enrichment of for- A number of products currently are gathered ests through underplanting of valuable species from indigenous and naturalized plants. Devel- offers one method of increasing forest value. opment of culture systems for some of these Many larger Pacific islands could sustain tim- plants might allow increased yields such that ber production to help meet local needs through they could develop economic as well as nutri- similar efforts (44). tional significance. For example, a wild vari- In most island areas, efforts have been made ety of cinnamon (Cinnammnum carolinensis) and continuing studies are underway aimed at grows on Pohnpei and is used as medicine and enhancing the productivity of reef flats through a tea-like beverage. Similarly, perfume oils can the introduction of artificial habitats. Studies be extracted from certain plants now growing indicate that artificial reef habitat enhancement wild on Pacific islands (e. g., ambretta oil from can increase local fish abundance and poten- Hibiscus abelmoschus; ylang-ylang oil from tial harvests (3). Similarly, artificial upwellings, Cananga odorata). Ylang-ylang petals currently which draw nutrient rich water to the surface, are used for traditional ornamental headwear may enhance fishery potential. Enhancement (mwarmwars). Research and small-scale pro- programs, as well as research to determine im- duction at the Ponape Agriculture and Trade pacts of reorganization of ecological structure, School indicates that ylang-ylang can be cul- will be necessary in order to allow the sustaina- tured profitably and processed to supply fra- ble production of some species (e.g., trochus) grance oils for locally produced coconut soap while maintaining the balance of the associated and for export. natural systems (39). 78 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

CHAPTER 3 REFERENCES 1. Alford, D., “Island Water Resources: Technol- 15. Falanruw, M. V. C., “Traditional Agriculture and ogies for Increased Supplies for U.S. Insular Resource Management Systems in the High Is- Territories,” OTA commissioned paper, 1984, lands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned pa- 2. Alkire, W., “Cultural Dimensions of Resource per, 1986. Definition and Use in Micronesia, ” OTA com- 16. Fripiat, J., and Herbillon, A. T., “Formation and missioned paper, 1986. Transformation of Clay Minerals in Tropical 3. Artificial Reef Development Center, “Reef Soils,” Soils and Tropical Weathering, Proceed- Briefs,” No. 3, Washington, DC, spring, 1985, ing of Bandung Symposium, Natural Resources In: Callaghan, 1986. Research XI, UNESCO, Paris, 1971. 4, Barry, R. C., and Chorley, R, J., Atmosphere, 17. Gawel, M., Chief, Department of Natural Re- Weather, and Climate (New York: Methuen, sources, Pohnpei State Government, personal Inc., 1982). communication, July 1986. 5. Birot, P., General Physical Geography (New 18. Glantz, M. H., “El Nine: Should It Take the York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1968]. Blame for Disasters?” Mazingura March, 1984. 6. Buringh, P., Introduction to the Study of Soils 19. Glenn, M., “An Analysis of Black Pepper Pro- in Tropical and Subtropical Regions (Wagenin- duction in Pohnpei,” OTA commissioned pa- gen, The Netherlands: Centre for Agricultural per, 1986. Publishing and Documentation, 1968). 20. Goodwin, M. H., and Sandifer, P. D., “Aquacul- 7. Callaghan, P., “The Development and Manage- ture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico ment of Nearshore Fisheries in the U.S.-Affili- and the U.S. Virgin Islands, ” OTA commis- ated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned pa- sioned paper, 1986. per, 1986. 21. Goudie, A., Duricrusts in Tropical and Subtrop- 8. Cintron, G. et. al., “Mangroves of Arid Environ- ical Landscapes (London: Oxford University ments in Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands,” Bi- Press, 1973). otropica 10(2):110-121, 1978, 22. Guam Environmental Protection Agency, Twelfth 9. Dahl, A. L., “Tropical Island Ecosystems and Annual Report 1984-1985, Agana, Guam, 1985. Protection Technologies to Sustain Renewable 23. Halbower, C, C., “Forestry and Agroforestry Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA com- Technologies: Developmental Potentials in the missioned paper, 1986. U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commis- 10. Diaz-Soltero, H., and Schmidt, R., “Forestry in sioned paper, 1986. Puerto Rico: A Case Study in Successful Or- 24. Holliday, C. R., “Tropical Cyclones Affecting ganizational Change,” OTA Commissioned pa- Guam, ” Fleet Weather Central/Joint Typhoon per, 1986. Center, Guam (FPO San Francisco, CA: U.S. 11. Ecology USA “Recent Actions Under the En- Fleet Weather Central Guam, 1975), In: Calla- dangered Species Act,” 15(20):166, October 6, ghan, 1986. 1986. 25. Johannes, R. E., “The Role of Marine Resource 12. Eldredge, L. E., “Case Studies of the Impacts of Tenure Systems (TURFS) in Sustainable Near- Introduced Animal Species on Renewable Re- shore Marine Resource Development and Man- sources in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific Islands, ” agement in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, ” OTA OTA Commissioned paper, 1986. Commissioned paper, 1986. 13. Eldredge, L, E., Summary of Environmental and 26. Maragos, J., “Coastal Resource Development Fishing Information on Guam and the Common- and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Histo- Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986, rical Background, Description of the Islands, 27. Matuszak, J., Virgin Islands Cooperative Exten- and Review of Climate, Oceanography, and Sub- sion Service, personal communication, July marine Topography, NOAA Technical Memo- 1986. randum NMFS NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-40 28, Morris, G, L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal [Honolulu, Hawaii: U.S. National Marine Fish- communication, September 1986. eries Service, 1983). In: Smith, 1986. 29, Morris, G. L., and Pool, D. J., “Assessment of 14. Falanruw, M. V. C., Director Yap Institute of Nat- Semiarid Agricultural Production Technologies ural Science, personal communication, July for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” OTA 1986. commissioned paper, 1986. Ch. 3—Island Structure and Resource Systems “ 79

30. Muller, R.A, and Oberlander, T. O., Physical 46. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Geography Today: A Portrait of a Planet, Sd ed. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Of- (New York: Random House, 1984). fice of Coastal Zone Management, American 31. Nelson, S. G., “Aquiculture and Maricuhure De- Samoa Coastal Management Program and Fi- velopment in the U, S.-Affiliated Pacific Is- nal Environmental Impact Statement, 1980a. lands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 47. U.S. Department of Commerce, National 32. Ordway, R. J., Earth Science and the Environ- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Of- ment (New York: Van Nostrand Co., 1972). fice of Coastal Zone Management, Common- 33. Perry, J., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil wealth of the Northern Marianas Islands Coastal Conservation Service, Guam, personal commu- Resources Management Program and Final nication, September 1986. Environmental impact Statement, 1980b. 34. Peterson, F., Department of Geology and Geo- 48, U.S. Department of Commerce, National physics, University of Hawaii at Manoa, per- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Of- sonal communication, September 1986. fice of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal 35. Peterson, F., “Water Resources,” Hawaii: A Management Program and Final Environmental Geography, J. Morgan (cd.) (Honolulu, HI: Impact Statement, vol. 1, 1979a. University of Hawaii Press, 1983). 49. U.S. Department of Commerce, National 36. Pico, R., The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chi- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Of- cago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co., 1974). fice of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal 37. Rasmussen, E. M., “El Nino and Variations in Management Program and Final Environmental Climate, ” American Scientist 73:168-177, Impact Statement, vol. 2, Igygb. March-April, 1985. 50. U.S. Department of Commerce, National 38. Rasmussen, E. M., “El Nine: The Ocean/Atmos- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Of- phere Connection,” Uceanus 27(2):5-12, 1984. fice of Coastal Zone Management, The Virgin In: Smith, 1986. Islands Coastal Management Program and Fi- 39. Smith, B. D., “Non-Food Marine Resources De- nal Environmental Impact Statement, 1979c. velopment and Management in the U.S. Affili- 51 U.S. Department of Commerce. National ated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned pa- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Of- per, 1986. fice of Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico 40. Soucie, E. A., Atoll Agriculture for Secondary Coastal Management Program and Final Envi- Schools, Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, ronmental Impact Statement, 1978. Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, 1983. 52, Uwate, K. R., Chief Marine Resources, Yap State 41. Stile, P. G., “Food and Feed Processing Technol- Department of Resources and Development, ogies in the United States Insular Areas of the Colonia, Yap, personal communication, Septem- Pacific,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. ber 1986. 42. Torres, E., Director of Agriculture, Guam De- 53, von Drost zu Hulshoff, B., and Gregg, W.P. Jr., partment of Agriculture, personal communica- “Biosphere Reserves: Demonstrating the Value tion, September 1986. of Conservation in Sustaining Society, ” Parks 43. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cul- 10(3):1-18, July-September, 1985. tural Organization (UNESCO), “Action Plan for 54 Wadsworth, F., Institute of Tropical Forestry, Biosphere Reserves,” Nature and Resources U.S. Forest Service, personal communication, 20(4):1-12, October-December, 1984. September, 1986. 44. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 55 Wahle, C. M., “Non-Food Marine Resources De- ment, Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest velopment and Management in the U.S.-Affili- Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. ated Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned Government Printing Office, March 1984). paper, 1986. 45 U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 56 Whitesell, C., U.S. Forest Service, Institute of ment, Impacts of Technology on U.S. Cropland Pacific Islands Forestry, personal communica- and Rangeland Productivity, OTA-F-166 tion, September 1986. (Springfield, VA: NTIS, August 1982). .—

Chapter 4 Island Renewable Resource History and Trends CONTENTS

Page History of the Islanders ...... 83 Introduction ...... 83 U.S.-Affiliated Western Pacific Islands ...... 84 American Samoa ...... 91 U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands ...... 92 Representative Resource Problems of the U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands .. 102 Introduction ...... 102 Terrestrial Resource Damage and Depletion ...... 103 Marine Resource Damage and Depletion...... 109 The Island Socioeconomic Context ...... 113 Introduction ...... 113 Traditional Cultures and Economic Development ...... 115 Education and Out-Migration ...... 116 Wage Rates and Unemployment ...... 117 Social Support Programs ...... 119 Preference for Government Employment...... 119 Shortage of Rural Labor ...... 120 Alien Labor ...... 121 Conclusions...... 122 Chapter 4 References ...... 123

Boxes Box Page 4-A. Chronology of Major Events of the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands . . . . . 85 4-B, Chronology of Major Events of the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands . . 93 Chapter 4 Island Renewable Resource History and Trends

HISTORY OF THE ISLANDERS Introduction sanctions, a harsh discipline, inequality of people, resource apportionment, and curtailment Although histories of the peoples and settle- of individual freedom (25). An ethic of mini- ment of the U.S.-affiliated island areas are di- mal exploitation of necessary resources allowed verse, certain common factors exist: 1) at one for recovery of those renewable resources ex- time all but American Samoa were colonized ploited in the traditional system. Original in- or administered by foreign nations, and 2) at habitants of the islands were essentially self- one time they have been of some strategic im- sufficient; living off the surrounding terrestrial portance to the United States. Nearly all of the and marine resources or acquiring necessary indigenous island populations suffered popula- resources through intra- and interisland ex- tion depletion as a result of colonization. Direct change systems (1,25,46,88). causes ranged from the introduction of disease to the active removal or relocation of inhabi- Although the social organization of individ- tants (e.g., decimation of the Caribbean Arawak ual island groups was unique, some display population, Chamorro wars in the Marianas). common characteristics. Social structure on most islands was a well-defined hierarchy that The majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands 1 clearly outlined individual rights and duties. were subject to one or more colonial powers. Most of these social hierarchies included a head American Samoa is the only island group which or paramount chief, lesser chiefs, clans, line- remained independent until the United States ages, and upper and lower classes (46,61). Al- gained authority over the eastern Samoa Islands though, many variations in social organization in 1899. Guam and Puerto Rico essentially ex- existed, they all contained some mechanism for perienced only one colonial authority—Spain. critical resource control through social hierar- Both island areas were ceded to the United chy (46). States at the close of the Spanish-American War in 1898. Spain’s authority lasted close to 400 Generally, native island resource-use tech- years in Puerto Rico and some 300 years in niques were not adopted by the colonial powers; Guam. Although several colonial interests de- although some colonial agriculturalists did veloped in the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Danes adopt indigenous cropping regimes (97), the pri- had the most extensive interests and authority mary impetus for colonization was to secure lasting nearly 245 years. The United States pur- high-value goods and minerals to supply the chased the Danish West Indies in 1917 after homeland economy. As such, the colonial atti- nearly 50 years of intermittent “negotiations.” tude was not one of conservation, but rather exploitation. New production methods and Traditional island cultures depended on a va- values were introduced as well as new crops riety of island resources for their sustenance and livestock. Islands which were heavily ex- and they developed many resource management ploited suffered land degradation and resource and conservation techniques (18). Traditional depletion. resource management required supernatural Subsistence agriculture and fishing continued to be an important part of the indigenous soci- ‘Colonial authority in this report refers to the various powers who claimed the islands prior to their entering various political ety of the Pacific islands during the colonial associations with the United States. period although, in some areas, cash crops en- 83 84 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas croached on lands available for subsistence The stratified social organization which de- agriculture (e.g., sugarcane and copra planta- veloped in the Pacific islands was designed to tions). Traditional production methods slowly provide for the subsistence needs of the mem- became more restricted to those rural and out- bers, settle disputes, and manage essential re- lying areas in least contact with the trade cen- sources. For most of Micronesia, the systems ters. Islanders became more accustomed to a of social organization and land tenure were lifestyle involving imported goods, the status based on matrilineal descent. Individuals were of traditional subsistence methods decreased members of lineages and several lineages could and, correspondingly, dependence on outside comprise a clan; these units were further ranked sources increased. within the society. Authority generally flowed from paramount chief, to lesser chiefs, to com- The colonial authorities in the U.S.-affiliated moners. Inmost areas, certain lineages or clans Caribbean islands focused on commercial agri- were in charge, with the lineage chief being cultural production for export purposes. Never- theless, a subsistence sector developed and per- paramount and the junior ranking males serving as lesser chiefs (46). Better quality land went sisted in Puerto Rico (97). Although the Danish to higher ranking members of society in some West Indies were inhabited by Amerindian instances; however, individuals had access to agriculturalists at the time of Columbus, by the necessary raw materials (46). time these islands were colonized in the 17th century the Indian population had disappeared. One variation of this structure existed in the Carolinian atoll islands between Yap and Truk. U.S.-Affiliated Western In the Carolinian group little stratification ex- Pacific Islands isted and each atoll or section of a larger island was a politically autonomous community. Introduction Lineages were ranked according to their arrival Ancestors of Pacific island peoples originated and settlement on the island with the lineage of greatest antiquity being most senior and its in Southeast Asia. Western Micronesia—the head being the community’s chief (46). Marianas, Yap, and Palau–was first settled by migrants from the southeast. Ancestors of the The matriclans in Yapese society functioned peoples of eastern Micronesia and Polynesia as in the other Micronesia islands; however, moved through northern Melanesia and up there was no lower order of landholding matri- through Vanuatu (5). These settlers brought lineages. Rather each village was comprised of with them nearly all the food crops that became a number of patrilineages each with its own their staples (1) and may have introduced ani- head and these were the landholding units of mal species as well (46). the society. Village lands were ranked as higher low-caste land and then further subdivided. Social Organization High caste villages often occupied the best land The fundamental difference between the ecol- and additionally “owned” the land of the low caste villages (46). ogies and resource bases of the high islands and coral atoll islands was reflected in traditional An exchange system, sawei, once linked the cultural systems. High islands generally have high island of Yap to all the atoll islands from larger land mass, better soils, and more abun- Ulithi in the west to Namonuito in the east. This dant freshwater resources than do atoll islands system provided a mechanism for peoples of (46). Despite the number of exigencies of atoll small, vulnerable atoll islands to move freely life, population densities were generally greater between islands, in turn establishing a network than on high islands. allowing members to request aid from other islands in times of need (e.g., typhoons or food pei, Kosrae) (115) and remains of old fish ponds shortages) (1,2). still exist on Yap. Most agriculture involved food-bearing trees Traditional Subsistence Economies and root crops, many of which were imported Traditional subsistence economies have been with the first influx of settlers. Coconut palms characterized as “nature-intensive” (25), which were of major importance, as well as breadfruit, implies the optimum use of naturally function- papaya, bananas, and pandanus. Root crops in- ing ecosystem processes to provide for the cluded wet- and dry-land tare, yams, sweet subsistence needs of the population. Islanders potatoes, and arrowroot. Agricultural terraces developed production techniques that took ad- similar to those found in Southeast Asia existed vantage of the natural workings of the island in the Marianas and Palau (5). Several tree spe- (e.g., stream diversion for irrigation) and the cies were used for construction of dwellings limited land resources. Atoll dwellers, with little and canoes; pandanus leaves were used for arable land, focused on improving and increas- canoe sails, and thatch for houses. Coconut ing marine harvest methods. Trade between fronds, especially Nipa palm, also were used atoll dwellers and high islanders was common for thatch. (e.g., the Yapese sawei system). Evidence ex- Marine resources were important, especially ists that a form of aquiculture was practiced for the atoll dwellers where terrestrial resources on several of the western pacific islands (Pohn- were extremely limited. Coral reefs associated Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 87

comprehensive, rivaling that of today’s marine biologist (42). These traditional economies comprise three distinct sectors: a production sector, controlled and organized to serve individual family needs; an exchange sector, governed by kinship and traditional political organization to serve community needs; and an investment sector, through which the resources were managed (89). The production sector centered almost entirely around the family unit with individual members performing specific tasks in providing for family needs. Each family had privileges to the land and sea apportioned to the clan (89). Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment The exchange sector was important in the These Kosraean craftsmen combine traditional skills with modern tools to carve a canoe from daily working of the subsistence economy and a breadfruit tree. served to ensure the flow of goods from the more productive to less productive members. This sector became particularly important with islands and lagoons of atolls supported when normal family production was insuffi- a variety of reef fish, turtles, and shellfish. cient (e.g., sick, injured member), or when there Pelagic species often were critically important was a wider community need (e.g., natural dis- to meet the subsistence needs of the society. asters). At these times, the paramount chief Canoes were used for trolling in the open ocean could designate other members of the clan, or as well as still fishing in protected lagoons. Nets, of other clans to assist in production, or sum- traps, weirs, and spears also were used. The mon labor for community benefit (89). tools and fishhooks were fashioned from locally The investment sector characterizes the available materials such as wood, shell, stone, traditional economy’s sustainable management and coral. The behavior, movement patterns, of the resource base. It couples minimal exploi- and mating habits of marine species were known tation of resources with fallow periods allow- in detail by the islanders. Islanders knew much ing recovery of renewable resources. These about the lifecycle of many organisms and their naturally regenerating resource areas were es- patterns of seasonal abundance (42). Mollusks sentially an investment in biological capital to and crustaceans were gathered within the in- ensure future productivity. This relative under- tertidal area. production provided the flexibility necessary Throughout the region, fishing knowledge to absorb sudden population immigrations and was property of great personal value and thus natural disasters (89). not lightly shared with others in the community (42). Harvest methods, distribution pat- Westerm Contact terns, and customs differed, but these patterns Western contact in the Pacific began in 1521 resulted in an apparently effective resource with Ferdinand Magellan’s arrival on Guam. management system. Rights to harvest certain The first Spanish colony established on Guam species or to fish in certain grounds were often in 1565 served as a provisions stop for Spanish held exclusively by particular families or other galleons sailing between Florida and the Philip- specific groups within the community (93). Re- pines (67). Spain’s primary interest in the Mari- cent research in Palau has revealed that the ana islands was “saving souls” and little effort traditional body of knowledge of marine spe- was spent in exploiting the islands’ renewable cies and behavior was quite sophisticated and resources. 88 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Spain renewed its colonization efforts in the Mariana Islands nearly a century after the initial colony was established on Guam. With the arrival of Jesuit missionaries in 1668, Spain claimed the rest of the Mariana Islands. Mis- sions were established on Rota, Tinian, and Sai- pan; and “Christianization” of the indigenous population began in earnest. The Jesuits instituted formal education, primarily of a vocational nature, with an emphasis on religion (67). Western contact initially reduced the different indigenous Micronesia populations through introduction of disease (89) and conflicts that ensued over religious beliefs increased the toll.

While Spain laid claim to most of Micronesia, Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment they did not attempt to extend actual rule out- The copra industry still forms the basis of economies side of the Marianas until other nations at- on many U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. tempted to gain a foothold in the region (46). American and English whaling vessels began ish territorial claims, ultimately resulting in a to frequent the Micronesia islands in the 1830s power struggle between Germany and Spain. and experienced a short-lived prosperity last- Germany declared a protectorate over the Mar- ing for nearly two decades. Islanders became shall Islands in 1885; took control of Yap; and involved in world trade as they exchanged lo- claimed Truk, Kosrae, and Pohnpei. A papal cal commodities (e.g., sea cucumber, shells) for decision, made in 1885, settled the conflict. imported goods (e.g., iron, glass). During this Spain’s authority over the Caroline islands was period, American missionaries began arriving reaffirmed. Germany retained authority over on some of the westernmost Micronesia is- the Marshall Islands and received trade and lands (Kusaie–now Kosrae) to offer the Prot- fishing privileges within the Spanish islands estant religion to the indigenes. Throughout the and the right to establish fueling stops (67). Spanish period, various nations, including Ger- The Spanish-American War brought an end many, Japan, and the United States were pres- to Spanish authority in Micronesia. Guam was ent in the islands as traders and whalers. ceded to the United States in 1898, and Ger- The mid-19th century brought the beginning many purchased the remainder of Spanish of the copra (dried coconut) industry. Success- Micronesia, Japanese companies continued to ful copra operations were established by German be active in Micronesia commerce during the traders in the Marshall Islands. The presence German period until 1901 when they were of the copra traders expanded the exposure of barred from the region for selling firearms (69). islanders to world markets and imported goods The German administration of Micronesia and encouraged islanders to develop coconut brought increased commercial activity, primar- palm plantations. Several German companies ily in the area of copra trade. However, phos- were established in Micronesia by the 1860s and within 10 years copra was the primary ex- phate mining on Angaur (Palau) was also a successful operation. The Germans instituted a port of Micronesia (76). Land remained in in- system of “indirect rule” with the islands be- digenous hands and Micronesians entered ing administered by the Germans through the what was later to be called the era of the “coco- hereditary chiefs. This period furthered the nut civilization” (69). breakdown of land tenure practices in favor of Development of the copra trade led to increas- individual ownership. The German administra- ing German encroachment on previous Span- tion prohibited alien purchase of Micronesia Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 89

land. Any person or company interested in ment with the United Nations Security Coun- establishing a new business was required to ne- cil, assumed administration of most of Microne- gotiate a lease with the German Government, sia as a United Nations Strategic Trusteeship. which in turn negotiated with the native owner. The trusteeship allowed the United States ple- Mandatory education also was instituted, and nary control over the islands including the right although of a broader scope than Spanish to establish military bases and foreclose access. schooling, the emphasis remained on religion The United States was to protect the welfare (69). of the inhabitants and eventually prepare the islands for self-government or independence Germany’s rule ended in 1914 with the be- (89). ginning of World War I and Japan seized control of Micronesia. Japan established a military The U.S. Navy assumed initial administra- administration which lasted from 1914 to 1920 tive responsibility for the islands at the end of when the League of Nations sanctioned Japa- World War II. Administrative policy was a nese authority by Mandate. Early in the mili- slow-paced approach to development that ex- tary administration many of the old German tended through the first 15 years of U.S. admin- policies were continued (e.g., tax system, ministration, largely as a reaction to the Japanese ing operations) (89). A civilian government was Mandate Period (89). All Japanese were repatri- established in 1922 and economic development ated by the end of 1946, thus removing the bulk based on resource exploitation began (89). Copra of prewar era production expertise. promotion trade was further expanded, with islanders con- of the welfare of the Micronesia people was tinuing to be the major producers, and com- the objective of the naval administration.2 Large mercial fishing increased in importance (46). development projects were excluded from the A sugar industry was developed in the Mari- islands on the grounds that they did not pro- anas. Japanese nationals were brought in to cul- mote the welfare of the Micronesia people. tivate and harvest sugar and soon outnumbered The United States Commercial Company islanders. By 1940, 80 percent of the total la- (USCC) was created within a few months of the bor force on the islands was Japanese or Okina- inauguration of U.S. Naval administration in wan (89). order to supervise the economic development The Japanese Mandate Period has been char- of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands acterized as the most economically successful (TTPI) . USCC bought produce for export from period in the history of the Micronesia islands. islanders and offered a selection of import Fishing, sugarcane, copra, and pearl culture are items. In an effort to develop the economic po- a few of the many areas the Japanese developed tential of Micronesia, the USCC conducted an (89,91). However, despite the increased eco- economic survey of the territory (89). Rebuild- nomic success of the period, the benefits of the ing the copra industry, fishing, and agriculture period went largely to the Japanese. Produc- activities, which were destroyed in the war, tion skills remained concentrated in the hands were the major USCC goals. of Japanese nationals. Traditional authority was The USCC was replaced in late 1947 by the greatly weakened and the Micronesians be- Island Trading Company (ITC), a corporation came accustomed to an authority imposed from that was capitalized by the Navy and run by outside. The Japanese era in Micronesia ended the Deputy High Commissioner. The purpose with World War II (46). of ITC was to promote development by furnish-

United States Administration 2Ia a directive issued in December 1945 by Admiral Spruance, military governor of the islands, the American position was stated U.S. administrative involvement with the as follows: “indiscriminate exploitation of the meager resources western Pacific islands began at the close of of the area is to be avoided . . , The establishment, for the profit the Spanish-American War when the island of of aliens, of enterprises which tend to maintain the island economy at the level of cheap labor and which do not permit the is- Guam was ceded to the United States. In 1947, landers to enjoy the full benefits of their own labor shall not be the United States, in accordance with an agree- tolerated” (40). 90 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ing technical assistance and services to locally sibilities formerly handled by municipalities. owned businesses. It provided loans and sub- The emergence of a bureaucracy was appar- sidies to island businessmen to stimulate growth ent. The government work force tripled dur- of industry, and provided warehousing and im- ing the 1960s and private sector service in- porting services. Under ITC, retail stores pro- dustries expanded accordingly. Concurrently, liferated in Micronesia. ITC purchased and imported goods became available in unprece- marketed copra, handicrafts, and other exports dented quantities and by 1970 import value had much as USCC had done. However, efforts to reached $20 million. Exports, however, re- encourage production of new crops did not fare mained at the earlier levels (about $3 million) well and numerous enterprises failed. ITC was with only minor fluctuations (89). liquidated in 1954 and by that time several local import companies were strong enough to Capital improvement projects, with the goal survive on their own. The other functions ITC of developing the solid infrastructure necessary performed were dispersed to other organiza- for self-sufficiency, became a considerable bud- tions (89). get item beginning in 1970. Construction of public buildings, roads, airports, and dock facil- Civilian administration of the TTPI began in ities, were some of the projects. The impact of 1951 when the U.S. Department of the Interior these projects, however, was realized more in assumed the responsibility. Self-sufficiency for the nature of salaries than in an actual increase the TTPI remained the goal under the Depart- in productivity. Federal program grants also ment of the Interior. The objective was to dupli- became available during this time, and much cate the successes of the Japanese era without of this funding was directed toward improving the associated exploitation and alienation of social services. Total U.S. assistance peaked in land and labor. U.S. authorities encouraged 1979 at $138 million (89). government investment in lieu of private capital investment, and government subsidies were Exports increased notably during the 1970s, carefully controlled so as not to undermine the and by the end of the decade export values had goal of self-reliance. The annual subsidy at this reached $16 million annually. The increase was time remained at a level of $5 to $6 million each due largely to increasing tourism and indus- year and the value of exports remained between tries producing tuna and coconut (copra and $2 to $3 million each year. The system of taxa- oil). Some of these gains were short-lived and, tion developed during naval administration, when considered with the rate of inflation, were though largely an insignificant source of reve- near the 1948 1evels of export income (89). nue, was retained. Municipalities were encour- The Compact of Free Association, which was aged to develop tax systems and use the reve- approved for the Federated States of Microne- nue to sustain municipal needs (e.g., teacher sia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands salaries, school repairs) (89). by the U.S. Congress and the United Nations The direction of U.S. administration changed Trusteeship Council in 1986, offers an oppor- in 1963 to a program of intensive development tunity for the islands as well as the United States in Micronesia. U.S. appropriations for the Trust to foster increased Micronesia self-reliance. Territory increased from $13 million in 1964 The Compact is designed to give Micronesians to over $60 million in 1971 and continued to control over their internal and external affairs, rise until the close of the 1970s. Funding dur- and funds to develop a means of increasing self- ing this period was directed largely toward support within a 15-year period; the United administration, schools, and health services. States retains defense and security responsi- Between 40 and 45 percent of the TTPI gov- bilities. Local government emphasis is now on ernment’s annual budget was allocated for economic development (25). health and education (89). The United States’ financial support for eco- With increased assistance, the Trust Terri- nomic development in Micronesia initially will tory government began to assume many respon- increase under the Compact of Free Associa- Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 91 tion, Then, assistance will decline through the Social Organization stipulated 15-year period, with decreases occur- The social organization of American Samoa ring every 5 years after the beginning of the compact. The Republic of Palau elected to was more flexible than that found in Microne- maintain an even spread of funding through- sia. The largest social unit was the aiga, and out the 15-year period.3 Funding available for it included all those people who could trace de- capital improvements will initially increase scent from the founder of the group. Descent while funding for social welfare programs and could be traced through males or females, and any given individual belonged to a number of government bureaucracy will decrease. This represents a major aim of the compact: to pro- aiga. The aiga held land in a particular village vide a base for future local productive indus- and each village had one or more matai (titled matai tries and prepare Micronesia for increased eco- chiefs). The were selected by consensus nomic self-reliance. Almost 40 percent of U.S. by the aiga membership. The matai of a vil- fono. assistance is earmarked for infrastructure and lage formed its governing council or In- dividuals could live and work the land of his development projects (89). or her aiga, and since an individual belonged Micronesia’s cash economy today is roughly to many aigas a choice had to made as to where 90 percent dependent on U.S. aid, thus, aid re- he/she would actualize his/her potential rights. ductions stipulated in the compact will have Thus, an individual selected to reside on land a pronounced impact on the area. Previous pol- of one aiga to which he/she belonged and local- icy trends of rapidly expanding aid largely for ized extended families formed within the aiga social programs and support of the public sec- (46). Villages were self-sufficient entities and tor will change under the Compact of Free generally composed of one or more aigas (106). Association. The change in U.S. policy perhaps will foster development of an independent pri- The topography of American Samoa encour- vate sector economy; with increasing impor- aged development of coastal settlements. Steep tance placed on services, light industry, and mountains, the relatively narrow band of flat development and sustainable exploitation of lo- lands adjacent to the shoreline, and accessibil- cal renewable resources (89). ity of fresh stream water predicated the choice of coastal area (106). Samoan subsistence agriculture was similar in many ways to that of the American Samoa American Samoa is the southernmost U. S.- affiliated polity. It lies within the region known as Polynesia and the inhabitants are culturally and racially related to Hawaiians, Tongans, and Maori (New Zealand). Archeological evidence suggests initial settlement of the Samoa islands occurred before 1,000 B. C., probably from eastern Melanesia (53). American Samoa is comprised of a group of seven islands, the largest of which is Tutuila with a land area of 54 square miles and on which the capital city of Pago Pago is located. Ninety percent of the territory’s population reside on Tutuila (106).

Photo credit: A. Vargo

Cultivation methods for steep hillsides were developed early in American Samoa’s history; many of these 3The compact with Palau has not yet been approved. techniques are still used today.

63-222 0 - 87-4 QL. 3 92 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

U.S.-affiliated western Pacific islands; tare, The extended family, aiga, remains the key- breadfruit, yams, coconut, banana, pineapple, stone of traditional communal lifestyle. Land and papaya were cultivated (53). tenure is based on the communal lands of the aiga and the selected chief, matai, manages the The Samoans also relied heavily on marine communal economy, and protects and distrib- resources, and were excellent fishermen and utes the lands (53,106). Nearly all land in Amer- navigators. The large sail-rigged double canoes ican Samoa is held by indigenous Samoans. in use by the Polynesians could hold nearly 100 Ninety-two percent of the land is held by aigas, people (69). Most fish and shellfish were col- 7 percent by the American Samoan Govern- lected in streams, lagoons, and along reefs. Reef ment and churches, and a fraction of the re- fish were typically part of the traditional Sun- maining 1 percent is in a freehold status (106). day Samoan Feast called fiafia (106). However, offshore species such as bonito and tuna were American Samoa has experienced problems also collected. Implements used for farming similar to those of Micronesia in the shift from and fishing were fashioned from wood, stone, subsistence to cash economies, including a drop and shell (69). in local agricultural production. Although nearly 80 percent of American Samoan households Western Contact practice some form of gardening, Samoans purchase 75 percent of their food requirements American Samoa’s contact with the West be- (46,53). This shift has been accompanied by in- gan with the Dutch arrival in 1722, nearly two creased economic dependence on the United centuries after Magellan arrived on Guam. By States’ for imported goods and services (53). the 19th century the United States, Great Brit- The largest employer is the American Samoa ain, and Germany had established commercial Government, followed by the tuna canneries; enterprises within the island group. Conflicts a range of retail and service enterprises com- arose between the foreign interests and in 1899 prise the third major portion of the economy the islands were divided with the United States (46). assuming authority over the eastern Samoa islands (Tutuila, Aunu’u, Tau, Ofu, and Olosega).4 Germany assumed jurisdiction over the islands of Western Samoa which later became independent. The Cession of Tutuila and Aunu’u, Precontact cultures of the U.S.-affiliated Carib- signed in 1900, allowed for the traditional Sa- bean islands share some commonalities with moan land-tenure system to remain in effect those of the Pacific. The indigenous populations with allowances for government accession of were subsistence economies dependent on the land as necessary (106). Initial authority over available land and sea resources. the islands was held by the Department of the Navy. The Department of the Interior assumed The origin of the early inhabitants of Puerto oversight in 1951 and continues today in that Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands still is uncertain. capacity. The American Samoa Government They have been described as seminomadic peo- operates under a constitution adopted in 1960. ples; primarily hunters and fishermen, establishing their settlements near the island’s coast- The firmly established traditional lifestyle and line and mangrove forests, Archeological social structure of American Samoa persevered excavation of settlement sites show no evidence throughout contact with western nations and of agricultural practices (61). continues today. This lifestyle, known as Fa’a Samoa (“The Samoan Way”), places considerable value on group dignity and achievements.

4Swains Atoll, 225 miles north of Tutuila, was annexed by the ‘In 1980, the American Samoa Government budget was nearly United States in 1925. $73 million, of which $32 million came from Federal sources (30).

94 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. insular Areas

Subsequent migrants were of Arawak culture6 Spain in 1509; the first colony was soon estab- with origins in the Orinoco Basin in South lished in Puerto Rico. The island of St. Croix, America. Archeological sites date their arrival in what was to become the Danish West Indies, on Puerto Rico in the vicinity of 120 A.D. The was first colonized in the 1630s by several Euro- early Arawak settlers also were hunters and pean nations. fishermen. Coastal areas were the original set- Puerto Rico was inhabited by Arawak Indians tlement sites, however later settlements were at the time of colonization, and the population established in the interior of the island. A more largely was decimated in the colonization proc- complex social organization had developed ess. The Virgin Islands, although populated by among the Arawak by the time Puerto Rico was indigenes at the time of Columbus’ arrival, were settled by the Spaniards (61). not inhabited at the time of colonization; the Arawak culture is characterized as peaceful population having been eliminated largely and sedentary; energies were directed towards through Spanish efforts during the 16th cen- hunting, agriculture, and fishing. The primary tury (27). agricultural tool was a primitive hoe, and crops such as cassava and arrowroot were cultivated Puerto Rico (61,88). Swidden, or slash and burn, clearing, Puerto Rico’s forests were modified by the was employed and root crops commonly were island’s earliest inhabitants; however, popula- interplanted in mounds of soil (knee high by tion pressure was low enough to allow recov- several feet wide). This method-conuco culti- ery of the exploited areas. Thus, essentially all vation—provided soil aeration and maximized of Puerto Rico was forested at the time of Span- the range of arable land (88). ish arrival (75,88,119). Evidence exists that fishing played a signifi- Spain’s interest in Puerto Rico was enhanced cant part in the lives of Indians who inhabited by the discovery of the island’s gold resources. Caribbean islands prior to European settlement, Gold was mined efficiently and deposits were although it is not possible to assess the relative essentially depleted by 1540 (61,75). Despite importance of fishing compared to other re- considerable outmigration at the end of the gold source use activities (34). Fish, shellfish, turtles, mining period, the colony was maintained (75, marine mammals, and waterfowl were har- 97). The colonists that remained turned to an vested from nearshore environments and off- agricultural livelihood. shore waters (88). Precontact Indians of Puerto Rico harvested forest products for a variety of Forest clearing increased with the arrival of uses including construction, canoes, fuel, foods, the Europeans, largely through efforts to ac- dyes, and medicines (119). cess agricultural lands, although forest products also were harvested for construction and The social organization of the Indian culture fuel (119). Highly valued Puerto Rican timber included a chieftain (caique) who exercised au- species became one of the early exports. Tim- thority over a higher class (nitainos) and a lower ber exports continued to rise and in 1815 the class of workers (naborias). There were re- timber industry accounted for a large part of gional chieftains as well as a paramount chief- total exports. tain (61,88). Coastal areas provided the bulk of harvested Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were timber, and mangrove species were popular for encountered by Christopher Columbus in 1493. boat construction. The majority of forest prod- Juan Ponce de Leon claimed Puerto Rico for ucts exported in the 19th century originated in 6 The term Arawak shall be used in this discussion to refer to coastal forests. Most wood harvested, up to the the Indian population of the U.S. Caribbean area present after early 20th century, was used for fuel or con- the early inhabitants. This culture has been further divided by many historians to differentiate various tribes of Arawak cul- struction; nevertheless, construction wood was ture including Taino, Carib, and Borrinqueno. being imported as early as the 1700s. Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 95

The small colonial population of Puerto Rico crease and production efforts turned to tobacco pursued an indigenous path of development un- and cacao (61). Livestock production remained til the late 1700s. A self-reliant, diversified agri- an important part of the colonial economy; it cultural economy evolved, geared toward pro- provided for local consumption and hides were duction for domestic consumption rather than produced for export. overseas markets. This economy was comprised The Puerto Rican economy experienced lit- of a large subsistence sector located primarily tle change until the end of the 18th century. in the highlands, and an underdeveloped com- Population remained small; external trade was mercial sector concentrated on the coastal limited to a few commodities. The constricted plains (92). character of the export sector was reflected in The subsistence sector was dominated by in- the relatively small slave population, which was dependent, small cultivators, who employed just over 5,000 in 1765 (97). Heavy taxes cou- slash and burn agriculture to produce a vari- pled with trade restrictions contributed to the ety of crops (plantains, rice, maize, beans, cas- island’s limited economy. sava, root crops) for home consumption and Spanish colonial officials attempted to accel- occasional exchange. Few of these peasants erate economic development after 1750. Re- (jibaros) actually owned their land, many were forms in existing tax laws and production re- squatters (desacomodados) on Crown land, or strictions emerged in 1813. Through a royal sharecroppers (agredados) on hacienda land decree in 1815 (the Real Cedula de Gracias) the (92). island’s agriculture, industry, and commerce The commercial sector consisted of large cat- were promoted and immigration was en- tle ranches, plantations, and farms (haciendas), couraged. Uncultivated lands were distributed which produced an assortment of exportable and some larger estates were divided resulting cash crops, including sugarcane, ginger, tobac- in an increase in the percentage of small- co, cacao, coffee, and cotton. Additionally trop- holders. Trade with friendly nations was liber- ical fruits, medicinal plants, and woods of high alized. The sugar industry experienced a resur- commercial value (satinwood, lignum vitae) gence with increased worldwide demand for were exported (61). While sugarcane, ginger, sugar (61). tobacco, and coffee each dominated the export These government efforts produced modest sector at various times between 1550 and 1800, results prior to 1825; population increased sub- cattle raising proved to be the most stable agri- stantially as did export crops. However, as late cultural enterprise throughout this period (61,97). as 1828 less than 4 percent of the land was un- Sugarcane and sugar production became the der cultivation, and the subsistence sector still island’s major economic activity in the mid-16th dominated the agricultural economy, account- century. The emerging sugar industry received ing for 71 percent of all cropland. At least 80 royal assistance in the form of loans for mill percent of the proprietors engaged in subsis- construction, sugar transport to Spain, and the tence farming, as did nearly all of the agredados purchase of slave labor. Labor shortages, trans- (92). portation problems, and default on loan pay- Expansion and transformation of the agricul- ments all contributed to the gradual decline of tural economy took place during the last seven the sugar industry (61). decades of Spanish rule. Between 1828 and Difficulties encountered by the sugar indus- 1896 the amount of land under cultivation more try led to increasing cultivation of ginger or live- than tripled, while pastureland doubled. Acre- stock raising—primarily cattle. Despite royal age devoted to export crops increased dramat- edicts forbidding ginger cultivation and urg- ically, overtaking acreage devoted to subsis- ing return to a sugar economy, ginger became tence production (92). Puerto Rico’s main crop. Eventually increased Progression to a commercial economy based ginger production resulted in market price de- primarily on sugarcane production resulted in 96 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas creation of larger landholdings, displacing The 1900 Organic Act contained a resolution some smallholders who moved into the high- which limited corporate land ownership in lands, and brought new forest areas under cul- Puerto Rico to 500 acres; however, this provi- tivation (97). Price fluctuations in the world sion was not effectively enforced until 1941 sugar market during the 19th century caused (17,71). The Puerto Rico Land Authority was redirection of agriculture exports to coffee. Al- created in 1941 by the “Land Law” (Act No. though generally cultivated on small landhold- 26 of 1941) to reorganize the island’s land ten- ings, coffee eventually replaced sugar as the ure. The law’s purpose was to acquire and redis- major export crop. tribute lands held in excess of 500 acres. Squat- Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States ters were relocated on small plots where they at the end of the Spanish-American War in could build homes and cultivate a small gar- 1898. The U.S. Congress established a civilian den. Family size farms (15 to 20 acres) were government in 1900 and Puerto Ricans were established and large “proportional benefit” granted U.S. citizenship in 1917. farms expropriated from large landholdings were to be managed by the Land Authority with In the 1930s, a program was instituted by the workers sharing in the profits (17,116). Government of Puerto Rico to provide landless farmers and farmers living within public for- The program for relocating squatters was suc- estlands small parcels of land on which they cessful and most plots have been subdivided could cultivate subsistence crops, firewood, among descendants of the original owners. The and forest products in exchange for planting “proportional benefit” farms, however, were and caring for the public forestlands (78). Once inefficiently run and accumulated heavy losses. Most of these lands are now leased to private the forest areas were successfully planted, the farmers for sugarcane and rice production squatters were relocated (118). (116). In 1978, the Land Authority owned a to- Establishment of a forest research station was tal of 94,943 acres of land which were devoted authorized by Congress in 1927 and the Tropi- to various agricultural endeavors and real es- cal Forest Experiment Station was created in tate (111). 1939 on the University of Puerto Rico at Rio Piedras. The station was established to provide During World War II, Puerto Rico became technical knowledge for forestry programs important militarily, with naval bases estab- which largely had been unsuccessful during the lished there (Roosevelt Roads) and on the nearby island of Culebra. The influx of military per- previous lo-year period. Reforestation attempts had produced many failures.7 Agricultural sonnel substantially increased the local demand colonization had reduced forest cover to only for fish, spawning the first commercial fishery development in Puerto Rico. The program was 9 percent of its original extent by 1950—4 per- initiated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. cent government forests and 5 percent privately Authority for the program was transferred at owned forests (99). the conclusion of World War II to the Puerto Rican Agricultural Development Corporation 7The Tropical Forest Experiment Station was renamed the In- which emphasized offshore fisheries and constitute of Tropical Forestry in 1961. The Institute’s main research ducted experimental operations. The program objective was timber management. Research has been conducted on: utilization of forest products, secondary forests, wildlife man- was terminated in 1947 (34). agement, growth studies, and identification and description of promising tree species, Through Institute efforts, a technical base A major shift in economic development strat- for forestland planning in Puerto Rico has been established. Vari- egy began in 1947, aimed at industrializing the ous methods for postharvest treatment of timber products have island, diversifying agriculture, and providing been developed. The station was of regional significance, developing an information distribution network of more than 1,000 full employment for the people (10). Diversifi- participants within 24 years of its inception. The Institute has cation of the Puerto Rican economy was a goal accumulated a tropical forest library. Short courses, graduate- of the program dubbed “Operation Bootstrap.” level teaching, and research planning assignments have been conducted by the Institute in several Caribbean, and South and Program goals included: 1) development of in- Central American countries. tensive and balanced use of the island’s agri- Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 97

Photo credit: W.C. Lowdermilk

Puerto Rico’s agricultural sector developed a substantial smallholder component following the creation of the Puerto Rican Land Authority in 1941. cultural resources, 2) improvement of capital Industrial development led to more attrac- and credit availability for agricultural productive employment opportunities in industry than ers and industry, 3) development of efficient in agriculture, lower priority for agricultural marketing systems, and 4) reorientation of fis- programs, and increased abandonment of farm cal policy to achieve these goals (10). Incentives land. The growth of the tourism industry also offered to businesses included tax exemptions, attracted capital and labor away from agricul- technical assistance, labor training programs, ture. These two factors contributed to the ac- and subsidized rental of government buildings celerated urbanization of major Puerto Rican (87). The construction industry prospered and cities. government grew. This, and a large exodus of laborers to the U.S. mainland, removed capi- The Puerto Rican electorate approved the is- tal and human resources from agriculture (116). land’s newly drafted constitution in 1952 and Sugar, coffee, and tobacco contributed 64.3 per- the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico became a cent of gross farm income in 1950, and only recognized entity. The Commonwealth is an 14 percent in 1985 (9). autonomous government in voluntary associa- 98 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

riety of crops, including tobacco, indigo, coffee, cotton, foodstuffs, and sugarcane. Extensive forest clearing for agriculture, as well as introduced predators (e.g., mongoose), probably contributed to extermination of some indigenous fauna (e.g., agouti) (97). At the close of the 17th century, slave labor (of African extraction) became increasingly important as Danish interest increasingly focused on sugarcane production. The population of St. Thomas rose from about 1,000 in 1691 to nearly 4,000 by 1715 and the proportion of slaves increased from roughly 60 to 85 percent. Agri- cultural terraces (sugarcane and bench) were constructed on the hillsides through the use of Photo credit: William Balmer slave labor (97). Danish interests expanded in The pine plantation in the background shows the timber the early part of the 18th century with the DWIC production potential of these sloping, abandoned agricultural lands in the central highlands acquisition of St. John in 1717, and again in of Puerto Rico. 1733 when St. Croix was purchased from France. The company focused heavily on sugarcane tion with the United States. Internal conflicts production and plantation numbers increased over political status have occurred, with fac- dramatically. On St. Croix, nearly all arable land tions divided over the issue of statehood, inde- was under cultivation within a decade of its pendence, or continuing as a Commonwealth. purchase by the DWIC. St. Thomas became a free port in 1724 and U.S. Virgin Islands the DWIC’s activities—both in colonial staple The present-day U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) exports and European imports—established the were first colonized in the 1630s when settle- island as a major trade center in the Caribbean. ments on St. Croix were established by the Slave trade in particular became a thriving busi- Dutch, English, and French. A period of ness, attracting buyers from America and other colonial friction followed these early settle- Caribbean plantations (55). However, financial ments, with the French finally gaining control and political difficulties led to DWIC bankrupt- in 1650. France retained sovereignty until 1695 cy in 1754. The Danish Crown purchased the when its colony was relocated to Hispaniola. Danish West Indies and continued control of The island of St. Croix remained virtually unin- the islands. habited until 1733 when France sold it to the Danish West India Company (DWIC), the ex- During the 18th century, diversified agricul- clusive Crown agent for settlement and trade ture gave way to sugarcane monoculture, and the sugarcane plantations progressively en- in the West Indies (55). larged their control over island resources. By St. Thomas was successfully colonized by the the end of the 18th century, these plantations Danes in 1672. The islands represented an op- comprised 67 percent of all plantations and portunity to produce highly valued agricultural sugarcane accounted for nearly 80 percent of commodities to supplement the homeland econ- all cropland. The majority of pastureland was omy. Early colonial modification of the land also held by the plantations (97). Sugarcane was included clearing of forests, primarily by slash cultivated extensively on all three major islands and burn techniques, for plantation establish- of the Danish West Indies, and at one time or ment and commercially valuable timber spe- another nearly all of the land was in sugarcane cies (72). The early plantations produced a va- production (72,100). The sugarcane plantations flourished until Many St. Thomas and St. John plantations the 1830s. Thereafter, falling prices, rising pro- progressively were abandoned after emancipa- duction costs, scarcity of investment capital and tion, and their cleared areas were allowed to labor problems aggravated by slave emancipa- revert to brush forest. Nonetheless, on St. tion in 1848 combined to debilitate the indus- Thomas extensive deforestation occurred dur- try (97). Limitations such as contract wage la- ing the middle of the 19th century, as second- bor and harsh vagrancy laws were instituted ary forests were cleared to supply the growing and effectively tied many newly freed slaves fuel and construction needs of the Port of Char- to the land (56,97). lotte Amalie (97). The postemancipation decline of sugar ex- The structure of the plantation system changed port in St, Croix was exacerbated by the emer- significantly after 1848. The emerging system gence of intercontinental steamships which primarily was one of small-scale, less labor- could bypass St. Thomas as a fueling station intensive, more diversified agricultural activi- (56). However, the sugar industry struggled on ties (97). Crops such as sea-island cotton, sisal, despite declining acreage, primarily by incor- fruits, coconuts, and foodstuffs were cultivated porating technological improvements such as and livestock (cattle and sheep) production in- steam mills and central factories. creased. Many large landowners who chose to 100 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas discontinue agricultural activity nonetheless Although fish were an important dietary com- held onto their properties for speculative pur- ponent, commercial fisheries were slow to de- poses (20,97). Thus, while the total number of velop in the Danish West Indies. More com- plantations (units with more than 50 acres) de- monly, tropical produce was exchanged for clined only slightly between 1796 and 1915, lan- imported saltfish—a preference that continues duse shifted away from caneland and cropland today. There were, however, some local fish- toward increased pastureland and woodland. ing activities. Early 19th century accounts indicate an abundance of marine life near the Vir- During the second half of the 19th century gin Islands (97). some control over plantation-land resources was relinquished to ex-slave smallholders. The Archeological excavations uncovered shell- number of smallholdings (plots under 50 acres) fish middens on plantation sites, indicating that rose from 4 in 1796 to 594 in 1915. This proc- some harvest of clams, conch, and mangrove ess went furthest on St. John, where by 1915 oysters occurred historically (97). While most there was a total of 244 smallholdings cover- fishing was undertaken to satisfy plantation ing 1,148 acres, or 9 percent of the land area consumption needs, descriptions by local visi- (98). The St. John smallholders practiced a sub- tors during the slave era indicate that slaves sistence economy that combined subsistence and free fishermen were selling some portion farming, animal husbandry, fishing, charcoal of their catch in fish markets near the urban production, and part-time labor on the planta- centers (84). tions (70,98). Throughout the colonial period, fishing tech- On St. Thomas most of the smallholders were nology was similar to that of the indigenous French immigrants from St. Barthelemy (St. islanders. Shellfish and turtles were taken along Barts), who settled on the north side of the is- the shorelines (88). Offshore fishing was done land during the 1860s and either rented gar- from skiffs and dugouts, Woven fishpots conden plots or entered into sharecropping agree- stituted the primary catch technology; however, ments. Some managed to acquire title to their handlines, nets, seines, and harpoons were also land by the beginning of the 20th century. Like employed (84). their counterparts on St. John, their subsistence strategy combined farming with fishing and Emancipation marked a decline in the num- charcoal production (62). ber of fishermen employed by the plantations and corresponding expansion of fishing activ- St. Thomas increased its specialization as a ity by those persons living outside the planta- point of international commerce and center of tions. Fishing communities were established regional finance because of its deepwater har- on St. Thomas by French emigrants from St. bor, free-port status, political neutrality, and Barts. Fishing was a common component of strategic location (56). A dual economy devel- subsistence strategies in the Danish West Indies. oped during this period, with St. Thomas emerging as a trade center and extensive plantation The Danish Government exhibited some in- agriculture characterizing St. Croix (56). terest in colonial fishery development in the early 1900s. The first fishery law was passed Prior to the decimation of St. Thomas’ forests in 1908; it regulated the right to fish; protected in the latter half of the 19th century, Danish fishpots; and prohibited the taking of juvenile colonial authorities showed little concern over fish, lobsters with eggs, and female turtles in deforestation and its impact on soil productivity certain seasons (28). or freshwater supplies. The only law touching on this subject required Cruzan planters to leave Negotiations over the sale of the Danish West shade trees, or trees bordering the main roads, Indies to the United States began in 1865 and untouched (97). A Danish resource survey in the islands were finally purchased in 1917. The 1903 indicated that there was no forest on St. U.S. Navy assumed initial administrative au- Thomas and St. Croix and little forest of com- thority over the newly named Virgin Islands mercial value on St. John. of the United States (USVI). U.S. citizenship Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 101 was granted to most Virgin Islanders in 1927 Administration of the islands was transferred and within 2 years universal suffrage was to the Department of the Interior in 1931 and granted (114). a civilian governor was installed. A homestead- The first 40 years of U.S. administration did ing program was put into effect. Although many little to alter the prevailing patterns of land dis- could not afford the initial downpayment, the tribution or land use. Agricultural policy en- program met with some success, as evidenced couraged sugarcane cultivation for export and by an increase in small farms (56). Overall, how- virtually ignored the subsistence sector. Con- ever, activities to promote the viability of a small sequently, land resources were consolidated in farmer sector received little attention (97). The the hands of a few plantation owners and land self-reliant, subsistence community on St. John speculators, with an associated decline in the declined, many on St. Croix abandoned work- amount of land distributed to smallholders (97). ing their land, and on St. Thomas only the northside agricultural community persevered. Most privately owned plantations began to fail in the late 1920s. This led to the formation The First Organic Act for the Virgin Islands of the federally run Virgin Islands Co. (later be- was passed in 1936. St. Thomas became the cap- coming the Virgin Islands Corp., VICORP), ital of the USVI (114). A revised Organic Act which held nearly all the sugarcane land on St. was passed in 1954 and contained numerous Croix, and operated the only sugar factory. With fiscal and economic provisions of benefit to the its focus on sugar and rum production, VICORP USVI. did little to encourage alternative crops or the The Virgin Islands Tourist Board was estab- production of foodstuffs for local consumption lished in 1952, evidence of the beginning of (97). tourism-focused development. Between 1950 Sugar production experienced a slight resur- and 1970, the USVI experienced a massive eco- gence with the repeal of U.S. prohibition and nomic boom based on tourism in St. Thomas concurrently the demand for cane cutters rose, and St. John, and heavy industry in St. Croix, resulting in large-scale immigration from nearby The islands became the fastest growing tour- islands (56). Among VICORP’s later projects ist haven in the Caribbean and the site of the were the development of a small forestry pro- largest oil refinery in the Western Hemisphere gram (118) and the beginnings of the infrastruc- (Hess Oil in St. Croix) and of Martin Marietta ture necessary to support a tourist industry. Com- aluminum processing. During this period 42,000 mercial difficulties finally resulted in VICORP’s acres were absorbed by increasing tourist, resi- dissolution. dential, and industrial development (56), A sector of full-time fishermen existed in This period coincided with the phase-out of 1917, but little was done to promote the local commercial sugar production, intense resource fisheries. The Naval Administration requested competition from the tourism sector, construc- a survey of the local fisheries in 1932 (28) which tion and government employment, and export included the numbers of local fishermen, tech- manufacturing. To accommodate rising popu- nologies employed, and harvest amount. The lation densities and immigration from sur- survey concluded that the fishery was operat- rounding West Indian islands, the territory ing at 50 percent capacity and recommended experienced a widespread pattern of suburban- various government supports to foster devel- ization (55). opment. Except for promotion of cooperatives Tourism has been actively promoted since little seems to have been done. A 1950 economic the 1960s and is currently the most significant report noted that local fishermen still relied on economic activity. As a result, the current econ- primitive technologies and marketing, and lit- omy is primarily based on tourism and related tle had been done to take advantage of marine enterprises (110). Presently tourism accounts resources (72). for approximately 40 percent of the gross ter- 102 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ritorial product and employment while local government absorbs another one-third of territorial activity (56). Historically, the majority of desirable land has not been available for small scale subsistence agriculture. Initially, the majority of highest quality land was in large plantations while currently, with the emergence of the tourism industry, increased real estate prices have made much of the land inaccessible (97).

REPRESENTATIVE RESOURCE PROBLEMS OF THE U.S.-AFFILIATED TROPICAL ISLANDS

introduction ciated flooding, and landslides occur on many The renewable resources of U.S.-affiliated is- of the islands. In American Samoa, for exam- lands in the Pacific and the Caribbean supply ple, flooding is ranked as a major problem. The their inhabitants with many important goods majority of development has occurred in the and services as they did in the past. Yet, hu- narrow flatlands which lie between the steep man activities have jeopardized the renewabil- volcanic mountains and the shore. The water- ity of some of these island resources. Despite sheds typically are comprised of steep valleys their differing histories and cultures, these is- flanked by sharp ridges with underlying perme- lands share some common resource problems, able rocks. Although the watershed is heavily including that of resource overexploitation. vegetated, landslides still occur, posing a clear Another major problem is related to impacts hazard for villages located in the coastal valleys. of human activities when a particular resource is developed or exploited. Such problems and Episodic catastrophes have been related to their underlying causes commonly are more tidal phenomena. Rainstorms coinciding with apparent on small islands than they are on large spring low tides killed up to 92 percent of reef continental areas. invertebrates at Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Is- lands (47). Other natural stresses are less com- Certain naturally occurring hazards, although mon in the Pacific. Active volcanoes are limited not unique to islands, often represent a signifi- to the Northern Mariana Islands, where erup- cant problem. The relatively small size of is- tions may severely disrupt intertidal and shal- lands often makes them less able to absorb the low-water habitats (24). Many of the U.S.-affil- impact of a natural disaster than a large continen- iated islands are in or near seismically active tal area. Agricultural or fishery capacity may areas and occasionally experience earthquakes be reduced temporarily, resulting in increased (106,107,108,109,110,111). Shoreline erosion is dependence on imports. Cyclonic storms, asso- another naturally occurring problem. Well-de- Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 103 veloped coral reef, seagrass meadows, and lit- Forests.—On many islands, deforestation has toral vegetation systems provide some protec- resulted in turbid, erratic, and seasonally dis- tion; however, where these systems have been appearing streams (99). For example, older in- removed or degraded, natural protection is habitants of northern Babelthaup (Palau) remem- limited or nonexistent. ber when the streams ran year long. Now, the forest cover has been destroyed through re- Terrestrial Resource Damage peated burning and the streams flow only when it rains, at which time they often are muddy and Depletion and flow very fast (99). Damage to the terrestrial resource base At one time Guam was entirely forest-covered, largely has been a function of human activity. but human disturbances, frequent typhoons, Resource depletion is apparent in many of the and the adverse impacts during and after World islands’ early colonial histories and continues War II have left little undisturbed forest on the today, further reducing the islands’ productive southern part of the island. Only scattered capacity. Loss of forest area on many islands patches remain in largely inaccessible areas in has adversely affected groundwater resources, ravines and on steep slopes. Savannas on the wildlife habitat, soil fertility, and has exacer- southern part of the island are believed to be bated soil erosion. Habitat loss, introduced mostly the result of repeated burning. Some of competitors and predators, introduced disease, the open land is barren and actively eroding. and overexploitation all have contributed to depletion of many island wildlife populations. Accelerated clearing and burning of forests on old volcanic soils in recent centuries have Island freshwater resources are inherently created a secondary forest in some areas and limited and on many islands these resources much secondary savanna. Erosion and soil de- are threatened by such factors as infiltration terioration have been accelerated in some areas of agricultural chemicals and industrial wastes by frequent burning, making natural forest into the aquifer. Further, distribution of exist- regeneration a slow process (99). ing freshwater resources to inhabitants poses a problem in some island areas. Hazardous Fire is the biggest technical problem to over- waste from military activities remains a prob- come in rehabilitating grasslands. Fires sweep lem on some Pacific islands. Islands in both through grasses to the edge of the forest, de- the Pacific and Caribbean still are used as im- stroying forest along the margin. The Guam Di- pact areas for military weapons, vision of Forestry estimates as much as 80 percent of the fires on Guam are caused by arson (38). Flora and Fauna Resources Past, poor landuse practices have degraded Most abandoned agricultural land revegetates forest resources in the U.S. Pacific and Carib- naturally to savanna or to secondary forest. Lit- tle of the secondary forest is suitable for im- bean tropical territories and have resulted in mediate commercial timber exploitation due significant amounts of degraded and aban- to poor quality and low volume of commercial doned land and relatively unproductive secondary forest. Island fauna similarly have been tree species (99). Nearly two-thirds of Amer- threatened by such landuse practices. Related ican Samoa’s rainforest has been damaged or resources (e. g., water supplies and coastal ma- destroyed by man’s activities, leaving undis- rine resources) in many places are threatened turbed forests only on steep slopes (106). Man by forest loss. Reliable information on the origi- has influenced the vegetation of the Marianas nal extent of forests of the Western Pacific is- for at least 3,500 years. Observations in Puerto lands does not exist but forests probably cov- Rico indicate that the forest area is increasing ered most of the islands. The Caribbean islands slightly or has stabilized (99). were forest covered at the time of European Vegetation removal during construction ac- contact. tivities and the exposure of loosened soil to 104 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

heavy rainfall also leads to soil erosion. For ex- or have not been seen in years and thus are pre- ample, the largest part of the erosion problem sumed to be extinct. This problem is critical in the Virgin Islands is attributable to the clear- on Guam where recovery programs concentrating of large tracts of land, construction of ing on birds are carried out in conjunction with homes and roads on steep slopes, and the fill- the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (39). ing or destruction of natural water courses Guam’s avian population has declined rapidly (117). After heavy rains on St. Croix, it is com- since World War II. The Guam Division of mon to see a red-brown plume of sediment dis- Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has identified coloring the sea at the mouths of streams situ- several causes for this decline including, loss ated below construction sites (110). Similar of habitat, pesticides, avian disease, and pre- sediment discharge may be observed in Puerto dation. Predation, particularly by the brown Rico (63). A critical problem in American Samoa tree snake, appears to be a primary factor. Re- is the erosion of soils. The sediment is carried search on the brown tree snake indicates a to the nearshore waters where it adversely af- correlation between expansion of the snakes’ fects water quality as well as marine popula- range and decline of avian populations (38). The tions such as corals (106). Philadelphia Zoo, National Zoo, and zoos in Denver, New York, and San Antonio have be- Protected Species.—Several species of island gun a “bird lift” and breeding programs to save flora and fauna are on the verge of extinction several endangered avian species (39). Cur- rently, seven species of Guamanian birds are (Pteropus tokudae8) currently are protected listed under the Federal Endangered Species under the Federal Endangered Species Act. The Act, An avifauna survey was recently com- Yapese ban on hunting and exportation of fruit pleted by USFWS on Pohnpei and other high bats still is in effect and the fruit bat popula- islands of Micronesia (26,31). tion is recovering (39). USFWS, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), and A high incidence of seabird mortality at Mid- Yap Institute of Natural Science (YINS) have way is due to air strikes with planes and colli- conducted two censuses of the Mariana fruit sions with radio antennae. The seabird popu- bat (Pteropus mariannus mariannus) popula- lation at Wake Island was severely decimated tion on Yap. Yap banned the hunting and ex- during the Japanese occupation. During this portation of fruit bats in the early 1980s because period the Wake rail became extinct. A poten- of the decrease of the bat population due to its tially rare plant species, Lepidium wahiense, export to Guam. Fruit bat populations on Guam from Wake has been proposed for listing by were severely reduced during the 1960s; among USFWS as an endangered species. The monk the causes were: increased exploitation, loss seal has been adversely affected by human pres- of habitat, economic importance of the species, and lack of adequate protection (38). The Mari- 8The Little Mariana fruit bat (Pteropus tokudae), endemic to ana fruit bat and the Little Mariana fruit bat Guam, is believed to have become extinct recently [122). 106 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

ence and populations have declined at Midway coconut crabs, and freshwater prawns. Infec- and other islands of the Leeward chain (53). tion is acquired by ingesting raw or improperly Introduced Species.—Certain introduced cooked meat containing the parasite. The Afri- species have had unexpected negative impacts can snail also carries the gram-negative bac- on island renewable resources. Harmful insects terium Aeromonas hydrophila (60). and plant diseases have been introduced in the Toads (Bufo marinus) are another introduced Pacific islands over the last 10 to 15 years as nuisance and have poisonous parotid glands travel to and from the islands has become eas- behind the head which secrete toxins. The toad ier. Two of the most harmful introductions have has caused numerous cat and dog deaths and been the Rhinoceros beetle and the Giant Afri- human deaths have also been recorded (96). Cir- can snail which now populate many islands. cumstantial evidence indicates that increased The Giant African snail inhibits nursery pro- salmonella outbreaks occur in areas of large duction for horticulture and forestry. The Rhi- toad populations. The high incidence of pol- noceros beetle causes extensive damage to luted drinking water and dysentery in Amer- coconut palms in several island groups (99), but ican Samoa may be connected to the high den- does not exist in the Marshall Islands (76), Yap, sities of toads in areas of human habitation (4). Truk, Pohnpei, Kosrae, or on atolls (26).

A recent introduction that threatens some Freshwater Resources young Leucaena forests on Saipan, Guam, Palau, and Yap is the insect Psyllid (39). This A major health concern on islands is water insect seems to be controlled on Yap by the na- quality. Islands commonly have a limited sup- tive bird, the bridled white eye (26). On some ply of freshwater and experience an increase atolls, rats significantly damage young coco- in health problems when water sources are nuts; control efforts have included trapping, degraded or contaminated. Water quality may poisoning, and bringing in additional cats to be affected by many factors, including infiltra- the affected islands (76). tion of agricultural chemicals and industrial wastes into aquifers, and insufficient treatment Tilapia is an exotic species of fish that was and inadequate disposal of sewage. Islands with introduced into the wild in Puerto Rico. The extremely porous soils generally are more likely introduced Oreochromis mossambica is now to experience infiltration of undesirable agents, considered a pest because it is viewed by the such as chemicals or sewage, into the aquifer. consumer as inferior quality human food and as such has created consumer resistance to the As human populations have increased on consumption of the cultured species Tilapia many islands, the demand for increased fresh- nilotica (34). water supplies has grown. Until relatively re- Some introduced animals have become pub- cently, the quality of surface water and ground- lic health problems in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific water in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Is- islands. Foremost among these pests are snails lands was excellent. However, unregulated and toads which, in extreme cases, have been pumping of water from aquifers underlying the linked to some human deaths. Rats, birds, and coastal lowlands has led to saltwater intrusion fish are known to carry human and animal par- into some parts of the aquifers. The resulting asites (23]. saltwater or brackish water in the wells renders these parts of the aquifer unfit for human con- The Giant African snail (A. fulica) hosts or- sumption, agriculture, and many industrial uses ganisms which cause human diseases. For ex- (64,73). ample, the rat lungworm (Angiostrongylus can- tonensis), which parasitizes the African snail, In the U.S. Virgin Islands, every structure has been recognized as the cause of cerebral must have its own rooftop water-collection sys- angiostrongylosis in humans. The parasite is tem feeding into a cistern. In addition, exten- most commonly found in A. fulica; however, sive paved catchments exist on some hillsides it has also been found in some rats, land crabs, leading to large cisterns that feed public water Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 107

Puerto Rico’s principal water-supply problem is the deterioration in service from irrigation districts serving 40,000 acres. Deliveries from the four districts have fallen below half of their pre-1920 design capacity of 4 inches per month to the serviced land. The decline continues because of archaic operating rules that were designed originally to service a sugarcane monoculture no longer in existance; and because of reduced irrigation demand, and continuing reservoir sedimentation. Declining surface water availability has led many farmers to rely exclusively on groundwater. Because deliveries from irrigation district reservoirs con- Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment stitute the single most important source of This rooftop water catchment system in Majuro (Marshalls) groundwater recharge, this trend of changing serves as a supplementary freshwater source. However, few such rainwater collection systems exist in the U. S.- irrigation water use eventually will cause an affiliated Pacific islands, but are commonplace unfavorable balance and the intrusion of sea- in the Caribbean. water into the freshwater aquifer (64). No action has been taken yet to manage the surface water system to ensure that adequate amounts mains. Rapid population growth, however, has exceeded the capacity of the public catchments of recharge are provided (64). The irrigation and cisterns and as a consequence, desalina- practices still in use on a majority of the farms tion plants have been built to increase fresh- are wasteful, inefficient and costly (73). water resources (73). In the recent past, St. Increased population levels or overcrowding Thomas Island had to import water by barge may also cause water quality degradation. from Puerto Rico to supplement local water Treatment systems, sponsored by the Environ- supplies. mental Protection Agency (EPA), have been or Nearly all of Guam is served by a piped water are being constructed in population centers in system. Groundwater resources from the north- the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands (49). However, in some areas sewage systems are still under ern half of the island supply as much as 70 percent of the island’s potable water. Since 1983 construction, or facilities still need to be ex- Guam has implemented a comprehensive ground- tended to all structures (49,53). Overcrowded water management program designed to pro- conditions on Moen, and to a lesser extent on tect groundwater quality and direct groundwater Tel, Dublon, Fefan, and Uman (Truk) have led extraction to avoid salinization. American to unsanitary wastewater disposal practices. Al- though a sewage treatment plant and outfall Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), the Marshall Islands, on Moen have been in operation for many Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), and years, hookups with residences are few (53). Palau are in varying stages of developing simi- Through a series of EPA projects (Rural Sani- lar programs. Salinization is a particularly im- tation Programs) remote areas are now being portant problem in the CNMI which relies on provided with basic wastewater and water sup- groundwater supplies for 90 percent of its pota- ply facilities (49). ble water. Catchments are used to supplement groundwater in areas where salinization or un- Coastal Resource Damage dependable water service is a problem. Many Sand, a renewable resource of beaches, in cer- areas in the former TTPI (FSM, RMI, and Palau) tain cases has undergone extreme depletion do not have sufficient infrastructure for com- through mining. Some of the calcium carbonate prehensive groundwater management (49), beach sands of St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Is- 108 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

the Army to embark on a program to incinerate and destroy the chemical munitions in an explosive-proof facility to be constructed on Johnston (53). U.S. nuclear testing took place on Bikini Atoll between 1946 and 1954 and weapons testing took place on Enewetak between 1948 and 1958. Blast effects and contamination from radioactive materials severely damaged or destroyed parts of these atolls. Today, plans suggest that the radioactive soil from Bikini may be removed and deposited on another atoll, in a lagoon cra- ter, or used for landfill along the shoreline. Agri- culture will not be allowed on Bikini for obvi- Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment ous health and safety reasons (53). Enewetak Hillside mining for construction materials is an alternative underwent a similar cleanup during 1976 to to beach sand mining, however, the associated adverse environmental impacts to terrestrial and marine 1978. Low-level radioactivity still was present ecosystems may rival those caused by in the soil of several large islands in the atoll beach sand mining. after the cleanup. Recent radiological tests in- lands came under heavy mining for construc- dicate that coconuts from trees replanted in the tion purposes in the early 1960s. The sand was northern islands are not fit to eat due to exces- mined for government and private use, leading sive levels of radiation (53). to nearly complete stripping of some beaches. American and Japanese military ordnance As more seaside hotels were built it became evi- from the World War II era still litter some Pa- dent that maintaining beaches was more valu- cific islands. Unexploded bombs and shells still able than using the beach sand for construc- are found on parts of Guam, Saipan, the Mar- tion. Subsequently, dredged sand replaced shalls (31), Truk, and Peleliu (Palau). The pres- beach sand for construction (114). Mining or ence of such explosives inhibits the use of cer- collecting beach sand for personal use has been tain lands and provides a lingering hazard to a practice among Samoans for centuries. Now, island residents. Recovery of corals in previ- however, some beaches are being depleted for ously blasted or bombed holes that resulted commercial construction purposes. On Truk, from air raids on Moen (Truk) seems relatively removal of beach sand for construction fill has minor (53). led to some shoreline erosion (53). Beach sand mining is a problem in most Pacific areas (49). Some U.S.-affiliated islands are still used as impact areas for military weapons. Parts of the Hazardous Waste island of Vieques just east of Puerto Rico serves as a bombing and gunnery range for the U.S. Johnston Island has served as a temporary Navy. In order to offset the negative environ- repository for chemical defoliants and chemi- mental impacts, the U.S. Navy has recently cal munitions since the early 1970s. Agent reforested 100 acres of abandoned/eroded pas- Orange was stockpiled at Johnston after the U.S. tureland on Vieques. The U.S. Navy and the involvement in Vietnam and finally was incin- Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Memorandum erated at sea away from Johnston in 1976. Dur- of Understanding) cooperatively fund projects ing years of storage, however, some drums to enhance employment prospects and create leaked into the ground. The extent of contami- long-term benefits for the inhabitants of Vie- nation has been analyzed and remedial actions ques (77). Farallon de Medinilla, a small raised have begun (82). Some chemical munitions de- limestone island north of Saipan, is used as a teriorated and started to leak as well. This led bombing and gunnery target by U.S. Pacific na- Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 109 val forces and by the U.S. Air Force tactical Increases in local population and tourist trade air squadron on Guam. Exercises on this island in the USVI has been accompanied by increased are said to be sporadic (48,53). demand for fish, conch, lobsters, and other seafoods. Adult fish of the shallow coastal Marine Resource Damage and waters have become increasingly scarce result- Depletion ing in the decreased effectiveness of fish pots as a harvest mechanism. In easily accessible Degradation of the marine resource bases of sites, conchs and lobsters are heavily depleted the U.S.-affiliated islands follows a pattern sim- (114). The USVI Government has deployed arti- ilar to that of the terrestrial resources. Many ficial reefs constructed of old automobile tires human activities, on-island and at sea, have ad- in an effort to increase shallow-water fish hab- versely affected the marine resource base of itat and thereby enhance fishery potential (34). many islands, Some on-island development Destructive Practices.—The history of coral activities have had adverse impacts on near- and mollusk fisheries is one of progressive ex- shore marine life. Destructive fishing practices ploitation leading to chronic depletions (36,37, and overharvesting of certain marine species 51,85,86,121). Conchs and black corals are heav- has adversely impacted the marine resource ily overfished throughout the Caribbean, includ- base. Despite such damage, however, the ma- ing populations among the U.S.-affiliated is- rine resource base continues to provide essen- lands (51,112,120). tial products to island inhabitants. Pearl oysters have been important items of commerce for centuries in certain parts of the Nearshore Fisheries Pacific. The pearl shell industry had a major Because of past over-optimism as to the com- impact on some islands as a result of the activ- mercial potential of nearshore fishing resources, ities of the foreign traders and fishermen drawn a rather consistent scenario of fisheries devel- to exploit the stocks of the Golden Lipped and opment and depletion seems to be emerging. the smaller Black Lipped pearl shell (69). As The scenario is in various stages of realization stocks of pearl oysters were depleted, the top throughout the U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Carib- shell, Trochus niloticus, came to be used as a bean islands. Urban center populations grow source for buttons and other similar items with rural or outer island migrations (101,102, (66,69). Trochus recovered after World War II 103,104,105). As urbanization continues, the from its pre-war depletion. However, popula- reef resources are over-harvested in an ever tions began to decline from over-exploitation widening area emanating from the urban cen- again by the mid-1950s, leading to establish- ter (34,65). ment of reef sanctuaries in which no harvest was permitted (53,59,91). Despite closed sea- The number of fishermen in Puerto Rico in- sons, however, trochus populations remain low creased from 1,230 to 1,872 between 1976 and from overharvesting in Pohnpei and Truk (31). 1982 while the number of fishing vessels increased from 865 to 1,449 (8,43). This develop- Fishing with explosives was contrived by is- ment pattern has had a striking impact on landers during World War II with the readily Puerto Rico’s nearshore resources. Because of available supply of military ordnance (7). This rising fuel costs, larger “offshore” boats have type of “fishing” still is widespread through- tended to fish closer to shore. In 1974, the out the South Pacific. Destructive fishing meth- waters of Puerto Rico were characterized as ods such as dynamiting pose a severe problem “very nearly overfished” and “heavily exploited” in Truk lagoon (31). The availability of unex- (43,44). The increase in total effort expended ploded ordnance on many of the Japanese within the fishery was accompanied by a nearly sunken ships near some islands and the illegal 50 percent decline in catch per unit of effort; acquisition of dynamite from local construc- a classic indication of overfishing (8). tion activities are factors which may foster this 110 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

activity. This technique is without question re- Federal and Commonwealth statutes. Excep- sponsible for considerable destruction of reef tions are made for small-scale collections for corals and reef fish habitat (53). scientific, educational, or personal use (29,120). Despite this level of protection, the poaching Chlorine bleach and water purification pow- of corals for the tourist and aquarium trade is der have been and are being used by some is- ubiquitous throughout the Caribbean region, landers to kill reef fish and bring them to the and seems unlikely to diminish. Mollusks are surface where they can be collected for sale or not protected, with the exception of conchs and for the fisherman’s consumption. Bleach some- species living within the Federal waters and times is used on Yap for such purposes (41). parks (112). The bleach has such severe negative impacts on fish, corals, seagrass beds, and algae that The two most common marine turtles among some populations are permanently reduced (7). U.S. insular areas of the Pacific—the green turtle and the hawksbill turtle—have been declared The exploitation of nearshore resources by “threatened” and “endangered” respectively subsistence fisheries of American Samoa is and are protected under provisions of the U.S. heavy in places and occasionally destructive Endangered Species Act. Harvest of these tur- methods using dynamite and chlorine bleach tles is prohibited in Guam, the Commonwealth are employed. As human populations continue of the Northern Mariana Islands, and Amer- to rise, increased fishing pressure and overfish- ican Samoa. Despite protected status, hawks- ing of preferred species, especially in reef and bill turtles are killed in some islands, as evi- lagoon waters, are major emerging problems denced by the large number of well-crafted in Pohnpei, Kosrae, Truk, and Yap (31). tortoise shell combs, earrings, and bracelets on Tourism has certain inadvertent but direct the market. Residents of some U.S.-affiliated negative impacts on marine resources. One islands are permitted to harvest marine turtles study shows that the trampling effect of corals on a subsistence and traditional basis as a pro- by humans is significant. At one site, 18 trav- tein resource (91). erses by individuals reduced living coral from Four species of sea turtle occur commonly 41 to 8 percent (117). Certain fragile species like in the Caribbean: hawksbill, green, leatherback, Acropora suffered the greatest damage. Shells, and loggerhead. All are variously protected used extensively in handicrafts in American from harvesting or molestation by living within Samoa, the eastern Carolines, and the Marshall Federal waters or by their status as endangered Islands, have become increasingly scarce. Sup- or threatened species (112,113). Moreover, strict plies of shell and coral are being adversely af- import controls apply to the mere possession fected not only by the handicraft industry but of turtle products in the United States. Never- also by builders and divers (117). theless, turtles have been hunted intensely in Protected Species.—Natural stocks of giant the Caribbean and continue to be poached and clam F, Tridacnidae have been seriously de- sold, even among U.S. islands, for food and fine pleted in their natural range. Tridacna gigas jewelry (29,112). Turtles are easily caught in populations are believed to be extirpated from nets, by hand, or on the beach while laying eggs. marine habitats of many of the U.S.-affiliated The general availability of outboard motorboats Pacific islands. Two varieties of giant clam, and synthetic netting exacerbates the problem, Tridacna gigas and Tridacna derasa, have been and the economic value of turtles ensures that placed on the International Union for the Con- low-level poaching likely will continue (120). servation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) endangered species list (95). In December 1985, a 400-ton ferryboat ran aground on Mona Island Reef off the coast of Currently, the harvesting of corals and other Puerto Rico, a reef that is a marine preserve sessile or sedentary animals is restricted in the and habitat for several protected turtle species U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands by various and marine birds. The ship was still aground Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 111 on the reef as of March 1986, breaking up, leak- ment to riverine, estuarine, and reef systems ing oil, and crushing the coral (21). (53). Since 1980, excessive dredging and filling re- Degradation of Nearshore Resources lated to an airfield-port construction at Okaht Large-scale destruction of coral reef commu- on Kosrae has caused major sedimentation nities from sedimentation is well documented damage to coral reefs and seagrass beds. The (25,30). Dredging and filling operations in the fishery catch has declined in Okaht’s coastal nearshore environment are significant contri- habitats. On Pohnpei, considerable mangrove, butors to marine resource destruction. Dredg- lagoon, reef, and perhaps seagrass habitat has ing and filling associated with the military buil- been destroyed or degraded by recent dredge dup in Guam before, during, and after World and fill operations (26). Sedimentation from up- War II resulted in considerable adverse impacts land construction also has contributed to reef to reefs in Apra Harbor and other coastal re- degradation, Part of the reef itself has been used sources; battle activities added to these prob- as a source of fill material, Some of the shore- lems. Centuries of slash-and-burn agriculture line filling is to accommodate immigrants from and intentionally set savanna range-fires have outer islands because of unavailability of land. aggravated soil erosion and contributed sedi- Yap has no exposed limestones or other suit-

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Dredge and fill operations often take heavy tolls on nearshore marine ecosystems: heavy machinery may break up the coral reef, associated sedimentation may smother bottom communities, and loss of habitat can adversely affect nearshore fishery potential. 112 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas able rock available for fill, roadwork, and other gram which sets fines for littering; the funds construction activities and, therefore, most ma- will be used to clean up open dumps (49). terial must be dredged from lagoon reefs. Sewage, oil, and cannery waste pollution has Perhaps the single most significant impact long been a serious problem in Pago Pago Har- to coral reefs in American Samoa resulted when bor in American Samoa. Sewage treatment the commercial airfield was extended out into plants at Utulei and elsewhere have largely Pala Lagoon, resulting in severe restriction in eliminated degradation from domestic wastes. tidal circulation, and dredging and quarrying Oil handling and storage facilities also have on once important reefs. In addition, the Gov- been improved although the unauthorized dump- ernment relied on filling of reef lagoons in in- ing of bilge waters into the bay continues to ner Pago Pago Harbor to expand its landhold- be a problem. Presently, no pumpout facilities ings (53). exist for ships and yachts calling at the bay (53). Dredging and shoreline modification associ- Pala Lagoon on Tutuila has high fecal coli- ated with tourist developments are a major form concentrations presenting a public health threat to nearshore resources in Puerto Rico hazard. The construction of the airport runway and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Coral reefs in over the opening of the lagoon to the ocean has Puerto Rico are seriously threatened by human reduced water exchange with the ocean. This development activities including dredging, land problem is exacerbated by stream runoff, which erosion, oil spills, industrial and thermal pol- is high in nutrients and sewage tank overflows lution, and direct harvest for curios (43). Alter- (106). A sewage collection system with association of the coral reef ecosystem may produce ated individual dwelling service is currently un- adverse changes that are essentially irrevers- der construction there to mitigate the adverse ible (34). environmental impacts (49). Traditional dis- St. Croix Island has not escaped dredging im- charge of raw sewage into nearshore waters pacts. Prior to 1968, release of dredging spoil still occurs in some areas, resulting in severe water degradation. to Christiansted Harbor damaged coral communities on nearby reefs. From 1968 at least Similar problems exist in the Caribbean area. to 1974, no new dredging permits were issued Solid waste on St. Croix was pushed into the in the U.S. Virgin Islands largely because of sea at a site near their airport until 1974. This negative public opinion about damage to the practice has ceased but the old dump remains marine environment. The retail price of one cu- a source of nearshore water pollution. A chance bic yard of sand in 1968 was $3.50 but the price exists that wave action from a tropical storm has now reached $50.00. Thus, strong economic could spread the debris widely. Overflow from incentives exist to resume dredging (68). the tailings ponds of a bauxite processing plant reached the sea in the past during periods of Waste Management.—Damage of nearshore heavy rainfall. Waste heat and brine are car- resources from dumping solid wastes, sewage ried into the sea from water used for cooling releases, thermal pollution, and oil spills are common on the islands just as they are in the purposes. continental United States. Solid waste manage- Oil Spill Hazards.—Oil spills and oil dis- ment is a serious emerging problem in Pohn- charges by ships adversely affect nearshore re- pei and the FSM in general and is cited as a sources in many parts of the world. An oil spill serious problem on Majuro in the Marshall Is- damaged a section of mangrove on Guam (91); lands. There seems to be little planning to des- another in 1971 affected Sandy Point on St. ignate sites and landfill operations, and rubbish Croix. In addition, oil and tar from tankers and solid waste is dumped indiscriminately, floats in from the open ocean to the beaches commonly at the shoreline environment (53). of Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands (22,81), Guam has recently instituted a litter control pro- Globs of tar floating on the sea in the Carib- —

Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 113 bean and off Florida mistakenly have been isting laws (e.g., Clean Water Act) is difficult taken for food by hawksbill turtles. Dead and because of the need to observe the incident or dying tar-laden turtles are reported on the re- prove guilt through relatively complex proce- gion’s beaches (22). Oil spills also are problem- dures (49). atic throughout the Pacific. Enforcement of ex-

THE ISLAND SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT

Introduction ment. Most private sector development has occurred in service industries; however, indus- Sustainable renewable resource management trialization has grown in Puerto Rico and tour- depends not only on the capability of ecologi- ism and related enterprises have grown in the cal resources, but also on the availability of U.S. Virgin Islands. On most islands, agricul- skilled labor and desire to engage in resource ture and fisheries have nonetheless declined. management and development activities. Hu- Many island residents are multi-occupational: man resources are critical to renewable re- they engage in several occupations, part-time source management, Indispensable human or seasonally. Similarly, island institutions tend components include: laborers with special to be multidisciplinary and general in approach skills; farmers, foresters, fishermen, and aqua- (81]. culturists with entrepreneurial abilities and a knowledge of modern-technology; technicians The common recommendations of economic who combine scientific training with practical development plans have aimed at establishing experience; and strong resource management more self-reliant economies primarily by ex- leadership with a sense of mission and back- panding agriculture, fisheries, and tourism (and ground not only in natural sciences but also to a lesser extent light industry), although the in cultural and economic areas. order of preference may vary among island areas. The prospects for industrial development All of the U.S.-affiliated islands have rapidly in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are almost growing populations and many have high rates nonexistent because of small size of domestic of out-migration to the U.S. mainland and im- economies, high wage levels, the lack of natu- migration of mainlanders and foreign nationals. ral resources, and proximity to major Asian This has led to heterogeneous island popula- competitors. The limited nature of economic tions with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and development opportunities is illustrated in cultures. These groups may have different aspi- Palau where, as recently as the late 1950s, the rations, different demands for products, differ- most valuable export was scrap metal, mainly ent attitudes towards and values for resources, relics of World War II (14). and different techniques for resource use. Import substitution has become increasingly The level of development of the U.S.-affiliated important in light of rising transport costs and islands is considerably behind that of the United desire to encourage private sector development. States, with Puerto Rico being the most devel- A number of plans also have called for a re- oped of the islands. While gross domestic prod- duction in government employment and ex- uct (GDP) and per capita incomes are low com- penditure to allow the productive components pared to U.S. levels, they are generally high of the economies to catch up with consump- compared to regional levels. tion and to reduce the trade gap (11). The public sectors are large in comparison to private sectors on most islands, reflecting Pacific a common preference for the security, prestige, The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are char- and fringe benefits of local government employ- acterized by high population growth rates, in- 114 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas creasing emigration to the U.S. mainland and on limited resources may eventually preclude to other Pacific islands, and growing numbers self-sufficiency and necessitate emigration or of alien immigrants. The latter group have, to family planning (11). This situation has already a certain extent, been encouraged to enter is- been reached by most of the U.S.-affiliated lands such as American Samoa and Guam to islands. fill jobs for which local residents lack the nec- Wages also are sharply bimodal. Wages in the essary skills or which they are unwilling to ac- public sector tend to be considerably higher cept. A combination of these factors has led than those available through the private sec- to the development of bimodal societies, or tor. For example, the minimum wage in Palau trimodal societies—in which a significant sub- in 1982 was $1.94 per hour. In the private sec- sistence sector still exists. The private commer- tor, for which there is no legal minimum wage, cial sector on most of these islands is small or some wages were as low as 40 cents per hour nonexistent. (14). This incentive to obtain government em- The private sectors that have developed have ployment results in further withdrawal from been oriented primarily to services supporting local production. An associated effect is de- the public sector and public sector employees; mand for educational opportunities which may the productive components of the economies— not transfer into employment opportunities, re- agriculture, fisheries, and manufacturing— sulting in increased unemployment (11). have declined, or failed to develop. For example, government employment and service in- Caribbean dustries (general merchandising, transporta- Nearly 3.4 million people reside in Puerto tion, food services, and construction) account Rico (3,417 square miles) and 107,500 reside for at least 90 percent of formal employment in the U.S. Virgin Islands [132 square miles), in the Federated States of Micronesia while the representing some of the world’s highest pop- labor force employed in direct production ac- ulation densities. As a result of improved health counts for only 1.3 percent (11). care, family planning programs, and general In the absence of a significant productive economic affluence, birth rates in Puerto Rico component to their economies, the U.S.-affil- and the U.S. Virgin Islands have declined in iated Pacific islands have become highly de- the past three decades while death rates have pendent on U.S. expenditure to contribute to dropped or remained stable (73). local economies. For example, Palau’s GDP was The cultural heritage of the U.S.-affiliated estimated to be $20 million in 1979, of which Caribbean islands is largely influenced by prior $9 million was contributed by the United States colonial presence as well as cultural influences in public sector support payments (14). Only from other European, African, and Caribbean 9 percent of the Trust Territory funds for 1980 nations. This mixing results in a largely het- were derived from tax revenues while U.S. erogeneous society with varying cultural ties grant and Federal program funds contributed (79). Further, the close relationship with the 87 percent (11). mainland United States strongly affects these Unemployment is high—estimates range from island cultures. 16 (Palau) to 22 percent (Majuro)—but accurate The United States is the primary commercial data on unemployment levels or trends are un- partner of the Caribbean islands. The United available, especially for rural areas. States’ purchase of major U.S. Virgin Islands The skills required to develop the productive exports (i.e., tourism, petroleum, rum, and light sectors of the economies are being lost at a rapid industrials) and supply of consumptive goods rate, and few young islanders are seeking edu- comprises a large part of island trade9 (57). The cation or employment in agriculture or fish- 9 eries. Rapid population growth in some places During the period of 1970 to 1979, U.S. Virgin Islands’ exports to the United States averaged 89 percent of total exports, has accelerated the move away from local food U.S. citizens reached above 85 percent of total tourists and U.S. production. The increased population pressure goods comprised 72 percent of U.S. Virgin Islands imports (56). Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 115

United States’ investment in the Puerto Rican Those who have are supposed to share with economy totaled some $15 billion in 1982 (90). those who have less, particularly within fam- North American capital controlled the highest ily and clan. One who accumulates savings may percentage of assets in manufacturing, retail have to deal with frequent requests from fam- sales, exported industrial production, marine ily and friends and contribute to the lifestyle and air transport, labor force, housing construc- of less industrious individuals with little likeli- tion, and banking and finance10 [90), Thus, the hood of repayment in cash. This removes per- economies of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin sonal incentive to earn more than one imme- Islands are closely tied with the United States diately needs and may be a major deterrent to and react to U.S. economic changes. Similarly, development (32). associated employment sectors react to eco- As traditional economies have shifted toward nomic trends within the United States. cash economies, the lack of a dependable labor force (in terms of cash economies) has inhibited Traditional Cultures and Economic economic development. Tropical climate char- Development acteristics generally prevent agriculture work- Pacific ers from putting in an 8 hour day; more commonly, 4 or 5 hours constitute a day’s work. Many U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are shift- Acquisition of temporary jobs for an imme- ing from a traditional subsistence economy diate monetary goal is common. This compli- towards a modern cash economy; in Pohnpei, 70 percent of wages are earned by only 2,120 cates training and supervision, and results in lower than expected productivity. Per capita government employees (no more than 10 per- income is high compared to regional levels, recent of the population). Obviously, many peo- sulting in reluctance on the part of the working- ple make a living outside the cash economy. age population to accept low-paying employ- In a properly functioning subsistence economy, ment and further influencing the use of alien production equals demand and the agent of labor. both is the family. Family needs in such an economy can be met with about 3 or 4 labor Caribbean hours per day (89). Cash is neither plentiful nor needed, and consumer goods on the island are The structure of U.S.-affiliated Caribbean is- limited (although the number, price, and qual- land economies has changed significantly in ity of products have increased in recent years). the past three decades, from primarily agricultural economies to highly industrialized (Puerto On Pacific high islands, most family needs Rico) and tourism [U. S, Virgin Islands) based for food and shelter can be obtained from the economies. This change in focus has influenced land and surrounding ocean, and available re- people to seek employment in fields other than sources seem to be underused. Most farmers agriculture and fisheries. produce just enough products to sell to meet The structure of the agricultural industry and their immediate cash needs. Farmers have lit- 11 tle incentive to increase cash crop production, profile of the present day farmer have changed ——.—.11 such as Pohnpei pepper, even though both land Agriculture is still dominated by part-time workers. Total and labor may be available. Pepper has gone amount of farmland in Puerto Rico increased by 4 percent be- unharvested when farmers have not needed or tween 1978 and 1982, but was still only half of 1950 levels. There has also been an increase in the number of farms, largely in the wanted to convert the crop into cash. less than 10 acre bracket; 53 percent of farmland is owned by operators. The average age of individuals whose primary activ- In most traditional Pacific cultures, the con- ity was agriculture was 56.1 years, secondary was 53,7 years. cept of “borrowing” displaces that of “saving.” Puerto Rican agriculture is dominated by small farm units run ----10 .— . .—— by an aging population, A small but growing group of educated Percent assets controlled: manufacturing—81 percent, retail Puerto Ricans farm as a secondary occupation (116). Similar cir- sales—85 percent, labor force—81 percent, housing construc- cumstances exist in the U.S. Virgin Islands, with 45.5 percent tion—65 percent, banking and finance—60 percent, exported in- of farmers spending 200 days in off-farm employment (57). There dustrial production—90 percent, most means of mass commu- has been an increase in the number of small farms, and increase nication, and virtually all marine and air transport (90). in the education level of farmers. 116 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

(73) concurrently with the change in overall economic structure. Puerto Rico has excellent physical resources, well-trained young people, required technology, and entrepreneurial ability to create a modern agriculture (116). Skilled and unskilled labor are available. There are the necessary professionals in Puerto Rico with approximately 1,500 college-trained specialists in various fields (of which 800 are employed by the government); 200 with masters degrees and 80 with doctorates (116). Several sectors within the U.S. Virgin Islands have effectively demonstrated over the past decades the viability of small farm and fishery operations. The French herb farmers on the north side of St. Thomas have successfully grown and marketed specialty herbs and spices. Similarly, the south side communities have been successful in small-scale, semisubsistence fishing oper- ing—in combination with primary and second- ations. Presently, migrants from other Caribbean ary education systems which focus on liberal islands are engaged in successful subsistence arts and college preparation have reinforced agriculture activities, involving small plots of a tendency to avoid agriculture and fisheries intensively cultivated land and organic inputs. in favor of “bureaucratic employ merit.” Cur- These sectors combine small-scale operations rently, however, vocational education oppor- with a multiplicity of occupations to maintain tunities are increasing in the Pacific islands (52). successful operations (e.g., French herb farmers Westernized school curricula exclude the may turn to fishing when crop markets are teaching of many traditional skills and knowl- poor). edge in many developing countries, amount- In Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, ing to an underlying assumption that such agricultural work generally has a perceived low knowledge is unnecessary in today’s world (42). social status, partly as a result of the plantation The current education system in this way has and subsistence economies. Early plantation created a desire for urban life and “nonproduc- agriculture relied on cheap labor. As economies tive” (i.e., public sector, tourism) employment. boomed in the mid-20th century, landholders Students entering college also tend to seek retained their land for speculation rather than a more general college education. Professionals continuing in agriculture and the younger gen- trained in public administration, economics, eration generally sought employment in areas physical and natural sciences, and engineer- other than agriculture. Additional disincentives ing are insufficient for many islands’ develop- include the more attractive wages paid in gov- ment needs. ernment, manufacturing, tourism, and construction. The effect is compounded by farm Out-migration from the islands for educa- operators who remain remote from their work- tional or income purposes is common, and on ers (116). Consequently, young, well-trained and some islands, extremely high. For example, motivated farmers are scarce. nearly three-quarters of high school graduates leave Palau for further education (14). Despite Education and Out-Migration these educational pursuits there exists a rift be- Pacific tween available employment opportunities and local skills. Public, retail, and skilled private The scarcity of certain education opportuni- sectors remain the desired employment areas. ties on the islands—primarily vocational train- In many cases, the off-island residence is con- .

Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 117 sidered temporary (until education is completed bor force with appropriate skills for the cur- or until job-holders claim retirement benefits rent (or future) direction of the employment or save enough to open a business on the home market (33,73). The generally inadequate level island). However, many do not return because of education and skills among graduates, as per- local employment opportunities that match ac- ceived by employers, as well as shortage of per- quired skills are scarce; starting a new home- sonnel in particular specialties (33), in turn, ex- island business can be difficult, and standards acerbates unemployment problems. of living fall below the aspirations developed For example, the Tahal Report commissioned off-island (14,16). by the Government of Puerto Rico (94) indicated The public sector/private sector disparity in that the existing agricultural production sys- wage levels, moreover, leads to underemploy- tem lacks adequate knowledge of commerciali- ment in the private sector. This increases the zation required to achieve a reliable and high- demand for education, encourages the depen- volume production and delivery to markets. A dence on alien labor, and increases the capital gap exists between the systems of wholesale investment requirements for job creation (11). marketing and production; while the marketing system has undergone rapid modernization Attempts to retain skilled islanders may ne- in the past decades, the production system has cessitate bonding students to return (perhaps not developed in a parallel manner. Despite nu- to guaranteed jobs or other fringe benefits) or merous government and private agricultural providing salaries at close to U.S. levels. The organizations (including the Agricultural Col- former approach requires careful planning of lege, Extension Service, and the Agricultural the manpower needs of the economy, consid- Experiment Station) which possess professional erable administrative cost in scrutiny of cur- personnel, a need still exists for such special- ricula, and may require termination of finan- ized training. Research and extension person- cial support for students choosing alternate nel rarely have appropriate prior experience educations—a difficult choice when skills are with high yield technology and modern com- needed in many fields. It may also be neces- mercialized markets to guide farmers (64). sary to redirect students from U.S. institutions towards regional academic institutions, such Rapid development often exceeds the capac- as the University of Guam or the University of ity of an education system to supply an appro- the South Pacific (Fiji), which may cater more priately skilled labor force. Efforts to increase appropriately to the needs of small, tropical is- profitability in the productive sector often re- lands (13). quires specialized skills and training which often are not immediately available. For exam- On the other hand, bringing salaries more ple, increased mechanization commonly is nec- closely in line with U.S. levels may lead to even essary for farms to be profitable, requiring em- greater disparities between the incomes of the ployees with specialized skills (34). Thus, a need government employees and those of other exists to train young, fairly well-educated peo- Micronesians (11). The remaining alternative ple for agricultural pursuits; although nearly is to provide an environment on the home is- one-half of the Puerto Rico’s work force has lands favorable to the satisfaction of the desires a high school education, the approximately of returning migrants; this will not be easy at 40,000 agricultural laborers average a fourth prevailing population growth rates (11,12,13). grade education and one-half are over 40 years of age (116). Caribbean

The availability and diversity of educational Wage Rates and Unemployment programs have increased; however a shortage of skilled labor still exists at all levels. Gener- The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), which ally, local educational and training institution sets minimum wage and workweek standards, efforts are not directed toward creating a la- applies to the U.S. Caribbean and some of the — —. —

118 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

U.S. Pacific islands. Local economies com- ble by local legislative action as deemed appro- monly are tied to regional location. Conse- priate. quently, these labor laws, while improving wage rates, may hinder the regional competi- Caribbean tiveness of the island. For example, tourism is Evidence exists that the minimum wage in- more costly in the Caribbean than in neighbor- creases in Puerto Rico have strongly affected ing non-U.S. islands; consequently some econ- local production and employment. The higher omy-conscious tourists may avoid the U.S. is- wage rates associated with the FLSA tend to lands (57,79). curb employment of unskilled workers particularly in labor-intensive industries. Since many Pacific economic activities related to renewable resources are labor-intensive, they are especially In Micronesia, cash and subsistence econ- affected by minimum wage increases (73). omies sometimes conflict. In general, the pro- Higher than regional wage levels, combined duction and distribution of goods in Micro- with the capital-intensive industrial develop- nesia and American Samoan subsistence ment in Puerto Rico, have been postulated as economies are not determined by wages, prices, a factor in the high unemployment on the is- and profits in the western sense, but by such lands (79,80). nonquantifiable factors as satisfaction of fulfilling kinship and other traditional responsi- Unemployment increased sharply after 1975 bilities, the status and recognition this brings in Puerto Rico; it currently exceeds 20 percent and the inconvenience that work entails. Pro- officially (90,116) and may be as high as 25 to duction ceases when family needs are met. To- 30 percent in rural areas. Unemployment is tal production and consumption may grow with heavily concentrated in ages from 16 to 34 years the population, but per capita production re- (6,35). From 1982 to 1984 the Puerto Rican la- mains constant for long periods. bor force increased largely as a result of women and young people entering the work force (6). Thus, many Pacific islanders are usually not Labor force growth currently has exceeded the productive in a cash economy unless wages are local economy’s ability to generate new jobs. quite high (i.e., in government and military em- Alternative employment opportunities for dis- ployment). It is difficult to attract Micronesians placed workers have not materialized and un- to lower paying commercial jobs. Such employ- employment remains a large problem despite ment is usually short-term and undertaken to out-migration to the U.S. mainland, which con- obtain a certain amount of cash for a particu- tinues from Puerto Rico at a fairly rapid pace lar item. Most employers prefer workers who despite industrial growth (73). can be relied onto stay long-term and develop the experience and skills needed to improve Historically, immigration to the United States their productivity; however, the discrepancy from the U.S. Virgin Islands has fluctuated with between private and public sector wages does insular economic changes. During periods of not promote long-term private sector employ- rapid economic growth, such as the 1960s, there ment. Often this results in the private sector was widespread immigration to the U.S. Vir- turning to alien labor. gin Islands from both the mainland United States and nearby islands. During the economic The FLSA sets minimum wage rates and slowdowns of the 1970s and early 1980s, how- workweek standards on Guam, but not on ever, these inflows were significantly reduced neighboring islands or nearby countries. As a and in some cases reversed. Close ties with the result, Guam cannot offer tourists the prices U.S. mainland and easy access to the wide va- and values that its neighbors, with lower wage riety of U.S. employment markets has encour- rates, can. Guam’s proposed Commonwealth aged out-migration, particularly in periods of Act suggests that U.S. labor laws be amenda- economic adversity. Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 119

Social Support Programs since 1981 as the U.S. administration generally has slowed Federal spending. Federal transfer Pacific payments have recently been providing close Although Federal subsidies to Micronesia, to 30 percent of Puerto Rico’s disposable in- especially in social services, were carefully con- come and roughly 50 percent of island house- trolled in the 1950s so as not to compromise holds have been receiving food stamp payments. the goal of self-sufficiency, during the latter part A 1980 U.S. Department of Commerce study of the Trustee period (after 1963) this changed. found that approximately two-thirds of Puerto Federal appropriations rose from almost $7 mil- Rican families lived below U.S. poverty levels lion in 1963 to at least $60 million in 1971 and (90). Puerto Rico was removed from full cover- continued to rise steadily throughout the 1970s. age under the Food Stamp program in 1983 and Most funds were channeled into administra- placed under a special block grant of $825 mil- tion, schools, and health services (89). lion. Puerto Rico administers its own nutrition assistance program with these funds, paying Even during a time of rapid economic growth beneficiaries with checks instead of food cou- in the early 1970s, the number of welfare re- pons (73). cipients steadily increased (14). Nearly one- quarter of Guam’s civilian population received food stamps in 1980, although many of these Preference for Government may have been aliens. The decline in FSM agri- Employment culture and fisheries production has been attributed, in part, to-Federal surplus food dis- Pacific tribution programs (11). Cases of condensed milk and cheese were distributed freely in the On most U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, jobs Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas with the U.S. Government (e. g., military) are (CNMI) while a dairy ranch on Tinian exported preferred over jobs with the local governments, 80 percent of its milk and 92 percent of its meat which in turn are preferred to employment in to Guam (12). The inhabitants of Agrihan (CNMI) the private sector. Local government wage and produced papayas, mango, and coconuts but salary levels are nearly twice those of the pri- were otherwise entirely dependent on U.S. De- vate sector. (Data from Palau indicate that pub- partment of Agriculture supplies (12). lic and private sector wages and salaries are increasing; while the differential has remained A Nutrition Assistance Program was estab- the same, the absolute difference in levels has lished in the CNMI in mid-1982 with about 28 increased.) Living in more urban centers, in percent of the Mariana citizens participating which most infrastructure development has (819 households). One condition of this program occurred, also is preferred to village living. Gov- was that 15 percent of all coupons were to be ernment employment absorbs at least than one- used for the purchase of locally grown food. half of all wage earners on many islands and The ability of local producers to supply the re- a large proportion of the private sector (devoted quired volume was uncertain at the institution to services) is dependent on expenditure gen- of the program (12) but, while data are unavail- erated by the public sector (14). The large size able to indicate the program’s success in in- of the public sector may, however, reflect hir- creasing agricultural production, indications ing because of available funds, irrespective of suggest that this has been accomplished (74). necessity, and not necessarily an underdeveloped private sector (11). Caribbean Attempts by the private sector to match pub- Social support programs grew rapidly in the lic sector wages places an economy at a com- U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands with the ex- parative disadvantage for many import-substi- pansion of the “Great Society” programs on the tution activities and export-oriented development U.S. mainland. However, this has moderated strategies (11). However, because government 120 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas salaries are subject to much redistribution have relatives in the urban centers, who pro- through family ties, public sector employment vide the reason and means to migrate (14). The can be regarded more as a channel through periodic food supplies once sent from rural is- which public money is distributed than as a landers to urban relatives are superseded by means of increasing productivity and improv- imports (14). Rural population totals disguise ing public services (15). This may partly justify high ratios of dependent population to produc- low productivity at high wages (15). tive work force. Rural to urban/off-island migration has left many island rural areas with an Because of U.S. fiscal restraints and the ap- hour-glass shaped population pyramid–a pop- proval of the Compact of Free Association, pub- ulation heavily biased towards the very old and lic sector employment probably will tend to the very young (14). Moreover, while there may decline in the next few years on many U. S.- be many islanders with skills relevant to the affiliated Pacific islands. This will have a simi- economy, their aspirations generally are di- lar impact on some parts of the private sector, rected towards government and retail employ- notably general merchandising, transportation, ment, resulting in a labor constraint to produc- food services, and construction, which, with tive employment. government employment, account for most formal employment in the islands. No shortage exists of people, especially young people, to form a labor pool in U.S.-affiliated Caribbean Pacific islands; however, agricultural labor shortage is a problem in several areas. In gen- Public service comprises the largest employ- eral, there is a low esteem for farm work, and ment sector in the U.S. Caribbean islands; this wages and benefits are low compared to other sector, however, includes some “productive” types of employment. Guam has considered im- services which in other economies maybe pro- porting foreign labor under the Federal H-2 tem- vided by the private sector (110,111). Public sec- porary alien program, but the Labor Depart- tor employment in 1977 to 1978 was estimated ment apparently blocked this (54). Since the to be 25 percent in the U.S. Virgin Islands (110) Government of Guam was granted the author- and 23 percent in Puerto Rico (111). Recent ity to certify and import alien workers in 1984, figures for the U.S. Virgin Islands indicate that they may reconsider this proposal (45). In Amer- the public sector comprises over 30 percent of ican Samoa, much of the agriculture depends the total labor force and 33 percent of all em- on aiga family members from Western Samoa, ployed workers (55). Employment in the public and Taiwanese and Koreans who have jumped administration sector alone comprises nearly ship at Pago Pago (54,83). 33 percent of Puerto Rico’s total labor force; this percentage does not include those public employees in health, recreational, transporta- Caribbean tion, or communication services or public util- Today the social situation has changed sig- ities (35). Current fiscal limitations within the nificantly in the rural interior of Puerto Rico. U.S. Virgin Islands Government are expected Large numbers of the population have migrated to constrain further employment growth. Con- from the rural interior to urban centers or off- sequently, increasing concern exists for train- island. The remaining rural population is em- ing the local labor force for private sector employed as seasonal labor for coffee harvest and ployment (79). supplements its income with food stamps and occasional part-time jobs. The “old timers” Shortage of Rural labor have rapidly disappeared and the younger generation is usually unskilled labor (78). Although Pacific rural unemployment is high (25 to 30 percent A major constraint to productive rural devel- in some municipalities), alternative employ- opment is rural labor shortage, especially of ment opportunities, food stamps, and social skilled labor. Most rural/outer island residents security from extended families all contribute Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends ● 121 to an underground economy, which, in some it can also signal a potential market for locally cases, can provide $2,000 per month in non- grown, non-traditional crops. taxable family income. The question of whether or not to import for- Agricultural development in the U.S. Virgin eign labor is a difficult one. Agricultural indus- Islands is constrained by lack of trained per- tries such as Hawaii’s were built with cheap sonnel and reliable labor and available agricul- foreign labor, but there can be resulting social tural labor is generally expensive and unpro- tension when large numbers of foreigners are ductive (116]. Perhaps correspondingly, the imported into a relatively closed society, as in percentage of farms with hired labor has de- many of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Pohnpei has clined in the U.S. Virgin Islands from 33.9 per- rejected two development proposals—one to cent in 1975 to 27.7 percent in 1983 (57). bring in Vietnamese refugees to grow rice— Despite the high unemployment rates, Puerto for these reasons (83). On the other hand, importing labor may be better than importing Rican farmers have reported it difficult to ob- food–the agricultural industry will develop, de- tain large numbers of part-time laborers (116). pendence on imported food is reduced, and for- Farmers reportedly locate only 90 percent of eign workers generate tax revenues through the workers they need; 52 percent of farmers payment of taxes on their wages (45). Alterna- report difficulty locating experienced workers and 39 percent say that the shortage of labor tively, agriculture might be made more profitable for local producers and workers through forces them to employ inexperienced farm increased research, development, and exten- workers (123). No migrant labor is available in sion (83). Puerto Rico (116). Despite the current lack of economic growth in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, the propor- Alien Labor tion of aliens in the local work forces probably will not diminish in the near future (11). In the Pacific FAS islands, it is increasingly likely that local At the same time islanders are leaving their islanders will seek government employment or islands for education, employment, or other en- move overseas, while all other sectors of the ticements, considerable numbers of aliens are economy will become increasingly dominated entering the island economies. Some of these by alien workers. Most will come from Asia are U.S. mainlanders or Europeans who enter and work for lower wages than are offered by local government positions while an increas- government employment (14). ing number are Filipinos and other Asians filling largely unskilled positions, predominantly Substantial out-migration of the few skilled in construction, fishing, and to a lesser extent, professionals now in the FSM and their replacement by alien professionals is likely to continue. agriculture. For example, alien employees cur- Adoption of a wage and salary structure com- rently comprise at least one-third of the Palauan private sector and some economic sectors are mensurate with the U.S. mainland may reverse these trends, but goes directly against United almost entirely dependent on Asian labor (14). Nations’ recommendations and is likely to ex- Alien workers offer employers substantial ad- acerbate existing income inequalities, The FSM vantages in high productivity and reliability, is becoming more like Guam, the Northern obtaining overtime work, and in flexibility in Marianas and American Samoa (and also the discharging unsatisfactory workers (11). How- U.S. Virgin Islands), where government em- ever, the cost of employing U.S. expatriates is ployment is predominantly indigenous, while high and there are large costs, and potential employment in other sectors is increasingly benefits, in the impact of the expatriates on con- taken up by lower paid aliens, a situation made sumption (15). For example, the preference for possible only with substantial external finan- “western-style” foods may increase imports but cial assistance (11). 122 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Caribbean constraints and raised taxation (on imports and While the Puerto Rican labor force is almost income). This may be extremely difficult to exclusively comprised of residents, the U.S. Vir- achieve on small, democratic islands (14). The gin Islands has developed a relatively large alien combination of relatively high educational labor force. Local application of the special standards and aspirations, limited opportuni- Temporary Foreign Worker Program in the ties for formal sector employment, and the pos- U.S. Virgin Islands has created a labor base sibility of free movement to the United States, largely comprised of British West Indians. This suggests that out-migration from the U. S.- labor force generally increases in periods of affiliated islands is likely to become increas- economic prosperity, and decreases only mini- ingly important in the future (14). mally during periods of recession. The net re- The application of technologies is many times sults are: rise of unemployment, increase in hindered by the lack of properly trained per- individual’s multiplicity of jobs, increased reli- sonnel. Training in some specialties is not avail- ance on savings, and reductions in remittances able in local academic institutions and students (57). Displacement of local workers by aliens must travel to off-island institutions for such currently does not seem to be a concern in the training. Few island residents can afford this. U.S. Virgin Islands. Those students who attend off-island institu- Immigrants from neighboring islands are tions often remain there, enticed by better jobs, accustomed to rural lifestyles and prefer work- opportunities for further training, and career ing in agriculture, but often lack capital and advancement. The lack of trained personnel land and generally earn most of their income may have adverse effects on all aspects of re- from industry or tourism (78). Consequently, newable resource management, including re- the aliens generally are employed in a large va- search, law enforcement, project implementa- riety of low-level jobs that U.S. Virgin Islanders tion, and education in academic institutions (19) have traditionally avoided (79), thereby creat- 0 ing a bimodal society which promotes internal Adequately trained, dedicated staff are needed cleavage in U.S. Virgin Islands society (58). at all levels. Individuals with appropriate attitudes and aptitudes must be identified and Conclusions given technical or professional training and continuing education, so they may keep abreast If the islands are not to suffer a decline in of new resource management and development living standards, they must either find new strategies and technologies. Short courses could sources of aid, reduce government expenditure, be organized locally, and key staff encouraged or develop greater self-reliance. Increasing self- to travel to conferences and summer programs reliance means reducing dependence on im- abroad. Where human resources are scarce, ported goods and expertise, and probably will they could be directed to the most critical areas require some changes in consumption patterns or problems (19). as well as increased local productive capacity (15). Suitable working conditions must be provided. Flexibility is needed in personnel regu- The small size and limited skilled labor force lations and incentives programs, especially of of the polities virtually preclude accelerated the insular governments. Salary scales could socioeconomic development towards a main- be upgraded on a regular basis to remain com- land U.S. standard of living without outside in- petitive with the private sector. Public corpo- puts of technical assistance and skills (12). Eco- rations might replace more successful govern- nomic development probably cannot be achieved ment programs to provide professionals with simply by reallocating resources towards im- secure, well-remunerated positions. proved infrastructure or agricultural investment. It may also require a fundamental change The Federal Government could raise the limit in attitudes, demanding such policies as wage for exemption from minimum Federal wage —

Ch. 4—Island Renewable Resource History and Trends “ 123 payment for nonmechanizable agricultural op- of employment, but unless production is in- erations. It also could assign a specific propor- creased, greater employment may be accom- tion of the food stamp funds and/or any in- panied by lower wages, higher prices, more gov- creases in these funds to increase employment ernment subsidies, losses to farmers or some and local food production. Increased income combination of these. On the other hand, in to laborers could reduce payments for food Puerto Rico every job in agriculture is estimated stamps and for unemployment compensation to create at least one other job in the island’s and reduce migration to the mainland (116). economy, considerably more than that created by industry or construction (116). Agriculture and other renewable resource- related enterprises can be an important source

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Fruit Bats Pteropus spp. on Guam and Other nornicas de 10S Obreros Agricola en Puerto Pacific Islands,” BioZogicaZ Conservation 38: Rico, Agriculture Experiment Station, Mayaguez, 143-161, 1986. PR, October 1983. In: Castillo-Barahona and 123. Zapata, J. Z., et al., 131 Mercado de ‘llabajo en Bhatia, 1986. la Agriculture y las Caracteristicas Socio-Eco- Chapter 5 Islands As Integrated Systems — ——— —

CONTENTS

Page Introduction ...... ,. .., ... .., ....131 Erosive Energy Buffer Systems...... ,, ,...132 Freshwater and Flood Buffer System ...... ,134 Saltwater and Storm Surge Buffer System...... 136 Biological Interactions—Nutrient Cycling and Faunal Interactions ...... 137 Nutrient Transport and Cycling ...... ,.137 Faunal Interactions ...... 138 Conclusions ...... 139 Chapter preferences ...... ,140

Figures Figure No. Page 5-1. Erosive Energy Buffer Systems on Islands ...... ,.,.....133 5-2. Resource Degradation Due to Modification or Disruption of Island Buffer Systems ...... ,...134 5-3. Relationship Between Topography, Traditional Agriculture, and Rainfall/Runoff Erosion Buffers on High Carolina Islands ...... 135 5-4. Relationship Between Insular Species, Island Size, and Distance From Colonizing Source ...... ,.,.138 Chapter 5 Islands As Integrated Systems

Islands are by definition small areas of land Their ability to renew themselves makes them isolated by water, and it is small size and isola- especially valuable in the support of human life, tion that make them different from continen- a fact understood by most people but sometimes tal land areas (3). The small size of islands forgotten in their continuing process to improve means that many different ecosystems may ex- their quality of life and supply the desires of ist in close proximity. Thus, the interrelation- society. Inadvertently, these resources can be ships among ecosystems are critical to the func- abused and can sustain damage that is slow to tioning of the entire island’s renewable resource repair. system. The smaller the island, moreover, the The various island ecosystems maintain an higher the ratio of coastline to land area and the more important the land-sea interface in equilibrium when in an unmodified state, or fulfilling human needs. when modification is done in such a way as to allow the natural flow of energy, freshwater, Renewable natural resources—water, soil, vegetation, fish, and wildlife—by definition 1Ecosystem—sum of biotic and abiotic components of a spe- have a resiliency to recover from human use. cific environment.

Photo credit: A. Vargo Intimately interlinked terrestrial and nearshore marine areas comprise the “island ecosystem.”

131 132 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas and nutrients through the system. Understand- ment is primarily limited to the protection of ing the linkages between the various parts of the refuge. the renewable resource base and incorporating them in development activity design is nec- The multitude of island resource problems essary to keep these resources truly renewable (summarized inch. 4), however, largely are of and to allow their sustainable use. The inte- a different nature. They typify instances where grated management of island renewable re- one island resource was exploited without ade- sources is a sound way to enhance their long- quate consideration for its impacts on other is- term renewability and ensure that benefits de- land resources (cf: 8). In many of these cases, rived from the resources will be long lasting. recognition of the interrelationships between resource exploitation in one place and uninten- Sometimes resource renewability is sacri- tional resource damage elsewhere on or near ficed to accommodate certain other goals. For the island has led to imaginative, sound man- example, certain islands or parts of islands are agement approaches that benefit all of the re- set aside for such military uses as practice source users. bombing sites or the impact areas for artillery or naval gunfire. Even if such practices were Island resource damages have occurred over long periods of time; many of the corrective to cease at these sites and if some renewable actions have taken place relatively recently. resource systems recovered, it is unlikely that These recent encouraging actions seem likely such lands could be brought back into productivity for decades. Some islands which were in- to continue and perhaps expand while certain habited perhaps 40 years ago no longer exist of the old causes of resource damage probably will fade away. To accelerate this process it as a consequence of nuclear bomb testing. seems likely that an increased understanding Similarly, colonial authorities of the Pacific of the working components of the renewable island of Nauru decided to mine the island’s resource systems of islands, including the in- considerable phosphate deposits quickly, ir- tegrated nature of different resources, is an im- respective of effects on the island. Integrated portant first step. Consequently, technologies renewable resource management plays no role and various management practices described in such cases. in this assessment have been examined to identify unforeseen adverse impacts that they might Conversely, some islands have been estab- generate; technologies that are likely to foster lished as wildlife refuges, such as Rose Atoll numerous serious impacts were omitted. In in American Samoa, and Howland, Baker and Jarvis Atolls. Human interaction with the envi- such analyses, fresh water and its movement ronment is minimized, renewable resources are seem to provide the common link among different parts of islands and their resources. not exploited and thus the need for manage-

EROSIVE ENERGY BUFFER SYSTEMS Islands have at least two major physical dents to improve the long-term production of forces acting on them: 1) the flow of water from food and fiber. higher altitudes to the ocean, and 2) ocean wave action moving from the ocean onto land. Both Natural island ecosystems, however, are ar- of these forces have strong erosive powers— ranged in such a way as to buffer the erosive abilities to denude the land and nearshore eco- forces of water movements (figure 5-1). The in- systems of biological productivity. Thus, the dividual components of the “freshwater/flood magnitude of these movements of water, cou- buffer” range from highland vegetation to pled with the island’s form, largely determine seagrass meadows and each may fill several the technological options available to its resi- specific ecological functions. The latter also is Ch. 5—Islands As Integrated Systems “ 133

Figure 5-1 .—Erosive Energy Buffer Systems on Islands

Y Freshwater ‘ and flood buffer A system A A

\ \

1 Salt water and storm surge buffer system

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment 1986 true of the “saltwater/storm surge buffer” cessive sedimentation may adversely affect which generally is comprised of coral reefs, sea- freshwater communities, smother nearshore grass meadows, littoral vegetation, and lowland marine bottom communities, and kill corals. forests. Thus, damage to one part of an island’s renewable resource base easily can adversely affect Development activities that modify or de- others. Though such damage may be uninten- grade parts of these buffer systems may result tional, nevertheless, it may result in the loss of in repercussive changes to connected ecosys- valuable resources that do not regenerate tems (figure 5-2). For example, if a part of a reef quickly. is mined, the opening which results will allow wave energy to impact directly on the shore- Island form and composition largely deter- line. The previously quiet environment of the mine the natural communities that develop and back-reef2 habitat will be disturbed and shore- also affect the way these natural systems re- line erosion may ensue, as well as increased spond to human stress or disturbance; differ- water turbidity. These changes consequently ent island types have different environmental may affect the biota dependent on the back-reef vulnerabilities. For example, high volcanic is- habitat. lands may be highly susceptible to erosion because of their steep slopes, whereas raised lime- Similarly, if upland vegetation is removed stone islands may be particularly sensitive to and, thus, terrestrial erosion increases, streams groundwater pollution and the rapid loss of soil may become sediment-laden and ultimately dis- nutrients. A knowledge of island structure charge sediment into the nearshore waters. Ex- should help to predict the environmental im- ‘Back-reef—the lagoon/shallow bottom side of the reef. pacts of various development possibilities (3). 134 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 5-2.—Resource Degradation Due to Modification or Disruption of Isiand Buffer Systems

Flooding. eutrophication, I

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986

Freshwater and FIood thick, the majority of organic matter being in Buffer System vegetation root systems. Water is stored in the organic litter on the soil surface and in the po- Tropical storms are more violent than those rous topsoil. These mechanisms minimize the in temperate areas. More water falls per storm, impacts of intense rainstorms, reduce peak quickly saturating the soil. Consequently, a stormflows, and help mitigate flooding (13). larger proportion of the rainfall runs off the soil surface. Furthermore, in tropical storms rain- The steepness of high volcanic islands pro- drops commonly are larger, thus having great motes the rapid flow of rainfall from uplands kinetic energy and high erosive power (13). to the ocean. The rapidly flowing water carries nutrients and sediments through a series Tropical forests—the common natural vege- of ecosystems that change with elevation. vegetation of upland island areas—protect soil and tation of the various ecosystems slows runoff, modulate water flows in several ways. The trapping some of the sediment and nutrients. canopy of trees, undergrowth and litter layer Each topographically lower ecosystem is suc- intercept rainfall and provide temporary water cessively less tolerant of siltation (5). storage. Vegetation intercepts rainfall, reducing its energy and allowing it to reach the soil For example, on a typical high volcanic is- at slower speed and over a longer period of time land, the erosive force of torrential rainfall is than precipitation striking unprotected soils. first buffered or moderated by highland forests. The organic litter in undisturbed, closed tropi- Surface water, flowing on its way to the ocean, cal forests is typically only several centimeters is slowed by and deposits some of its silt in Ch. 5—Islands As Integrated Systems ● 135

Figure 5-3.—Relationship Between Topography, Traditional Agriculture, and Rainfall/Runoff Erosion Buffer Systems on High Caroline Islands I

Savanna and Cloud forest , -

BIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS-NUTRIENT CYCLING AND FAUNAL INTERACTIONS

The U.S.-affiliated islands contain a number Forest Nutrient Cycling Systems of individual ecosystems which in their entirety High rainfall in most tropical areas leaches can be considered an “island ecosystem” (3). out basic plant nutrients, thus, forest canopy Individual ecosystems commonly fill several and vegetation is critically important for main- ecological functions within the island biotic taining soil fertility by returning organic mat- structure. The interaction of all of the biotic ter and its contained nutrients to the soil components of island ecosystems transport and through the natural plant lifecycle (9), Undis- cycle nutrients and form a food web which is turbed tropical forests have an efficient nutri- of critical importance to the sustainability of ent recycling system. As long as the forest is the island fauna and flora and ultimately affects the quality of human life. undisturbed, the nutrient supply remains stable. Soil shaded by the closed forest canopy is cool enough for the abundant organic material Nutrient Transport and Cycling to decay gradually. Detrital decomposes such The vegetation components of the freshwater as bacteria, fungi, and arthropods are impor- buffer system, while ultimately maintaining tant in nutrient cycling within vegetation for- clarity of nearshore waters and protecting ma- mations as well as in soil building; the nutri- rine organisms intolerant of high levels of fresh ent value of the detrital layer is increased when water, also are integral in maintaining soil fer- it passes through the systems of many of the tility. Most tropical ecosystems have little 1ong- decomposes. Thus, the humus content of for- term nutrient storage capacity; rather nutrients est soils acts to hold the nutrients released by are cycled through the biomass of the systems. microorganisms until they are absorbed back Most nutrients are added to the systems through into the web of tree roots to be recycled again. transport of nutrients in water or by fauna, and Soils with low humus content hold fewer nu- through specialized plants which can fix nitro- trients and, when rain falls, runoff and leach- gen from the air. Seabirds bring nutrients from ing deteriorate the soil’s fertility. If land is the ocean and deposit them on land (guano), returned to forest fallow soon enough after increasing soil fertility; conversely, land- clearing, a new growth of trees can reestablish derived nutrients enhance fisheries and the the soil’s humus, the web of roots, and the nu- productivity of coastal waters by fertilizing the trient recycling system. The successional se- macro- and micro-algal base of the food web. quence from pioneer plant species to mature 138 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

forest, which helps restore soil fertility in fal- reduced, allowing overpopulation of primary low areas, depends on the presence of nearby consumers. seed sources, and often on animals for seed transport. While tropical ecosystems are among the most productive in the world (cf: 1), they are Mangrove forests provide considerable also vulnerable to natural and man-induced dis- amounts of organic material to adjacent and ruptions. Because most of the needed and avail- nearby ecosystems. Although obviously domi- able plant nutrients in the systems are held in nated by mangrove trees, these forests actually the biomass, a high percentage of nutrients can comprise a complex and diverse association of be lost rapidly from exploitation. marine and terrestrial animals and plants whose members range from tiny filamentous algae to epiphytic bromeliads, and from micro- scopic zooplankton to frigate birds, turtles, and The number of species an island can support alligators (10,16). Marine plants and inverte- (species diversity) and species populations both brates, in particular, contribute to the nutrient decrease with decreasing island size. Because cycling function of the mangrove forests gener- of low population levels, biota on very small ating significant amounts of particulate and dis- islands are vulnerable to extinction (cf: 4). The solved nutrients which augment growth of ad- equilibrium of island populations depends on jacent seagrass and coral reef communities (16). rates of immigration and extinction and, hence, indirectly on distance and size (figure 5-4). The Coral Roof Nutrient Cycling likelihood of an extinct species being replaced through immigration from a continent or Reef corals and algae extract calcium from another island decreases with the distance from the seawater to make solid calcium carbonate: such sources. the coelenterates build the hard theca or homes in which they live and the algae form a hard The interrelated nature of island ecosystems lime crust, both of which comprise the solid is apparent in island faunal behavior. It is not reef structure. The waves and currents on the uncommon for species to migrate among sev- fore-reef 3 carry nutrients to the reef organisms eral ecosystems during their ontogeny. For ex- and thus the reef tends to grow outward (11). ample, the queen conch Strom bus gigas spends Clearly, the interaction of the biotic compo- its larval stage sheltered in mangrove forests nents with their environment contribute to the and moves to reef environments as an adult (16). maintenance and expansion of an ecosystem. Similarly, larvae of spiny lobster commonly set- In an undisturbed coral reef ecosystem the individual components interact to maintain Figure equilibrium. Proper distribution of trophic isiand levels is necessary to the efficient maintenance of the ecosystem. Various species graze on the coral reefs or in nearby seagrass meadows, while larger species feed on the grazers. When activities of one component exceed a sustainable level, the balance of the ecosystem is affected. For example, if primary consumer populations are reduced dramatically the food source for secondary consumers correspondingly is reduced. Similar adverse impacts may Island size arise if secondary consumer populations are increase:

Distance from colonization source increases - 3 Fore-reef—the seaward side of the reef. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986. Ch. 5–lslands As Integrated Systems ● 139 tle among the prop roots of mangroves, move or degradation of an ecosystem may affect not onto adjacent seagrass beds or shallow reefs only those plants and animals which continu- as juveniles and then into deeper reef habitats ally reside within it, but also may block a migra- as they mature (6). Some fish seek shelter on tion pattern other species depend on to com- the reef, feed in seagrasses, and breed in man- plete their lifecycle—thus compounding the groves. Spawning habits of some species result adverse effect. in movement between fresh- and seawater envi- Interactions of the plant and animal species ronments. The freshwater eel, for example within each forest community commonly removes downstream to the ocean to spawn. sult in a number of beneficial effects such as Coconut crabs live on the land but breed in the nutrient cycling, expansion of vegetation ocean; turtles live in the ocean but breed on land. The breeding areas of these animals are through seed dispersal, and biological control critical habitats (3). of pests. Birds and bats, in particular, are often important for plant pollination and seed dis- It seems that movement among ecosystems persal. is the rule and not the exception. Thus, removal

CONCLUSIONS Individual island ecosystems are closely in- Modification of the environment obviously terdependent and, while each component may is necessary to accommodate human popula- have unique functions, they are also important tions. However, options exist in the methods as components of the “island ecosystem. ” Thus, and types of modifications to be enacted. Selec- in many ways, an island is a single system; the tion of a development approach which mimics degradation of any part of it may affect the or acts in concert with the desired natural proc- productivity of the whole (3). ess will result in fewer impacts on associated ecosystems. For example, agricultural expan- The closely interconnected nature of island sion into previously unused forestland may take ecosystems can constitute a major advantage the form of gradual replacement of existing or disadvantage. while the interdependency of trees with fruit trees. Potential exists here not ecosystems may compensate for deficient oper- only to improve agricultural productivity but ation of one biological aspect (e. g., moving nu- also to maintain the natural functions of the trients from an undisturbed to a degraded eco- vegetative cover in the process. Observations system), it may also result in disruption of of the linkages between ecosystems and reper- another to such a degree that damage to the cussive impacts are documented in represent- entire system is compounded. Thus, unwise use ative management plans. The programs offered of a particular resource may result in degrada- by various plans offer mechanisms to manage tion of larger resource areas. development activities (cf: 14,15). Damaging a single watershed of a large con- Traditional island societies demonstrated a tinental area may not be as devastating as keen sense of the interrelated nature of the is- damaging a small island’s watershed where land ecosystems. Damaged or degraded areas negative impacts may quickly affect many parts were allowed a fallow period in which to re- of the island ecosystem. Additionally, alternate cover in order to restore productivity. Present water sources may not be as easily available population pressures coupled with heightened as on continental areas. Clearly, then, islands economic desires preclude most resource uses cannot be considered scaled-down versions of which rely on time for recovery. Today, efforts continents (12). The difference in scale is too to reclaim degraded resource areas still require great, and their very natures differ considera- recovery time. In addition, these efforts often bly (3). are costly, sometimes requiring research infor- 140 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas mation and adequate protection or regulation. islands and contributes to the supply and ef- However, sustainable management of a re- fective sustained use of island renewable resource area offers an alternative to a lengthy sources. Even areas developed for human use recovery period. Maintaining and protecting depend on natural ecosystems for many essen- resource integrity from the start would allow tial services. The cycles of water and nutrients, productivity over the long term without the the flows of materials, and the movements of high-cost inputs of restoring productivity or loss animal populations therefore require careful of productivity “during recovery periods. management for the island as a whole (3). Through application of rational management Island peoples continue to depend on natu- activities, these benefits may be sustained over ral communities for many of their needs. Each the long term. island ecosystem, natural or modified, provides benefits to the food and fiber production of

CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES

1. Birkeland, C., “Ecological Interactions Between 9. Lucas, R., “Assessment of Commercial Agricul- Mangroves, Seagrass Beds, and Coral Reefs,” ture Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Is- Ecological Interactions Between Tropical lands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. CoastaZ Ecosystems, United Nations Environ- 10. Smith, B. D., “Non-Food Marine Resources De- ment Programme, UNEP Regional Seas Reports velopment and Management in the U. S.- and Studies No. 73, 1985, in B.D, Smith, 1986. Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned 2. Cintron, G., Lugo, A. E., Pool, D. J., and Morris, paper, 1986. G., “Mangroves of Arid Environments in Puerto 11. Soucie, Edward A., Atoll Agriculture for Sec- Rico and Adjacent Islands, ” Biotropica ondary SchooZs (Pohnpei, FSM: Ponape Agri- 10(2):110-121, 1978. culture and Trade School, 1983). 3, Dahl, A. L., “Tropical Island Ecosystems and 12. Towle, Edward, “The Island Microcosm” pre- Protection Technologies To Sustain Renewable pared for the National Park Service under con- Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA com- tract to U.S. Agency for International Develop- missioned paper, 1986. ment (Washington DC: U.S. Department of the 4. Eldredge, L. E., “Case Studies of the Impacts of Interior, 1984). Introduced Animal Species on Renewable Re- 13, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- sources in the U. S,-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” ment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. 5. Falanruw, M.V,C., “Traditional Agriculture and Government Printing Office, March 1984). Resource Management Systems in the High Is- 14, U.S. Department of Commerce, National lands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned pa- Oceanic and Atmopsheric Administration, Of- per, 1986. fice of Coastal Zone Management, American 6. Goodwin, M. L., and Sandifer, P. D., “Aquicul- Samoa Coastal Management Program and Fi- ture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico na) En vironmental Impact Statement (Washing- and the U.S. Virgin Islands,” OTA commis- ton DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1980a). sioned paper, 1986. 15. U.S. Department of Commerce, National 7. Hamilton, L. S., and Snedaker, S. C., Handbook Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Of- for A4angrove Area iManagement (Honolulu HI: fice of Coastal Zone Management, Common- Environment and Policy Institute, East/West wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Coastal Center and United Nations Environment Management Program and Final Environmental Programme, 1984). Impact Statement (Washington DC: U.S. Depart- 8. Kramer, W. P,, U.S. Department of Agriculture ment of Commerce, 1980b). Forest Service Report of Forest Investigation of 16. Wahle, C, M., “Non-Food Marine Resources De- Virgin Islands and Recommendations (Wash- velopment and Management in the U.S.-Affil- ington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, iated Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned 1930). paper, 1986. Chapter 6 Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry CONTENTS

Page Page Agricultural Development in the U. S.- Potential Strategy: Improve Education Affiliated Islands ...... 143 in Agriculture...... , . . , ...... 210 Pacific Agriculture ...... ,,.. ..144 Chapter 6 References ...... 212 Caribbean Agriculture ...... 151 Common Constraints to Agricultural Development in U.S.-Affiliated Boxes Islands ...... 155 Box Page Biophysical Constraints ...... 155 6-A. Spice Cultivation Research ..,... ..186 Social and Cultural Constraints ... , ..156 6-B. Terracing. . , ...... 195 Economic Constraints ...... 157 Infrastructural Constraints ...... 159 Opportunities for Agriculture Figures Development...... 159 Import Substitution...... 159 Figure No. Page Increased Subsistence and 6-1. Traditional Agriculture on a Typical Commercial Production ...... 160 Micronesian High Island ...... 144 Export Development, ...... , ...... 160 6-2. Main Categories of Land Use and Agricultural Development Strategies. . ..161 Vegetation Types on Yap ... 147 Characteristics of Sustainable Tropical 6-3. Slopes and Appropriate Conservation Island Agriculture ...... 161 Measures ...... , ...... ,....196 Potential Strategy: Support Nonmarket Agriculture ...... 166 Potential Strategy: Develop Tables Smallholder Agriculture ...... 170 Table No. Page Potential Strategy: Integrate 6-1. Principle Crop and Livestock Characteristics of Traditional Commodities in the U.S.-Affiliated Agriculture Into More Productive Pacific Islands ...,.,.. ., ...... 151 Systems ...... 173 6-2. Trends introduction of Selected Potential Strategy: Develop Intensive Commodities in Puerto Rico ...... 153 Commercial Farming ...... , , .. ...176 6-3. Comparison of Population Density Technologies Supporting Agricultural and Arable Land Acreages in the Sustainability ...... 192 U.S. Affiliated Pacific Islands ...... 155 Potential Strategy: Minimize Soil 6-4. Comparison of U.S. Mainland and Erosion and Degradation ...... 192 Island Farm Sizes by Acreages . . . . .165 Potential Strategy: Enhance 6-5. Comparison of Farm Sizes by Sales Revegetation Programs ...... 198 Class ...... ,.166 Potential Strategy: Develop Local Soil 6-6. Indicators of Subsistence and Amendments ...... 201 Commercial Agricultural Production Potential Strategy: Reduce in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Agricultural Crop Losses ...... 203 Islands ...... ,...... 167 Summary ...... 207 6-7. Comparison of Yields Under Drip Opportunities...... 208 and Conventional Irrigation Systems Agricultural Development ...... ,208 in Semiarid Zones of Puerto Rico . .189 Potential Strategy: Improve Research 6-8. Salt Tolerance of Certain Common and Extension Services...... 209 Crops ...... 203 Chapter Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry

Few areas in U.S.-affiliated islands remain Semicommercial and/or intensive commer- unmodified by man. Most are or have been cial agriculture (on smallholder or larger scales) managed to some extent to provide for human can play a significant role in the islands’ eco- needs, and many land areas have been degraded nomic development and progress toward great- in the process through deforestation, soil ero- er self-sufficiency. Development of agriculture sion, and nutrient depletion. Terrestrial re- or forestry on any scale must, however, be sus- sources and resource systems still supply many tainable and commercial operations will re- subsistence needs on the Pacific islands, but quire considerable expertise and probably im- subsistence agriculture has been declining in portation of new technologies. Developmental many areas of the Pacific, and has not been a research also may be required. Subsistence sys- significant activity on the Caribbean islands in tems, where they exist, can be protected and this century. fostered and/or made more productive and de-

Photo credit: C. Hodges Eighty percent of the American Samoan population provides or supplements family nutrition through subsistence agriculture. 143 144 c Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas veloped to semicommercial scale. Which strat- sive agriculture” and “Western energy- and egy is selected as appropriate will depend on chemical-intensive agriculture. ” Many tradi- the geographic, environmental, economic, and tional practices had conservation value result- social characteristics of individual islands. ing from technological limitations of natural materials, taboos and religious beliefs, territori- Terrestrial resource sustainability will de- ality, and stratified societies (23). pend on several supportive technologies for minimizing soil erosion and crop losses and 1 Traditional Agricuture for improving the productivity of nutrient depleted soils. Revegetation programs (includ- The terrestrial activities of early inhabitants ing reforestation efforts) could also be con- of Caroline and Samoan high islands, whether sidered. by design, necessity or both, seem to have modified the vegetation of the freshwater runoff Pacific Agriculture filtering systems to meet human needs without altering their basic functions (figure 6-l). For The maintenance of an environment meet- example, swamp forests and low areas inland ing the needs of Pacific islanders involved a of mangroves were converted to taro patches complex system of integrated resource manage- which maintained their function as silt traps. ment. Rather than rearrange the environment Traditional agriculture activities further inland and expend great amounts of energy, people’s under conditions of low population pressure activities were directed to the most effective probably also produced minimal increases in use of microhabitat and natural phenomena. This “technology” can be classified as being 1 A review of traditional Micronesia high island practices cur- “nature-intensive,” and can be contrasted with rently is underway at the University of Guam Water and Energy what might be classified as “Asian labor-inten- Resources Institute (45).

Figure 6=1.—Traditionai Agriculture on a Typicai Micronesia High Voicanic island

Natural Modified Traditional Ecosystems — I Agroecosystems

Montane vegetation on ridges and in ravines

L Open canopy agriculture

v Lagoon agroforest J

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987. .

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 145 soil erosion (24). Atoll agricultural practices other locally available forms of “green manure” were developed to protect crops from salt spray are laid down and covered with soil. The patch and to place them in proximity to the freshwater is then thoroughly mixed and “cultured” to ob- lens. tain a nutrient-rich muck of desired consistency. planting material consists of small corms or the Traditional agriculture systems still can be tops of corms which have previously been har- found throughout the Pacific territories, although vested. These are planted in depressions and some areas have developed these to a greater soil is mounded about developing corms to en- extent than others. Common systems are: courage large growth. ● culture of wetland tare, A considerable body of expertise exists in- ● atoll pit taro culture, volving the choice of green manures; choice ● mixed “tree gardening, ” of cultivar suitable for the site and intended use; ● intermittent tree gardening, management of water; and planting and tend- ● “lanchos” and backyard gardens, and ing the plant in order to obtain the desired ● traditional open canopy culture. shape, size, and consistency of the corm. The tree gardens and taro patch systems of- Palauan taro patches are divided into sections fer stability and the intermittent gardens offer in which the intensity of management is related variety, resilience, and a means of adapting to to the end product: a fairly intensively worked each year’s weather conditions. area to provide for a families’ caloric needs, a section with optimal conditions for producing Taro Patch Systems.—Species and varieties especially high-quality corms for special people of food plants in the family Araceae, generally or occasions, and sections which are worked thought of as “tare,” can be grown in wet or less intensively for reserve supplies (107). relatively dry situations. The latter are dealt with in the section on mixed gardening. Cul- Colocasia is harvested from 6 months to a ture of wetland taro generally involves prep- year after it is planted depending on the vari- aration of taro patches and management of water ety and other conditions. The harvested prod- and is considered here as a distinct system. uct will not keep long, so only as much as can Sites chosen for taro patches are mostly be consumed is harvested. A continuous sup- marshy lowland areas such as exist in swamp ply is provided by successive plantings through- forests just inland of mangroves. These are out the year. Once a Colocasia patch has been established, it is not necessary to repeat the deepened as needed and water is generally di- process of moving soil and adding large amounts rected to flow through the patch. Cyrtosperma of green manure unless the quality of the grow- taro is more shade tolerant than Colocasia ing media declines. (“true tare”), and is thus more compatible with tree culture, and is an integral part of the agro- Culture of Cyrtosperma chamissonis is less forestry system of Yap. Taro patches are gen- labor-intensive than that of Colocasia and seems erally managed on an individual or family basis, to rely more on the natural transport of nutri- the individual taro patch having been handed ents in water directed through the taro patch. down from one generation to the next. Where Green manure is not commonly added, and cul- taro patch habitat is extensive, the area is sub- tural methods involve the periodic removal of divided into separately tended subplots (22). fallen vegetative material and debris in order to maintain the flow of water through the sys- Palau appears to have the most highly devel- tem. Replanting of Cyrtosperma is done at the oped cultural methods for Colocasia tare. There, the development of a taro patch involves same time as harvesting, and there is no hiatus required to recondition and replant the patch. the clearing of a suitable area, in many or perhaps most instances, the site of a previously Atoll Pit Taro Culture.–Atoll soils are largely worked patch. The area may be drained and made up of sand and silt-sized particles of lime- soil is dug up and leaves, twigs, seagrasses, and stone and are typically low in organic carbon, 146 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

nitrogen, and potassium. The soil has a low Within the crop and tree species that have water-holding capacity because of its coarse long been cultivated by Yapese, there are nu- texture, and the activity of soil microorganisms merous locally recognized varieties. There are, is limited (102). for example, 21 names for coconut varieties, 28 names for breadfruit, and 37 names for va- Cultivation of giant taro (Cyrtosperma chamis- rieties of bananas. Such tree gardens represent sonis) on atolls involves excavating pits down a considerable collection of genetic diversity. to the level of the freshwater lens, commonly several feet, inserting a bottomless basket made Unlike temperate seasonal agriculture, tradi- of woven twigs, and filling it with mud mixed tional tree gardens are a permanent fixture and with leaves and other organic matter. Then cut- take years to develop. Existing natural vegeta- tings of giant taro are planted in the muddy sub- tion is gradually manipulated into agroforest strate in the basket (41,148). Fertilizers are de- (22,94). The likely process on Yap was the plant- rived from composted leaves, coconut fronds ing of food trees and other useful trees about and husks, manures, dried starfish or shark, or homesteads, and in the drained areas created rotted sea cucumber (22,102). Thus, taro pit cul- by the excavation of taro patches and construc- ture is effectively similar to container agricul- tion of paths between homes and villages. Back- ture, wherein the water and soil management yard and pathside tree gardens became conflu- efforts are concentrated in a small area. ent and today make up about 27 percent of Placing the taro plants in pits allows their Yap’s vegetation (figure 6-2). roots closer access to freshwater and provides The objective of traditional tree gardening some protection from salt spray. Bananas may systems is to achieve a permanent, long-term, be planted on the margins of taro pits to take stable agroforestry system, primarily on poorer/ advantage of the higher organic content in marginal lands. Tree gardening can be consid- nearby soils (102), further protecting taro plants ered a long-term investment, taking up to a life- from sea spray. time to complete, with large initial labor and Tree Gardens.—One special form of Micro- energy inputs for planting and maintenance. nesia agriculture is the tree garden, found Once a stable-state tree garden system is estab- throughout the high islands of Micronesia, and lished, little labor and energy are expended for containing a high proportion of food produc- activities other than harvesting (99). ing species. In their simplest form, such gardens consist of a mix of coconut (Cocos nucifera) Tree gardens recycle nutrients through leaf and breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.) with occa- falls. They are maintained largely by the prun- sional other trees. Such areas are extensive in ing activities of their owners, who select for Truk. desired trees by cutting or girdling those trees that are not desired. Many of the trees propa- More complex systems developed on other gate themselves by root growth (as with bread- high islands in the Pacific. Tree gardens on Yap fruit), or seed. Fruit bats aid seed dispersal in involve about 50 tree species, including betel some cases. People preserve certain volunteer nut (Areca catechu), a wide variety of bananas species as well as planting other desired vari- Musa spp.), mangoes (Mangifera indica), many eties and species. varieties of Citrus spp., cacao (Theobroma cacao), papayas (Carica papaya), guava (Psidium Intermittent Gardens.—Areas around and guajava), and other food trees mixed with tim- generally inland of villages are used for gardens ber and wild tree species, and with an under- of yams and other crops generally grown in story of shrubs and herbs useful for food, fi- mixed, multilayered culture and alternated with ber, medicine, condiments, ornamentation, etc. a fallow period in which secondary forest (22). Animals maintained in Yapese village tree growth develops. Mixed culture of yams and gardens include penned or tethered pigs and other food crops is practiced on most high Pa- chickens and feral chickens in the bush. Fruit cific islands, especially on Pohnpei where cul- bats may forage in these areas at night. ture of especially large or old yams can pro- Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 147

Figure 6-2.—Main Categories of Land Use and Vegetation on Yap I Freshwater wetlands and ponds Open canopy cultivation Urban Agroforest, coconut grove

Agroforest

Savanna fernlands (very degraded) Agroforest with secondary vegetation

Weedy secondary vegetation Tall forest

Low forest ~ \ Low and secondary forest with weedy vegetation

SOURCE: M.C.V. Falanruw, “Traditional Agriculture and Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. vide the grower social status. Four general types mon type of water transport. Now that rafts of areas are typical: are used less, other building materials are available, and the style of houses built by 1. Early second-growth forest fallow: Areas on the outskirts of villages which have be- young couples is less traditional, areas come covered with a characteristic set of of bamboo are often burned to be used as gardens. small second-growth trees and often with an understory of ferns. Such areas are gen- 4. Special-purpose yam gardens: Areas erally the site of a previous garden (and are within villages where neat raised beds are indicated as weedy, replacement vegeta- constructed and bamboo poles brought in tion in figure 6-2). to build a series of yam trellises. These 2. Advanced second-growth forest fallow: areas generally are the work of a group of Areas on the outskirts of villages which are women growing yams to present on a spe- covered with secondary forest consisting cial occasion. Such gardens are limited in of a characteristic set of tree species (indi- size, more labor-intensive, and do not gen- cated as low and secondary forest with erally have a variety of other crops planted weedy vegetation in figure 6-2). in the same site. 3. Bamboo gardens: Areas on the outskirts of villages which are covered with a mix of Sites chosen for intermittent gardens are rela- secondary vegetation and two species of tively well-drained areas of secondary vegeta- bamboo. These areas resulted from the tion (often the sites of previous gardens) within planting of bamboo in earlier days when the land available to the family or borrowed the large and small bamboo were needed for such use. The soil in areas of secondary for- in house construction, and the large bam- est are richest and there is a nearby supply of boo was used to build rafts, the most com- poles for trellises, so such areas are preferred. 148 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

and produce large tubers. In areas rich in bamboo, trellises may consist of tall “teepees” of three or more poles tied together at the top. In Pohnpei, vines are trained to climb trees along a string, often made of Hibiscus bark, which is tied to a stone and thrown up to the first branches of the tree. When the yam vines reach the first branches, additional strings may lead the vine to higher branches. The tree may be injured or killed so that it drops part or all of its leaves as the vine covers the tree. This new vegetation forms a canopy similar to that furnished previously by the tree. After yams are planted in the choicest microhabitat, the rest of the garden area is filled in with a mix of other crops, generally in a predictable succession: pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.) and wax gourds (Benicasa hispida) which grow fast in the ash fertilizer and form a protective layer of vegetation over the soil. These often die back by the time the yams and other crops have made their major vegetative growth. Sweet potato vines may be planted in raised mounds although they are more often planted in open areas. Pineapples and sugarcane maybe planted in suitable areas. Other crops include certain taro species, bush spinach (Abelmoschus manihot), and winged beans (Psophocarpus tetragonolo- bus). Banana may be planted and weeds that are cleared from the garden piled about the trees The first step in making a garden is to open as mulch. Papaya, passionfruit, and luffa vines a “skylight” in the canopy by clearing herba- may grow voluntarily or from old plantings in ceous vegetation. This is piled about trees and the area. Sometimes a few fruit trees from burned. Sometimes trees may be girdled before nearby agroforests may be present. being burned. Standing logs and surrounding These crops grow rapidly so that a multisto- vegetation commonly are left to shade young ried canopy of leaves is formed by the time the plants, or the canopy may be removed grad- rainy season starts. Intermediate crops are har- ually so that young plantings are shaded the vested as they mature and yams are harvested first part of their lives. at the end of the growing season. The garden The major crop grown in such gardens are may then be replanted if the soil remains fer- yams of the genus Dioscorea. The tops of tubers tile, otherwise it is only sporadically tended to which have been previously harvested, as well harvest tree crops and other long-term crops, as small whole yams are planted. A border of and gradually is abandoned. Gardens are sel- fallen logs often is formed about the yam plant- dom used for more than 3 consecutive years. ings and mulch is piled within this area. Trel- After gardens are abandoned, they go through lises of poles, often of bamboo, provide path- a series of successional stages as the wild ways for yam vines to grow up into the sunlight canopy reforms. They are invaded first by her- Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 149 baceous weeds followed by woody species. In Micronesia, numerous attempts have been Seed dispersal commonly is aided by birds and made to develop commercial agriculture, be- fruit bats (21). ginning with the development of the copra trade "Lanchos" and Backyard Gardens.—Tradi- by the Germans in the late 19th century. Coco- tional agricultural activities in the Marianas are nut palms were planted on many islands and not well documented. However, wild food villagers were organized to process dried coco- plants found in the Marianas indicate that the nut meat (copra) for export to Germany (86). original inhabitants ate the food found on other The Japanese expanded commercial agricul- high islands of Micronesia (22). The neotradi- ture through the cultivation of sugarcane in the tional agriculture system of the Marianas was Northern Marianas; cassava, sweet potato, cof- the development of “lanchos” or “ranches” fee, and other crops in Pohnpei; and various where food was grown by people who resided other commercial farming and related indus- in village areas. Lanchos were generally located tries throughout Micronesia. Agricultural colo- in rural wooded areas and consisted of a simply nies were established, generally with imported built cooking and sleeping house surrounded Asian workers. The Japanese provided support by food trees, chickens, pigs, and gardens. for agriculture through provision of materials, Although many lanchos still are in use on technical advice and assistance, selection of technologies that maximized use of local re- Guam (84], they are harder to find in the Mari- anas where population increases, division of sources, and a comprehensive marketing pro- family lands, economic development, and food gram. Both the German and Japanese efforts stamp programs result in competitive uses for primarily served the colonial power and natives land and decrease the need to raise one’s own were used mainly for unskilled labor. food. Fresh local produce remains important With the advent of the U.S. administration for fiestas, however, and is reflected in poach- at the end of World War II, the Japanese-sup- ing of deer and fruit bats and importation of ported commercial agriculture development— traditional foods from other islands (22). which had led Micronesia to become a self- Traditional Open Canopy Agriculture.— supporting part of the Japanese Empire—quickly Crops grown in openland areas include sweet disappeared. Initially, exploitation of existing potatoes, cassava, and vegetables. Garden beds island resources was a very low priority with are reconditioned by clearing or burning un- the new U.S. administration; securing military wanted vegetation from the site. Debris is piled interest was a primary goal. Without expatri- on the garden, sometimes with additional ate managers, shipping services and markets, mulch such as seagrass. Ditches are dug or most commercial agriculture was soon aban- deepened around the garden bed and the soil doned and the islands again returned to sub- piled on top of the mulch. The result is drain- sistence food production (94). age of the garden, suppression of weeds and Commercial agriculture development in Amer- development of a “sandwich” of soil, mulch, ican Samoa, which became a U.S. possession soil. Cuttings may be planted directly or in in 1900, has progressed even less than in Micro- raised rows (22). nesia. Although a small copra industry was developed, most agriculture activity is still at a Commercial Agriculture Developmemt subsistence level (94). After western contact, traditional agricultural Within the last 30 years, there have been re- technologies were modified to varying degrees newed efforts to develop commercial agricul- by voluntary incorporation of methods or im- ture, but progress has been slow and results dis- plements introduced by settlers, missionaries, appointing. Several crops have been designated and colonial governments. Few wholly subsis- for commercial development in Micronesia, tence farmers remain. notably cacao in the late 1950s and early 1960s, 150 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ramie in Palau, and banana on some high is- The environmental impact of the multilayered lands. More recently, efforts have been directed mixed gardens varies with the extensiveness to developing a black pepper industry on Pohn- and intensity of burning. Today, more forest pei and introducing vegetables throughout Mi- and secondary vegetation is burned than is cronesia (99,103,105). Efforts in American used. Part of this is due to careless gardeners Samoa have been mainly directed at increas- and part to arson. There appears to be little con- ing local food production with some effort cern for controlling fires that have gotten out made to introduce commercial vegetable proof hand, and local fire departments tend to reduction. All have been introduced as small-scale spond only when residences or other infrastruc- projects for limited-resource farmers and many ture are threatened (22). have been unsuccessful for reasons including: The expected result from too many attempts 1) lack of markets or low market prices, 2) tech- at open canopy gardening, too frequent burn- nologies dependent on imported inputs, 3) lack ing of garden lands with too short fallow peri- of management skills among farmers, 4) dis- ods is a decrease in forest fallow areas, use of eases and pests, and 5) a general lack of com- preferred sites to exhaustion and degradation mitment by farmers and U.S. and local govern- of the soil. The end result of prolonged degra- ments (94). dation of soils seems to be swordgrass savannas The most persistent efforts of the Pacific is- or Gleichenia fernlands. On Yap, extensive land government Departments of Agriculture, areas of degraded soil bear the sign of too- at least during American Administration, seems frequent burning and over-intensive use, and to have been the encouragement of open canopy the island’s genetic heritage of wild endemic vegetable gardens involving crops such as Chi- species is small compared to surrounding is- nese cabbage, green peppers, tomatoes, and lands (22). corn, and introduction of western techniques of clean-field gardening using fertilizers, pes- Current Status of Agriculture ticides, etc. Several farmers successfully operate enterprises on Guam and in the Common- The diets of Pacific Islanders, in general, con- wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) sist mainly of starchy foods, probably reflect- and the numbers are increasing as farmers being the kinds of crops which have been adapted come more adept at cultivation practices and to the local environments. Principal commodi- techniques (84). However, many attempts have ties produced in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific is- been unsuccessful due to high ratio of input lands are listed in table 6-1. On most islands, cost to output value; soil degradation; and inva- tare, coconut, banana, and breadfruit are grown sion of noxious weeds, such as the spiny Mi- in large quantities, primarily for home con- mosa invisa, which are difficult to clear. None- sumption. In American Samoa and the Com- theless, outside advisors continue to recommend pact States, the coconut is used for food, drink, such technology and outside funding continues and for making tools and utensils important in to be made available for such efforts (22). the household. The incidence of soil erosion is probably In areas such as Guam and CNMI, where greatest in clean-cultivated vegetable gardens western and Japanese influence has been great- where the soil must be made friable and vegeta- est, meat and vegetables have become more im- tive growth does not provide adequate protec- portant parts of the diet. Pork and chicken are tion against heavy rainfall or invasion by weeds. popular throughout the Pacific Islands, and are An increasing number of pests hinder sweet raised mainly for home consumption. Pigs and potato culture, and the repeated burning, deple- chickens are raised in most rural areas (108). tion of soil nutrients, and changes in soil tex- In most of the territories eggs are produced in ture associated with cassava culture results in small volume for the market, but per capita con- soil degradation (22). sumption is small compared with Hawaii and Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 151

Table 6-1 .—Principal Crop and Livestock Commodities Caribbean Agriculture in the U. S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands Because of diverse factors, there is relatively Commodity little heritage of traditional, subsistence agri- Islands Crop Livestock culture in the U.S. Caribbean. In Puerto Rico, American Samoa ...... Banana, breadfruit, Chicken, coconut, taro eggs, pork traditional shifting agriculture was adopted by Marshall Islands...... Banana, breadfruit, subsistence farmers of European descent and coconut, pandanus later by those of African extraction. This sub- Federated States of sistence sector continued into the early 20th Micronesia ...... Banana, black Eggs, pork century, but little remains today. The Virgin pepper, breadfruit, cassava, citrus, Islands were unpopulated at the time of coloni- coconut, mango, zation, thus there was no tradition of indige- pandanus, papaya, nous agriculture passed onto later inhabitants sweet potato, tarot yam as occurred in Puerto Rico (116). In addition, Northern Marianas . . . . . Avocado, banana, Beef, eggs, these areas experienced an extended period of breadfruit, cassava, milk, pork agricultural production for export to colonial cucumber, mango, powers, continuing well into this century. other melons, papaya, sweet potato, tare, yam Puerto Rico Guam ...... Avocado, banana, Chicken, breadfruit, cassava, eggs, pork Early in Puerto Rico’s nearly 400-year history chinese cabbage, of colonization, the forests were cut and up to cucumber, eggplant, 90 percent of the plains and mountains were green beans, head cabbage, melons, tilled, largely for sugarcane, coffee, tobacco papaya, sweet (131) and, to a lesser extent, for bay trees potato, tare, tomato, (Pimenta racemosa) (11). The island was no watermelon, yam longer self-sufficient in wood and paper prod- SOURCE: R. Lucas, “Role of Smallholders in Agricultural Development in the U. S.- Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. ucts as early as 1830 (131). Even 50 years ago, Puerto Rico had an agri- continental U.S. consumption. Backyard gar- cultural economy based primarily on sugarcane dening in urban as well as rural areas is a popu- and, to a lesser extent, on coffee, tobacco, and lar means to supplement the diet and income cattle. With the notable exceptions of rice, of wage earners. beans, and codfish (dietary staples), most food No shortage exists of people in Micronesia, was produced locally. Heavy hillside soil ero- especially young people, to form a labor pool. sion severely hindered tobacco cultivation and It is likely that the ratio of children to adults contributed to reduction in already economi- has never been as high as today. However, it cally stressed sugar operations. The sediment is difficult for mothers of young children to care laden runoff silted water supply facilities; seven for their babies and do the strenuous work of major reservoirs lost a total of 32,500 acre-feet gardening or gathering. With considerable time of storage capacity and two were totally filled now spent in school, where traditional agricul- and had become grazing areas (131). ture is not taught, and with motherhood com- Hillside tobacco and sugar land was aban- ing at an early age, young women sometimes doned as the profit margin decreased. The land do not learn and experience all that is needed returned to scrub brush and tree cover having to be effective gardeners. A number of young little economic value. Sugarcane cultivation on women work in town, and leave small children flat coastal lands continued. Substantial reduc- with relatives, thus reducing the available work tion in damage to land and water resources has force of experienced food producers (22). occurred over the last 25 years primarily be- 152 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

rarely profitable due to their limited size; steep, unproductive soils; and lack of credit, entrepreneurial abilities, and technical assistance with production and marketing. Sometimes beef cattle are raised on grass-covered abandoned lands. In 1950, agriculture provided 215,000 jobs (36 percent of total employment) and contributed 18 percent of the commonwealth product. There are now 40,000 jobs in agriculture, which accounts for 5 percent of the commonwealth product. Production at the farm level is valued at about $580 million with a retail value of about $1.2 billion. Sugarcane production has fallen 90 percent since 1952, and tobacco production has almost disappeared. Coffee producers still provide for three-fourths of local consumption, but they are protected from competition with imported coffee by locally set tariffs (143). Puerto Rican diets also have changed significantly in recent decades. Despite declining per capita consumption of starchy vegetables, the total amount of food consumed per capita has increased (131). Production of milk, eggs, poultry, and pork has more than doubled since 1952 (table 6-2) (89,90,143). Meat and dairy products now comprise 60 percent of the value of farm output in Puerto Rico. Approximately 600,000 acres are used for pasture, however, approximately 500,000 tons of feed for cattle, pigs, and poultry are imported yearly, mostly from the U.S. mainland; none is produced locally (143). cause of natural revegetation of abandoned The Puerto Rican Government has instituted croplands, and aided by some adoption of con- a number of measures to increase and improve servation practices such as strip and contour local agriculture. Farmers are exempt from 90 cropping, drainage, grazing and brush manage- percent of local income taxes. Land taxes are ment, and spring development (131). low and land used for intensive agricultural production is exempt. Agricultural land also is ex- Harvested land in Puerto Rico declined from empt from inheritance taxes (143). Of the ap- 724,000 283,851 1959 acres to acres between proximately 1,500 college-trained agriculture and 1978 (157). Abandoned farms commonly specialists on the island, 800 are employed by belong to persons over 50 years of age who may the government in agencies related to agri- farm part-time, but who derive much of their culture. income from sources outside farming. The causes of abandonment include lack of work- The Puerto Rican Government also has made ing capital, advanced age of the owner, or a a number of costly and largely unsuccessful ef- preferred course of income outside the farm forts to develop modern, large-scale farming (10). Economic and sociological studies (8,31, in several parts of the island. A local rice in- 64) have shown that family-sized farms are dustry was developed on government lands on Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 153

Table 6-2.—Trends in Production of Selected Commodities in Puerto Rico

Product ion Production Consumption a 1951-52 1981-82 1981-82 Imports Commodity (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) Sugar (tons) ...... 1,360 103 140 37 Tobacco (Ibs.) ...... 61,949 3,527 — — Coffee (Ibs.) ...... 52,249 55,115 85,979 30,864 Fresh milk (qts) ...... 48,305 395,318 401,660 6,342 b Beef (lbs) ...... 24,700 38,000 114,000 76,000C Pork (lbs) ...... 18,800 40,000 113,000 73,000d Poultry (lbs)...... 12,600 52,500 195,000 142,000 Eggs (doz) ...... 9,500 21,900 39,400 17,500 Pineapple (tons) ...... 22 42 3 — Plantains (thousands)...... 170 330 330 — Bananas (thousands) ...... 1,120 720 720 — Tanier (lbs) ...... 95,239 52,910 91,491 38,581 Sweet potatoes (lbs) ...... 61,729 46,297 70,547 22,046 Yams (lbs) ...... 56,438 70,768 70,768 287 Oranges (thousands) ...... 144 162 192 31e Grapefruit (thousands) ...... 16 7 9 2 Citron (lbs.) ...... 16,094 19,621 — — Pumpkins (lbs) ...... 40,124 100,750 100,750 — Tomatoes (lbs) ...... 39,683 14,991 77,822 62,831 Pepper (lbs) ...... 17,416 17,637 30,203 13,228 Cabbage (lbs) ...... 14,550 17,637 37,478 23,369 Pigeon peas (lbs) ...... 25,573 24,251 27,558 3,307 Taro (lbs) ...... 25,353 16,535 16,535 — Cassava (lbs)...... 28,660 13,228 18,739 5,523 Potatoes (lbs) ...... — — 291,669 291,669 Rice (lbs) ...... — 22,046 683,426 661,380 Beans (lbs) ...... — 1,764 97,002 94,798 Onions (lbs)...... — — 78,704 81,570 Corn (lbs.). ..,...... — — 992,070 992,070 Grapes (lbs)...... — — 5,100 5,100 Garlic (lbs) ...... — — 3,600 3,600 Cocoa (lbs) ...... — — — l0,000 f aExports from Puerto Rico to the USVI and to others account for some of the discrepancies between imports, local production and consumption bThe equivalent of about 158,550,000 quarts are imported in dry or condensed form. c28,000,000 pounds from the U.S. and 48,000,000 pounds from foreign countries. dPlus 28,000,000 pounds of ham. ePlus 4,000,000 gallons of concentrate, fPlus 15,000,000 pounds of chocolate candies,

SOURCE: Vicente-Chandler J., “Assessment of Agricultural Production Technologies for U.S. Caribbean islands;" OTA Commissioned paper 1988. the north coast in 1978. A rice mill was con- and export markets with some success. How- structed and the lands were precision-leveled ever, in 1986 one project (April-Agro) reportedly at considerable cost in time and money (143). was foreclosed by the Puerto Rican Govern- However, the rice project has not become self ment due to nonpayment of a large government sustaining. loan although some of its activities are con- Seven years ago, the Government of Puerto tinued. The remaining operation—ISPRAC— Rico started a modern vegetable industry on continues operation. about 5,000 acres on the south coast by leasing Today, Puerto Rico annually imports about lands and providing credit and facilities to two 1.2 billion dollars’ worth of food (with a retail large Israeli companies and 13 local farmers. value of $1.8 billion), and about 400 million Approximately 2,500 acres now have drip irri- dollars’ worth of wood products. About 29,840 gation systems and two packing plants were Puerto Rican farms comprise a total of l,259,700 constructed. Crops were grown for both local acres (135). Several large processors of agricul- 154 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas tural products exist in Puerto Rico but, with tence agriculture. Initially, the majority of the few exceptions, they depend almost exclusively highest quality land was held in large planta- on imported materials and are not interested tions and later, with the emergence of the tour- in processing small periodic agricultural sur- ism industry, land speculation and increased pluses (143). real estate prices has made much of the land Agriculture at present is generally character- inaccessible (117,143). ized by low yields, high production costs, older Since 1930 there have been sharp decreases farmers (averaging 55 years of age with a fifth in average farm size, harvested cropland, and grade education), and inefficient marketing sys- agricultural employment and marked increases tems. Attitudes are generally negative toward in the percentage of operators engaged in off- farming on the part of technicians, farmers, farm work. In the context of waning farm ef- leaders, and the general public (143). fort and acreage, there have been three major Young, well-trained, and motivated farmers adjustments in the structure of USVI agricul- are scarce in Puerto Rico, probably due to the ture (80 percent of which is concentrated on way agriculture developed on the island. Sugar- St. Croix). First, an increase in mechanization cane, coffee, and cattle plantations were devel- and use of fertilizers; second, the noticeable oped with cheap labor; landholders often shift away from cropping toward livestock; and delegated responsibilities to poorly trained third is a growing bimodal structure in which managers. As the island’s economy boomed, there are a large number of small farms along- many landholders preferred land speculation side a few large commercial farms. Over the to learning new techniques and investing in past century, USVI agriculture has adapted to agriculture. Their offspring generally entered resource encroachment basically by reducing other professions; higher wages are paid in farm effort and size, replacing capital-intensive manufacturing, tourism, and construction. inputs, and changing the composition of out- Children of subsistence farmers went to work put from export crops to domestic fruits, nuts, elsewhere or migrated to the U.S. mainland. and vegetables. Small-scale holdings largely are Consequently, agricultural work is considered secondary income-earners. The largest commer- of low status. cial tracts now specialize in cattle and dairy products (56). U.S. Virgin Islands There have been some clear increases in the production of fruits, nuts, rootcrops, sheep, Early colonial land modification in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) included clearing of for- goats, and cattle since 1970, in part because of ests both for the establishment of export crop inflation of the prices of imported goods, slow- plantations and for their commercially valuable downs in tourism growth associated with eco- timber species. Early in this century, St. Thomas nomic recessions, and new farm efforts by and St. Croix were severely deforested and con- Rastafarians and West Indian migrant workers who have become a permanent component sisted largely of secondary scrub growth char- of the local work force. These gains, however, acterized by small woody shrubs. The scrub- covered land consisted of thin soil with many occur in the long-term context of continuing rock outcropping. The removal of timber spe- reduction in farm scale and reduction in farm cies and subsequent burning damaged the soil sales (56). Some landowners among the French further reducing its fertility. agriculturists of St. Thomas have begun to sell land for residential development and many Historically, the majority of desirable land young people are looking to alternative liveli- has not been available for small-scale subsis- hoods (117). Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry . 155

COMMON CONSTRAINTS TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS Major constraints to agricultural develop- The degree to which the above constraints ment which apply to all of the U.S.-affiliated apply to U.S.-affiliated islands varies but, never- islands generally fall into the following cate- theless, is significant in all of them, For exam- gories: biophysical, economic, social and cul- ple, cultivable land is sparse on all islands. How- tural, and infrastructural, Major biophysical ever, there is more arable land in Pohnpei and constraints are low soil fertility, limited or ir- Palau relative to population than in the Mar- regular water resources, and limited arable land shalls, Truk, and American Samoa (table 6-3). of suitable soil types and level topography. Eco- In all of these areas, available arable land typi- nomic constraints include the small size of do- cally is owned in relatively small parcels, few mestic markets for agricultural products, avail- areas have flat terrain, and contiguous soils of ability of high-paying government jobs and a given type (i.e., soils suitable for a given crop) ready emigration opportunities, high cost of im- are not common. ported livestock feed and other inputs and, in Some constraints tend to apply only to cer- tourism-dominated islands, the relatively low tain of the islands, for example, some islands value of agricultural lands vis-a-vis nonrural have significant dry seasons while other islands residential or commercial real estate uses. The receive evenly spread rainfall. In areas experi- arduous nature and declining status of agricul- encing dry periods, lack of irrigation capabil- tural employment provide social constraints to ities compounds limitations on farm produc- agricultural development on some islands (13), tivity. The incidence of destructive typhoons and land tenure systems characterized by frag- and other tropical storms, although experi- mented landholdings and clan influence over enced by the majority of the U.S.-affiliated is- use rights can be primary cultural constraints lands, tends to be much greater in the Mari- to commercial development. Constraints posed anas and western Caroline Islands (43). by undeveloped infrastructure include lack of rural farm roads in high islands, scarcity of Biophysical Constraints transportation from rural and outlying areas to central markets, and costly and irregular Biological and physical (biophysical) con- transportation to overseas markets (43). siderations include availability of land and

Table 6-3.—Comparison of Population Density and Arable Land Acreages in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

1984 Arable area Population density Islands Population a (acres)b per arable acre American Samoa ...... 35,300 14,000 2.45 Guam ...... 119,800 6,900 C 16.41 CNMI ...... 18,600 30,000d 0.65 Marshalls ...... 34,900 n/a n/a FSM: Kosrae ...... 6,300 17,900 0.35 Pohnpei ...... 26,900 57,700 0.47 Truk ...... 44,600 13,500 3.30 Yap...... 10,600 21,500 0.43 Palau ...... 13,000 63,500 0.20 SOURCES: aLand Use Planning Report, 13(46):365, November 25, 1985; U.S. Department of State, 1984 Trust Territory of the Pacific Is- lands, report to the United Nations on administration of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1985; R Lucas, “Role of Smallholders in Agricultural Development in the US.. Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986 b Data derived from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service tysoil surveys of American Samoa (1984), KOS- rae (1983), Ponape (1962), Truk (1983), Yap (1983), and Palau (1983), except where otherwise noted, cArable area is based on a soil survey of lands designated as potential agriculture lands (9,920 acres) by the Guam Bureau of Planning, and exclude a large portion of Guam controlled by the military, as well as lands designated for urban and conservation use d CNMl arable acreage IS based on surveys sponsored by the Trust Territory government and cover only Saipan and Tinian Most of the acreage would need irrigation to be considered good in terms of productivity for agriculture,

63-222 0 - 87-6 QL. 3 156 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

water resources, soils, topography, and climate. sharp ridges. Even if vegetated, flooding and In general, land is in short supply on all of the landslides occur posing considerable hazards U.S.-affiliated islands, but particularly in the to agriculture and populations located in the majority of the Pacific islands and the USVI. coastal valleys. During the rainy season, cy- Additionally, the quality of soils, population clonic storms frequently occur in some areas. density, land tenure, and topographic circum- Atolls and low islands, as well as the coastline stances determine the degree to which land is areas of high islands, frequently experience a constraint (43). flooding and saltwater damage to crops caused Tropical soils in the territories have a num- by storms and storm surges (43). ber of limitations. Natural fertility is low com- The interiors of high volcanic and continen- pared to the nutrient needs of high-yielding tal islands are mountainous; much of the land crops. High rainfall in many areas leaches out area consists of steep slopes that preclude cul- basic plant nutrients and erodes the soil. Thus, tivation of most crops other than tree crops. conservation methods such as terracing, con- For example, almost all of the land on St. touring, and conservation tillage practices be- Thomas and St. John is very steep to strongly come critically important. Maintaining forest sloping, representing problems for agricultural canopy and vegetative cover stems erosion and pursuits. Many agricultural areas on these is- maintains soil fertility by returning organic mat- lands have been terraced or planted with fruit ter to the soil through the natural plant lifecycle. trees (143). Land improvement, such as grad- In clean-tilled crop production, soils are more ing of steep slopes, improvement of drainage susceptible to loss of fertility through erosion, and irrigation, is generally quite costly. leaching, and loss of organic matter. To overcome soil fertility problems associated with clean-tilled crop production, use of compost Social and Cultural Constraints and organic fertilizers, return of crop residue Social and cultural factors may provide op- to soil, application of lime, mulching, and crop portunities or constraints to agriculture, de- rotation commonly are required. On coral atolls pending on the development strategy pursued. and single coral islands, soils are very porous, Those that are commonly perceived to con- consisting mainly of sand and, while conducive strain commercial agricultural development in- to growing coconut palms, are not suited for clude land tenure and clan value systems, ac- most other crops (127). quired tastes for western foods, and attitudes Annual rainfall is generous in many areas, towards farming as an occupation. with a fairly even distribution during the year. Traditional values of Micronesians and Sa- However, in the northern Marshalls and, to a moans place great prestige on land and other lesser extent in Yap, Truk, the Marianas, and resource use rights. Within the clan or extended the Caribbean, there is a more distinct dry sea- family, the cultivation and gathering of crops son which can bring drought conditions harm- such as tare, breadfruit, yams, and coconuts ful to crop production. Lack of water is the main is determined by communal needs rather than physical factor limiting agriculture in the U.S. by the economic return which could be ob- Virgin Islands; there, evapotranspiration greatly tained by marketing production. Decisions on exceeds precipitation (143). The volume of land use are made by the clan or family head, water supplies, while limiting the potential and land use is an integral part of the social growth of the arid agricultural sector of Puerto system. For example, slaughtering pigs for Rico, presently does not constrain production feasts or social gatherings involving the ex- in other areas of the island (61). tended family is part of fulfilling social obliga- Storms and torrential rainfall creates prob- tions. The high prestige value placed on land lems as well. Watersheds of high islands typi- results in increasing fragmentation of parcels cally are comprised of steep valleys flanked by over time, as ownership is retained in families Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry c 157 that have increased in size (46,47). Acquiring and lack of education on the nutritional value land for commercial use—where the products of fresh foods have all been contributing fac- of the property are not to be used for subsis- tors in the popularity of imported food. In addi- tence and sharing—may be difficult or impos- tion, the influence of U.S. Department of Agri- sible (22). Alternatives, such as making land- culture (USDA) school lunch and disaster relief owners part-owners, eligible for dividends from food programs, which have distributed large earnings from development projects on their amounts of surplus processed foods to the islands, may be required. lands, have contributed to preferences for imported processed foods on most islands. Prefer- High social value placed on land is accom- ences for some imported foods lessen demand panied by clan system values which require the for locally grown crops, and have had a detri- sharing of production with clan members. The mental effect on nutritional status (109). sharing extends to individual wage earnings as well. These traditional values toward land Farming as an occupation is generally held and the sharing of wealth and income tend to in low esteem by the younger generation in inhibit individual initiative towards commer- many of the islands. Availability of secure, high- cial farming. Reluctance to sell or lease land paying government jobs with career advance- also makes it difficult to consolidate land into ment opportunities and fringe benefits (e.g., larger parcels to enable larger scale farm oper- retirement pensions, low-interest housing loans, ations (43). medical insurance), and education systems which emphasize white-collar occupations re- In areas such as Guam and the CNMI, leas- sult in little interest by youth in agricultural oc- ing and selling land has become more preva- cupations (43). Well-trained, young, motivated lent, along with western economic values, as farmers are scarce in Puerto Rico and the USVI; most households have become integrated into many young people opt for more lucrative or the wage economy (43). However, residents no more highly esteemed professions (61,143). In longer have access to one-third of Guam’s land, the CNMI, where young farmers consider agri- which is controlled by the U.S. military. Con- culture a potentially profitable undertaking, siderable amounts of food could be produced alien laborers from the Philippines are hired if areas suited for farming that are not actively at $150 per month (80). used by the military are opened for short-term leases with rates comparable to those offered Attitudes towards traditional agriculture sys- by the local government (113). tems and official and unofficial government policies range from benign approval to benign Land reform has long been a matter of great neglect. In the U.S. Pacific, it is commonly con- importance in the Caribbean. The 1940s “Land sidered good to produce as much of one’s food Law” of Puerto Rico successfully relocated as possible, although in practice no specific pro- squatters on small plots where they could build grams are designed to help with traditional agri- homes and cultivate small farms (143). Attempts culture, perhaps because it is so much a part at land redistribution in the USVI occurred in of Micronesia lifestyles that it is overlooked the 1930s with a “homesteading” program, but (22). Puerto Rico’s attempt to encourage a small- the program met with only limited success. farm sector through the establishment of fam- With large increases in public employment ily farms (1940s Land Law) largely was unsuc- and wage income related to U.S. Government cessful. expenditures in the Pacific Islands, western consumption standards—particularly for con- Economic Constraints venience foods—have been increasingly adopted. Rice, flour, canned meat and fish, sugar, and Small domestic markets, high wage structures, beverages such as soda and beer are large im- USDA food programs, and lack of appropriate port items. Prestige attached to western foods, technology are major economic constraints to convenience in preparation of processed foods, an expanded agriculture (43). Insufficient eco- 158 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas nomic resources also may seriously constrain ported from the United States and other devel- sustainable development of renewable re- oped countries with more efficient agricultural sources. They particularly affect research, pub- systems, and with imports from nearby devel- lic education, and project implementation (15). oping countries that have lower labor costs. Im- ports in the USVI offer almost insurmountable While development of local food production competition since they are available in large and markets may be important to local food sup- quantities throughout the year and are gener- ply and nutrition, it is limited by the amount ally of good quality although expensive (143). of local demand and competition with imported Puerto Rico is similarly constrained by com- foodstuffs (94). Local markets can absorb rela- petition from lower wage areas as well as main- tively little local produce in the Freely Associ- land U.S. imports of commodities such as poul- ated States (FAS) and American Samoa as most try, eggs, dairy products, and meats (98). In consumers also are producers; expatriate work- Puerto Rico, a tax on imported coffee serves ers and urbanized locals make up the market to protect the local industry and increase the on most islands. In some areas, a considerable incentive for local production. Similar systems demand for traditional crops exists, but prob- may be needed to support development of other lems with transport, spoilage, and inconven- agricultural enterprises faced with low-cost im- ience of preparation hinder their marketing (22). port competition (67). Markets for locally supplied commodities in Another disincentive to producing for the lo- the U.S.-affiliated Pacific are situated in the cap- cal market is the availability of USDA surplus ital areas. However, they generally account for food, which is free and available to many peo- a small part of total commodity sales. Inade- ple through the extended family. In the CNMI quate marketing facilities contributes to small and Guam, food stamp and school lunch pro- volume, but a more basic problem is the lack grams distribute large quantities of food. For of steady supply by farmers committed to grow- example, in Guam some 22,600 persons partici- ing for the market on a regular basis, i.e., lack pated in the food stamp program in 1983, and of commercial and semicommercial farmers, received coupons worth $18 million in food as opposed to subsistence growers (43). Gener- purchasing power, The majority of the food ally, outlets consist of combination retail/whole- obtained from markets with the food stamps sale/importer market operations. is processed food imported from the United Small market size is a major constraint in- States. herent in island economies located at great dis- Micronesians are focusing efforts on eco- tance from large population centers (e.g., Hon- nomic development, including agriculture. The olulu, Tokyo). Territory populations represent only advice available for development of food a small market demand for any given commodity; and fiber production, however, refers to nonin- commercial farmers using modern technologies digenous systems (22). Many recommended can produce all that can be sold on relatively projects involve large capital outlays on the part few acres. For example, in Guam it has been of the farmer or the government, and require estimated that with modern farming practices, outside expertise, imported energy and chem- including irrigation, only 226 acres would be icals, and technology. These systems commonly required to supply almost 11 million pounds are suited to parcels of land larger than those of fruits and vegetables (19 different commodi- generally available to individuals or groups in ties) per annum (14). In Guam, however, where the islands. The experts, generally on short-term many people buy a large percentage of their assignments, frequently leave before problems food, most prefer the convenience of imported arise from droughts or storms, delay in arrival produce and food products to local produce. of inputs, changes in personnel, lack of mar- In addition, locally grown products also must kets, lack of cooperation, or vandalism, that ef- compete on local markets with products im- fectively end the program (22). —

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 159

Infrastructural Constraints supplies, forcing producers to ration imported products and to substitute local products for Constraints to development imposed by lack imported supplies, sometimes resulting in re- of infrastructure exist in varying degrees in all duced production. Because advance orders tie of the U.S.-affiliated islands. The main kinds up cash and inventory can be slow to move, of facility shortfalls are: farm roads, irrigation some suppliers tend to be unwilling to purchase systems, water storage and distribution, power supplies in advance (80). A combination of the generation and distribution, transport facilities shortages and unwillingness to advance order and service, and storage/refrigeration capac- may cause a “shortage mentality,” which re- ity (43), sults in rationing of these agriculture supplies In the high islands, such as Palau and Pohn- even when they are available. pei, farm roads are needed to enable cultiva- Inter-island shipping services and associated tion of areas which currently are underused. harbor docking/storage facilities need to be up- In the CNMI, Palau, Yap and the northern Mar- graded to enable an expansion of agriculture shalls, reservoirs, or other sources of water, and in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Likewise, distribution systems are needed to increase potential for intra-regional commodity exports crop yields (43). In the Virgin Islands, provi- and exports to Hawaii and Asian countries may sion for water supply infrastructure is neces- not be realized without improved transporta- sary for agricultural development (61). tion services—particularly in the FAS and Amer- Transportation infrastructure in the Carib- ican Samoa. There is little or no regularly sched- bean islands generally is quite good, with well- uled surface shipping between the FAS and developed roads and regular air and sea trans- Asian-Pacific cities outside Micronesia. The portation to the United States and other Carib- same situation exists in American Samoa (43). bean islands. In those Pacific territories with Storage and refrigeration facilities are scarce populations dispersed over a number of atolls in all Pacific areas, particularly in the FAS. and islands, however, inter-island surface trans- These facilities are needed to facilitate devel- portation typically is inadequate to provide opment by providing for an increased and farmers with market access and farm inputs steady supply of domestic commodities and to such as livestock feed and fertilizers. improve quality (43). In remote U.S. Pacific islands, unreliable shipping has caused shortages of agriculture

OPPORTUNITIES FOR AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT The constraints discussed above represent ports averaged $18.6 million in the 1981-83 formidable obstacles to agriculture develop- period (4). The CNMI imports more food per ment, but potential opportunities exist for in- capita by value than anywhere else in the Pa- creased crop production. Opportunities avail- cific despite its relatively low population den- able to enhance island economic development sity (13); food valued at $23.2 million was im- include: 1) import substitution, 2) potential for ported in 1983 (12). Also in 1983, Federated increased local production, and 3) potential for States of Micronesia (FSM) food imports were export development for at least a few high-value $11.2 million (26), and in Palau, $3.4 million commodities (43). (140). In the Marianas, the USVI, and Puerto Rico, Import Substitution a wide range of fruit and vegetables already are grown commercially (34,43). Although tradi- Food imports are substantial in every terri- tional local crops still are favored in the FAS, tory. For example, in American Samoa food im- urban populations are consuming increasing 160 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas amounts of nontraditional fresh fruits and opment program, initially packages of practices vegetables. The non-Micronesian population in for traditional crop and livestock commodities the urban centers account for part of this de- could be developed to raise subsistence produc- mand, but prestige attached to imported foods tivity. With respect to commercial farming, and greater awareness of nutritional benefits modern technology already available in other of fresh produce may also be contributing fac- tropical areas can be adapted to selected locally tors (43). produced commodities. A large proportion of the fresh fruit and vegetable commodities which are imported Export Development could be produced on most high islands of the territories. Examples are pineapple, papaya, cu- Large export markets potentially are acces- cumber, eggplant, bell pepper, citrus, sweet sible by island producers: primarily Japan for corn, tomatoes, avocados, green onions, Chi- western Pacific islands and the U.S. mainland nese cabbage, and head cabbage in Pohnpei for U.S. Caribbean islands. In order to pene- (47). The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has trate these markets, several hurdles must be determined on the basis of its soil surveys that overcome. Export marketing requirements inmost of these commodities also can be grown clude regular, significant volume shipments of in Kosrae (128), Truk (127), Yap (128), Palau high-quality products; prices competitive with (129) and American Samoa (125). similar products—locally produced and imported —in the export market; and, for fresh produce, Puerto Rico is self-sufficient in plantain, pest- and disease-free products that can pass bananas, pumpkin, and tare, and at least 60 percent of products such as raw sugar, coffee, the commonly strict animal and plant quaran- freshmilk, eggs, taniers (cocoyam taro), sweet tine regulation of importing countries. Depend- ing on the product exported, reliable and cheap potatoes, yams, oranges, and grapefruit are lo- transportation may be a requirement. cally produced. Opportunities still exist to substitute some locally grown vegetables for cur- Generally, successful export crops are char- rently imported produce (143), but those that acterized by high value per unit weight, su- can be imported cheaply from the mainland perior quality, low production cost, and low United States and that require large acreages cost and relative ease of transport. Pohnpei of land are not good candidates for import sub- black pepper, which is characterized by these stitution (78). The USVI is nearly self-sufficient qualities, was able to penetrate the U.S. gour- in egg and milk production (56). met market (29). Ornamental plants, honeydew melons, and mangoes are exported successfully Increased Subsistence and from Puerto Rico. Other high-value commodi- Commercial Production ties which might be grown in the U.S. high islands include coffee, cacao, nuts, spices, and In addition to increased domestic production essential and perfume oils (94,126,127,128, for import substitution, there is substantial 129,130). scope for increasing subsistence and commer- Opportunities for intra-regional trade also are cial agricultural production of traditional crops, possible for certain commodities such as sweet as well as other crops which are not imported corn, bananas, pineapple, papaya, and selected but could be grown locally if domestic demand vegetables. Coordinated agricultural develop- could be developed. ment planning among Pacific and Caribbean Although semicommercial and commercial islands would enable some degree of speciali- farming can be expected to become proportion- zation for areas with a comparative advantage ately larger given a sustained agricultural devel- for particular commodities (43). Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry c 161

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES Commercial agriculture development con- Characteristics of Sustainable tinues to be emphasized as desirable for the Tropical Island Agriculture U.S.-affiliated islands. Goals of such development include increasing employment opportu- Successful tropical island agricultural sys- nities in the rural and outlying areas, stemming tems generally exhibit ecological characteris- migration to over crowded urban centers, build- tics which mimic and extend natural processes ing the private sector through development of by providing for water and nutrient flow, and local renewable resources, increasing local food maintaining a canopy to protect and enhance production, replacing imported food items and soil quality at critical periods, especially dur- build self-reliance, and generating cash for the ing times of heavy rainfall. An agricultural sys- island economies (94). tem which incorporates a diversity of crop species and varieties strengthens the system’s A basic premise underlying commercial agri- resilience to disruption from pests and disease cultural development is that, in every territory, outbreaks and, further, provides the farmer the private sector must be made more produc- with a variety of products throughout the year tive to support standards of living to which resi- even where erratic weather patterns exist. For dents have become accustomed. Further, that such systems to be readily adopted, they may economic development options other than agri- need to be based on traditionally used systems culture are sufficiently limited so that territorial and should require minimal exotic nonrenew- governments cannot ignore agriculture’s devel- able inputs such as fossil fuel energy or derived opment potential. Since imports constitute the chemicals (22), Sustainable agricultural systems bulk of island consumption, for territories to commonly: improve economic self-sufficiency they must either produce the goods they consume locally ● mimic natural tropical systems; or generate overseas earnings (through com- ● emphasize or incorporate perennial crops; modity or services exports) to pay for the im- ● emphasize optimization of components ports. Given the currently large food imports rather than maximization of yield; in most of the territories, domestic agriculture ● emphasize recycling of locally available nu- can contribute to the ultimate goal of overall trients; economic self-sufficiency by producing for im- ● emphasize incremental changes from export substitution or for export—in either case, tant systems; and agriculture would have to become increasingly ● provide farmer and consumer security in commercialized (43). areas prone to natural disasters.

However, in view of the pervasive nature and Mimic Natural Tropical Systems severity of the constraints to agricultural development, and the present levels of standards The major mechanism through which sustaina- of living, consumption, and expectations, to- ble tropical agricultural systems mimic natu- tal self-sufficiency or even near self-sufficiency ral tropical systems is through maintaining a in domestic food production is unlikely on most multistoried vegetative soil cover. The vegeta- islands. An alternative goal might be optimal tion protects the soil from erosion and provides use of lands best suited to crop production tak- soil organic matter in the form of leaf fall and ing into account other land use requirements; roots. The growth and recycling of organic mat- large amounts of arable lands may not be farmed ter is similar to that occurring in tropical where other uses are deemed more socially im- forests. In agroecosystems, these benefits can portant (43). be generated through polyculture systems, 162 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas planting a polyculture—a diversity of plant spe- marketing facilities which currently are lack- cies and varieties—can increase yields by re- ing on some U.S.-affiliated islands. Monocul- ducing plant competition, by taking advantage ture also encourages the spread of pests and of differences in microhabitat, by reducing the diseases in the absence of natural barriers found intensity of pest and disease infestations, and in more diverse ecosystems. Also, in monocul- through beneficial plant interactions. Thus, sus- ture, as in any cropping system that needs to- tainable tropical agriculture emphasizes manag- tal land-clearing and regular tillage, erosion can ing biotic interactions within the agroecosys- be a serious problem, even when terraces and tem rather than divorcing the agroecosystem contour-farming are practiced. from natural factors and replacing them with All of these factors can add up to a generally imported nonrenewable resources. unlikely and risky prospect for many island Monoculture. —The cultivation of a single farmers. Few small-scale, limited-resource crop on a unit of land has been the main com- farmers, who must depend on their farm for mercial cropping technology introduced to the their family’s food, are willing to take such risks. islands to date. Historically, colonial powers Another factor, which planners and agricul- in the Pacific and the Caribbean have favored turists tend to overlook, is that a small farmer, the monoculture approach (e.g., in the Pacific: faced with decisions on how best to use his ex- the Germans with coconut plantations, the Jap- tremely limited land resource, is likely to avoid anese with sugarcane, rice, cassava, sweet any technology that will entail tying up a large potato, etc. and the Americans with cacao, rice, percentage of land to grow a single crop (94). banana, ramie, black pepper; in the Caribbean: Thus, monoculture are likely to be undertaken the Danes and Spaniards with sugarcane). Tra- only when markets are guaranteed, when com- ditionally, however, very few cases of monocul- petition is restrained (e.g., if farmers agree to ture existed originally in local agriculture prac- specialize on certain crops) or if crop harvests tices (94). are staggered (80). Benefits of monoculture are many and, thus, Monoculture does, however, hold some pos- large agricultural systems have been built around sibilities for further development in Microne- this technology. The main advantage of mono- sia, especially in those areas where landhold- culture is uniformity—in planting, fertilizing, ings are relatively large (e. g., on government cultivating, and harvest—thus favoring inten- leased lands). Ponape Agriculture and Trade sive use of inputs such as improved and hybrid School on Pohnpei has been running a 20-acre cultivar varieties, chemical fertilizers and pes- mechanized commercial farm for nearly 10 ticides, and mechanization (94). This uniformity years based on monoculture of sweet potato, in product and harvest period also simplifies corn, cassava, banana, and beans (94). Farmers large-scale processing. Monoculture systems in Guam and the Northern Marianas also have also are simpler to research and develop than developed successful vegetable monoculture polycultures, whose permutations can appear systems. Each of these systems depends on ex- infinite. cellent tillage and cultivation (generally mechanized), well-planned crop rotation schemes, These advantages do not translate easily to and imported commercial fertilizer and pesti- small-scale farming systems with limited avail- cides. Also, markets in these areas are fairly able resources. Capital often is not available to well developed. invest in the improved inputs needed to sustain successful monoculture. Labor, needed for New methods of monoculture have been de- tillage, planting, and harvesting, which tend to veloped in Africa and the United States de- be concentrated into peak periods, rarely is signed to reduce erosion and/or capital invest- available to farmers who must depend mainly ment by replacing tillage with herbicides. on family labor. The uniform harvest and greater Proponents of these systems claim that the dead yield requires adequate storage, processing, and mulch left after herbicide treatment helps keep Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry s 163 soils cool, suppresses weed growth, encourages water (see ch. 8). These systems are highly water retention and growth of soil building energy efficient. Systems have been operational organisms, as well as reducing erosion to as on an experimental level in the Northern Mari- little as 2 percent of that of clean-tilled fields anas and Yap, but have not been widely adopted (151). However, with the extremely high cost on the U.S. Pacific islands (94). Such systems and irregular availability of herbicides imported are in operation in Puerto Rico (2). into Micronesia, dangers of pesticide misuse and the general reluctance of farmers to prac- Polyculture systems offer a number of bene- tice monoculture technologies, it is unlikely that fits, particularly important in the tropics, that any of these systems will support commercial are not available from monoculture systems. agriculture in Micronesia (94). The mixture of crops and animals tends to discourage the spread of pest and disease infesta- Polyculture.—Concurrent mixed cropping of tions, and the multi-story plant canopy de- two or more crops on a unit of land is the form creases erosion, increases capture of solar of most traditional agriculture in the U.S.-affil- energy for photosynthesis, and shades and iated islands. A common form of polyculture cools the soil. The varied geometry of root sys- is intercropping, the planting of two or more tems exploits the soil profile and nutrients more crops together at the same time by row, strip, fully than monoculture systems. Overall pro- or in a seemingly random mixture. Another duction per unit of land often is higher than form is relay cropping, with a second crop be- in monoculture systems, although the yield of ing planted into the original crop before the lat- individual crops per land unit may be lower ter’s harvest. This allows growth of a second (30,115). crop without tillage. The increased variety of crops and livestock, Agroforestry–a mixture of annual and woody as well as beneficial interactions between differ- perennial species, sometimes including animals ent species result in a more sustainable agri- —is the basis of traditional agriculture in the cultural system than monoculture (94). Also, Pacific. Agroforestry systems depend on crea- because polyculture outputs closely approxi- tion and maintenance of a multistoried, semi- mate local consumption requirements, there permanent stable system. The productivity of also is inherent stability in the market or pat- the system is based on the positive interactions tern of demand, in contrast to the instability between the plants (and between plants and ani- characteristic of internationally sensitive mals) giving the farmer a continuous food sup- monoculture markets (e.g., sugar, copra) (56). ply over the long term (94). Finally, some farmers may practice polycultures not only because they are traditional in Alley or avenue cropping is another form of the islands but because the farmers are willing agroforestry which consists of planting trees, to sacrifice some amount of product yield and usually a fast-growing, nitrogen-fixing legume quality to save in expenditures on fertilizers and species in rows, with annual crops planted in pesticides (80). the alleys or avenues. The deep-rooted trees, which act as nutrient pumps and erosion bar- Polyculture has not been developed for large- riers, are pruned at short intervals and the prun- scale commercial agriculture mainly because ings are plowed into the alleys as green manure. it does not lend itself well to mechanization or increased fertilizer and pesticide inputs. Poly- A complex form of polyculture is “Energy culture systems also require more research, Integrated Farming” or “Biogenic Farming. ” planning, and management than monoculture These systems incorporate livestock production if they are to become fully competitive with with algae and fish ponds, annual and tree crop monoculture in the short-term, since several production, and a biogas digester, the effluent different crops must be cared for on the same of which is used as fertilizer and irrigation land unit (94). 164 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Emphasizes or Incorporates systems to minimize weeds and pest infesta- Perennial Crops tion and to maintain soil fertility. This is not In addition to incorporating a number of crop to say that crop yield per land unit cannot be species and varieties, traditional agricultural as high as those in temperate systems, in fact systems commonly are comprised of crops with biomass yields may be higher due to the year- staggered planting and harvest periods. Peren- round growing season. However, the primary nial crops, usually shrub or tree crop species, goal of these systems is to derive as many ben- are typical members of traditional polyculture efits as possible from natural actions and inter- systems. Although developing a traditional Ya- actions, thus reducing input and labor costs of pese agroforest or “tree garden” may take years, managing the systems to produce goods for hu- once established relatively little input is re- man consumption or sale. quired for their maintenance and food and other products can be harvested essentially in perpetuity. Developing a modern agroforest, in Emphasizes Recycling of Locally which species’ spacing is carefully planned and Available Nutrients individuals are planted rather than allowed to Traditional agriculture in the islands relied volunteer, can take considerably less time. heavily on infusions of green manures to pro- Most major tropical “plantation crops” also vide plant nutrients to infertile soils. Agricul- are perennial crops, such as coconuts, coffee, tural inputs are derived from composted leaves and cacao. Permanent crops are estimated to and other organic materials and manures, or even from dried starfish or rotted sea cucum- occupy at least 8 percent of the total arable area in developing countries (69). One of the most ber (22,102). On resource-poor islands such as widely grown tropical tree crops is the coco- atolls, the ubiquitous coconut fronds and husks are used to supplement the meager organic mat- nut palm, covering some 15 million acres, although it is mostly grown on smallholdings in ter content of soils for crop cultivation (102). In recent years, introduced agriculture imple- densely populated areas (69). Smallholders commonly intercrop coconuts with annual crops ments and chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) during the early stages of plantation establish- also have been incorporated into the traditional ment, but modern plantations generally main- cultivation systems. tain their traditional characteristics: “monocultural production of an export crop, extensive Reliable information on the types, amounts, and availability of various organic wastes use- and, in some cases, underutilization of land, ful for improving the productivity of agricul- and a high manual labour input” (69). With increasing populations and the need for inten- tural soils is lacking on many islands. Success- ful planning and implementation of organic sification of land uses, planners and policy- recycling programs requires such information makers are increasing their attention to the as a first step. Several common types of waste potential of integrating plantation crops, an- that can be used are: 1) animal manure; 2) crop nual crops, livestock raising, and forestry (69). residues and cut vegetation; 3) algae, seagrasses Emphasizes Optimization of Components and marine animal products (e.g., starfish, sea Rather Than Maximization of Yield cucumber); 4) sewage sludge; 5) food processing wastes (e.g., rum brewery byproducts); 6) A sustainable tropical agricultural system organic industrial wastes (e.g., some pharma- places primary emphasis on maximizing agro- ceutical wastes); 7) logging and wood manu- ecosystem stability through managing biotic in- facturing wastes; and 8) municipal refuse. In- teractions and minimizing demand for human formation is needed on the quantity currently and industrial inputs (42). For example, inter- generated, present and potentially competitive cropping and crop and field rotations are com- uses, value as fertilizer, and problems and con- monly practiced in tropical subsistence farming straints affecting use. Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and forestry “ 165

Emphasizes Incremental Changes 3. Commercial smallholder: Individual or From Extant Systems family member(s) producing solely or substantially for the market. Commercial small- Although farm size, type of technologies ap- holders typically are full-time producers plied, and farming goals are not directly related, who derive their principal livelihood from agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands can be farming. Commodities are normally pro- classified into four general types that make up duced using modern technology. The range a continuum of farming systems: of crops is much narrower than for the sub- 1. Subsistence smallholder: Family (or clan) sistence smallholder. The commercial member(s) producing solely for family con- smallholder may have a few wage employ- sumption, although “surplus” commodi- ees, but most would rely solely on unpaid ties may be sold. Traditional cropping or family labor. gathering techniques commonly are used, 4. Large-scale commercial farming: Usually and the number of crops produced is usu- is characterized by significant investment al1y greater than in commercial smallhold- in operation, and use of paid wage and sal- ing systems. ary workers. Ownership commonly would 2. Semicommercial smallholder: Individual be corporate in form, with production or family members regularly producing using modern, high-input technology. Out- commodities for the market, but only on put per unit of land or labor would tend a part-time basis. Farming mayor may not to be much higher than for smallholder be regularly directed to home consumption agriculture. (farmer may have a full-time wage job in “Large-scale” commercial farming on the is- the money economy). Commodities may or 2 lands is not large by U.S. standards (tables 6-4 may not be produced using modern tech- and 6-5). In the United States, farms average nology. 416 acres acres (132), whereas in the U.S.-affiliated islands large farms can be considered those 2Modern technology is defined to be the package of practices with more than 50 acres in the Caribbean and (agronomic methods and procedures, as well as use of labor and more than 20 acres in the Pacific. Small farms material inputs) developed by scientifically based institutions [experiment stations, agriculture departments, specialized in- in the United States can be defined as those stitutes) for use in tropical and semitropical areas. A package selling less than $20,000 worth of agricultural of practices relates to a given farm commodity or enterprise, products in one year (119). While 8.5 percent and tends to be unique to a particular region. Packages of practices based on modern technology enable a farmer to obtain yields of Puerto Rican farms exceed this, under this maximized with respect to the scarcest resource (e.g., per acre definition, virtually all farms in the USVI and per crop, if land is scarce; per manhour, if labor is scarce) (43). the Pacific islands can be considered small.

Table 6-4.—Comparison of U.S. Mainland and Island Farm Sizes by Acreages

Farm size (acres) United Statesa Puerto Ricob USVlc Guamd American Samoae CNMlf Less than 10...... 8.3% (187,643) 45.5% (9,837) 62.4% (189) 93.8% (1,868) 94.7% (1,260) 66.9% (200) 10-19 ...... (included below) 21.1% (4,554) 10.6% (32) 3.2% (63) 3.6% (48) 18.4% (55) 20-49 ...... 20.0% (449,184) 18.2% (3,937) 11.2% (34) 1.8% (36) 1.3% (17) 8.0% (24) 50-99 ...... 15.3% (343,715) 7.2% (1,549) 5.9% (18) 1.3% (25)g 0.5% (6)g 6.7% (20)g 100-174 ...... 16.4% (367,734)h 3.0% (658) 4.0% (12) 175-259 ...... 9.4% (211,384)i 1.7% (372) 1.7% (5) 260 and more . . . . . 30.3% (679,640) 3.3% (712) 4.3% (13)

aSOURCES: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Summary, vol. 1, part 51, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). bU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agrculture; Puerto Rico, vol. 1, part 52, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). CU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: U.S. Virgin Islands, vol. 1, part 54, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). dU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Censis 1982 Census of Agriculture: Guam, vol. 1, part 53, (Washington DC: US. Government Printing Office, 1983). eU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: American Samoa, vol. 1, part 55, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981). fU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: Northern Mariana Islands, vol. 1, part 58, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981). gData include farms with 100 to 179 acres. hData include farms with 50 acres or more. iData include farms with 180 to 259 acreSs 166 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Table 6-5.—Comparison of Farm Sizes by Sales Class

Value of sales United Statesa Puerto Ricob USVIc Guamd American Samoa CNMI $1 to $99...... (included below) n/a 2.3% (6) 13.2% (45) n/a n/a $100 to $499 ...... (included below) 9.0 ”/0 (1,964)” 25.7% (68) 31.9% (109) $500 to $1,199 ...... (included below) 33.2% (7,236) 26.0% (69) 15.5% (53) $1,200 to $2,499 ...... 23.9% (536,437) 20.5% (4,474) 20.4% (54) 12.9% (44) f $2,500 to $4,999 ...... 12.4% (278,208) 15.1% (3,293) 10.2% (27) 26.9% (92) $5,000 to $7,499 ...... 7.50/0 (168,483) 6.0% (1,302) 3.0% (8) $7,500 to $9,999 ...... 5.0% (1 13,319) 3.0% (651) 1.5% (4) g $10,000 to $19,999 ...... 11.5% (259,007) 4.8% (1,043) 10.9% (29) $20,000 to $39,999 ...... 11.1% (248,825) 2.4% (529) $40,000 to $59,999 ...... 6.6% (148,272) 0.9% (190) $60,00 or more...... 21.6% (484,859) 5.2% (1,138) SOURCES: aU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Summary,vol. 1, part 51 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). bU.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture; Puerto Rico, vol. 2, part 52 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). c U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture; U.S. Virgin Islands, vol. 1, part 54 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). d U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Guam, vol. 1, part 53 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). elncludes all farms in sales class less than $499. flncludes all farms with sales of $2,500 or more. glncludes all farms with sales of $10,000 or more.

Even the definitions used by the U.S. Bureau tence agriculture, forestry and fisheries in 1980 of the Census reflect the wide disparity in farm (49), and 38 percent of gross domestic product sizes between the United States mainland and in the FSM was attributable to the subsistence the islands. Farms in the States are defined as sector in 1983. In Palau, an estimated 20 per- a place that produces and sells, or normally cent of the 1976 work force was in subsistence would have sold, at least $1,000 worth of agri- agriculture and fishing, and many in the wage cultural products per year (132). Enumeration economy farmed on a part-time basis for home in Puerto Rico covers: consumption (43]. . . . all places from which $500 or more of agri- Truly sustainable agriculture probably should cultural products were sold, or normally would represent an integration of traditional tech- have been sold, during the 12-month period, . . niques with modern scientific theory and with [and] places of 10 cuerdas (9.7 acres) or more modern technologies. Progress will ultimately from which $100 or more of agricultural prod- depend on the development of technology and ucts were sold, or normally would have been understanding of the fundamental processes sold (135). underlying soil fertility (42). Farms in the USVI include all those with 3 acres or more on which any field or forage crops or POTENTIAL STRATEGY: vegetables were harvested, livestock managed or having 10 or more poultry, and places of less Support Nonmarket Agriculture than 3 acres if agricultural sales amounted to Traditional cultural practices are labor- and at least $100 (133). In Guam, a farm is: nature-intensive, maximizing the use of local a place on which any crop, vegetable, or fruit resources and mimicking the local natural envi- was harvested or gathered during 1982, or on ronment. In the U.S. Pacific islands, a variety which there was any livestock or 15 or more of subsistence crop cultivation systems are poultry at the time of enumeration (134). practiced including root crop cultivation, agro- The amount of marketed agricultural produce forestry, and backyard or home garden agri- is small relative to total food consumption in culture. These systems have been adapted to varying island environmental conditions. all the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands; most farming is of subsistence and semicommercial scale. Traditional cropping practices in many U.S. Approximately 3,000 persons in the Marshall Pacific islands are strongly rooted in the socio- Islands were estimated to be active in subsis- cultural practices of the communities. Some Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 167 crops and animals play an important role in these time-tested traditional systems because traditional exchanges. In Micronesia, specially they incorporate certain resource conservation cultivated taro and yams, and pigs are prepared practices and operate on a sustainable basis for significant social and cultural events such suitable for islands (22). as births, marriages, funerals, dedication cere- monies, and for traditional feasts (22,94,108). On the other hand, although these practices In urban centers these traditional practices are are well suited to island conditions, crop yields gradually disappearing. may not meet the needs of increasing populations on some islands. Traditional root crop cul- Although subsistence farming sometimes tivation has been gradually abandoned in re- may not result in highly uniform yield, it pro- cent years because it is labor-intensive and vides a number of benefits: relatively low returns are no longer compati- stable system producing on a sustainable ble with social and cultural aspirations among basis; young farmers. Because most modern agricul- ecologic compatibility with the local envi- tural systems are heavily dependent on im- ronment; ported agrichemicals and have been economi- beneficial environmental services (e.g., soil cally unstable and ecologically unsustainable, stabilization, habitat protection); in the long run, subsistence agriculture systems compatibility with local culture and land probably will not disappear on the islands. They tenure systems; are likely to persist to the greatest extent in sit- high crop diversity and phased harvest en- uations in which capital is not readily available hance nutrition; and to farmers or where islanders consider subsis- generally does not depend on costly and tence agriculture practices a manifestation of often unreliable imported resources a-rid in- their cultural identity. puts (e.g., agrichemicals, feed, spare parts, equipment, experts). No consistent measure of nonmarket production has been derived for the separate territo- Subsistence farming systems are gradually ries. Indicators of agricultural production both abandoned and generally neglected by young entering and not entering the money economies farmers because these systems are considered of U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, are listed in inferior and may involve excessive manual table 6-6. The terms subsistence and commer- work, However, much can be learned from cial (or market) agriculture are used in a gen-

Table 6“6.—lndicators of Subsistence and Commercial Agricultural Production in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

Measures of Measures of production Islands subsistence production for the market American Samoa ...... 1,405 acres (81%) in subsistence 330 acres in commercial crops crops Guam ...... More than 1,000 family gardens, 85 commercial farms usually <5 acres <5 acres Northern Marianas . . . . . Approximately 20°/0 of total Approximately 80°/0 of total production is for home production is for market consumption MarshalI Islands ...... n/a n/a Federated States of Micronesia. ... , ., . ..$40.59 million is imputed value Market production valued at of subsistence agriculture and $4.32 million fisheries Palau ...... n/a n/a SOURCE: R. Lucas, “Role of Smallholders in Agricultural Development in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986 168 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas eral sense, but the specific island context is im- This was accompanied by a concurrent increase portant. For example, in Guam, nonmarket in dependence on food stamps (22). production is largely of the home garden vari- Without conscious efforts to protect currently ety but, except for scale and use of machinery, functioning traditional agriculture systems, lo- the technology for producing commodities does cal production of food can be expected to de- not differ substantially from the commercial crease. With increases in prices and popula- grower whose output is marketed. Virtually all tion, nutritional problems may be expected to Guamanian households area part of the money result (110,111). Another byproduct would be economy, and few depend on farming for the the loss of Micronesia’s genetic heritage: the food they eat. In contrast, in an area such as wealth of adapted varieties of food plants and Palau, subsistence farming typically not only other species developed over a great many years means use of a different technology but also, by ancestors of the present generation. Further, for many families, is the main source of the fa- the collective body of traditional knowledge re- mily’s food (43). lating to the use of island resources could be Little true subsistence agriculture exists in lost (22). the U.S. Caribbean. However, rural and urban Consideration of development project im- backyard gardens are common in Puerto Rico pacts on currently functioning agricultural sys- and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and several groups tems could be made prior to investment, fol- practice a sophisticated combination of subsis- lowed by actions to mitigate adverse impacts. tence and semicommercial agriculture. For example, road construction has altered drainage patterns and affected water circula- Opportunity: Project Currently tion in some taro patches. In some cases the Functioning Traditional Agriculture impact is obvious: the taro becomes buried in Systems silt. In other cases the microbiology of the sub- Without a conscious effort to retain existing strate is changed, generally towards more an- food producing systems, it is likely some tradi- aerobic conditions (22). This is particularly im- tional practices and varieties will become rare portant on islands where government economic or disappear. Because present-day Microne- development strategies favor nonagricultural sians have inherited relatively self-sustaining sectors which will eventually lead to competi- food production systems developed by more tion for and encroachment on agricultural lands dense populations of their ancestors, compla- (56). cency about continued maintenance presents a danger; without inputs, even relatively sta- Opportunity Support and Increase ble systems will run down. For example, the Backyard Agriculture productive lifespan of a coconut tree is about Backyard or home gardens, as the name in- 60 years; under good conditions, breadfruit dicates, are located immediately adjacent to trees produce for about 50 years (103). These permanent dwellings. Backyard agriculture is plant lifespans are close to the productive years widely practiced in Pacific and Caribbean is- of each human generation. If present-day island lands and it maybe considered as an adjunct populations do not do their part to maintain to subsistence and semicommercial agriculture. the systems, the next generation may not real- Except for scale, many characteristics of sub- ize what it had until it’s gone (22). sistence agriculture systems apply to backyard Many traditional systems already are declin- gardening. Generally it is characterized by ing. On Guam, for example, the percentage of mixed cropping of a variety of trees and short- persons involved in fishing and farming de- term crops, high crop diversity, and labor-inclined from 90 percent in 1941 to 6 percent in tensive cultivation of a small plot of ground 1950 to less than 1 percent in 1970. The tradi- (commonly less than 1 acre). In general, pro- tional lancho system has declined precipitously. duce from backyard gardening is for subsis- Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 169

greenhouses, shadehouses, or even hydroponics (10). On some islands where agricultural production costs or land values are high, backyard gardening is popular for part-time, semicommercial cultivation of vegetables and fruits. Backyard gardening is popular in the USVI because it requires low capital investment, is suitable for small parcels of land, affords little economic risk, and provides flexibility in choice of crops or cultivation methods to meet changing local market conditions (16). Backyard gardening, in general, is highly Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment adaptable and can be implemented under vary- Although more intensive than other traditional ing environmental conditions and social set- cultivation methods, backyard gardens also commonly tings (51). Backyard gardening has a number rely on minimal soil disturbance and locally available of characteristics making it suitable for the U. S.- materials such as these bamboo trellises. affiliated islands including: tence use, although surplus crops or certain ● flexible technology adaptable to varying cash crops (e. g., spices and herbs) sometimes physical, social, and environmental con- are sold. As in subsistence field cropping, back- ditions; yard gardening activities have few market con- ● useful for subsistence, semicommercial, straints. However, in cultures based on extended and some intensive commercial ventures; family sharing, backyard subsistence gardens ● generally little capital outlay required; may effectively reduce the market for commer- ● generally little economic risk; cial farmers’ products (63,80). ● could be applied in rural and urban settings; ● little land area needed; Backyard gardening in rural areas commonly ● simple agricultural methods are applicable; is an extension of subsistence cropping and ● varied choices in use of agriculture inputs backyard gardens may serve as a convenient (e.g., organic composts, agrichemicals); recycling site for organic wastes. They also may ● variety of crops can be grown; and serve as trial plots of wild plants or new crop ● provides flexibility in switching crops or varieties grown under reasonably controlled cultivation methods to meet changing de- conditions (22,110,152). Where space is limited mands or market conditions. or when the soil is extremely poor, crops can be cultivated in containers. When good soil is not available, chopped up fibers from coconut Opportunity: Enhance Game Wildlife husks and fronds mixed with fertilizer, com- Management Practices post, or animal wastes can be used as substrate Proper management of game may enhance in container cultivation for vegetables (46). supplemental food supply and nutrition of is- Backyard gardening in urban areas may con- land inhabitants. Depending on the island, wild tribute significantly to supplementing diets of game may include feral pigs, goats, and deer, wage earners. It also may improve the nutri- pigeons, fruitbats, and land crabs. Apart from tional and economic well-being of increasing regulating the harvesting of game, appropriate numbers of urban dwellers (110). In recent resource management such as setting aside years, primarily in urban areas, backyard hunting preserves is essential in order to man- gardens are becoming commercialized. Some age and maintain game species populations. In backyard gardeners use drip irrigation systems, addition to allowing management and harvest 170 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas of game populations, restriction of some of subsistence, semicommercial and part-time these animals, particularly feral goats and deer, farmers in the U.S.-affiliated islands, and is to carefully defined areas can protect indige- likely to be more compatible with the present nous vegetation from overgrazing. land tenure systems than would be a policy of Other methods, such as introduction of cer- promoting large-scale farming. Smallholders tain species to uninhabited islands or wildlife also tend to produce a large range of commodi- ranching of certain species, are ways of sup- ties which may mitigate some marketing con- plementing local food supplies. Traditional straints in small size markets. If increased practices, still adhered to on some Pacific is- market supply were in import substitution com- lands, commonly include rules and restrictions modities that could be profitably sold at lower that conserve resources. For example, small prices than the competing products, commodity uninhabited islands are set aside as sanctuaries prices would be reduced. where turtles and sea birds, and their eggs, can Semicommercial farming could provide op- be harvested at certain times and in certain portunities to increase income for part-time quantities. However, these practices are declin- farmers or to generate cash incomes for sub- ing in effectiveness as traditional values and sistence farmers. Introduction of new technol- authorities are disappearing (40). ogies or new crops to extant semicommercial Today, on most islands, local governments agriculture systems could increase income, regulate the harvesting and management of yield, and make more efficient use of islands’ game species. Generally, they cover three areas: scarce resources. Furthermore, introduction of endangered species, hunting laws, and pro- semicommercial farming systems may become tected habitats. Endangered species protection an effective method for relatively unsophisti- laws commonly involve a fine for violation. For cated subsistence farmers to gradually learn the example, the CNMI Endangered Species Code, operation of commercial farming systems. based on the U.S. Endangered Species Act of Among the three types of smallholder agri- 1973, carries a fine of $2,000 or imprisonment culture (subsistence, semicommercial and com- for a maximum of 30 days or both for illegal mercial), competition for resources is not likely taking of species listed under the act. Hunting to be a concern. Moreover, the three types of laws may establish harvest quota limits, restric- agriculture have many characteristics in com- tions based on size or sex for certain species, mon, such as relatively modest acreage require- and provide for exemptions if it is determined ments per operation, generally heavy reliance that curtailment of harvest of restricted fish and on family labor, and significantly less capital game may result in hardship or malnutrition requirements per operation compared with to the taker or his/her immediate family. How- large-scale agriculture. ever, such regulations are generally difficult to enforce. In some cases, especially on small is- Smallholder development policies could seek lands where extended family ties remain strong, to achieve a gradual transition from nonmar- violations carry little sanction.3 ket production to semicommercial and, ultimately, to commercial agriculture. For example, policies could seek to raise productivity in POTENTIAL STRATEGY: the subsistence sector, particularly in outlying Develop Smallholder Agriculture areas which have arable land but lack trans- Development of smallholder agriculture port and other infrastructure needed for market would take advantage of the already existing access. Concurrently, efforts could be initiated to strengthen urban markets for the products 3For example, on one United Nations Day celebration on Yap, of semicommercial farmers, and to develop a Palauan fisherman whose catch included a turtle won first prize in the spear-fishing contest, even though it was against the law more productive packages of practices for to kill turtles at that time of year (20). selected import substitution commodities (43). —

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 171

Opportunity: Enhance Existing Nonmarket eties are recognized in the Marshall Islands and Semicommercial Systems (104), One high-yielding, tall coconut (“thifow”), originally from Yap, produces twice as much Many constraints to resource management copra as the commonly grown variety. This va- and development do not limit production to pro- riety has been successfully introduced to other vide for personal needs and sharing, while they Micronesia islands including the Marshalls do limit commercial development. This suggests an initial strategy of encouraging produc- (86). tion to meet family needs and, once these are Prior to introduction of varieties from out- met, surplus production may be marketed. Of side Micronesia, an effort could be made to col- course, should employment in nonagricultural lect and maintain existing varieties.4 These va- sectors remain stagnant, then satisfying ex- rieties may be directly transferable among tended family needs would effectively satisfy Micronesia islands and can provide germ- the market (63). plasm for cultivar improvement programs. The primary goal of enhancing existing non- Screening systems and facilities for tissue cul- market agricultural systems would be to in- ture probably are needed to ensure provision of disease-free planting material (22). crease productivity so that surplus could be marketed. In this way, the farmer would earn New cultivars could be developed that effec- income and learn the skills needed for commer- tively extend the growing season of seasonal cial agriculture. Methods of increasing nonmar- crops. In addition, unusual climatological ket agricultural productivity include introduc- events, such as the 1982-83 El Niño, have ing improved cultivars of traditional crops and been related to gaps in yearly food production assisting women gardeners. In addition to on some islands. With improved predictabil- these, a number of methods and crops have ity of weather patterns, new cultivars and new been introduced successfully on some islands technologies might be developed to fill some for semicommercial operations. Methods of en- of these gaps. hancing extant semicommercial systems in- Assist Women Farmers.—Women are the clude: improving cultural practices for cash agriculturists on many Pacific islands. Exten- cropping, promoting underutilized crops and sion services directed to collecting and dissem- animals, introducing suitable new crops, and introducing new technologies. inating information to these women could complement more traditional technology transfer Introduce Suitable Improved Cultivars Into systems. Women extension agents might speed Extant Systems.—Specialization in agricultural this process. Methods of assisting these women systems and in culture of various crops is found with childcare also could increase time avail- within Micronesia islands and in other tropi- able for production and for passing on their ex- cal areas. Information exchanges among these perience to other women (22). groups could provide much useful information (22). Similarly, although little is known about Improve Culture of Current Cash Crops.— Most cash crops currently grown on tropical ethnobotanical crops or cultivation practices islands are perennial: coconut, coffee, cacao, in the U.S. Caribbean, identification of local and sugarcane, Research efforts for many of cultivars and information exchange with non- these tropical “plantation crops” have resulted U.S. Caribbean islands could prove beneficial. in considerable yield increases (e. g., rubber, In Micronesia, a number of local crop vari- “the average yield of which has increased over eties have been introduced from island to is- seventeenfold in a century”). On the other hand, land. For example, varieties of coconut are rec- the yield of crops like the coconut palm has re- ognized from the size, shape, and color of the nut; number of nuts per bunch; flavor of the 4Mechanisms to maintain crop and livestock varieties and wild plants and animals are assessed in an OTA report on Technol- coconut milk and meat; and tree sizes (86). At ogies To Maintain Biological Diversify, OTA-F-330 (Washing- least seven tall and four dwarf coconut vari- ton, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1987) (118). 172 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas —

mained low (69). This is due to a lack of research Many stands of coconuts in the U.S.-affiliated attention and, in part, to lack of maintenance Pacific islands, and particularly in the Mar- by island smallholders. shalls, were planted during the German administration of the islands and are now senescent. For example, although copra production rep- Little planned replanting is occurring. Although resents the only major cash crop for most Pa- technologies to improve coconut production cific islands, very little regular maintenance are available, people are reluctant to replant and replanting is practiced. In the Marshalls, for several reasons: brush growing between coconut palms occasionally is cleared and burned along with fallen 1. the substantial investment of time and ef- coconut fronds and accumulated husks, al- fort required, though commonly they remain on the ground 2. the length of time before trees bear fruit for considerable periods of time. These provide (5 to 7 years), breeding sites for the Rhinoceros beetle, rats, 3. unattended nuts will sprout and grow by and mosquitos. Fertilizers are not used, and old themselves, trees are not thinned. New trees are planted 4. the government is likely to provide superior only in conjunction with government programs seednuts and replanting assistance (86), which subsidize the planting by providing seed- 5. in some cases it is more lucrative to plant nuts and mechanized equipment (86). Inade- short-term crops than to plant coconuts quate maintenance of coconut palms and re- (63), and planting programs results in reduced yields. substantial migration from outer islands makes it uncertain whether planters will Since coconut palms have a very long eco- be able to collect benefits of replanting (13). nomic life (60 years), understory cover man- Yet, techniques as simple as changing spacing agement is critical. Manual clearing or control from a rectangular to a triangular arrangement using herbicides generally are expensive or im- may substantially increase yield per acre (86). practical. An alternative would be to keep livestock under coconut palms to graze understory Promote Underutilized Crops and Animals.– vegetation or to intercrop coconut with other Every island has indigenous or naturalized spe- crops. Well-managed intercropping increases cies, either gathered from the wild or raised the productivity of the land, improves income in small farms, that have been used tradition- distribution over time, increases return on in- ally for food, fuel, medicine, livestock feed, con- vestment, and thus may increase farm income struction, fiber, and other purposes. These po- (100). It could also increase employment. In tentially marketable resources may be ignored some instances, pastures under coconuts can by some planners in favor of introduced “west- be improved by fertilization or planting nitro- ern” crops, livestock breeds, and methods (121). gen-fixing plants such as Centrosema pubes- In recent years, however, there is renewed in- cens, Desmodium trifolium, and shade-tolerant terest in the potential for developing such re- grasses. sources (22,40,76,94). Although no accurate copra production fig- Many crops and animals now found on U. S.- ures are available for U.S.-affiliated islands, it affiliated islands were introduced after west- generally is lower than yields in Asian coun- ern contact. Many have adapted to the local tries. For example, about 6,000 nuts are re- environment and are now considered local required to produce one short ton of copra in the sources, including crops such as sweet potato, Marshall Islands (86) as compared to only 4,000 cassava, papaya, mango, and soursop; and ani- nuts in the Philippines (35). Low yield is partly mals such as goat, deer, water buffalo, and due to improper maintenance or lack of main- rabbit. tenance, and partly due to the use of low-yield- Systematic introduction of crops reached its ing coconut varieties. peak during the Japanese administration in Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 173

Micronesia. A total of 157 varieties of plants tivation and harvest, and 3) ease of processing producing food, medicinal, and fiber crops and transport (43). Pohnpei black pepper, which were field-tested in Palau; 88 varieties remained has these characteristics has been successfully after World War 11 (53). Crops include cassava, exported in small quantities to the U.S. gour- pineapple, jackfruit, limes, oranges, groundnut, met market; potential exists for increased pro- soybean, coffee, cacao, clove, nutmeg, cinna- duction. Other high-value crops that appear mon, teak, mahogany, ebony, and others, some suitable to the Micronesia high islands include of which are still present today. Mahogany clove, cacao, cinnamon, nutmeg, vanilla, cashew planted during the Japanese period has largely nuts, and coffee (126,127,128,129,130). All are replaced native hardwood (ifil) used in tradi- present in the islands (25). tional woodcarvings (storyboards). Other crops have potential to provide marketable products Introduction of new crops and animals must be carefully weighed against potential undesira- Benefits are obtained from using indigenous ble effects on the local environment. For ex- or naturalized plants and animals because they ample, introduction of nitrogen-fixing plants are adapted to the local environment conditions generally is considered favorable because they and stresses. For example, indigenous crops provide an essential nutrient usable by other have adapted to local soil types, climate, and plants, are fast growing, and can grow on mar- terrain and animals have adapted to local food ginal lands. However, giant Leucaena, because sources. These indigenous species are efficient it grows so rapidly, can effectively outcompete users of minimal available resources, and also and shade out other, desirable species (22). tend to be resistant to local diseases and pests. Thus, using indigenous crop and animal spe- POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Integrate cies adapted to suit the local environment can Characteristics of Traditional effectively replace some inputs (e.g., pesticides) Agriculture Into More which are designed to change the environment to suit the crops or animals (121). Productive Systems Some indigenous plants offer opportunities “Neotraditions” of resource use may, in some for commercial-scale development if markets cases, be suitable for fulfilling local and ex- are available. For these, improved cultivation tended family needs, thus allowing sale of sur- methods to increase production may be eco- plus production in local markets. These would nomically justified. However, to develop the po- involve technologies adapted, via a combina- tential of native plants, more effort needs to be tion of traditional knowledge and experience devoted to identifying potentially valuable spe- and modern science, to today’s conditions (22). cies (121). This would require evaluation of existing systems to determine which characteristics en- Introduce Suitable New Cash Crops.—Cash hance their productivity and sustainability. Few crops (i. e., crops usually providing raw mate- data currently are available on the productivity rials for processed products and grown primar- or even extent of traditional agriculture sys- ily to generate income) can be cultivated on is- tems. One attempt was made to census tradi- lands for either local or export markets. Local tional agriculture production in Micronesia crop varieties generally are preferable to sup- (116), but the results are unreliable (22).5 ply local markets, because they are palatable to the local taste and have a number of advan- Once existing production systems have been tages over introduced crops (22). However, in- evaluated, they can be compared with other sys- troduced cash crops can provide the means to tems and enhanced as needed. Comparisons develop export products. of caloric and other inputs and production by

Characteristics of crops providing products 5Planning for Micronesia agroforestry and subsistence agri- suitable for export markets include: 1) high cultural systems research is underway at the University of Guam value of product per unit weight, 2) ease of cul- (45). 174 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

extant and introduced technologies could in- western Puerto Rico, sampled in 1959, con- dicate technologies which could be improved tained shade, fruit, and valuable timber species and evaluate needs for new technology. Con- (114). Charcoal, prepared from annual shade currently, guidelines for development that tree prunings had a value of $3 million and ac- would assure at least sustainability of a subsis- counted for over half of the total charcoal tence base of resource uses and foster sustaina- produced on the island in 1949 (106). The cof- bility of economic development projects are fee “forest” production system was probably needed (22). the start of modern agroforestry practices in Puerto Rico. Other agroforestry technologies Several common characteristics of traditional practiced in Puerto Rico include coconut/pas- systems might be integrated with modern prac- ture in coastal regions, mangoes/papaya, plan- tices to arrive at more productive, sustainable tains and bananas intercropped with rootcrops systems. Two of these are interplanting trees with crops and incorporating animals in crop- and citron (87). ping systems. In the Virgin Islands, with the exception of bay tree plantations, traditional subsistence agroforestry incorporated root crops; vegeta- Opportunity: Incorporate Trees in bles; fruit trees; livestock; and forest species Cropping Systems for charcoal, firewood, and construction. The Agroforestry is a collective name for land- most prevalent type of subsistence agroforestry is found in backyard gardens, which typi- use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, etc.) are used on the cally have a mixture of perennial fruit tree crops same land management unit as nonwoody interplanted with short-term food crops. A more specialized agroforestry system is prac- crops or animals. In agroforestry systems there ticed by French farmers who grow herbs and are both ecological and economic interactions spices along with fruit trees that serve as wind- between the different components. The goal is to achieve an efficient use of space, to optimize breaks and mark field (87). crop combinations so as to maximize overall productivity, to optimize the ecological balance Opportunity: Incorporate Animals in Cropping Systems of the system and, at the same time, to achieve a sustainable yield (121). In addition to prod- A primary means of increasing and enhanc- ucts derived from agroforests, agroforestry sys- ing local food production is by incorporating tems serve as sanctuaries for wild plants and livestock in small-scale cropping systems. Is- animals and provide recreation areas. Agro- land livestock generally are of mixed breed, forestry also can retain much of the flood and resistant to diseases and parasites, and suited erosion control services provided by forested to island environments. watersheds, thereby protecting the productivity of the land. On some islands, particularly in the FAS, chickens, pigs and, more rarely, goats may be Traditional Pacific agriculture largely is allowed to roam and forage in or near villages. based on tree crops and on preserving the envi- On more developed islands such as in Puerto ronmental services of trees in cropping systems. Rico, Guam, Saipan, and the USVI, free-roam- Commonly, only small areas of land are cleared ing husbandry of animals other than chickens at any one time, forest trees and shrubs are generally is not practiced (9,app. F). selectively cut, and useful plants (producing Free-roaming livestock require minimal care food, medicines, or building materials) are and feeding and, thus, cost little to raise. How- mulched with leaves and twigs of unwanted ever, productivity of free-roaming livestock is species. low compared to yield from more intensively In the Caribbean, Puerto Rico’s shade-coffee raised livestock. Free-roaming livestock also system can be categorized as an intermediate may present a health hazard, by carrying and agroforestry system (121). Several plantings in spreading diseases. Moreover, free-roaming animals can seri- feeding, and waste disposal), which may hin- ously threaten endemic flora and gardens. They der adoption of this technique. Penned animals also can denude island watersheds, causing currently are fed with leftover food, crop serious degradation of “downstream” habitats wastes, and forage such as Leucaena leaves and structures. Most Pacific island vegetation (108), which might otherwise be used as soil did not evolve with herbivore pressure and does amendments and conditioners. However, be- not contain defenses such as thorns, bad taste, cause manures are more decomposed than food or protective alkaloids. Introduced herbivores and crop wastes, their nutrients are more read- may thus feed preferentially on native species ily available to plants. and provide inroads for the loss of native spe- In addition to penning, the yield and effi- cies and spread of exotic vegetation (7). ciency of livestock production can be increased Penning these animals would permit greater by using improved breeds, better feeds, and control of their diets, can provide an easily more intensive husbandry. Although imported, accessible supply of manures for comporting improved breeds may increase production, or direct application to soils, and would pro- most Micronesians prefer local livestock over tect valuable endemic species and natural eco- imported breeds (93). The high costs of both systems. Considerable labor is required to care imported and locally produced feed concen- for penned animals (e.g., feed procurement, trates hamper widespread adoption of this tech- 176 c Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

nique. Since most livestock raised in the U. S.- affiliated Pacific islands are for subsistence use, farmers generally will not invest in processed commercial feed. Little research has been conducted on improving livestock productivity on those islands and much is unknown about its performance under intensive management. Grazing of livestock on pastures grown under coconuts is a major land use activity in many parts of the tropics, especially the Pacific islands (69). Cattle or goats can be raised on natural or managed grasses and legumes. The carrying capacity of both improved and unimproved pastures varies widely depending on the type of forage plants, climate, age and density Photo credit: A. Vargo of the coconut stand, etc. The effects of graz- Increased mechanization appropriate to small-plot ing under coconuts has been studied by the semicommercial and commercial farms, such as roto- Coconut Research Station in Sri Lanka, indicat- tillers, is a goal of agricultural development on most ing that grazing will have no depressive effects U.S.-affiliated islands. on nut yields if fertilizers are applied to both palms and intercrops (69). Primarily because coconut palms are shallow rooting, the poten- opment is generally accomplished through the tial competition for nutrients with other, inter- use of modern technologies and careful selec- planted forage crops is considerable, requiring tion of crops. Technologies range from inten- careful management to maintain high produc- sive field farming to containment of crops in tivity of both. However, where enough land is hydroponics and greenhouse systems. More available to rotate the animals among “fields,” specifically, some techniques used in intensive, goats, in particular, can help to reduce weeds large-scale farming can be adapted to the U. S.- that also compete with coconut palms for nu- affiliated islands, including mechanization, ir- trients. rigation, and agricultural drainage. Mechanization. —Increased mechanization POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Develop gives the farmer the ability to prepare farmland Intensive Commercial Farming with less labor or to farm larger amounts of land. Given islanders’ relatively high wage rates Conditions in the U.S. Pacific and, to a lesser and the difficulties of hard physical labor in extent, in the U.S. Caribbean islands generally tropical areas, mechanization probably will be are not favorable for large-scale commercial an agricultural goal in the U.S. Pacific (94) and agriculture development. Constraints include Caribbean (10). Guam has large areas of flat, relatively poor resource bases, small land areas, well-drained, cleared, and accessible land, as poor and/or expensive transportation services, do Saipan, Tinian, and Rota, which can sup- and relatively high wages compared to labor port large-scale mechanization. Pohnpei and productivity. In addition, land tenure systems Palau and, to some extent, American Samoa in U.S. Pacific islands and high land prices in also have such areas. the U.S. Caribbean islands are not conducive to large-scale commercial development (43,61, Primary tillage—loosening the soil surface to 87,143). disrupt weed growth–by hand is extremely labor-intensive and arduous, and is not a com- Despite these hindrances to commercial agri- mon practice in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific is- culture, some opportunities for development lands. Animal power has been, for the most exist. Profitable commercial agriculture devel- part, bypassed in the U.S. Pacific except for Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry . 177 carabao (a Southeast Asian water buffalo in- agriculture, planting usually coincides with the troduced during Spanish administration) which rainy season, while harvest coincides with the are used mainly for transport. A project to breed dry period. Only Guam, the Northern Marianas, and train carabao in Palau by the TTPI gov- Puerto Rico, and the USVI have developed nota- ernment did not meet with success despite de- ble irrigation systems (61,94). In the U. S.- termination that carabao seemed to be the only affiliated Pacific islands most irrigation systems sensible farm power for hilly, shallow soils and are multiple-user, government-subsidized sys- capital-poor farmers (94). tems (94), while small-scale irrigation systems are common in the Caribbean (59). Small-scale rototillers and tractors have met with some success in the U.S. Pacific islands, Major irrigation technologies are flood, fur- although few farmers own farm machinery. row, sprinkler, and drip irrigation systems. Several farmers on Guam and Saipan own trac- Flood irrigation is practiced in level areas and tors, discs, and boom-sprayers (84). On some is well suited to rice and taro production. This islands, rototillers and other small machinery type of system was practiced by the Japanese are loaned to farmers. Some FSM State Agri- in some areas. Of all the systems however, flood culture Divisions till land for a nominal fee irrigation requires the greatest amount of water, using government equipment. A Pohnpei State and is relatively ineffective on rolling lands. program provides farm clearing and bed prep- Furrow irrigation involves planting on raised aration at subsidized rates of $10 and $6 per beds on level or leveled land and irrigating in hour respectively. This program has been responsible for an estimated 152 farms cleared furrows on each side of the beds. Furrow irrigation seems applicable to the CNMI with large and 10 miles of farm roads completed in 1984 level areas of land where sufficient water stor- alone. Demand is such that farmers may wait age can be developed (94). Furrow irrigation 6 months before they receive machine service has two main drawbacks: high operation costs (94). because more water is pumped than is neces- A 12-horsepower rototiller should be able to sary and low crop yield because water cannot handle up to 5 acres of crops per year, more be applied evenly and at optimum frequency. than sufficient for the average farmer in the U.S. However, in southern Puerto Rico, furrow ir- Pacific, Capital investment in this type of till- rigation helps maintain a stable groundwater age machinery is not prohibitive (about $2,000- balance because excess irrigation water rein- $3,000) and machinery could be purchased co- filtrates the aquifer; the only net loss of water operatively. caused by irrigation is due to evapotranspiration (61). Interestingly, infiltration of irrigation Secondary mechanization—seeders, sprayers, water has provided a greater volume of ground- harvesting equipment, processing equipment, water recharge than rainfall along most of chainsaws, grass-cutters, pumps for irrigation, Puerto Rico’s south coast (28,59). etc. —may need to be tested and made provi- sionally available as agriculture develops. Pri- Sprinkler irrigation is more suited to sloping vate business could eventually be encouraged and hilly lands. The system also is suited to an- to import and sell farm machinery, but the lo- nual, perennial, or polyculture systems. This cal government could do the initial evaluation technology requires a water source, a pump- and selection of suitable equipment. Coopera- ing system and movable pipes with sprinklers. tive ownership, as with the black pepper proc- This system is used to some extent in Guam essing machinery on Pohnpei, may increase the and the CNMI, especially where water is avail- availability of equipment to local farmers (94). able through government irrigation projects (94). Irrigation.— Irrigation services are needed for commercial production on islands experi- Drip or trickle irrigation is the most versa- encing a dry season, such as Puerto Rico, the tile system in that it can be applied to all kinds USVI, Guam, Yap, and the CNMI. In traditional of crops or crop mixtures, on sloping or flat 178 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Construction of irrigation systems in the U. S.- affiliated Pacific islands seems limited to large- scale farm development projects primarily due to the high cost of underlying water storage and distribution systems (94). There are 72 irrigated acres on government land on Tinian made available for farmers during the dry season; Rota has a water system that 20 farmers are using and Kagman Station on Saipan provides irrigation to nearly 35 farmers from a well on the Station grounds. In Guam, municipal water is available to farmers for irrigation at 25 percent of cost, but supplies are insufficient. No other areas have irrigation systems operating at present, although infrastructure—canals and ditches—are still left from the Japanese occupation on some Micronesia islands. Consid- ering the existing situation in U.S.-affiliated islands—lack of water storage and distribution systems, limited capital, and sloping land—drip irrigation seems to hold the greatest possibility for future development (94). Agricultural Drainage.—Although a less common problem than arid lands, some agricultural lands on the high islands, particularly in the Carolines, are constrained by water satu-

Pboto credit: Office of Technology Assessment ration. Because the roots of most cultivated crops will not penetrate saturated soil and oxy- Rainwater is collected from outbuilding rooftops and pumped to a water tower on this Taiwan-sponsored gen uptake is hindered, poor drainage can re- agricultural research station on Majuro (Marshall sult in a shallow root spread and a commen- Islands), using gravity flow to distribute it to the crops surate reduction in plant size, stability, and during dry periods. yield. Water-saturated lands also promote sur- lands, and even in greenhouses. This system face runoff of rainwater, inducing erosion and requires a water source under some pressure increasing the problem of flooding on down- (gravity can be sufficient in some cases) fed into slope land (123). a series of hoses or pipes that have small open- Surface drainage can channel water through ings or drip nozzles feeding water near the base shallow-grassed ditches and into outlets, reduc- of the crop plants. Drip irrigation uses much ing erosion on sloping soils and surface pond- smaller amounts of water than the other sys- ing on flat soils. To lower the water table, sub- tems, and waters only the crop plants, thus re- surface conduits, or tiles, must also be used. ducing weed infestations between crop plants. Drained soils allow surface water to infiltrate Fertilizer and other nutrients can easily be fed the soil, reducing erosion and can help control into the system. No energy or labor is required health hazards to man and livestock such as to move the system once in place, and a bio- mosquito and fly-borne diseases. Drainage of degradable drip hose has been developed in Ha- wet cropland also can enhance crop produc- waii that can be plowed into the field after crop tion significantly; wet soils often have high po- harvest. However, drip irrigation systems are tential productivity because they contain more costly, and water flow must be continually mon- organic matter than soils that are not as wet itored to ensure effectiveness (94). (123). However, drainage has been specifically Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 179 exempted from most USDA cost-sharing pro- icals are not applied properly or in sufficient grams, primarily because of its adverse impacts quantities. Furthermore, supply shortages, sud- on mainland wetland wildlife. Adverse impacts den price increases, changes in credit policies, also could accrue to island endangered species or unreliable transportation services may also such as the Guam Gallinule and migratory contribute to economic instability. High levels waterfowl (113). of agricultural chemicals applied to fields also may contribute to degradation of nearby envi- Opportunity: Intensive SmallhoIder ronments. Commercial Agriculture Agriculture development may be constrained Commercial small-scale farms outnumber by the availability and the willingness of peo- large-scale farms in both the U.S. Pacific and ple to work in agriculture. The number and skill U.S. Caribbean islands. In Puerto Rico, the aver- requirements of agriculture workers required age farm size is 33 acres with an average of 16 for intensive small-scale commercial agricul- acres for each farm worker (37). Commercial ture technologies vary and, thus, different sys- farm size on Puerto Rico’s south coast varies tems have different employment-generating ef- from 25 to 2,000 acres, but only 10 percent are fects. Generally, small-scale farming requires more than 50 acres (135). In the USVI, com- more labor per acre than large-scale farm oper- mercial farm sizes average less than 1 acre per ations. farm, and only three commercial farms in St. Several small-scale commercial agriculture Croix consist of more than 100 acres (61). ventures have been implemented on U.S.-affili- To be competitive in the market place, small- ated islands with varying degrees of success. scale commercial agriculture has to be made Technologies tried include high-input, inten- highly productive, This can be achieved in sev- sive field cropping systems, hydroponics, cul- eral ways: tivation in greenhouse or shadehouse, and intensive backyard gardening. ● increased agricultural inputs in field farming and improved pasture systems; Intensive Field Farming Systems.—A num- • increased efficiency in methods for deliv- ber of improved agricultural practices have ering agriculture inputs (e. g., irrigation, been proven profitable, have increased produc- hydroponics); and tivity, have exhibited reduced soil erosion rates ● cultivation in controlled environments as compared to clean-tilled fields, and have (e.g., greenhouses, shadehouses, soil-less been successfully implemented on islands. Ex- agriculture). amples include intensive “sun-coffee” and plantain cultivation systems in the humid mountain These technologies also are ways to overcome regions of Puerto Rico. constraints posed by land scarcity, high land prices, scarcity of fresh water, unpredictable In the past, coffee was cultivated under shade weather, and pest and disease outbreaks. The trees. However, research has shown that high technologies have several things in common: density plantings of heavily fertilized coffee, capital outlays can be considerable, most re- grown without shade, produces higher yields quire mechanization, and nutrients and energy per acre, and is economically profitable (144). A have to be continuously supplied or replenished government-sponsored rehabilitation program from outside the system. In addition, to imple- for the coffee industry, based on intensive cul- ment the systems successfully, the operator tivation and providing financial assistance for must have both technical and business skills, new plantings, fertilizer, and hurricane insur- and access to skilled labor and market outlets. ance has met with some success. About 10,000 acres of intensively managed sun-coffee now Although increased agricultural inputs com- yield 1,200 to 1,500 pounds/acre. On about 20 monly increases yields, they may not be sus- farms, harvesting is done with plastic nets tainable. Yields may suffer if agricultural chem- rather than by hand; this reduces costs and loss 180 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

of berries and effectively increases production. Intensive cultivation methods apply to semicommercial as well as commercial develop- cao, are being established (143). Vegetables can ment. In recent years, small-scale growing of also be interplanted between plantain rows, at coffee on a part-time basis has become popu- least for the first few months after plantain lar among public servants in Puerto Rico. planting. Using appropriate techniques, plantain cultivation can be compatible with con- As is the case for sun-coffee, plantain can be servation (147). grown in high-density, intensive cultivation, even on relatively steep slopes, using heavy fer- Plantains are suitable for family-size commercial farms in the humid mountain regions of tilization and intercropping (143). In the semiarid areas of Puerto Rico, plantains can be Puerto Rico since they provide a high return, grown commercially year round by employing do not require mechanization and are drought drip irrigation systems. tolerant. About 3.3 million plantains are produced on 15,000 acres, mostly in small farms in Plantain can also be interplanted as a tem- the mountain regions of Puerto Rico, all of porary shade tree and a source of income while which are marketed and consumed locally permanent crops, such as sun-coffee and ca- (143). Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources.’ Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 181

While increased yields are achieved in both sun-coffee and high-density plantain systems, the high levels of agricultural chemicals required may have adverse effects on island water supplies. The cumulative effect of this is not known. It is likely that nutrients levels in rivers and streams will increase due to fertilizer runoff, increasing eutrophication in ponds and streams and, possibly, adversely accelerating spread of aquatic weeds such as the water hyacinth. Increased water hyacinth growth has been associated with such adverse effects as hindering fishing and fish culture, clogging rivers and canals, and increased schistosomi- asis infestations, resulting in increased flood and disease control expenditures (72). Container Agriculture. -Among the most intensive systems of commercial crop production are greenhouse, hydroponics, and container cropping. These production technologies hold the greatest promise in areas where soils are not productive, as in urban areas or on atolls where high alkalinity and saline conditions preclude standard cultivation practices. These technologies also hold promise for cultivation of some high-value crops that are limited by pests and disease. Photo credit” Office of Technology Assessment When yields are calculated on a per-acre ba- Containers for intensive agriculture can take nearly any form and size, although use of abandoned boats for sis, yields from container agriculture are com- container agriculture, such as on Ulithi Atoll (Yap), can monly very high and sometimes sensational. be considered rather unusual. A yield of only 3.5 ounces of edible produce from a 0.1-square-yard pot is approximately Soil fertility must be maintained and as much equal to a yield of 4 tons/acre, a good yield in of the plant as possible must be used to make conventional agriculture. Container agriculture commercial container cropping worthwhile can be used for subsistence or commercial pro- (94). Greenhouses are a special site for container duction of salads, herbs, cooked greens, and agriculture. Plants in greenhouses are protected other vegetables for variety in the diet (50). from wind and driving rain, but may be exposed Small containers suitable for use in urban to high temperatures, high humidities, and in- areas or on atolls, can be derived from old milk festations by insects that find greenhouse con- cartons, plastic garbage bags, cans, tires, and ditions comfortable (50). If care is taken to en- other receptacles as long as containers are 1 sure that enough water is available in the soil, gallon or larger. Containers made from porous excess heat radiated from nearby walls or other materials lose water through evaporation and structures can be reduced by shielding the plants with screen or shade covers. thus, although they may require more frequent watering, are more suitable for plant growth A friable soil is best for container agriculture in the tropics than nonporous materials (50). it has good aeration and drainage, may have Large, permanently located containers allow a high organic content and is likely to relatively use of more conventional techniques for plants free of pests and diseases. Coconut husk fiber grown in the ground. can improve aeration and peat and sphagnum 182 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas moss will increase moisture-holding capacity. season. In the tropics the greenhouse allows Crushed shells (including eggshells), coral or farmers to control irrigation and disease. Crops limestone, and coral beach sand can be added are cultivated in flats or containers to which to neutralize acid soils. water is delivered. Irrigation systems include sprinklers, automatic drip irrigation systems Because relatively small amounts of soil must furnish the nutrients needed in container agri- and, for certain ornamental plants, “plant mist- ing” devices. Many crops cannot be grown un- culture, soil fertility must be enhanced by add- der heavy rainfall typical of the tropics. By ing commercial fertilizers, liquid fertilizers, or growing these crops in a greenhouse, foliage compost. Composted organic material is prefer- can be kept dry and soil sterilized. able to raw organic material such as garbage or fresh manure because the latter must deteri- Greenhouses in the tropics usually have only orate before they are useful to plants. If the roofs which are vented to emit excess heat. Ma- organic content of the soil is high, it will con- terials such as fiberglass, plastic, or polyethyl- tain a wide variety of micro-organisms, most ene netting, or saran “shade-cloth” are used of which are beneficial (50). When plants have for walls and roofs (10). It also is possible, by been harvested and removed from their con- using canvas dark cloth, to simulate short day tainers, the soil should also be removed and lengths, making it possible to grow crops that refertilized. Large containers will be needed to are day-length sensitive (94). store soil to be used in pots, soil to be recycled, Shadehouses also are used throughout Micro- and finished compost. nesia, especially for tree and perennial crop Container agriculture’s main requirement is propagation. A shadehouse consists of a water. Plant size, container size, location, and wooden or metal frame covered with wood slats weather all affect the amount of water needed. or fine netting or commercially available “shade Watering devices can be purchased that can cloth” to allow part of the sunlight to enter. water a pot continuously for as much as 1 or Shadehouses have the dual advantage of sub- 2 weeks; or ropes can be used to absorb and dued light, important for rooting of perennials, transport water from a basin below the con- and lower temperatures. Shade houses also may tainer to any part of the container (50). be used to grow cool-season crops sensitive to high temperatures and day-length (94). plants most suitable to commercial container agriculture are those that can be harvested fre- Although cultivation in greenhouses and quently over along period of time. Some plants, shadehouses requires high initial capital out- such as leaf vegetables, can be crowded and, lays, it has a number of advantages over con- thus, profitably planted several to a container. ventional field cultivation methods. It over- These tend to produce large quantities of edi- comes the need for large tracts of lands, scarcity ble materials over a long period of time and of fresh water, and can ameliorate seasonal and some act as perennials in the tropics. Many climatic fluctuations. Types and size of crops spices and herbs tested also grow well with one that can be cultivated commercially are depen- to five plants per container. Others, such as dent on the size of greenhouse. And, as in any tomatoes, produce better when planted only other commercial venture, business and mar- one per pot (and commonly do better outdoors keting skills are critical for success. where they have access to greater root areas). Insular government agricultural experiment Weeds should be removed as soon as they are stations in the U.S. Pacific all have greenhouses, noticed, before they produce seed or otherwise mainly for seedling propagation. At Ponape spread (50). Agriculture and Trade School (PATS), a green- Greenhouse and Shadehouse Cultivation house was used for growing tomatoes for a Systems.—Greenhouse systems were devel- number of years. The project was eventually oped in temperate zones to produce fruits, terminated because of the high labor require- vegetables, and flowers during the cold winter ments (the entire soil of the greenhouse had to Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agrotorestry, and Forestry ● 183 be sterilized after every production run) and the relatively low demand for tomatoes (94). The high capital costs of building a greenhouse probably limits its use to only high-value vegetable crops. In Puerto Rico, growing ornamental plants in greenhouses or shadehouses can offer a high investment return, depending on the building design, the type of ornamental plant grown, and the cultural practices used. However, the initial capital outlay for such an enterprise is relatively high, and growing ornamental plants in greenhouses or shadehouses is labor-intensive (lo). Hydroponic Culture Systems.–Hydroponics are totally controlled systems where plants are grown in a sterile, artificial media—commonly sand, perlite, or gravel—with a premixed nutrient solution continually pumped throughout the system, usually inside of a greenhouse type structure. Crops are grown in containers which, for commercial cultivation, commonly are either long troughs covered with wire meshing or plastic (PVC) pipes with perforations on the top side. Crops are placed in the holes of the perforated PVC pipes or held in place by wire Photo credit: A. Vargo netting that is placed over the containers. A highly specialized form of container agriculture is Water, plant nutrients, and other agrichemicals the hydroponic greenhouse. While greenhouses and are circulated throughout the grow-out con- hydroponic systems provide a number of benefits tainers. Foliage and stems above the water may individually and in combination, the high capital outlays required largely restrict them to production of be treated by spraying. high-value crops unsuitable to field agriculture. Most advantages of greenhouse/shadehouse cultivation methods also apply to hydroponic cultivation methods. Hydroponically grown ducted at the College of the Virgin Islands (CVI) crops commonly are of high quality and crop (92,141). yields are higher than conventional field cropping methods. For example, yield of hydropon- The CVI system, based on tilapia and toma- ically grown tomatoes is about 10 times greater toes or lettuce (92) recirculates water collected than tomatoes grown under drip irrigation, and on a one-quarter-acre plastic rainwater catch- 25 times greater than tomatoes grown using ment. The water is directed into freshwater tila- conventional field cultivation methods (10). pia grow-out tanks, channeled through the hydroponics system, and any surplus is used Within limits, hydroponic systems are flexi- to irrigate a nearby garden, Combined fish cul- ble. Varying types and qualities of water may ture with hydroponics systems probably is more be used as the substrate for growing crops. For economically viable than either hydroponics or example, water that was used for aquiculture fish culture alone (5,91). Because of marketing can be recirculated and reused for hydroponic constraints, however, this technology may not cultivation. Research on such an integrated be applicable outside of high-demand urban hydroponic-aquiculture system is being con- areas. 184 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Hydroponic systems are technically suitable labor costs compared to the rest of the Pacific, for atolls and high islands in the U.S.-affiliated and general high expectations of farm finan- Pacific, as long as adequate water supplies are cial returns, spices, essential oils, and other spe- available. Hydroponics were used to produce cialty crops seem to hold potential for future food for soldiers stationed on atolls during commercial development. Numerous spice and World War II (33). Currently, six hydroponic specialty crops have been introduced into farms produce vegetables, mostly tomatoes, in Micronesia, among them allspice, nutmeg, pep- Guam; one hydroponic farm grows tomatoes on per, vanilla, ginger, and coffee. Moreover, sev- American Samoa and The Gardens Hydroponic eral local and introduced plants can undergo Farm on Majuro (Marshalls) grows cucumbers, extraction to produce high-priced oils which tomatoes, and peppers commercially (94). can be used in soaps, perfumes, etc. (94). Because of high capital outlay and operation Black pepper was introduced to Pohnpei in costs, choice of crops is critical for profitabil- 1959 and has become an increasingly impor- ity of commercial operations (10). As a result, tant crop for the island’s farmers with nearly hydroponically-grown produce typically is 70 farmers growing from one-quarter to 1 acre more expensive than field-grown produce. or more. Nutmeg also is produced from six trees Thus, crop choice commonly focuses on a few growing at the Kolonia Agricultural Station. very specialized crops and is directed toward Ginger is grown commercially at the Protes- upper-income specialty markets, such as Eng- tant Mission at Ohwa. Coffee is grown in the lish cucumbers in Puerto Rico (60). In the U. S.- Sokehs area, propagated from the remainder affiliated islands, crops grown in hydroponic of a Japanese plantation, and the Agriculture systems largely are restricted to high-value Division is investigating the possibility of in- vegetables and herbs. While hydroponics prob- troducing high-yielding coffee varieties from ably will not have a significant impact on the Costa Rica. Japanese and Fijians have expressed overall produce market, especially in view of interest in importing sakau (a drink made from the yield-increasing technologies being applied Piper methysticum) from Pohnpei in the near to field-grown crops (e.g., drip irrigation), it has future. Other local beverages are being inves- potential for satisfying some specialty market tigated for commercialization (94). demands currently fulfilled by imported products. A perfume oil from a tree that grows wild on Pohnpei, Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), has Opportunity: DeveIop Spices, Essential Oils, and Other Specialty Crops been successfully processed at Ponape Coco- nut Products at PATS and samples of the oil for Export have received favorable reception in Paris and Historically, spices, perfume and flavoring New York (97). Other crops such as Fragraea oils, and specialty crops such as tea and coffee sair and citrus oils also could provide high- have been highly sought after crops worldwide value, low-volume products. In areas with a and evidence exists that markets are growing. considerable expatriate or urban population, For example, the American Spice Trade Asso- crops such as ornamental plants or Norfolk Is- ciation estimates that U.S. annual per capita land pines (for Christmas trees) may provide spice consumption has risen from 10 ounces a potential local specialty crop (94). in 1932 to 36 ounces today, growing 33 percent in the last 10 years (88). Most species are na- All of these specialty crops give a high return tive to warm tropical regions similar to the U. S.- to labor and management and can be profitable in small plantings. However, because of the affiliated Pacific and Caribbean islands. Yet, few of these islands grow spices for commer- small volumes each island could produce, de- cial sale. velopment of spices, essential oils, and specialty crops probably should aim for the gourmet or With the small size of Micronesia landhold- health food markets where small quantities of ings (usually less than 5 acres), relatively high product can demand high prices. Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry s 185

While there are little or no duties on dried therefore, is a blend of the harvests of many spices imports into the United States, spice smallholder farmers (57). The more a spice is company quality specifications are among the handled the greater the chance of its contami- highest in the world (88). The U.S. gourmet nation with dirt and insects. The final seller spice market is almost entirely controlled by must clean the spice before sale to rid it of for- large spice companies such as Spice Islands eign matter and pests. The harvests of larger and McCormick & Co. (36). Even through these producers pass through fewer hands and there- companies, however, “gourmet-quality” spices fore, are likely to be cleaner and more desir- can sell for as much as five times the price of able to the final buyer. standard spices (57). Penetration of the gourmet-quality spice mar- Production of gourmet-quality spices de- ket, then, entails strict quality control and proc- pends partly on site conditions and cultivation essing standards, which may require farmer co- practices (box 6-A), and partly on handling, operative, private joint venture or government processing, and packaging. Some spices are col- oversight during startup. Spice industries also lected from the wild, others are semicultivated are especially well suited to vertically integrated and still others, like pepper, take careful culti- contract farming (see ch. 8). vation and tending. Those spices harvested in the wild commonly pass through several par- For example, black pepper exports from ties before being sold at the port to a spice com- Pohnpei have declined in recent years, partly pany representative. The spice sold at the port, due to sale of poor quality product; the Pohn-

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Black pepper has become an increasingly important crop for the farmers and economy of Pohnpei (FSM). Because of its special characteristics, it is estimated that Pohnpei pepper could capture as much as 5 percent of the U.S. gourmet- quality pepper market, even though it currently is grown on plots of 2 acres or less. Other spices may have similar potential. 186 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

pei State government has plans to repossess the Despite the relatively small quantities of prod- government-purchased processing equipment uct that might be produced on U.S.-affiliated so that it can be more closely supervised (94). islands, this could have a significant impact on To date, the centralized dryer on Pohnpei has the livelihood of the islands’ smallholder provided a check point for quality control but farmers. Under current cultivation practices, also has proved to be an impediment to farmers Pohnpei pepper could capture as much as 5 per- in outlying regions; research is underway on cent of the U.S. gourmet-quality pepper mar- solar dryers which would allow initial process- ket with product grown on only 80 acres of land ing to occur on the farm (38). (36), or eight times the acreage currently de- Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry . 187 voted to pepper on Pohnpei. At present an esti- necessary for high uniform productivity. Large mated 70 farms ranging from 0.1 to 2 acres pro- parcels of land of uniform type soil are scarce duce pepper (38); growth of this industry could in most of the Pacific territories. While rela- support, at least partially, numerous other tively large parcels of uniform lands are avail- smallholder farmers, able in the U.S. Caribbean islands, land prices are exorbitantly high (87,143). Opportunity: Develop New Products Conventional, mechanized, clean-tilled field From Extant Crops farming that characterizes most large-scale Local processing of crops can provide higher commercial farming generally requires consid- returns to growers, compared to exporting raw erable levels of agricultural chemical inputs, materials, and can provide import substitution such as fertilizers and pesticides, to maintain opportunities. Major opportunities for devel- crop yields. In addition, large-scale conven- opment of new products from locally available tional field-cropping of short-term crops gen- crops are coconut oil products, fruit juices, and erally entails greater risks of soil erosion and animal feeds. other ecological damage than other systems such as smallholder farming (22,43,94). The major commercial crop in the U.S. Pa- cific is the coconut, from which copra is made. Finally, large-scale commercial farming re- Copra oil processing plants exist on Majuro, quires large markets to absorb production vol- Moen (Truk), Palau, and Pohnpei. Yap is in ume. Since local markets on islands are small process of building a plant, The Pohnpei Coco- or the local buying power is low, large-scale nuts Products plant has developed a line of producers generally export the products. While products—laundry and bath soap, dish soap, export potential exists, it is difficult to achieve cooking oil, body oils, and shampoo—for the (43). local and tourist markets, Plants on Truk and Despite these constraints, opportunities for Yap will offer similar products, mainly for im- large-scale commercial farm development export substitution. Copra oil is a potential sub- ist, particularly in Puerto Rico. Careful selec- stitute for diesel oil, but its cost ($4.00/gallon) tion of technologies and crops is crucial for compared to imported diesel oil ($1.50/gallon) profitable large-scale commercial operations. is prohibitive at present (94). Business and operational skills, marketing skills Surplus fruit crops can be made into jams and and careful timing (e. g., to supply fruits and jellies, juiced and bottled, or used in produc- vegetables to the U.S. mainland “winter mar- tion of fruit ices, currently popular in areas hav- ket”) also are essential. ing refrigeration, Small-scale juicing machin- Increased agriculture yields in field farming ery, suitable for small quantities, are available generally is achieved by intensifying agriculture and are employed on other Pacific islands. inputs or using highly efficient input delivery Through a successful Yap government spon- systems, such as drip irrigation. However, un- sored radio campaign, coconut milk has replaced large amounts of imported canned der certain circumstances, improved management of crop production alone will increase beverages; similar campaigns could promote yields. For example, low yield of sugarcane in locally produced juices (94). Puerto Rico is primarily due to inefficient drainage and irrigation systems, inadequate pest Opportunity: Support Large-Scale control, and poorly timed and inefficient har- Farming Systems vesting operations (143). In other cases, new Large-scale field farming operations need technologies may be needed to increase produc- large tracts of uniform soils suitable for the cho- tivity and product quality (61,143). In addition sen crop. For row-cropping, soil topography to the intensive cultivation of sun-coffee and should be fairly level to accommodate mechani- high-density plantain, large-scale intensive pas- zation and other farm management practices ture improvement for commercial cattle rais-

63-222 0 - 87-7 QL. 3 —

188 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

ing has been successfully accomplished in mountain regions. Well-managed tropical Puerto Rico (9,143). pastures in steep mountain regions helps protect soil against erosion (145). Soil losses on in- Conventional Field Farming Systems.–Con- tensively managed pastures amounted to only ventional field cultivation systems are charac- 1 ton/acre/year; the lowest for any current terized by mechanized operations, clean-tilled mountain agricultural practices in Puerto Rico fields, and monocultural crop cultivation. To (101,146). maintain high crop yields, chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used. Gravity (furrow) or In Puerto Rico, as much as 100,000 acres of sprinkler irrigation systems are common. In mechanizable land are in intensively managed

Puerto Rico, principle crops cultivated this way pastures—primaril y for dairy cattle—and an ad- include sugarcane, plantains, pumpkin, pigeon ditional 500,000 acres are in less-intensively peas, pineapple, and some vegetables (61). managed pastures for beef cattle production. Five thousand acres of improved pastures are Due to high production costs, conventional reportedly being used for dairy in the USVI, field cropping for most crops is not economi- 8,000 acres for beef production, and 12,000 cal. High production costs are related to high acres are in unimproved grassland (9,81,82, energy cost, relatively high labor cost (com- 143). However, only part of this pasturage is pared to neighboring non-U.S. islands and truly productive; many smallholders apparently countries), low labor productivity, and the ap- graze a small number of animals on their few plication of inefficient agricultural technol- acres in order to receive tax reduction accorded ogies. For example, gravity irrigation is con- to “farms”; when the price of land rises high sidered inefficient compared to the sprinkler enough such land may be sold for condomin- or drip irrigation systems, in terms of the ium development (56). amount of water used for irrigation. Although mechanized, clean-tilled agriculture systems Cattle pastures occupy about 22,500 acres in have several advantages, given the vulnerabil- the Northern Marianas (primarily on Tinian), ity of most tropical soils to erosion from heavy about 170 acres on Guam, 350 acres on Amer- rainfall, the overall effect can be long-term soil ican Samoa, and less then 1,000 acres in vari- impoverishment. ous other Pacific islands (12,46,134,135,137). Considerable opportunity exists to expand live- High-Input, Improved Pasture Technologies. stock production in the CNMI (84). —Large-scale, high-input improved pastures have been used in cattle ranching in Puerto Drip Irrigation on Semiarid Lands.–Semiarid Rico. Pasture improvement is instrumental in lands comprise about 20 percent of the land increasing beef and dairy milk production. area of the U.S. Pacific islands (primarily on atolls) and about 40 percent of the land area Cattle can be raised on unimproved or im- of the U.S. Caribbean islands, including 60,000 proved pastures. Ranching on unimproved acres in southern Puerto Rico (61,143,150). pastures is practiced in areas where few alter- Semiarid lands are generally associated with native land uses exist, such as the semiarid high salt and alkali levels in soils, brackish areas of southern Puerto Rico and the USVI water intrusion into groundwater and, on atolls, (9). Raising cattle on unimproved pastures re- salt spray. These undesirable conditions make quires little capital investment and labor. Some conventional agricultural practices difficult. landowners in the USVI raise beef cattle on unimproved pastures for investment and tax One way to make these lands more produc- purposes until these lands can be developed for tive is through irrigation. Drip irrigation is a other uses and sold at a profit (9). particularly efficient and water-thrifty method of water use for crop production; it is 13 per- However, raising dairy or beef cattle on im- cent more efficient than the sprinkler irriga- proved pastures is considered by some to be tion, 31 percent more efficient than pipe irri- the best land use of idle lands in Puerto Rico’s gation, and 56 percent more efficient than Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 189 conventional furrow irrigation systems (10). In phisticated and costly filtering and backflush- some cases, drip irrigation systems can reduce ing systems commonly are required to keep the fertilizer costs by about 25 percent. Although systems from clogging due to suspended parti- total water purchase costs can be reduced from cles in the water. Because of the high costs, only 30 to 50 percent (154), the cost per unit of water crops with assured markets can be grown eco- delivered to each plant (which includes preap- nomically. plication filtration, higher pumping costs to provide higher pressure and equipment amortiza- Opportunity: Develop Commercial tion, as well as water purchase costs) typically Forestry is higher in drip irrigation than other irriga- Reliable information on the original extent tion systems (59). The systems can be applied of island forests does not exist, but forests prob- on small or large scales and in manual or auto- mated operations, with varying complexity of ably covered most of the islands. Most of the islands have been largely deforested at some hardware, capital investments, and severity of freshwater constraints. time during their colonial histories, and some are naturally regenerating second-growth for- Crop yield is higher under drip irrigation than est on abandoned lands. Today, at least one- under conventional rainfed field cropping. In third of Puerto Rico is again under forest cover; semiarid lands of southern Puerto Rico, drip much of this land is too steep for other uses irrigated crops produced two to three times (121). higher yields than conventional small-scale Some wood products are harvested on most commercial field cropping (table 6-7) (61). How- U.S.-affiliated islands, such as fuelwood, wood ever, the total net value of products is basically for charcoal production, poles, and home con- the same due to the high initial capital invest- struction materials. However, most wood prod- ment and high operation costs for drip irriga- ucts are imported. For example, American tion systems. Samoa imports nearly all wood products ex- Installation of drip irrigation systems in cept fuelwood from nearby independent West- Puerto Rico costs between $1,500 to $2,000 per ern Samoa and from the United States and New acre for a typical farm (32) compared to $1,000 Zealand. In 1981, Puerto Rico produced about to $1,400 in the Western United States (6). So- 100,000 board feet of hardwood timber with a

Table 6-7.—Comparison of Yields under Drip and Conventional Irrigation Systems in Semiarid Zones of Puerto Rico

Drip irrigation Conventional irrigation Agricultural experiment station Private growers Private growers Crop (Box/Ac) (Tons/Ac) (Box/Ac) (Tons/Ac) (Box/Ac) (Tons/Ac) Vegetables: Tomatoes ...... 669 10.0 1,000-2,000 15-18.7 600 7.5 Peppers ...... 528 10.5 800-1,000 20-30 400 8.0 Eggplant ...... 668 13.3 1,000 20 400 8.0 Cucumbers ...... 921 18.4 500-1,000 12-25 250 6.0 Squash...... — 20.0 — 10 — 6.0 Watermelon...... — 12.7 — 2-3 — 3.0 Cabbage ...... — 15.6 — 10 — 5.0 Onion ...... — 10.4 — 10 — 5.0 Tree crops: Plantain a ...... 35,000 21.0 40,000 24 30,000 18.0 Bananas...... 1,200 24.0 1,000-1,300 20-26 700 14.0 Papaya ...... — — — 40 — 25.0 Avocado...... — 3.5-5.0 — 4-5 — 3.0-4.0 a Yield computed based on 0.6 lb/fruit average weight since this crop is normally sold on a count basis rather than by weight.

SOURCE: G. L. Morris, and D J. Pool, “Assessment of Semiarid Agricultural Production Technologies for the U, S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1966 190 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

sedimentation, and similar environmental damage. One method to derive economic benefits from forest resources without disrupting their environmental services is to promote the profitable and sustainable use of animals and plant products other than wood. The potential to develop such products is not large in Puerto Rico and the USVI, but some opportunities exist, such as small-scale production of honey, bamboo products, and eucalyptus leaves and oil (121). Because gathering activities are a normal part of subsistence life on the Pacific islands, this sort of development has considerable potential. With careful management to avert the threats posed by gathering activities to indigenous animal and plant life, harvest of products such as essential oils and mangrove aquatic organisms can continue on a subsistence and semicommercial scale without causing forest degradation. Relatively little potential for full-scale industrial logging exists in the U.S.-affiliated islands due to limited acreages, topographical factors, competing land uses, small landholdings, high land prices, and uncertain land tenure. Signif- icant potential for commercial forest planta- Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment tions exists only for the larger islands of Puerto Although forestry research is being conducted on most Rico, American Samoa, Guam, Pohnpei, and U.S.-affiliated islands, including this experimental plot at an Agricultural Experiment Station on Pohnpei Palau. However, standard timber stand im- (FSM), most wood products continue to be imported provement techniques, such as enrichment to the islands. planting (wherein higher value species are un- derplanted in natural second-growth forests) retail value of about $200,000, while the island’s could result in valuable future timber stands imports of forest products totaled $410 million on these islands (121). Some of these techniques (121). are being used in the Puerto Rican National and Commonwealth forests. Subsequent harvest Until recently, the forests in the U.S.-affiliated provide income for the Puerto Rican Division islands have not been managed actively. In fact, of Forestry and supports further management while overexploitation is not now a problem in most areas, poor land uses in the past have of the Caribbean National Forest. left the islands with significant amounts of Considerable potential does exist for small- abandoned agricultural land and relatively un- scale industries that can serve domestic mar- productive secondary forests. Development and kets (121). For example, portable sawmills were implementation of appropriate forestry tech- introduced to Puerto Rico in 1982. Teak, ma- nologies could help alleviate rural unemploy- hogany, and Caribbean pine have been success- ment, provide local substitutes for some im- fully and economically thinned, milled, and ported products, and help protect land and marketed by the Puerto Rico Forest Service. nearshore resources against erosion, floods, portable sawmills, combined with regulation —

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry . 191

Photo credit C. Whitesell Small portable or stationary sawmills (shown here on Pohnpei, FSM), combined with reforestation and regulation of exploitation, probably are the best-suited timber harvesting systems for the U.S.-affiliated islands because they can support rural industries and yet can be temporarily retired without significant economic disadvantage. of exploitation; are probably the best-suited har- ment masters the task, and local markets grow vesting systems for the western Pacific as well, to absorb the increased production. because they can be used as needed and temporarily retired without significant economic Even though managed second-growth forest disadvantages. Because they can be pulled to is not likely to become a major land use in the the harvest site behind small vehicles, they U.S. insular areas, it merits consideration as cause less harm to thin soils than larger sys- an improvement over unmanaged, low-quality tems. They do not require an extensive road brush or forest land unsuitable for agriculture system and they leave bark and branches on (121). In Puerto Rico, managed second-growth the site, thus reducing nutrient loss. forests can provide a first harvest before conversion to plantation forestry or increase the Moreover, small-scale sawmills in rural areas value of land deliberately held out of intensive can stimulate development of local workshops production (e.g., recreation sites). with corresponding effects on rural employment. These effects could be expanded by introduc- The most pronounced impacts of forest deg- ing facilities such as simple and inexpensive radation in the U.S. tropical territories are on solar kilns or wood preservation equipment. island streams and coastal resources. Deforesta- This type of forest industry can be upgraded tion has caused permanent streams on some as workers improve their skills, local manage- islands to disappear and contributes to increased 192 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas runoff, flooding, water shortages, and erosion. agement, and build local forest industries. Fur- Siltation has harmful effects on lagoons and ther, science and environmental education in reefs, affecting fish and other marine resources primary schools could direct students towards important to island people. Increased financial an understanding of the importance of forests and political support for insular forestry pro- to quality of island life and encourage them to grams could foster reforestation, development enter relevant fields of study. of plantation and second-growth forest man-

TECHNOL0GIES SUPPORTING AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY Agriculture cannot be a productive sector of have significant fertility problems caused pri- island economies if soils become too nutrient- marily by leaching of nutrients from rock and depleted or if erosion cannot be controlled. soil mineral particles. Often, such soils have Thus, many technologies supportive of agricul- a poor ability to hold common plant nutrients; tural sustainability are aimed at restoring or if such nutrients are added to the soil as fer- improving soil quality, or at minimizing soil tilizer they can be expected to be leached away loss through erosion. Terracing and contour rapidly (121) farming, cultural practices and crop choice, conservation tillage, and revegetation can all In arid/semiarid areas, such as Puerto Rico’s be used to control erosion. This will have the southern coastal plain and the USVI, nutrients additional beneficial impact of reducing sedi- needed by many plants commonly are in the mentation in shallow coastal waters—probably soil, but become available to the plants only if the single greatest cause of coral reef degrada- sufficient water is available. If most of the water tion around high Pacific islands (40). Soil evaporates rather than percolating through the amendments and composts, use of nitrogen- soil, dissolved solids or salts can accumulate fixing intercrops, and salt-resistant crops can at or near the land surface in concentrations increase productivity on infertile soils. Length- that few plants can tolerate (121). ened fallow periods allow natural soil organic Tropical mountainous soils are, in general, matter recovery and growth of regenerated rocky, thin, and easily eroded (121). U. S.- vegetation helps prevent erosion. Finally, re- affiliated tropical high islands tend to have sub- ducing crop losses from pests can reduce the stantial areas of steep ridges and deep valleys; extent of land and intensity of use required to mountain slopes are extremely steep. For ex- meet a production goal. ample, about half of Puerto Rico consists of slopes of 450 or more (137), and only 30 percent of American Samoa has slopes less than POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Minimize 30° (138). Thus, minimization of soil erosion Soil Erosion and Degradation and degradation are integral to maintain productive agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Before human intervention, most lands in the U.S.-affiliated islands were forest-covered. Al- Soil erosion is greatest in conventional row- though tropical soils are diverse and variable, cropping, where soil is loosened and exposed in general, few tropical forest soils can sustain to weathering. For example, studies of test plots productive agriculture over the long term. The in Puerto Rico indicate that, on sloping lands, presence of either heavily leached soils of low improved pastures suffer the least (1 ton/acre/ fertility, thin erosion-prone soils, or dry soils year) and clean-tilled cultivated crops the most makes the establishment of permanent sites (17 tons/acre/year) soil losses (101,146). Row extremely difficult. Although soils on certain crops grown under clean-tilled agriculture com- deltas, young volcanic materials, and flood monly do not provide soils with adequate pro- plains may be fertile, most soils in hot, wetlands tection against heavy rainfall. Depletion of soil Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 193

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment These degraded volcanic soils on southern Guam illustrate the potential for reduction in development options caused by uncontrolled soil erosion; few species can survive under these conditions. Revegetation of these lands with more desirable species will be a difficult, costly, and lengthy process. nutrients through erosion and leaching and vegetative cover make these lands increasingly changes in soil texture associated with clean- unproductive (22,121). tilled cultivation methods result in soil degra- Ways to prevent land degradation or to im- dation. prove marginal and degraded lands include the Soil degradation also can be the result of following: shortened fallow periods. Shortening of fallow ● lengthen fallowing periods, periods can “short-circuit” the natural regener- ● restrict and control burning, ative capacity of the ecosystem. Natural vege- ● implement soil conservation measures, tation contributes organic matter to the ecosys- ● apply soil conserving cultural methods, tem, and gradual accumulation of this organic and matter allows the land to recuperate and be- ● enhance reforestation programs. come productive. Opportunity Lengthen Following In Micronesia, degraded lands are charac- Periods and Restrict Burning terized by depauperate vegetative cover consisting of savanna dominated by swordgrass It is well known that shortened fallow periods (Miscanthus) or Gleichenia ferns and Panda- will degrade tropical soils because organic in- nus trees. Frequent deliberate burning of put into the soil from regenerated vegetation 194 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas is curtailed (121). Furthermore, too frequent ings and with acceptable grades (box 6-B and burning of old garden sites, shortened fallow figure 6-3). They provide maximum retention periods, and open field row-cropping practices of moisture for crop use and reduce soil ero- without sufficient addition of organic matter sion by removing surface runoff at a nonero- will rapidly deplete soil fertility (22). Severely sive velocity and/or reducing peak runoff rates depleted soils will support little vegetative (123). Terraces may also facilitate irrigation and growth. Soils with little vegetative cover are drainage, as well as cultivation. Benches can prone to erosion and leaching by heavy rain- improve drainage by concentrating runoff at fall and strong wind. the inside of the bench and then draining it along a controlled lateral gradient to a protected Normal fallowing periods might be shortened waterway. They are suited to annual, semiper- by planting nitrogen-fixing legumes. Woody manent and mixed crops and can be applied species might also provide useful products such on slopes up to 300 (122). Through these mech- as posts and fodder. However, care must be anisms water quality in adjacent streams may taken in choosing varieties; for example, giant be enhanced. Leucaena can be difficult to control and can grow tall quickly enough to shade out fruit trees Terraces may trap up to 85 percent of the sedi- (22). ment eroded from the field, although they cannot stop erosion between terraces. Terrace construction may cause surface compaction and Opportunity: Implement Soil remove topsoil from large areas of the field. Un- Conservation Measures even drying, pending, and severe erosion in different parts of the same terrace channel are Contour cultivation and terracing on sloping also common, especially for the first 3 to 5 years lands and covering freshly prepared soil with after construction. In addition, misalignment mulch may reduce soil erosion problems (143). of terraces may result in problems with maneu- Terracing. —A classic example of soil con- verability of machinery and maintenance of servation measures for cultivated lands is ter- grass waterways. racing of steep lands. One example of terrace The design and construction of a terrace sys- farming is perennial herb cultivation on rock tem is labor-intensive and often expensive, and terraces in the USVI. Herbs and spices are may require skilled professional assistance. grown essentially clean-tilled on narrow, ir- Further costs include loss of land to terrace rigated rock terraces along with fruit trees that backslopes, loss of crops during construction serve as windbreaks and also mark field bound- year, higher labor and energy costs to work ter- aries (52). raced fields, and costs of controlling insect Other terraces have been constructed on pests that may be harbored in backslope grass steep slopes using contour rows of closely strips. In addition, maintenance is mandatory spaced fast-growing trees. Trunks are allowed to retain an adequate terrace cross section for to stand, serving as retaining walls with the new proper functioning of the system (123). growth regularly cut and piled horizontally The applicability of terracing in island areas above the trunks. At regular intervals soil is may best be illustrated by example. During the piled up on top of the organic debris for grad- Danish control of the USVI, the islands were ual formation of bench terraces. Hardy, tall nearly covered with stone terraces, allowing grasses also have been used to form bench ter- extensive cultivation of sugarcane on steep races. Both terracing and contours increase slopes. This method fostered a sugar economy water infiltration and organic matter accumu- that persisted for nearly 100 years. Similarly, lation as well as control soil erosion (52). early inhabitants of some of the Micronesia Terraces are earth embankments, channels, islands created terracing for agricultural pur- or combinations of embankments and channels poses. Remnants of stone terracing still remain built across the slope of the land at suitable spac- in Palau and the Marianas. ——

Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 195

Box 6-B.--Terracing Terraces not only control erosion but also can be used to facilitate irrigation and drainage, as well as cultivation. Reversed-slope benches, continuous or discontinuous, differ in width to suit different crops and slopes. Benches improve drainage by concentrating runoff at the inside of the bench and then drain it along a controlled lateral gradient to a protected waterway. Terraces are suited to annual, semipermanent, and mixed crops and some types can be applied on slopes of up to 300. Varia- tions of conservation structures include: Bench terraces: A series of level strips running across the slope supported by steep risers. These can be used on slopes up to 25° and are mainly used for upland crops. Hillside ditches: A discontinuous type of narrow, reverse-slope bench built across the hill slope in order to break long slopes into many shorter ones. The width of the cultivable strips between two ditches is determined by the slope of the land. They are inexpensive, flexible, and can be built over a period of years. This treatment can be applied to slopes up to 25°. Individual basins: Small, round benches for planting individual plants. They are particularly useful for establishing semipermanent or permanent tree plots to control erosion. They should normally be supplemented by hillside ditching, orchard terracing, and crop covering. Orchard terraces: A discontinuous type of narrow terrace applicable on steep slopes up to 300, Spacing is determined by distance between trees. Spaces between terraces should be kept under permanent grass or legume cover. Intermittent terraces: Bench terraces built over a period of several years. Convertible terraces: Bench terraces with the spaces planted with tree crops. Natural terraces: Constructed initially with contour embankments (bunds) 20 inches high on slopes not over 7° and on soils having high infiltration rates. Hexagons: Special arrangement of a farm road that surrounds or envelops a piece of sloping land treated with discontinuous terraces which are accessible to four-wheeled tractors. This treatment is primarily for mechanization of orchards on larger blocks of land and on slopes of up to 20°,

Contour Farming.—The practice of planting bility, e.g., soil texture, roughness, wind veloc- on a line perpendicular to the slope of the land ity, frequency, and direction (122). is termed contour farming. This practice is relatively inexpensive, basically only requiring a Contour strip cropping may significantly re- reorientation of planting patterns. The effec- duce soil erosion beyond regular contour farm- tiveness of contouring however, decreases as ing. The grass strips serve to slow the velocity the inherent potential for erosion increases. of the runoff and further reduce soil loss, Con- Some climatic, soil, or topographic conditions tour strips are relatively inexpensive to install, may limit the application of contour farming, however, some acreage is lost to the maintenance of the grass strips, headlands, and water- A variation of contour farming is contour ways, thus reducing productive acreage. stripping in which relatively narrow strips of crops are interplanted with close growing pas- Many tropical areas suffer from severe soil ture grasses. The strips are oriented approxi- erosion and implementation of some variation mately on the contour and perpendicular to the of these cropping schemes may serve to decrease soil loss. However, rainfall levels and slope. Similarly, strips of erosion-resistant crops can be alternated with strips of erosion suscep- soil depth may limit the effectiveness of these tible crops, The actual width of the strips varies practices. with the topographic features such as length, Mulching.—Mulches, nonvegetative, and proc- degree of slope, and exposure of the slope to essed covers can protect areas from severe soil winds, and with factors affecting field erodi- erosion, and contribute to soil moisture reten- 196 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 6-3.—Slopes and Appropriate Conservation Measures

Undisturbed

Stone-walled level bench

bench Limiting slope terraces for planting on .“ { contour between narrow-based terraces or A hillside ditches

SOURCE: H.C. Pereira, “Soil and Water Management Technologies for Tropical Forests,” OTA commissioned paper, 1982,

Terraces can be designed for varying farming scales and systems, and to fit differing availability of labor and capital, ranging from handmade stone terraces such as on this communal farm on St. Thomas (USVI) to large, grass-backed bench terraces developed at the Mayaguez Tropical Agriculture Station (Puerto Rico) in the 1930s. tion. Mulches contribute to retention of soil to reducing soil temperature and thus keep root moisture by reducing loss by evaporation as systems cool (102, 122). Plastic mulches, while well as discouraging weed growth. more durable, may increase soil temperature. Organic (grass, leaves, etc.) and inorganic Fertilizer application becomes more difficult (plastic) materials may be used as mulch. Soil in mulched fields; fungi growth may be en- quality is enhanced by decomposing organic couraged in more moist areas and insect pests mulches. Further, organic mulches contribute may become established in the mulch requir- Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 197

Opportuntiy: Apply Soil-Conserving Cultural Practices Careful selection of crops and cultural practices can minimize soil losses. Well-managed pastures and, to a lesser extent, certain cultivation methods of plantain, banana, coffee, and cocoa may offer varying degrees of protection against soil erosion on sloping lands. Conser- vation tillage (e. g., no-till farming) can reduce erosion. However, polyculture is the primary means to minimize the adverse environmental impacts of cropping on sloping lands. Inter- planted shrubs or trees also can protect crops from wind damage and salt spray. Photo credit: A. Vargo Mulching is a common agricultural practice on the U. S.- Soil-Conserving Crops and Intercrops.— affiliated islands to reduce weed infestations, help Groundcover legumes such as Centrosema retain soil moisture, and provide soil cover. Organic pubescens, Desmodium trifolium, and Pueraria mulches, which also provide nutrients as they decay, can be applied by simply cutting weeds on the site and phaseoloides can be grown to provide fast planting through them after they have dried. vegetative recovery on bare soil. These plants fix atmospheric nitrogen, add organic matter (green manure and forage), and shield the bare ing some pesticide application or biological soil surface from erosion (74). In Papua New control. However, appropriate mulching tech- Guinea, winged bean traditionally is grown on niques, such as leaving space around the stem stakes for pods and seeds or grown unstaked of the plants to reduce fungi and pest attack for tubers and as an effective ground cover. of the stem, can be employed to offset inherent Every part of the plant is edible and contains problems with mulching. high levels of protein (77). Costs often prohibit widespread application Tree crops are the primary means for limit- of this method of erosion control. However, it ing soil erosion in tropical agriculture. These may be appropriate for some open field crop can be intercrops, or as boundary “hedgerows” lands, specialty crop lands, and “hot spot” ero- on clean-tilled agriculture. sion problems in large dryland agricultural areas (122) such as the south coast of Puerto Conservation Tillage.—Conservation tillage Rico. involves allowing approximately one-third of the mulch from previous crop harvest to remain Land Leveling.—Land is often leveled or above the soil surface after planting (120). This benched for purposes of water erosion control, cropping system is designed to reduce soil ero- irrigation, and moisture conservation. Land lev- sion and aid in soil moisture retention by ab- eling may facilitate drainage and mechaniza- sorbing the impact of rainfall and protecting tion and reduce wind erosion by shortening the soil surface from wind abrasion. Further, field lengths and reducing slope (122). the crop residue contributes to the decrease of However, land leveling is expensive and is soil temperature. profitable only for high-value crops. Puerto Rico In addition to erosion control benefits, eco- employed precision land leveling to prepare ap- nomic incentives for adoption of this technol- proximately 5,000 acres for rice production in ogy exist. Reduced labor requirement—less 1978. The effort was costly in both time and time is required to till the fields; reduced pre- money. Currently, only 2,500 acres are produc- harvest fuel requirement—fewer passes across ing (143). the field are required; lower machinery costs— 198 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas lighter, and thus less expensive, machinery can soil erosion from wind and water (120,123). Fur- accomplish the tillage, and benefits of reduced ther, they enhance water retention in the soil soil erosion allow expansion of cropping onto and improve associated stream water quality sloping lands. by capturing sediment from runoff. An early However, the crop residue which remains Danish conservation law (1840) in the USVI in- may also offer habitat for insect pests as well volved the maintenance of fruit tree stands as as plant diseases. While disease-resistant crop shelterbelts to enhance water retention. Appli- cations such as this provide both ecological and varieties may be available, increased pesticide applications may be required to control insect economic benefits. pests. In poorly drained soils conservation till- The effectiveness of any barrier depends on age may prove undesirable. the wind velocity and direction and on the This tillage method also relies heavily on her- shape, width, height, and porosity of the barriers. Nearly any plant that reaches substan- bicides for weed control which may have far- tial height and retains its lower leaves can be -reaching ecological impacts (120). Most herbi- used effectively as a barrier. Tree windbreaks cides do not attack the root systems of weeds, have most application on sandy soils and in thus in tropical areas where the growing sea- areas where there is substantial rainfall. Typi- son is year long, frequent application of herbi- cally, on atoll islands where crops are extremely cides may be necessary. vulnerable to wind and saltspray damage, the Conservation tillage schemes have proven beach strand vegetation is maintained on the successful in reducing sedimentation from agri- seaward side of the island to function as a wind- cultural runoff. However, the increased chem- break. Narrow rows of of tall-growing field ical pollutants and nutrients may adversely crops, perennial grass barriers, solid wooden affect water quality and aquatic life. Additions and rock walls also may serve as windbreaks of nutrients accelerate plant growth in aquatic (121). Windbreaks may interfere with large ma- systems which in turn reduces oxygen con- chinery, however, they should be applicable for centrations. This accelerated eutrophication small-scale agricultural operations. can significantly affect fish survival. In- Maintaining vegetated riparian zones along creased herbicide and pesticide applications streams is important for maintenance of water may infiltrate groundwater supplies (120). Since quality and associated aquatic life. Streamside the freshwater lens beneath islands is small, vegetation helps moderate water temperature the contamination can be significant, affecting fluctuations, filters sediments and nutrients the entire island’s freshwater supply. Contami- harmful to aquatic life, and may provide habi- nants contained in runoff and carried to streams tat for fish spawning and breeding (120). and nearshore waters may damage associated aquatic life. POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Enhance The net result of conservation tillage on nu- Revegetation Programs trient pollution of surface water and groundwater will vary under different conditions. For A primary cause of land degradation is for- example, losses for either system can be quite est clearing, leaving the cleared land without high if rainfall occurs shortly after fertilizers or pesticides are applied. Tropical regions gen- 6 Degradation of tropical land is a physical, chemical, and bio- erally receive abundant rainfall, thus increas- logical process set in motion by activities that reduce the land’s ing the chance for higher pollution rates, as well inherent productivity, This process includes accelerated erosion and leaching, decreased soil fertility, diminished natural plant as necessitating increased fertilizer and pesti- regeneration, disrupted hydrological cycle, and possible salini- cide applications since much would be lost in zation, waterlogging, flooding, or increased drought risk, as well runoff. as the establishment of weedy plants that displace more desirable plant species. Evidence that the degradation process is ad- Hedgerows and Shelterbelts.—Hedgerows vancing includes, for example, a reduction in the water-holding ability of the soil, a decrease in the amount of soil nutrients avail- (windbreaks) and shelterbelts which reduce able to plants, a reduction of the soil’s ability to hold nutrients, field length and windspeed also help control or soil compaction or surface hardening. Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 199 means to replenish soil nutrients. Because the nia can be harvested every few weeks for for- major soil nutrient supply is in the vegetation, age or green manure or every 6 months for for- productivity of degraded lands could be image and fuelwood. Harvest of poles from the proved, in part, by revegetation. Methods to Caribbean pine can take place several years af- enhance vegetative inputs to replenish soil nu- ter planting. Conventional long-rotation for- trients include traditional and commercial agro- estry of hardwood timber trees, such as teak forestry, short- or long-rotation forestry, or or mahogany, can require 60 to 100 years be- growing ground covers such as grasses or nitro- fore first harvest. gen-fixing legumes. Nitrogen-fixing legumes possess favorable Choice of vegetation type for reestablishment characteristics for both short-rotation forestry depends on the objectives of revegetation. For systems and for improving degraded land. Fast exampIe, if lands are to be used for pasture, growing nitrogen-fixing shrubs such as Sesba- grasses and leguminous groundcovers maybe nia and Crotalaria (27) or nitrogen-fixing trees most appropriate. If direction of surface run- such as Leucaena leucocephala, Casuarina and off into water catchments is a primary goal, Acacia are suitable for planting on degraded grasses are probably preferable to trees, which lands (70,71,75). For example, it is estimated transpire considerable amounts of water. How- that nitrogen-fixing Leucaena can supply 500 ever, if the watershed is steeply sloping, the to 1,300 lbs of nitrogen per acre per year (75). greater erosion control afforded by brush and Moreover, a variety of nitrogen-fixing trees can tree cover may be required to increase the lon- be used as fuelwood, fodder, nurse trees, tim- gevity of the catchment. Further, on degraded ber/pulpwood, food, gum and medicines, or for lands where weeds easily can outcompete most shade trees. However, many of the fast-growing smaller species, tree species that can shade legumes can become pests in certain cases (e.g., them out may be necessary, Guam). This needs to be considered before spe- Selection of plant species is critical. Early suc- cies introduction is undertaken (7). cession species need to be highly competitive Reforestation of degraded lands provides ben- pioneers, able to outcompete weed species, and efits apart from products. Forests provide many should have a dense and effective root system environmental services such as reducing the to minimize leaching and erosion (7). Many force of wind, creating cool understory micro- degraded soils commonly retain less moisture climates, protecting and, in some cases, im- than protected soils (147), thus, early succes- proving the soil’s productive potential. Foliage sion tree species may need to have tap roots— dropped by forest plants provide organic mat- roots that rapidly grow deep into the soil that ter which, as it decays, improves soil fertility. allow them greater access to soil moisture than Forests control soil erosion, regulate soil mois- shallow-rooted trees. In addition, tree species ture, and mitigate flooding. Furthermore, for- chosen to increase organic matter in degraded ests may serve as sanctuaries of wild plants and soils must be those that allow establishment of animals and, therefore, increase and maintain some undergrowth. Therefore, trees such as greater species diversity. certain eucalypts probably should be avoided as allelopathic chemicals released by the trees Opportunity: Improve the Productivity of into nearby soils preclude growth of understory Degraded Grass and Fern Savanna Lands plants. Degraded lands have become quite extensive in the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially in south- Opportunity: Establish Forest ern Guam and the western Carolines. These Plantations lands commonly are no longer used for agri- Rotation ages of tropical forest species vary culture, although some may be used when more and depend on the product to be harvested. fertile areas are not available. The grass (Mis- Short-rotation species (first harvest in less than canthus) and fern (Gleichenia) species which 6 years) like Gliricidia, Leucaena, and Sesba- predominate on degraded insular lands are ag- 200 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas gressive species. Their dense networks of roots 2. protection of suitable areas of endemic crowd out many other species and deprive them communities; of moisture during dry seasons. Plowing and 3. development of fire prevention programs, burning may allow temporary use of these lands including construction of firebreaks, pub- for grazing, but commonly only encourage fur- lic education programs, and improving the ther grass and fern growth and expansion. means to fight fires and enforcing fire laws; and Grass and fern savanna lands could be af- 4. establishment of reforestation plantings on forested (or reforested) to increase wood, food, selected degraded lands using local spe- fodder, and fiber production. Trees protect soil cies as well as selected exotics and devel- from the effects of tropical heat, rain, and wind. opment of plans for controlling aggressive Soil temperatures are lower under tree cano- exotic species and conversion of areas to pies, permitting reaccumulation of organic mat- more useful species (22). ter that restores soil structure and microbiota and enhances moisture- and nutrient-holding abilities. Bacteria on the roots of some tree roots POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Develop can convert soil minerals to useful forms. In LocaI Soil Amendments dry areas, trees can help to prevent the rise of In traditional systems, nutrients cycle within saline groundwater. Where surface soils are dry the system and few nutrients are removed by or infertile, deep tree roots can tap underground harvest. In commercial technologies, especially reservoirs of nutrients and water and bring monoculture, these natural cycles are broken them to the surface. Tree species selected for and there is a larger resultant nutrient drain reforestation of savanna lands should possess on the system. Introduction of additional nu- the following characteristics to counter those trients is needed, either through manure, or- factors that allow grass and ferns to dominate: ganic fertilizers (sea cucumbers, seaweed, dead ● easy establishment, grass and leaves, compost), or commercial fer- ● rapid early growth in poor soil conditions, tilizer. Because most soils in the islands are rela- ● deep rooting, tively nutrient poor due to leaching, erosion, ● dense crown to shade out grasses and and other factors, the need to use soil amend- ferns, ments to obtain commercially acceptable yields ● nitrogen-fixing and soil-improving charac- is imperative (94). teristics, and ● Numerous fertilizer trials have been carried fire resistance (122). out in the U.S.-affiliated islands, and the use Acacia, Calliandra, Gliricidea, and Leucaena of commercial fertilizer is widespread. Most species have been used successfully to reclaim fertilizer technology has been adopted directly such lands. Best tree growth occurs if the grass from the United States, despite evidence that is cut and burned prior to planting, and if large tropical soils respond much differently to fer- seedlings are used to withstand competition tilizer than temperate soils. There also is grow- with the grass (122). ing concern about the potentially adverse impacts of fertilizer use on insular groundwater Once an area of such species have been estab- and marine ecosystems (94). lished and soil productivity regenerated, enrichment planting and other second-growth forest The U.S. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has management techniques can gradually improve completed comprehensive soil surveys for all the economic value of the stand. Eventually, U.S. Caribbean islands; similar studies have agroforestry and agriculture maybe introduced been completed for all major U.S. Pacific is- into the area. lands. However, adequate soil testing to determine nutrient deficiencies is limited to Guam Steps involved in reclamation might include: where a soils laboratory was set up by the 1. inventory of degraded lands to classify University of Guam in 1975. Few other islands them into subtypes; currently make use of this service. Implemen- Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry c 201 tation of this information may depend on fur- alone. Thus, organic amendments may increase ther training of agriculture department person- the efficiency of commercial fertilizers (83), nel. Research also is needed on other methods of maintaining soil fertility such as green Soil Microorganisms.—Soil particle aggregation and, therefore, erosion control can be manuring, intercropping with legumes, fallow effected by a range of polysaccharides and other periods, and crop rotation (94). gums that are produced by soil microorganisms Organic Matter.—Many organic materials (44). The size and composition of the microbial contain components other than nitrogen, phos- mass present determine the degree of the effect. phorus, and potassium which can contribute significantly to increased crop yields, includ- Mycorrhizae, a group of fungi associated with ing secondary and micronutrients and, some- plant roots, often promote more efficient use times lime. The crop yield response to an or- of applied fertilizer [62). For example, in sev- ganic amendment, however, follows the “law eral experiments on tropical soils, legumes re- of diminishing returns”; the capacity of organic sponded little to the addition of rock phosphate matter to elicit yield responses declines with unless they were mycorrhizal. Uptake of minor elements with slow soil diffusion rates, like cop- succeeding crops (83). per and zinc, also can be increased by mycor- USDA has identified a number of ways that rhizal presence. organic matter could be used more effectively as soil amendments: In naturally regenerating degraded tropical soils, the new vegetation will consist predomi- 1. improve methods of manure collection, nantly of nonmycorrhizal plants (62). Finally, storage, and processing (e.g., comporting) it is well documented that plants with mycor- to minimize nitrogen losses that often oc- rhizal associations transplant better than non- cur in these operations; mycorrhizal. 2. apply wasted manures to lands; 3. apply wasted crop residues to lands; Composts.—Composting is the biologic con- 4. increase use of sewage sludge on land; and version of organic wastes to humus, a nutrient- 5. increase use of the organic/compostable conserving process carried out by a complex fraction of municipal refuse (83). of aerobic organisms and microorganisms that occur naturally in soils. In simple systems, soil, It is well established that microorganisms are manure, and plant residues, or a combination beneficial to soil structure and that soil aggre- of animal, human and crop wastes, are layered gation can be increased by the addition of crop in a pen or bin. The pile heats as the waste de- residues presumably due to resultant soil micro- cays and is turned manually and rewetted as bial activity during the decomposition process needed. The process commonly is complete in (19). Burning crop residues in place instead of 4 to 12 weeks. More complex systems are more comporting destroys much of the nitrogen con- labor-, material-, and cost-intensive (73). tained in the residue, Burning may result in soil erosion problems, destroy any soil-conditioning USDA recently developed a highly success- effects of the residues, and modify the ecologi- ful method for comporting sewage sludge, ani- cal effects of the residue on the soil microflora. mal manures, municipal refuse, and pit latrine In some cases it causes the soil surface to be- wastes called BARC (Beltsville Aerated Rapid come hydrophobic which can reduce infiltra- Comporting). This method has been adopted tion and water storage (19). widely in the United States and in some lesser developed countries. It is simple, effective, in- It is unlikely that organic fertilizers will to- expensive, and allows considerable trade-off be- tally replace commercial fertilizers, nor should tween labor and capital. that be the goal. Evidence indicates that higher crop yields are possible when organic wastes After compost is applied to fields, waste nu- are applied in combination with commercial trients and nutrients from the organisms them- fertilizers than when either one is supplied selves are slowly released, allowing long-term 202 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas uptake by plants. Compost also improves the of two study crops were higher after applica- physical structure of soil and its water-holding tion of composts enriched with rock phosphate capacity. than after application of rock phosphate or of Inorganic Soil Amendments.—One strategy composts alone. Phosphate-enriched composts with potentially significant applications to agri- were associated with higher yields than even culture on U.S.-affiliated islands involves “turn- superphosphate, with its extremely high levels ing rocks into fertilizers” using naturally and of water soluble phosphate. This may be be- widely occurring inorganic materials as agri- cause of the the slow release of phosphorus cultural inputs. from enriched composts. The potential for agricultural uses of natural Opportuntiy: Introduce Salt-Tolerant materials like zeolites and rock phosphates, and Crops and Systems for increasing yields by mixing these inorganic materials with organic manures and composts Salt spray and saline soils are a significant containing soil microorganisms is thought to production constraint on atolls and shorelines be considerable (65]. Geologists in Canada and of larger islands. Research has been conducted the U.S. Geological Survey who have been on Tarawa, Kiribati, on the salt tolerance of studying some of the natural fertilization sys- crops and on technologies to minimize salt ef- tems are enthusiastic about their potential uses fects on crops. A variety of strategies, includ- in a number of countries where the economic ing raised beds, windbreaks, organic matter and environmental costs of conventional fer- amendments, and drip irrigation have been sug- tilizers are prohibitive. gested to minimize salt damage to crops. Ta- ble 6-8 lists the salt-tolerance of some common Zeolites are a family of common silicate crops. Further, selecting or engineering strains minerals that often occur in or are associated of highly salt-tolerant crops could permit the with volcanic rock. Zeolite minerals participate expansion of agriculture onto currently unin chemical exchange reactions that have been usable lands. shown to increase crop yields in experimental systems and field trials. These minerals can take in nitrogen from manures and other sources and release it slowly in soils in a form plants can use (i.e., they have a high ion-exchange capacity). They can induce the breakdown of rock phosphate, making another important nutrient available to crops. Laboratory tests in Guelph, Ontario (Canada), have shown that zeolite treated rock phosphate releases its phosphate into soils up to 100 times faster than rock phosphate alone (112). Because of their high ion- exchange capacity and water retentivity, natural zeolites have been used extensively in Ja- pan as amendments for sandy soils (65). A variety of microorganisms are known to solubilize different insoluble inorganic phos- Photo credit: A. Vargo phates, permitting their uptake by plants. Al- Pandanus, or screw pine, is a common beach strand plant on Pacific islands due to its tolerance of salt though the relation of these organisms to crop spray and saline groundwater. Fiber for weaving is yield has been a subject of much controversy, derived from the fronds, and the fruit recent research (58) demonstrated that yields is eaten on some islands. Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 203

Table 6-8.—Salt Tolerance of Certain Common Crops

Hi ah Medium Low Arrowroot Broccoli Alocasia taro Asparagus Cabbage, head Banana Beet Cantaloupe Bean Coconut Carrot Breadfruit Kale Cauliflower Celery Pandanus Corn Colocasia taro Papaya Cucumber Radish Spinach Cyrtosperma taro Lettuce Onion Pea Sweet pepper White potato Squash Tomato SOURCE E Soucie, Atoll Agriculture, Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, Photo credit A Vargo Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia 1983 Depredation by the imported Giant African Snail hinders vegetable cultivation on several U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Research to develop an integrated pest POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Reduce management (1PM) strategy is being conducted at the Agricultural Crop Losses American Samoa Community College.

Major crop and livestock losses in the trop- ferable to small-scale farmers, and has little ics are due to diseases, pests, and weeds prior adverse environmental impact. Although this to and after harvesting. Accurate data for strategy holds promise for widespread appli- postharvest losses are not available for most cation on islands, it is constrained by high costs U.S.-affiliated islands (99). However, crop losses for research, field trials, and development, Fur- probably are similar to estimates given for the thermore, little scientific data is available on tropics, which is around 30 to 40 percent (155, the performance of resistant crops and livestock 156). on islands (142). Application of appropriate pest, disease, and weed control may reduce losses, effectively in- Opportunity: Cultural Control creasing yields. Various control methods have Cultural control is the avoidance or reduc- been applied to combat agricultural pests, tion of pests and diseases through the use of weeds, and diseases in U.S.-affiliated islands, certain cultivation or husbandry methods. Cul- including: use of pest-resistant crops; chemi- tural control methods, such as the traditional cal, biological and cultural pest and disease con- cropping systems, provide the most common trol methods; and integrated pest management. method of pest and weed control by subsistence farmers on the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands Opportunity: Use of Pest- and Disease- (22,41,94,142). Cultural practices which serve Resistant Crops and Livestock to control pests and weeds include: polycrop- Cultivation of pest-and disease-resistant va- ping, field and crop rotation, time of planting, rieties of crops and livestock is a common tradi- and irrigation methods. Although cultural con- tional method of protection from pests and dis- trols alone may not eradicate pests, they often ease (94,142). The use of pest-resistant crop can reduce pest populations and enhance other varieties or plants serving as pest repellents control methods (124). make cultural control methods more effective In polyculture, some plants may serve as in preventing pest and disease infestations. physical barriers partially concealing or pro- As with cultivation methods, use of pest- tecting susceptible crops from pests. Other resistant crops is effective in avoiding pest and plants may emit or secrete repellents or pro- disease infestations, is inexpensive, easily trans- vide favorable environments for predators or 204 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

parasites of pest species (3). For example, in Although chemical control has immediate re- American Samoa, taro armyworm may be con- sults, its effectiveness is generally short-lived, trolled by intercropping taro with Coleus blu- and it is an inefficient way to control pests in mea which serves as insect pest repellant (142). the field. Often, only a small quantity (less than Further, low crop density inherent to polycrop- 0.1 percent) of pesticides applied to field crops ping may attenuate the spread of diseases. reaches target pests and the rest of the pesti- It is well known that crop and field rotations cides remain in the environment to contami- nate the land, water, and air (85). Pests may may suppress pest and weed infestations. Irri- acquire resistance and some chemicals may ad- gation and regular flooding in wetland taro versely affect nontarget organisms (124). Resis- cultivation (55) and drip irrigation system in semiarid row cropping (61) also reduce pest in- tant pests make subsequent application of the festations. same chemical ineffective. Since extension workers on some islands are few or inadequately Cultural control methods are effective (espe- trained, pest resistance or upset of natural pred- cially when combined with the use of resistant ator balance may not be noticed (99). crops), inexpensive, easily transferable to small- On U.S.-affiliated islands, the Environmental scale farmers, and have little adverse environ- Pesticide Control Act of 1972 requires the regis- mental impact. However, development of new tration of agriculture chemicals for sale and ex- cultural control methods is constrained by high tends control to actual application by the user. costs for research and development and by lack Certain restricted chemicals may only be ap- of documentation of local knowledge. plied by certified personnel, and penalties may be levied against those who misuse chemicals. Opportunity: Chemical Control Most pesticides, however, are not registered This involves application of chemical agents for use on tropical crops. Therefore, under U.S. to control pests, diseases, and weeds. Chemi- regulations, special registration is required. cal biocides are easily applied and generally This is done by field trials and monitoring of have an immediate effect. In the United States, biocide residues in compliance with EPA reg- pesticides play a major role in pest control, in- ulations. These procedures require funds and crease crop yields and give about a fourfold re- skilled staff, and thus are beyond the capacity turn on investment (85). However, the presence of most existing island institutions (99). of disease, pests, or weeds does not indicate Since most U.S.-affiliated island are small, that chemical application of control is needed, inappropriate application of chemical control because many potentially harmful insects can may have very serious adverse environmental be controlled by parasites and natural preda- impacts. 7 Contamination of water lenses by the tors. Unnecessary chemical application may de- use of agriculture chemicals on small islands stroy the natural balance and lead to further is of major concern (66); limiting or improving serious pest outbreaks. agriculture chemical applications may reduce Under certain circumstances, chemical con- contamination of the environment. trol may be the only effective method of dealing with pest infestations, for example for crop Opportunity: Locally Produced pests and diseases in greenhouses (10) or cat- Pesticides tle tick control (9). However, little is known on Certain local products may be able to take the proper chemical application or formulation for tropical crops and on the long-term effects the place of some imported agrichemicals. For example, soap sprays were principal insecti- of these chemicals on the environment (142). cides during the early 20th century in the Further, on U.S.-affiliated islands, application of chemical pest control is expensive due to 7 A pesticide spill on Truk resulted in a fish kill estimated at costly importation of agriculture chemicals 20 tons and another on Ulithi (Yap) may have contaminated the (43,94). water supply; however, no tests have been run (24). Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 205

United States (17). Soap sprays are biodegrad- Opportunity: Biological Control able, may kill enough pests to prevent serious Biological control is a method whereby a damage to plants yet leave sufficient numbers predator, parasite, or disease agent is used to to provide food and, thus, build beneficial pop- combat undesirable pests, diseases, or weeds. ulations of natural predators. Coconut oil soaps Identification of biological agents involves in- may be an effective pesticide against some intimate knowledge of both pest and control sects and are readily available on most U. S.- agent, requiring considerable research, ex- affiliated islands. However, little research has perimentation, and field trials (66). been done on formulations, effectiveness, or tolerance by various tropical plants. Although biological control of pests and weeds may hold promise, development is costly Pesticides also can be derived from certain and time-consuming. It requires funds, special plants that can be locally grown. Crude extracts facilities, and skilled staff; and thus it is beyond from plants have been used as pesticides for the capacity of existing island institutions thousands of years, and a recent compilation of plants used for pest control listed 700 spe- (99,142). cies (l). Twenty-five species possess character- Biological control works best on long-term istics making them particularly suitable for crops, such as trees, which allow the control propagation and use by resource-poor farmers agent ample opportunity to become established. (e.g., perennial species requiring little space, Biological control has been implemented in the labor, water, or fertilizer with an easily proc- U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands with varying suc- essed product and possessing complementary cess for eradication of fruitfly (66), the giant uses). African snail (18), and rhinoceros beetle (79,99, 142). The neem tree (Azadirachta indica) seems particularly promising for pesticide production In 1963, USDA succeeded in eradicating both on the U.S.-affiliated islands. The neem is na- the oriental fruitfly (Dacus dorsalis) and the tive to the Indo-Pakistan region but has spread melon fruitfly (Dacus cucurbitae) from Rota is- throughout the tropical world, including the Pa- land (CNMI) by a method of “male annihiliza- cific and Caribbean islands. A group of biolog- tion” (killing male flies with a toxic attractant) ically active constituents found in neem leaf, and the sterile male technique (flooding the area fruit, bark, and seed reportedly provide anti- with large number of sterile males). However, feedant, growth regulatory, repellant, hor- in recent years, the melon fruitfly has reap- monal, or pesticidal control in more than 100 peared on Rota (66) possibly due to an ineffec- pest species (l). tive quarantine program. Recently, introduction of an insect (Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata) Neem leaves, neem seed oil, and the “cake” has proved effective in controlling a notorious resulting from oil extraction can all be used for weed (Chromolaena odorata) on Guam (66). pesticide. The cake can be worked directly into the soil and neem oil can be spread through Generally, biological control is simple to im- a simple sprayer. A number of other products, plement once precise control procedures and such as livestock feed, soap, and cosmetic oils control agents have been identified. Sometimes can also be produced from the neem. The neem introduction of biological agents may have is salt-tolerant, can be grown on relatively in- reverberating adverse effects after the target fertile soils, and has been demonstrated effec- pest has been controlled. For example, the ma- tive at improving such soils. Research on neem rine toad Bufo marinus was introduced both tree cultivation and uses is being conducted by intentionally and accidentally through much USDA, including the Tropical Agricultural Re- of the Pacific islands during the last 50 years. search Station at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. The toad was thought to be a good biological 206 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas control agent due to its large size and wide methods, such as cultural control and 1PM, hold adaptability. It was introduced to Guam from great promise for effective pest control on is- Puerto Rico through Hawaii originally for in- lands, government subsidies that lower the sect and garden slug control and rapidly spread costs of agrichemicals may undermine other over the island. Later it was introduced through- pest control methods which have less detrimen- out the remainder of Micronesia and American tal effects. Furthermore, islands lack aggres- Samoa. While the toad did reduce slug and sive quarantine programs to prevent reinfesta- other pest populations, it also reduced population and reintroduction of pests. Strong policy tions of beneficial insects; contaminated drink- commitments of local administrators to imple- ing water; killed freshwater fishes, pets and, ment an effective pest control together with an reportedly, some humans (18). effective quarantine program are also absent (66,142). Opportunity: Integrated Post Pest control methods will have little effect Management- on islands without concurrent efforts to pre- Integrated pest management (1PM) refers to vent reintroduction of pests and diseases from the management of pest, diseases, and weeds other areas via incoming cargo such food im- using a combination of control methods. It reports from high risk areas. The USDA Animal lies on a balance of biological and chemical con- and Plant Health Inspection Program (APHIS) trols, and cultural practices, such as polycul- operates on most U.S.-affiliated islands (43,142) ture or timing of irrigation. Its goal is to and is administered by local Departments of coordinate multiple pest management technol- Agriculture. However, the current program ogies to assure stable crop production and lacks an integrated preventive program (68), maintain pest damage below the economic in- which might include: jury level while minimizing hazards to humans, ● public education on the importance of animals, plants, and the environment (124). 1PM plant and animal quarantine; is considered the best long-term control strat- ● rigorous inspection of incoming cargo, egy, both economically and environmentally. both by ship and air; Under 1PM, chemical controls are used only ● inspection of planes and ships for insects when a predetermined economic level of dam- and other pests; age has been reached. ● definitions of which countries are high risks for new pests; Effective pest and disease control programs ● may increase productivity, quality, and thereby a list of crops to be protected and from what organisms; and marketability of crops and livestock. High-qual- ● ity products can be exported to metropolitan continuous education programs to increase markets with little difficulty. For example, the skills of inspectors. occurrence of melonfly on Rota (CNMI) and APHIS, the University of Guam, and the Guam prevent fruit export from these islands United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Orga- to Japan as well as to other islands (66). For sub- nization (FAO) have developed training pro- sistence farmers, where the major bulk of the grams in plant protection and quarantine, and crop is consumed locally and little enters the the FAO project on Strengthening Plant Pro- market sector, reduction of crop losses results tection and Root Crops Development in the in greater security against lean years. South Pacific has recently reviewed plant quarantine programs in the FSM, Marshall Is- On U.S.-affiliated islands, the major stumbl- lands, CNMI, and Palau (39). ing block for the implementation of pest management is neither lack of technologies nor lack Quarantine regulations made along political of funding, but lack of highly skilled and moti- rather than geographical boundaries also may vated agricultural staff and good agriculture ex- unnecessarily restrict export of some agricul- tension services. Although some pest control tural products. For example, a quarantine on Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 207 export of all citrus products was imposed on ulations, facilities and procedures for each ma- the FSM while its cause—the citrus moth—is jor exporting island. Such surveys should result reported to be found only in the western Caro- in better information for use by both USDA and line Islands. Thus, although unaffected, exports island governments in their agricultural inspec- also were prohibited from the eastern Caroline tion and quarantine activities. This also may Islands (39). USDA entomologists and plant open U.S. and other markets to previously re- pathologists could conduct surveys of pests of stricted agricultural commodities from the is- economic importance in the U.S.-affiliated islands (39). lands, review quarantine and fumigation reg-

SUMMARY A variety of agricultural methods are prac- technologies uneconomical for most small trop- ticed in U.S. insular areas. However, signifi- ical islands. This is especially true for adop- cant constraints hinder application of certain tion of typical U.S. mainland field cropping agricultural technologies and agricultural de- technologies which is based on a temperate cli- velopment in many U.S.-affiliated islands. Fac- mate, scarce and expensive labor, large-scale tors that support and hinder application and and highly mechanized operations, and abun- implementation of sustainable agricultural dant land. technologies for U.S.-affiliated islands are many and vary between regions, islands, and polities, Availability of high-paying government jobs and generous U.S. social support programs, Small land areas and population, fragmented make it difficult to find skilled farm workers land masses, great distances between islands, at reasonable wages. For some islands, strong and isolation from major markets are not con- traditional social support and extended family ducive to modern commercial development. welfare systems tend to hinder motivation Land tenure systems characterized by small toward working in low-paying “unprestigious” parcels also make some forms of commercial agriculture jobs or entering into risky commer- development unlikely. Small farm size, how- cial agricultural enterprises. Low labor produc- ever, does not constrain subsistence agricul- tivity together with application of inefficient ture development and some forms of small- agricultural technologies make commercial holder commercial agriculture. farming uneconomical. Additional major constraints for modern agri- In U.S. Pacific islands, modern commercial culture development in the U.S. Pacific islands agriculture development is further complicated are limited arable land areas and low soil fer- by the heavy influence of traditional customs. tility. Limited fresh water on low islands and Many islanders are caught between their own on semiarid regions of islands is constraining aspirations for higher levels of material living, to conventional cropping methods. Environ- which they hope to attain through commercial mental factors such as droughts and typhoons, development, and the demand for observing and constant threat of pest and disease out- customary kinship and family practices. Com- breaks are serious problems for agriculture. mercial agriculture often requires regular and Furthermore, costly and irregular transporta- long periods of work, prescribed schedules, and tion services, poor storage facilities, and small also accurate accounting of expenditures and markets on U.S.-affiliated islands compound income, Yet, demands to meet customary obli- the problems. gations to share with relatives are difficult to ignore, especially when farmers are dependent Universally high energy costs and expensive on regular reciprocal assistance. Under this sys- imported goods and supplies make application tem commercial enterprises are likely to oper- of energy-intensive commercial agricultural ate under suboptimal conditions. 208 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Opportunities Because conditions vary among and within islands, ranking of objectives must be made on Despite these constraints, most islands have a case-by-case basis. conditions that are conducive to development of certain types of crops, livestock, or “agri- Some intensive, high-yielding farming sys- cultural packages” (a combination of resources tems are suitable for the larger islands. How- and methods that is productive and can be ap- ever, for the most part, agriculture systems on plied profitably at an acceptably low economic smaller and more remote U.S.-affiliated islands risk) for development. systems should be simple and nearly self- sustaining, including: Sustainable agriculture technologies maximize the use of abundant (inexpensive) or ● systems that use minimal mechanization, renewable resources and minimize the use of thus avoiding expensive repairs, spare scarce (expensive) or nonrenewable resources. parts, and fossil fuel imports. Where For the technologies to be readily adopted, they mechanization is required, use of small- should maximize output per unit input of the scale or simple equipment should be de- scarcest resource. For example, if labor is ex- veloped; pensive or scarce, labor productivity should be ● systems which require little skilled labor, increased (e.g., by use of labor-saving equip- but which generate employment; ment); if land is the most limiting factor, land ● systems that maximixe use of local renew- yields should be increased through the use of able resources and minimize use of non- intensive practices. Similarly, if water is scarce, renewable resources; and water use efficiency should be increased through ● systems which maintain the productivity water management practices such as drip irri- of local and “downstream” environments. gation systems or hydroponics.

Technology packages should also be tailored Agricultural Development to the local ecological, climatic, and sociocultural conditions. Characteristics of crops Great diversity in agriculture systems is likely that generally are appropriate to U.S. island to persist on U.S.-affiliated islands. While op- conditions include crops that: 1) are resistant portunities for large-scale farming may be ex- to pests, diseases, and weeds; 2) thrive in poor ploited by outside investors willing to bear the soils; 3) require little or no irrigation; 4) require high risks for the potentially high returns asso- relatively little nonrenewable agricultural in- ciated with a successful export commodity, de- puts; 5) require relatively little labor; and 6) pro- velopment of smallholder agriculture provides duce high yields (48]. Crops should recover rap- a greater likelihood of success and breadth of idly or suffer minimal damage from occasional benefit distribution. Compared with large-scale adverse weather conditions such as cyclonic farming, the benefits associated with small- storms and droughts. For export, crops should holder agricultural development include: be high quality, high value, low weight and bulk, ● or have a long shelf life. Characteristics of live- less risk of adverse impacts on traditional stock appropriate to tropical islands include social systems (especially for U.S. Pacific islands); those that are resistant to diseases, pests, and ● parasites; that thrive on poor feed and forage; less dependence on foreign capital; ● larger employment-generating effects; require little care; and that can adapt to varia- ● ble weather conditions. broader distribution of increased farm income; Few or no crops or livestock are so ideal as ● greater compatibility with island ecologi- to fulfill each of these requirements. However, cal conditions; these desired characteristics can serve as ob- ● less dependence on imported production jectives in crop, cultivar, and livestock choices. inputs; Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 209

● more widespread nutritional benefits; and (48) such as the University of Hawaii or the ● potentially greater agricultural stability re- University of Puerto Rico. Although agricul- sulting from greater agricultural diversifi- ture research has been conducted in the U.S. cation (43). Pacific islands, many research activities are not designed to apply directly to the development Common characteristics of smallholder farm- needs of the islands. Further, research results ing systems include the relatively modest acre- are commonly not presented in a format usable age requirements per operation, heavy reliance for development planners or decisionmakers. on family rather than hired labor, and significantly lower capital requirements per opera- Although island governments should focus tion compared with large-scale agriculture. on research that is critical to their special lo- Also, a strategy which is likely to emphasize cal needs, this should be supplemented by tak- import substitution (at least in the early stages ing advantage of research done at similar in- of development) probably is more likely to suc- stitutions at neighboring islands. Research ceed and be less costly than attempting to pro- performed by the South Pacific Commission, mote large-scale export-oriented farming (43). Caribbean Agriculture Research and Develop- ment Institute, and other regional research in- POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Improve stitutions may provide useful information (48, Research and Extension Services 87). It would be to the advantage of small island governments to establish cooperative rela- In order to accelerate agriculture develop- tionships with international research institu- ment, research programs need to be directed tions or major universities who can help broad to specific goals clearly relevant to island de- strategic and basic research (48). Integrated development. Although the need for research is velopment planning of island renewable re- widely recognized, the capacity of most U.S. sources cannot be effectively achieved because Pacific island institutions is limited. Further- research and planning of renewable resources more, effective research is hampered by inade- are not well coordinated in island polities (87), quate or unavailable baseline data and skilled After appropriate technology and strategy research staff. Levels of research needed for have been formulated for implementation, ex- agriculture development include (48): tension agents communicate this information ● operational research at the farm level to to the farmers. Ideally, extension agents should increase productivity and profitability of be supported by an extension station with farm operations through monitoring and skilled professional staff in various fields. Al- experimentation in farms; though this condition may exist on large, well- ● field trials at field experimental stations for developed islands, provision of agriculture ex- testing new varieties, fertilizers, pest man- tension services to the widely scattered farmers agement, and new technologies; on U.S. Pacific islands is extremely difficult ● strategic research on broad agricultural de- (48]. Lack of trained and motivated extension velopment issues affecting many areas, in- staff or the wrong kinds of extension agents cluding social and economic issues; and may hinder effective communication with ● basic research on agriculture problems farmers. In some areas (e.g., Yap and Palau) with no predetermined practical applica- where subsistence farmers are women, male tion in mind. extension agents are ineffective because it is The on-farm operational research and field considered inappropriate for men to teach trials are best done onsite at each island insti- women. In such situations, female extension tution. However, since the capacity of small is- agents would be more effective and appropriate to convey information to farmers (48). land institutions to support complex research is limited, basic and strategic research maybe Although extension services in Puerto Rico more effectively conducted at large institutions and the USVI are relatively well developed, 210 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas transfer of modern technologies to Puerto trade hampers participation of people in agri- Rico’s farmers remains slow. This may be due culture development, especially among the to the relatively small size of the agriculture youth. Students also commonly lack hands-on sector and scattered geographical location of experience with farming. farmers, and also because extension workers Although agricultural education programs ex- rarely have appropriate prior experience with ist, improvement is needed to enhance their ef- modern technologies to guide farmers (61). fectiveness, particularly for the less-developed Research knowledge in certain areas (e.g., islands. In general, constraints to agricultural semiarid agriculture in Puerto Rico) lags sig- education in the U.S.-affiliated islands stem nificantly behind commercial practice. Gener- from lack of funding, qualified teachers, and ally, the agriculture experiment stations have of interest on the part of students due, in part, made little or no effort to incorporate the re- to the status attached to high-paying jobs with sults of commercial experience in their tech- the government (app. F). Agricultural educa- nology packages. Furthermore, existing links tion effectiveness could be achieved through between research and extension, and the pres- improving education in general, providing ent level of funding are inadequate to address training for farmers, and providing public edu- the magnitude of the problems which exist in cation programs. the U.S. Caribbean islands (61). If research is to be effective, the gap of knowledge between : Opportuntiy Improve Education researchers and commercial farmers must also in General be closed. All island areas have public education sys- One of the ways of overcoming this problem tems which can accommodate nearly all school is to conduct on-farm agronomic research trials. age children through the secondary level. How- On-farm research provides documentary evi- ever, the educational programs generally do not dence of the nature and magnitude of biologi- prepare the students to fill employment needs cal, technical, economic, and social constraints. for island development such as agriculture. Moreover, on-farm research can provide base- Generally, emphasis has been on academic pur- line data for extrapolation to other farms where suits or preparation for white-collar employ- conditions are similar. Finally, on-farm trials ment. This has led to outmigration of high- make the process of research and development school graduates and persistent shortages of more understandable and accessible to other manpower in agriculture trades and other such farmers, decisionmakers, and service organi- occupations. Interest in agricultural occupa- zations. tions might be enhanced if ecology and agriculture courses or on-farm training were POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Improve offered at all educational levels. Education in Agriculture Opportunity: Provide Training Apart from agriculture extension services, a for Farmers need also exists for education and training programs for future farmers on most islands. On Low educational levels of most farmers may U.S. Pacific islands, agricultural education is pose a problem. In this case, education and inadequate. Two schools in Pohnpei offer agri- training can be presented through nonwritten cultural education, three island institutions of- communication methods with audio-visual fer programs at the junior college level (Palau, aids. Effective education and training may be CNMI, and American Samoa), and the Univer- accomplished by using local examples and by sity of Guam offers college-level courses. In the showing rather than telling. Workshops and on- U.S. Caribbean islands, agricultural education the-job practical training for farmers may also programs and facilities are adequate. However, bean effective way to convey information. In- strong negative attitudes toward agricultural volvement of farm organizations in agricultural Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry “ 211 development programs may enhance farmers’ culture sector to the general public, and to awareness of new agricultural programs and counter the general negative attitude young peo- activities (48). ple have toward farming as a trade. Agricul- tural fairs also can serve to introduce new crops Opportunity: Provide Public or new products to the public and a means of Education Programs testing public acceptance. The U.S. Virgin Is- lands holds an annual agriculture and food fair Public awareness campaigns through the me- on the two larger islands, St. Croix and St. dia or agricultural fairs may also be an effec- Thomas (153). tive way to convey the importance of the agri-

Photo credit: USFS-ITF

Youth conservation worker programs can introduce local people to basic principles of ecology and help strengthen environmental understanding while providing needed labor for such programs as reforestation and protected area management. Here, Young American Conservation Crops enrollees plant mahogany in a Puerto Rican public forest. 212 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

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52. Matuszak, J. M., “Terracing in 1984–Building 65, Mumpton, F. A., “Using Zeolites in Agricul- Soil and Feeding Families,” Proceedings of the ture, ” Innovative Biological Technologies for Fourth Annual St. Thomas/St. John’s Agricul- Lesser Developed Countries U.S. Congress, Of- ture Fair, sponsored by the St. Thomas and St. fice of Technology Assessment, OTA-BP-F-29 Johns’ Farmers’ Association and the College (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing of the Virgin Islands Cooperative Extension office, 1985). Service, 1984, pp. 7-8. In: Pool, 1986. 66. Muniappan, R,, Associate Director, University 53. Mayo, H, M., “Report on Plant Relocation Sur- of Guam Agricultural Experiment Station, per- vey and Agricultural History of the Palau Is- sonal communication, January 1986, lands,” (Saipan, Commonwealth of the North- 67. Munoz-Roure, J. O,, Director, Caribbean Fish- ern Mariana Islands: Trust Territory of the ery Management Council, personal communi- Pacific Islands, 1954). cation, September 1986. 54. McClymonds, N, E., and Diaz, J, R., “Water Re- 68. Nafus, D., “Strengthening Plant Protection and sources of the Jobos Area, Puerto Rico, ” Water Root Crops Development in the South Pacific” Resources Bulletin, No. 13, U.S. Geological (Suva, Fiji: United Nations Food and Agricul- Survey, Water Resources ,Division, San Juan, ture Organization in association with the South Puerto Rico, 1972. In: Morris and Pool, 1986. Pacific Commission, 1985). 55. McCutcheon, M., “Reading the Taro Cards: 69. Nair, P. K. R., “Agroforestry With Coconuts and Explaining Agricultural Change in Palau, ” Other Tropical Plantation Crops,” Plant Re- FoodEnergy in Tropical Ecosystems, D.J. Cat- search and Agroforestry, P.A. Huxley (cd.) tle and K.H. Schwerin, (eds.) (New York, NY: (Nairobi, Kenya: International Council for Re- Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, 1985), search in Agroforestry, 1983), pp. 79-102. pp. 167-188. 70. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- 56, McElroy, J. L,, Department of Business Admin- search Council, Board on Science and Tech- istration and Economics, St. Mary’s College, nology for International Development, Casua- IN, personal communication, July 1986. rina: Nitrogen-Fixing Trees for Adverse Sites 578 Miller, T., Vice President - Procurement, (VVashington, DC: National Academy Press, McCormick & Co., Inc., personal communica- 1984). tion, June 1986. 71, National Academy of Sciences, National Re- 58. Mishra, M. M., and Bangar, K. C,, “Rock Phos- search Council, Board on Science and Tech- phate Comporting: Transformation of Phos- nology for International Development, Man- phorus Forms and Mechanisms of Solubiliza- gium and Other Fast-growing Acacias for the tion, ” Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, Humid Tropics (Washington, DC: National vol. 3, 1986, pp. 331-340. Academy Press, 1984). 59. Morris, G. L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal 72. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- communication, September 1986. search Council, Board on Science and Tech- 60. Morris, G. L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal nology for International Development, Making communication, February 1986. Aquatic Weeds Useful (Washington, DC: Na- 61. Morris, G, L., and Pool, D. J., “Assessment of tional Academy Press, 1984), Semiarid Agriculture Production Technologies 73. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” search Council, Board on Science and Tech- OTA commissioned paper, 1986. nology for International Development, Food, 62. Mosse, B., “Mycorrhi~ae in a Sustainable Agri- Fuel and Fertilizer From Organic Wastes culture, ” Biological Agriculture and Horticul- (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, ture 3(2/3):191-209, 1986. 1981). 63, Muellm-Dombois, D., University of Hawaii, 74. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- Department of Botany, personal communica- search Council, Board on Science and Tech- tion, July 1986. nology for International Development, Tropi- 64. Muler-Manzanares, L., and Santini, J. E., “Es- cal Legumes: Resources for the Future tudio Socioeconomic de 29 Fincas Individu- (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, als del Titulo W de ia Ley de Tierras Distri- 1979). budas de 1967 a 1970,” Estacion Experimental 75. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- Agricultural, University of Puerto Rico, Bole- search Council, Board on Science and Tech- tin 241, 1976, In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986. nology for International Development, Leu- Ch. 6—Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry ● 215

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103. Sproat, M. N., A Guide to Subsistence Agricul- University (Ann Arbor, MI: University Micro- ture in Micronesia, Agriculture Extension films Inc., 1959), In: Pool, 1986. Bulletin No. 9, Trust Territory of the Pacific 115. Trenbath, B. R,, “Biomass Productivity of Mix- Islands Publications Office, Saipan, Northern tures,” Advances in Agronomy 26:177, 1974. Mariana Islands, 1968. In: Falanruw, 1986; Poi- 116. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Office son, 1986; Raynor, 1986. of Planning and Statistics, “Consumption and 104. Sproat, M. N., “Coconut Varieties in Microne- Production in the Traditional Sector of the sia,” Agriculture Extension Circular No. 4, Di- Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands,” 1981, vision of Agriculture, Department of Resources pp. 102-116. In: Falanruw, 1986. and Development, Trust Territory of the Pa- 117, Tyson, G,, Caribbean historian, personal com- cific Islands, Saipan, Marshall Islands, 1965. munication, July 1986. In: Poison, 1986. 118. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 105. Sproat, M. N., and Migvar, L., TTP1 AgricuL ment, Technologies to Maintain Biological tural Development Operations TTPI Agricul- Diversity, OTA-F-330 (Washington, DC: U.S. tural Extension Bulletin No. 1, January 1964, Government Printing Office, March 1987). In: Raynor, 1986. 119, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 106. Stella, C., and Olivieri, J. A., “Costos y Prac- ment, Technology, Public Policy and the ticas para Elaborer el Carbin Vegetal en la Zone Changing Structure of American Agriculture, Cafetalera de Puerto Rico 1952 -1953,” Boletin OTA-F-285 (Washington, DC: U.S. Govern- 124, Estacion Experimental Agricultural, Uni- ment Printing Office, March 1986). versity of Puerto Rico, 1954. In: Pool, 1986. 120, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 107. Sugiura, K. “Taro Culture of Palauans,” Ge- ment, Technologies to Benefi”t Agriculture and ogr. Res. 1(8):1017-1035, 1942. In: Falanruw, Wildlife, OTA-BP-F-34 (Washington, DC: U.S. 1986. Government Printing Office, May 1985). 108, Szentkiralyi, M., ~’Assessment of Livestock 121, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- Production Technologies in Micronesia and ment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical For- Feasibility Study for Locally Produced Pig est Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: Feed on Ponape,” OTA commissioned paper, U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984). 1986, 122. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 109. Thaman, R, R., Pacific Islands’ Health and Nu- ment, Reforestation of Degraded Lands, Back- trition: Trends and Areas for Action (Honolulu ground Paper No, 1, OTA-BP-F-18 (Washing- HA: East-West Center, June 1985). In: Lucas, ton, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, May 1986. 1983). 110. Thaman, R. R,, “Deterioration of Traditional 123. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- Food Systems, Increasing Malnutrition and ment, Impact of Technology on U.S. Cropland Food Dependency in the Pacific Islands,” Jour- and Rangeland Productivity, OTA-F-166 (Wash- na] of Nutrition 39(3):109-121, 1982. In: Falan- ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, ruw, 1986. August 1982).

1110 Thaman, R, R., “Food Scarcity, Food Depen- 124< U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- dency and Nutritional Deterioration in Small ment, Pest Management Strategies in Crop Island Communities,” Proceedings of the I(lth Production, vol. 1, NTIS PB80-120-017 (Spring- New Zealand Geographical Conference and field, VA: National Technical Information 49th ANZAAS Conference, W, Moran, P. Service, October 1979). Hosking, and G. Aitken (eds.) (Auckland, New 125, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conser- Zealand: N.Z. Geographical Society Confer- vation Service, Soil Survey of the American ence Series No. 10, 1979), pp. 191-197. In: Samoa, February 1984. Falanruw, 1986. 126, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conser- 112. Toomey, G., “Agrogeology: Rocks in the Serv- vation Service, Soil Survey of the Island of Kos- ice of Soil,” IDRC Reports, July 1986, pp. 12-13. rae, Federated States of Micronesia, March 113. Torres, E,, Director, Guam Department of Agri- 1983. culture, personal communication, September 127, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conser- 1986. vation Service, Soil Survey of the Islands of

1140 Tosi, J. A., Jr., “Forest Land Utilization in West- Truk, Federated States of Micronesia, March ern Puerto Rico, ” Ph.D dissertation, Clark 1983. Ch. 6–Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry • 217

128. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conser- 141. U.S. Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment vation Service, Soil Survey of the Islands of Station and Cooperative Extension Service, Yap, Federated States of Micronesia, March 1983-1984 Report of College of Virgin Island 1983. Land Grant Programs St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Is- 129, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conser- lands, October 1985. vation Service, Soil Survey of the Island of 142. Vargo, A., “Economic Pests and Pest Manage- Palau, Republic of Palau, March 1983. ment Technologies Suitable for U.S.-Affiliated 130. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conser- Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, vation Service, Soil Survey of the Island of 1986. Ponape, Federated States of Micronesia, Jan- 143, Vicente-Chandler, J., “Assessment of Agricul- uary 1982. tural Production Technologies for U.S. Carib- 131, U.S. Department of Commerce, Economic bean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, Study of Puerto Rico, 2 vols., report prepared 1986. by the Interagency Task Force (Washington, 144. Vicente-Chandler, J. Conceptos, Plan y DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979). Programa Para una Agricultural Moderna en 132, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Puerto Rico, Special Report to the Secretary Census: 1982 Census of Agriculture: U.S. of Agriculture of Puerto Rico, 1978. In: Pool, Summary (Washington, DC: U.S. Government 1986; Caro-Costas, 1986; Morris and Pool, Printing Office, 1984). 1986. 133. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 145. Vicente-Chandler, J., et al., “Production y utili- Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Virgin Is- zation intensiva de las Forrajeras en Puerto lands of the United States (Washington, DC: Rico,” University of Puerto Rico Agriculture U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). Experimental Station Bulletin No. 271, 1983. 134. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986; Caro-Costas, 1986. Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Guam 146. Vicente-Chandler, J., and Figarella, J., “Exper- (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing iments on Plantain Production with Conser- Office, 1983). vation in the Mountain Region of Puerto Rico, ” 135. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the University of Puerto Rico Journal of Agricul- Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Puerto ture 46(3):226-236, 1962. In: Vicente-Chandler, Rico (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Print- 1986. ing Office, 1983). 147, Vicente-Chandler, J., Irrizary, H., and Llorens, 136, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of A. A,, “Costos e Ingresos en la Production In- Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: Northern tensive de Platanos en la Region Montanosa Mariana Islands (Washington, DC: U.S. Gov- de Puerto Rico, ” Estacion Experimental Agri- ernment Printing Office, 1981). cultural, Publication No. 137, 1980. In: Vicente- 137. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Chandler, 1986. Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: American 148. Vickers, M. E. H., “The Cultivation of Taro Cyr- Samoa (Washington, DC: U.S. Government tosperma chammissonis Schott.,” Taro Culti- Printing Office, 1981). vation in the Pacifi”c M. Lambert (cd.), Noumea, 138. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of New Caledonia, South Pacific Commission Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa Technical Bulletin No. 22, 1982, pp. 90-97. Coastal Management Program and Final Envi- 149. West, N, E., “Desertification or Verification?” ronmental Impact Statement, (Washington, Nature 321(5):562 June 1986. DC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- 150. Wiens, H. J., Atoll Environment and Ecology” ministration, 1980). (Brookhaven, NH: Yale University Press, 1965). 139. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of 151, Wijewardene R., and Waidyanatha, P., Conser- Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico vation Farming: Systems, Technologies, and Coastal Management Program and Final Envi- Tools, Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka ronmental Impact Statement (Washington, DC: and the Commonwealth Consultative Group on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- Agriculture in the Asia-Pacific Region, 1984. tration, 1978). In: Raynor, 1986; Vargo, 1986. 140. U.S. Department of State, Thirty-Seventh An- 152. Wilkens, G. C,, “Role of Traditional Agriculture nual Report to the United Nations on the in Preserving Biological Diversity, ” OTA com- Administration of the Trust Territories of the missioned paper for assessment of Technol- Pacific Islands, 1984. In: Lucas, 1986. ogies to Maintain Biological Diversity, OTA-F- 218 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

330 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Print- 156. Youdeowei, A., and Service, M. W., “Pest and ing Office, March 1987), Vector Management in the Tropics” (New 153. Williams, P., USVI Commissioner of Agricul- York, NY: Longman Inc., 1983). In: Vargo, ture, personal communication, November 1986. 1986. 157. Zapata, J. Z., et al., “El Mercado de Trabajo en 154. World Development Forum, “Dripping Fer- la Agricultural y las Caracteristicas Socio- tilizer, ” World Development Forum 4(2):4, Jan- Economicas do 10S Obreros Agricola en Puerto uary 1986. Rico, ” Agricultural Experiment Station, Oc- 155. Wortman, S., To Feed This World (Baltimore tober 1983. In: Castillo-Barahona and Bhatia, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986, 1984). In: Stiles, 1986, Chapter 7 Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture CONTENTS

Page Introduction...... 221 Common Uses of Aquatic Species...... 221 Ecology of Coastal and Nearshore Habitats ...... ,222 History and Present Status of Resource Use ...... 225 Common Constraints to Fisheries and Aquiculture Development . ....,...230 Constraints to Nearshore Fisheries Development ...... 230 Constraints to Aquiculture Development ...... 232 Other Constraints to Marine Resource Development ...... 233 Common Opportunities ...... ,...235 Expanded Use of Underexploited or Migratory Species ...... 235 Collecting and Gathering ...... , ...... 235 Aquiculture ...... 236 Potential Strategies for Nearshore Fisheries Development in U.S.-Affiliated Islands ...... 237 Introduction ...... 237 Potential Strategy: Increase Fishery Exploitation Efficiency ...... 237 Potential Strategy: Increase Support for Subsistence and Small-Scale Commercial Fisheries Aimed at Underutilized Stocks ...... 238 Potential Strategy: Develop Large-Scale Fisheries Aimed at Migrating Pelagics ...... 240 Potential Strategy: Manage Nearshore Fisheries for Sustained Yields ....240 Summary ...... 248 Potential Strategies for Aquiculture Development...... 249 Introduction ...... 249 Potential Strategy: Develop Sea Ranching ...... 251 Potential Strategy: Develop Extensive Culture unnatural Waters ...... 251 Potential Strategy: Culture of Marine Fish in Enclosures...... 253 Potential Strategy: Pond Culture ...... 254 Summary ...... 257 Summary of Marine Resource Status and Potential Resource Management Goals ...... 259 Research ...... 260 Extension ...... 263 Regional Coordination and Cooperation ...... 264 Chapter 7 References ...... 265

Box Box Page 7-A. Culture of Tridacnid Clams ...... 243 Chapter 7 Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture

INTRODUCTION Common Uses of Aquatic Species Since prehistoric times, coastal and insular cultures have harvested tropical aquatic organisms for a wide range of utilitarian, symbolic, and ornamental functions. The sea was traditionally and chiefly important as a source of food; it was estimated to supply, 90 percent of the Pacific islanders’ animal protein (81). Fish- ing was an integral part of traditional high island socioeconomy and essential to life on atolls. Today, as in the past, consumption of large quantities of marine organisms, including finfish, algae, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, and turtles is essential to life throughout the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. Nonfood resources of the marine environment were traditionally used as fuel; currency; ornaments; weapons; medicinal; religious, magic, and funerary symbols; and construction materials for dwellings, roads, and vessels. Con- temporary nonfood uses also include a range of biomedically and industrially important compounds, including pharmaceuticals and hydro- carbons (48,49,114). Harvesting technologies range from use of simple dugout canoes to deep- diving, manned submersibles. The shells of marine mollusks have been valued as ornamental objects since prehistoric times. Various cultures and societies have attributed powers of magic, religion, and virility to shells and valued them as currency and curios (1,38). Shells were also harvested as raw from the nacre of several families of gastropod materials for the manufacture of tools, uten- and bivalves, particularly Pteriidae. Mother-of- sils, weapons, and ornaments. Turtle shells pearl was also harvested for use in producing were used in the manufacture of fishhooks and ornamental items, and was highly prized on the other items (106). Pearl shell (mother-of-pearl) European market for jewelry, buttons, and was one of the most important raw materials other ornamental objects. Today, souvenir hun- for the manufacture of fishing tackle in tradi- ters purchase shellcraft at resorts throughout tional systems. Hooks and lures were made the world.

221 —

222 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Precious corals have been highly treasured try: coastal environments (beaches, sheltered for millennia. Approximately 95 percent of the lagoons, coral reefs) are among the islands’ pri- world harvest has come from the Pacific. The mary attractions. skeletons of precious corals (including Coral- lium, Gerardia, Lepidisis, Acanella, and An- Ecology of Coastal and tipathes) are hard and dense enough to be Nearshore Habitats polished to a high luster suitable for jewelry manufacture. Stony corals (Scleractinia), al- The biological complexity and variability of though too porous to be polished for jewelry, tropical nearshore environments are exceeded are sold as curios and decorations in many parts only, perhaps, by tropical rain forests (168). Tax- of the world (85) and used industrially for build- onomic composition, overall community struc- ing materials and lime production (172). Simi- ture, topography, and oceanographic condi- larly, the large amount of calcium carbonate tions vary widely within and among islands, contained in mollusk shells has given them a even over short distances (60). Nevertheless, number of industrial uses, primarily as constit- nearshore ecosystems in the islands commonly uents of fine pottery glazes, toothpaste, and comprise three distinct, but intimately inter- poultry food (171). dependent habitats: mangrove forests, coral reefs, and seagrass meadows and unconsoli- Marine plants or seaweeds are used for hu- dated sand or mud bottoms (60,139,159). Some man and livestock food, fertilizer, soil con- atolls, however, may not support mangroves ditioners, and as a raw material for various or seagrass beds (99). The ecological and eco- chemicals. Many marine organisms produce nomic importance of these habitats extends be- compounds that are pharmaceutically active. yond the particular exploitable species within Extracts from brown algae have been used as them. hypotensive drugs in oriental medicine for centuries (10). Neurotoxins from other algae are being studied for their potential as anesthetics Corals and Coral Reefs (34). Certain marine algae produce polysaccha- Corals and coral reefs are a dominant ride thickening agents (phycocolloids) used as shallow-water feature of tropical marine envi- additives in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, ronments that are remote from major upwel- paints, and ink. lings or freshwater inflows (118). Broadly defined, a coral reef is comprised of both the A variety of biological and inanimate re- physical structure formed from calcareous se- sources are harvested from coastal waters for cretions of corals and other marine organisms. uses as either construction materials (sand and Large coral colonies may contain tens of thou- limestone), fuel for biomass conversion (algae), sands of individual polyps, and reefs can be building materials (mangrove species, coral) or hundreds or thousands of years old. It is the food and artifacts. Several mollusks are harvested for shells in the Caribbean including carbonate skeletons of these shallow water marine organisms that form the massive reef struc- conchs, helmets, volutes, cones, tritons, spiny tures protecting coastlines and creating habitats oysters, and scallops. Many tropical fish are for the associated biota (168). harvested for sale in the aquarium and curio trade. Colorful fish from coral reefs are prized Coral reef ecosystems are productive biolog- by aquarium hobbyists around the world. Sev- ically and geologically. An active reef can build eral exotic species from the Pacific command islands such as the Micronesia atolls, and high prices. Pufferfish, for example, are killed, erode by wave action to create sand deposits inflated, varnished and mounted for sale in and beaches. If the reef-building processes are curio shops locally or on the U.S. mainland. disturbed, however, erosion will dominate and the reef will deteriorate (35). In addition to providing an important source of food and other products, nearshore marine Reef fisheries are considered highly produc- resources are a vital part of the tourist indus- tive, yielding up to 65 tons of biomass per —

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture “ 223

included under this definition of the fishery. Commonly harvested reef components include hard corals, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms (e.g., sea urchins), fish, and marine plants. The dietary preferences and economic desires of the fishing communities thus define the nature of the fishery (118). Representatives of virtually every major animal and plant group are associated with coral reefs and, in many cases, are exploited (168). For example, as many as 500 fish species are found in coral reef areas of Kosrae, some 200 of which are harvested for consumption; at least Photo credit: C. Wah/e 300 fish species are found in Puerto Rican reef The coral reef ecosystem is comprised of the physical areas, of which 180 are harvested for human coral structure and an array of other marine species. consumption (56,61). Also, many reef-dwelling Interaction among these reef community members gives rise to the high biological productivity animals are preyed on by migrating and pelagic associated with coral reefs. fish which constitute a major portion of worldwide commercial fisheries. square mile per year in American Samoa (170). Average yields of coral reef fisheries are esti- Mangrove Forests mated at nearly 43 tons of biomass per square Mangrove forests consist of salt-resistant mile per year at depths less than 100 feet (99). trees with stilt roots or pneumatophores grow- The high biological productivity is maintained ing in the intertidal range along ocean shores by efficient retention and recycling of ecosys- or estuaries (35). Mangroves are an integral tem nutrients (35). component of coastal ecosystems and fulfill Coral reefs serve at least three functions of profound economic importance. The physical structures serve as barriers to storm waves and debris, are an important tourism attraction, and create complex habitats for a variety of economically important organisms. A species that contributes measurably to the trophic structure and energy flow of the reef ecosystem can be considered a member of the reef community. Species that feed in adjacent areas (e.g., seagrass meadows) but shelter in or on reefs and thereby transfer energy to the reef system also are considered part of the reef community. Sec- ondary consumers which prey on reef animals but move to other areas when not feeding are part of the reef system as well (118). Coral reef fisheries include activities at a commercial, subsistence, or recreational level, which exploit aquatic organisms associated with hermatypic (reef-building) corals. Thus, all edible, marketable or otherwise “useful” components of the coral reef community are 224 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

many fundamentally important functions in is- haps as soil amendments on some islands), the land ecology and economy (159). associated sand, coral rubble, fish, and invertebrates commonly are harvested for materi- Mangroves supply wood and other forest als and food throughout the U.S. tropical islands products on some islands and contribute to the (168). productivity of lagoons and reefs. As prop roots develop and spread, they trap and stabilize ter- The sand and mud bottoms on which seagrass rigenous sediment, building land and protect- beds form create habitat for many burrowing ing reefs and lagoons from agricultural and and benthic organisms. The leaves and inter- urban pollution. Like coral reefs, mangrove woven roots provide extensive shelter for small forests protect coasts from storm damage; sup- organisms and grazing surfaces for a variety port an extremely diverse and ecologically im- of species. Many species migrate to and from portant community of marine plants, inver- seagrasses either daily or at a fixed stage dur- tebrates, and seabirds; and provide shelter and ing their lifecycle. For example, although many nursery for a range of commercially important food fish live and are harvested in the coral reef fish. Mangrove detritus provides an important areas as adults, they pass the critical larval and nutrient base for food webs leading to commer- juvenile phases in the protection of seagrass cially important food fish and invertebrates, meadows (168). Seagrass beds provide addi- and augments the growth of adjacent seagrass tional feeding areas for species on nearby reefs, and coral reef communities (168). and the variety of fish tends to be higher on reefs close to these habitats (61). If mangrove forests are carefully managed, they can sustain a high fisheries output and Seagrasses promote settlement and consoli- some limited forestry production. Mangroves dation of sandy sediments, thus helping to pre- are harvested in the U.S. Caribbean and Pacific vent coastal erosion. They accumulate sand on islands for fuel and building materials. How- which mangroves further consolidate the land ever, they have been removed in many areas, (168). To some extent they can absorb organic often to gain access to sites used for sand min- wastes and sediment. However, heavy sedimen- ing; navigation channels; waste dumping; and tation can cut off light to bottom communities the construction of buildings, docks, and ma- and eventually smother them. Seagrasses are rinas (35). Storms may damage mangroves, although they tend to regenerate quickly. Human- induced stress can, however, be disastrous. Mangroves are often killed by changes in land runoff or water circulation which alter the salinity balance. Oil pollution, as in postwar Truk lagoon, can degrade mangrove areas for years. Stressed mangroves will drop their leaves and may die if stress is not alleviated. If conditions permit seedling reestablishment, the forest can

regenerate in 10 to 15 years (35,47)0

Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows and mud bottoms within lagoons and between the shore and reef crest Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment serve many crucial ecological functions of di- Seagrass meadows are an integral part of the island rect and indirect economic importance to in- nearshore ecosystem. Like mangroves, seagrasses may enhance nearshore fishery potential by providing sular peoples. Although the seagrass itself is habitat and organic matter, and contributing to of little intrinsic economic value (except per- stabilization of bottom sediments. Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 225 particularly vulnerable to dredging and to an- lines, Marshalls, Marianas, and by Polynesians chor and propeller damage; holes cut in the bed in American Samoa (20). may take years to regenerate (35,153). Under natural conditions, it takes from 6 to 100 years Seldom in traditional island economies was for a seagrass bed to recover from a stress once fishing practiced for its recreational value alone, although sport and competition was impact has ceased (153). sometimes involved, Skilled fishermen enjoyed The mangrove, seagrass meadow, and coral social prestige; fishing knowledge was handed reef ecosystems commonly are adjacent and down through generations and was a form of mutually interactive. Mangroves, for example, highly valued property not lightly shared. The trap sediment from terrestrial runoff that can market system did not exist nor did monetary be highly detrimental to coral reefs and seagrass profit motivate fishermen. Fish were distrib- beds. Similarly, coral reefs function as break- uted by complex systems of exchange and bar- waters, protecting seagrass beds and man- ter between and among extended families (76). groves from the full impact of sea waves. More- Today, most fish caught by Pacific island fisher- over, a number of animals of subsistence and men do not reach monetary markets (96,85,113), commercial importance migrate among these Although the elaborate and diverse tradition ecosystems during their lifecycles (35). of fish cultivation reported to have existed in the Hawaiian Islands (93,150) and Nauru (131) History and Present Status of apparently did not develop in this region, evi- Resource Use dence of stone structures and fish pens suggest Pacific some fish culture was practiced in the mangrove areas of Yap, in the lagoon at Pingelap, Despite low nutrient levels common to trop- and possibly near a mangrove area in Guam. ical oceans, the nearshore marine ecosystems Natural coral reef productivity appears to be of Micronesia are among the most productive more than sufficient in the aggregate to meet in the world (119). Since the arrival of the first inhabitants of the Pacific islands some 3,000 the subsistence needs of island populations. Regionwide generalization maybe inappropri- years ago, the marine environment has supplied ate, however, because it fails to consider the most of the food of the islanders as well as many diversity of reef organisms and their dispersion material needs. (See Lal (97) for an extensive among widely scattered islands, as well as hu- list of nonfood products.) Subsistence harvests man population densities on certain islands. continue to make a major contribution to the standard of living even in the most urbanized On high volcanic islands, which normally islands. Given the limited land mass of the is- have abundant freshwater and other land-based lands, the oceans will continue to play a sig- resources, fishing is usually combined with nificant role in economic development. agriculture. On low coral islands, which have a paucity of freshwater and arable land, fish- Pacific islanders have traditionally relied on ing may be the primary source of animal pro- the resources of nearshore waters; fishing and gleaning of shallow water benthic invertebrates tein. Villages commonly are located on the lee side of islands at sites with suitable access to from the reef have been the primary means of the sea, lagoon, and reef resources. A variety obtaining food from the sea. Traditional fisher- of village activities may be based on the fish- men of all islands possessed precise knowledge ery, including boat building, repair, net and trap of fish behavior, food preferences, spawning making, processing, and distributing. patterns, predator-prey relationships, and climatic and oceanographic influences (82,84,85). Despite great differences in language and cul- Rich vocabularies for describing fishing and ture among island populations, each group maritime activities exist within the many lan- evolved a distinctive set of traditions which re- guages spoken by Micronesians in the Caro- flect a keen awareness of local ecological rela- 226 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas tionships. Harvest, distribution patterns, and gan in Palau during the German administra- customs differed, but often were designed with tion. As merchants eagerly sought pearl and resource conservation as one objective and mother-of-pearl for the European market, har- functioned as effective resource management vests were unmanaged and stocks were over- systems (81). The islanders traditionally prac- exploited. By the 20th century, natural popula- ticed principles of property and use rights, re- tions of pearl oysters were depleted throughout source ownership, and limited entry. Exploi- their Pacific range (123). Exhaustion of pearl tation rights were carefully controlled by taboos oyster stocks led to a search for methods of im- to ensure a sustained yield (87). proving productivity and for new nacre sources. On Yap, for example, the right to fish near- The commercial topshell Trochus niloticus shore waters was subdivided, with particular was found to produce nacre suitable for button families controlling reef flat areas and tracts material. Japanese scientists successfully trans- inside the reef. The Yapese considered these planted topshells in the Caroline and Mariana sea resources along with associated land re- Islands in the 1930s (6,7,8). Truk was the only sources (i.e., taro patches, gardens, forests) as area that produced commercial harvest before a single unit. The highest ranked “Chief of the World War II suspended the fishery (108), Village” exercised ultimate control over near- During the Japanese mandate, four Japanese shore waters. The second ranked “Chief of Fish- companies cultured pearl oysters in Palau, In ing” led communal fishing in the open sea, 1938, these companies produced more of the while the “Overseer of Fishing” directed com- introduced gold-lipped pearl oyster, Pinctada munal fishing inside the lagoon (149). Some maxima, than any region in which natural pop- areas were closed to fishing until fish popula- ulations of the species were exploited (115). tions returned to preharvest levels, and per- However, pearl oyster culture operations ended mitted fishing methods were carefully defined for different social classes. For example, the as World War II moved into the Pacific. lowest ranked Yapese class owned no fishing Disrupted by war, harvest of pearls and grounds, were allowed only the most primitive mother-of-pearl never regained its place of im- fishing gear and were allowed to gather sea- portance in island economies. The culture food only in streams and estuaries. methods developed by Japanese scientists in Palau before the war were regarded as propri- Magellan’s landfall at Guam in the 16th cen- etary information. Without transfer of this tech- tury marked the beginning of an era of Euro- nology to local inhabitants, natural stocks of pean exploration and exploitation in the Pacific. pearl shell were not sufficient to support the From the 17th through the 19th centuries, industry. Spain, England, and Germany exerted varying degrees of influence on Micronesia. Iron was In the more urbanized district centers and introduced and quickly replaced natural prod- ports, commercial exploitation of topshell re- ucts as the raw material for everything from sumed under U.S. Administration. Because the fishhooks to adzes. Traditional tenure systems war prevented commercial harvest, overex- were modified or outlawed in favor of owner- ploited populations had recovered to some ex- ship, which frequently resulted in uncontrolled tent, and harvests were greater in the years fol- abuse of resources (44,135). For the most part, lowing the war than they were just prior to its these nations were primarily concerned with outbreak (108). However, populations began to land-based resources, agriculture, and trade. decline again by the mid-1950s, leading to estab- These colonial powers paid little commercial lishment of reef sanctuaries in which no har- attention to fisheries. vest was permitted (109). Important nonfood marine products in early The topshell continues to be a major item of trade, however, were found in pearls and export for several island groups (72). For ex- mother-of-pearl from shells of the Pteriidae fam- ample, Yap has an ongoing trochus seeding ily. Small-scale, hand harvest of pearl shell be- project for the outer islands (162). Steady in- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 227

Photo credit: M Vitarelli

Nonfood resources gathered from the islands’ nearshore waters continue to be important in island cultures and economies. Shown here are Marshall Islands shell necklaces and tortoise shell and mother-of-pearl jewelry from Palau. creases in market prices in the last decade have of the Midway beds combined to raise world resulted in the trochus harvest becoming an im- trade in precious corals to at least $50 million portant sector of island economy. It is a prin- (U.S. dollars] in 1982. cipal source of subsistence income, especially in remote areas, and as one of the few natural Excluding whaling, fishing in a commercial product exports, it is an important source of sense began only in the 20th century with the foreign exchange for island governments. arrival of the Japanese and Americans. Most fishermen today are part-time, and almost all Good quality Corallium reportedly was har- contribute heavily to the nonmarket sector vested off the southern coast of Peleliu in Palau (84,113,126). Semicommercial fishing is, how- and north of Pagan in the Marianas before ever, developing. Problems of overcapitaliza- World War II (145). A temporary glut of pre- tion and habitat and resource degradation are cious corals depressed world markets after ex- apparent and become more complex as popu- tensive new grounds were discovered near Mid- lations grow and a market economy penetrates way in 1980 (63), However, the continued into the lives and cultures of traditionally sub- decline of other stocks and the rapid depletion sistence people. 228 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Urban development generally has concen- In the quest for those species most preferred trated in coastal areas of the Pacific islands. by the urban dwellers, less commercially valu- Urban centers grow as rural, or outer island able resources may be unintentionally overhar- dwellers migrate to them for better education vested (23]. and employment opportunities. Commercial fish markets, commonly cooperatives, are estab- The above scenario is in various stages of lished to serve the centers emerging cash econ- realization throughout the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Guam (2), American Samoa (173), and omies. Increased subsistence and commercial fishing, along with habitat degradation, stress the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas urban center nearshore resources. As marine (CNMI) (126) find themselves in the later stages products become scarce locally, on a seasonal of the scenario. Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), and the Republic of the Mar- and annual basis, market prices are driven upward encouraging even more intensive harvest shall Islands (RMI) seem to be in the earlier stages (23). Legislation has been passed to con- efforts. serve and manage remaining nearshore re- As urbanization continues, reef resources are sources, and national policies have attempted overharvested in an ever-widening area ema- to redirect resource use away from the more nating from the urban center (118). The radius heavily exploited nearshore areas toward com- of depletion depends in part on the relative paratively underexploited outer reef and prices of fish in the district center markets and pelagic resources (151). on costs of harvest and transport from rural and outer island areas. When urban fish prices The number of disputes over access to fish- rise (with depletion of resources), less expen- ing grounds in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands sive foreign imports begin to flow into island also is growing as populations increase and fish markets. Urban consumers benefit from pressures on resources push yield potentials to the limit. Unprecedented levels and kinds cheap imports, but fishermen are trapped be- of waste discharge (104) pose still more prob- tween a fixed price for their product and ever- lems. Although some reports exist that popu- increasing costs of exploitation. Their only so- lation densities of specimen shell species have lutions are to turn to other occupations or to decreased where tourism has developed in the harvest more fish more efficiently. If govern- Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), ments subsidize such efforts, the circle of resource depletion widens. If the numbers of full- it is not clear if the reduction is caused by overexploitation or by increased runoff and pollu- time fishermen decrease, part-time fishermen tion associated with urban development (70). begin to take over the fishing sector, joined eventually by recreational fishermen. Because the tropical environment is near the upper tolerance limits of temperature for many In attempts to establish more equitable in- reef organisms, thermal effluent from power- come distribution, island governments some- plants has disrupted reef communities in some times subsidize shipment of resources from areas (88,120). Chlorine, used to control biofoul- outer islands to the urban center. The full-time ing in powerplants, is also very destructive in subsistence fisherman becomes a part-time tropical ecosystems (14). Toxic chemicals such commercial fisherman whose efforts are tuned as pesticides and herbicides used in agricul- to rising market prices rather than to traditional ture also enter coastal ecosystems via storm reef tenure systems and subsistence needs. Old runoff. resource management systems are circum- vented. With government subsidies for gear, ice, Nearshore resources are the social security freezing, and transport, and the lure of partici- reserve and unemployment insurance fund of pation in a cash economy, the fisherman may many island people. Further damage to these now harvest far more of the resource than he resources, and/or resource depletion through needs and otherwise would have. Modern, but overcapitalization of fisheries, may have an often less selective equipment aids this effort. extremely high opportunity cost in terms of Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 229 public assistance and food imports. Social costs marine resources takes place primarily near include diminished self-esteem, which accom- coral reefs and seagrass beds where it is rela- panies reduced self-sufficiency. tively easy to deplete many stocks. Traditional fishery resources typically are harvested with- Caribbean out true knowledge of resource levels so harvests in excess of maximum sustainable yield Caribbean waters have supported continuous may occur (94). subsistence-level exploitation since prehistoric times (64). There is ample evidence that fish- Combined technology transfer and increased ing played a significant part in the lives of market demand have accelerated harvesting Amerindians who inhabited the Caribbean is- pressure and pose potentially serious ecologi- lands prior to European settlers, though fish- cal consequences for tropical coastal ecosys- ing was never a major occupation during the tems. Fiberglass boats, outboard motors, scuba colonial period (148). Fish was, however, an im- apparatus, and (to a lesser extent) deep-diving portant food for plantation populations in the submersibles not only have significantly in- Danish West Indies. Planters and slaves dined creased harvesting within previously exploited on locally caught fish and shellfish, as well as habitats, but also have led to exploitation of en- on salt fish imported from Denmark and the tirely new habitats and organisms. Recent ef- United States in exchange for plantation pro- forts directed toward deep reef resources in duce (157). Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands may have significantly depleted these stocks. Commercial fishery development in Puerto Rico began in 1941 under the Department of In 1974, the waters of Puerto Rico were char- “very nearly overfished” and Agriculture. Local demand for fish increased acterized as with the influx of military personnel and has “heavily exploited” (90,92). Between 1975 and been perpetuated by tourist hotels. After World 1980, catch per unit effort declined at least by War II, the program was transferred to the 50 percent: a classic indication of overfishing Puerto Rican Agricultural Development Corp. (25). Fisheries Division which emphasized offshore Fisheries development efforts have been fisheries; the program was terminated in 1947. much less intensive in the USVI. But even mod- Since then, the Puerto Rico Corp. for the De- est increases in fishing effort coupled with tech- velopment of Marine Resources (CODREMAR) nological innovations may have exceeded nat- and the U.S. Virgin Islands Division of Fish and ural productive capacity, The growth of the Wildlife have established fishing gear distribu- fishing fleets in Puerto Rico and the USVI cou- tion centers, a fishery credit scheme, and con- pled with a small resource base has had a pre- structed facilities for gear storage and landing dictably negative impact on target stocks. of boats (94). While information is not adequate to permit Historically, coastal resources have shown definitive evaluation, spiny lobster and shallow a consistent pattern of use: exploration, discov- reef fisheries [and possibly conch and some ery, exploitation, and finally, depletion (64,102). deepwater fisheries) in Puerto Rico and the Between 1974 and 1976 some 30 modern fiber- USVI seem to be fully or overexploited. Impor- glass boats were introduced to the Puerto Rican tant Eastern Caribbean fishery species such as fishing fleet. Between 1976 and 1982 the num- the spiny lobster (Panularis argus) and queen ber of fishermen on the island rose from 1,230 conch (Strombus gigas) are highly vulnerable to 1,872; the number of vessels rose from 865 to overfishing. Stocks of spiny lobster in the to 1,449 (25,90). USVI and Puerto Rico may depend on produc- The multimillion-dollar nearshore fishing in- tion in other locales. dustry of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Is- Major habitats, including coral reefs, man- lands (USVI) produced some 7 million pounds groves, and seagrass beds are threatened by de- of seafood in 1982 (25), Harvest of nearshore velopment as well as exploitation patterns not 230 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas consistent with sustained use. The Puerto Rico useful compounds has generally proved more Coastal Management Program states that three- cost-effective than continued large-scale har- quarters of the island’s original mangroves have vesting, residuals are a problem in synthesized been destroyed (160). Water contamination and compounds, and organically grown compounds dredging and shoreline modification associated are desired at premium prices. Future eco- with tourist development are also a major threat nomic conditions or biomedical demands could to nearshore resources in Puerto Rico and the easily lead to large-scale harvesting of benthic USVI. organisms in the Caribbean. Levels of harvesting and exploitation of non- Finally, the tropical western Atlantic Ocean food resources still are relatively low among is only about one-tenth the size of the tropical the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands as com- western Pacific ocean, and so the Caribbean pared to the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands pri- has a more regionally integrated marine spe- marily because of the development pressures cies pool. The biota of the western Pacific accompanying tourism, particularly on the Vir- shows a decrease in species diversity along a gin Islands. However, the future of the habitats gradient between Indonesia and French Poly- is by no means assured. Poaching in federally nesia. Thus, ecological processes in the Carib- protected parks and recreation areas and small- bean, such as population blooms or die-offs, will scale personal collecting continue and ulti- have regional influence on marine resource mately may pose a serious threat to the sustaina- management. For example, a recent mass mor- bility of some aquatic populations. tality of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum had a widespread effect on benthic communities Traditional methods of extracting medicinal throughout the Caribbean. In contrast, mass substances from shallow water organisms mortality of the urchin Echinothrix in the Pa- (mainly by boiling hand-picked algae) are giv- cific remained confined to the Hawaiian Is- ing way to large-scale harvesting using snor- lands (15). keling, scuba, and remote or manned submersibles (168). Although laboratory synthesis of

COMMON CONSTRAINTS TO FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

Constraints to Nearshore Fisheries turies, it has only been in the last three Development decades–since the advent of scuba gear–that The major constraints to nearshore tropical rigorous field research was possible. As a con- fisheries development include: inadequate sequence, less is known about these ecosystems knowledge of complex ecosystems, the inher- than about any other of comparable extent and importance. ently limited productivity of waters around tropical islands, and the vulnerability of tropi- Capture fisheries are based on resources cal fisheries to a variety of natural and human which are ultimately finite, and no development disturbances. Equipment maintenance and strategy can result in an open-ended stream of servicing, and problems of transporting inputs benefits. Typically, greater pressure exists to and exports also hinder development. “develop” than to obtain information on actual development potential. Inadequate Knowledge of Coastal Ecosystems and Species The complexity of coastal ecosystems, and our scant knowledge of the most basic ecologi- Although there has been intense interest in cal characteristics of their components, virtu- subtidal tropical marine communities for cen- ally preclude successful community manipu- Ch. 7–Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 231 lations. Before communities or even single (see below), the productivity of potential fish- populations of benthic organisms can be eries is assumed to follow a gradient related manipulated predictably toward some desired to the factors influencing primary productivity y end, further basic research on abundances, dis- of nearshore waters (118). tributions, life history characteristics, diseases, Harvest in the nearshore marine environ- and ecological interactions must be conducted. Progress in the comprehensive management of ments of the U.S.-affiliated islands is also constrained by the limited physical size of produc- corals and other sedentary or sessile animals, for example, will depend ultimately on the active nearshore areas. Puerto Rico and the USVI have a continental shelf of less than 3,000 quisition of basic biological information on longevity, reproductive capacity, larval and pop- square miles and less than half of this area is highly productive (116). The U.S.-affiliated Pa- ulation dynamics, and environmental stability. cific islands are based on steeply sloping sub- Scientific information on the current status merged mountains and reef slopes and have no of nearshore marine resources is fragmented continental shelves or substantial ledges. Po- and inconclusive, and generalizations about tential harvest is correspondingly small. such a vast and diverse geographic area can lead to faulty conclusions. Concise information Lack of Economies of ScaIe on resource distribution and abundance also is lacking. In the absence of such data, the con- The nonuniform distribution of highly pro- cept of optimum sustainable yield is mere tech- ductive habitats, the immense diversity and nical jargon. seasonality of reef ecosystems, and the mixture of high-value and less desirable species in most Most research and classical models of ma- fishery stocks require great versatility of capi- rine biological systems have been based on con- tal and labor for harvest and precludes the de- tinental shelf areas of the Northern Hemi- velopment of single-species fisheries. The rug- sphere. The physical differences between reef ged topography and potential for extensive slopes of oceanic islands and continental degradation of coral reefs precludes use of non- shelves, and the diversity and complexity of selective, towed gear in many commercial fish- tropical fisheries reduce the applicability of eries. The need for versatility, coupled with geo- these biological and bioeconomic models in graphic remoteness and small island size, tropical areas. The effects of selectively har- results in high production, preservation, and vesting certain species, of fishing the same spe- distribution costs which are not easily reduced cies at different depths, and the relationships through economies of scale (23). Size and iso- between nearshore and offshore stocks, and the lation are even more constraining in the Pa- fish population dynamics, are less well under- cific than in the Caribbean. With a combined stood in tropical than in temperate waters (95). land mass less than one-half that of the State of Rhode Island, the FAS are analogous to oases Inherent Restrictions to Productivity in an oceanic desert. The nearshore waters of many islands have high nutrient levels and are highly productive Vulnerability to Disruption compared to the surrounding oceanic waters. Tropical ecosystems are vulnerable to a num- The primary productivity of island nearshore ber of natural and manmade disruptions, and waters is a function of several interacting fac- this vulnerability represents an impediment to tors including: island size, island height (influ- resource management and development efforts. encing rainfall and terrestrial runoff), area of Natural disturbances result from both physi- submerged bank, coastline complexity (e.g., em- cal and biological processes. Physical distur- bayments supporting mangrove forest growth) bance agents include: hurricanes, earthquakes, (111,118), and nearshore bottom communities extreme low tides, extreme water temperatures (e.g., seagrass meadows). Barring disturbances (e.g., El Niño), extremes of freshwater runoff 232 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas and terrigenous sedimentation. Biological dis- Similar patterns and similar potential for turbance agents include predator outbreaks problems affect the Caribbean islands because (e.g., crown-of-thorns starfish), pathogen epi- of their small size and the small “buffer” ca- demics (e.g., black band disease in corals), fish pacity of ecosystems like reefs. Few or no ad- poisoning (ciguatoxins), introduced competi- jacent areas exist to which fishermen or tourists tors, and unusual drastic population pulses of can move when nearshore environments are ecologically important species (e. g., the recent seriously damaged. Caribbean-wide die-off of sea urchins and the resultant destructive bloom of their algal prey). Although most major disturbances—natural and human—are relatively rare, virtually any Coral reef communities are disturbed by nat- program of resource exploitation and manage- ural events, such as the tropical cyclones comment will eventually experience their effects mon in the CNMI and Caroline Islands, so often (86). Knowledge is still being collected about that few develop a climax community (32). Epi- rates or sequences of recovery processes, and sodic catastrophes have also been related to will be essential to management plans dealing tidal phenomena (177). Rainstorms coinciding with disturbance. with spring low tides killed up to 92 percent of reef invertebrates at Enewetok Atoll, RMI Constraints to AquacuIture (loo). Development Large-scale biological disturbances have been Despite potential for aquiculture in the U. S.- generated on coral reefs by population explo- affiliated islands, progress in aquiculture de- sions of the coral predator Acanthaster planci, velopment has been slow. Because of the phys- or crown-of-thorns starfish. Initial outbreaks ical and biological characteristics of the small of Acanthaster are associated with high islands islands, only certain kinds of aquiculture are and are probably related to increased terres- practical, and some of these require a better trial runoff (16). Recovery of the coral communities requires a decade or more, but may be base of scientific knowledge and more practi- interrupted by secondary outbreaks (30,31). cal experience than exists today (58). The development of aquiculture in the U.S.-affiliated Sources of human-induced disturbance in- Pacific and Caribbean islands faces other com- clude: increased sediment runoff from agricul- mon constraints, including: ture and construction; thermal and chemical ● effluents from industry; oil spills; ship damage dearth of suitable land for pond construction; (grounding and anchors); dredging and blast- ● ing during channel construction; nutrients and small freshwater supply; ● high energy costs for pumping seawater; toxins from sewage and solid waste disposal; ● low levels of nutrients in the sea (and con- direct removal of exploited species; and in- sequent lack of food for filter-feeding discriminately destructive fishing methods species); (chlorine, dynamite, grenades, etc.) (168). ● scarcity of protected bays and estuaries for Manmade disturbances, including cutting, pen, raft, or rack culture systems; clearing, and filling of the mangrove swamps, ● logistical problems and generally high can be even more devastating than natural ones. costs of supplying inputs (feed, equipment, Regeneration of mangroves in clear-felled areas supplies, and technical assistance) and dis- of Southeast Asia has not been successful (146). tributing the products to distant markets; (Sustained yield mangrove forestry, on the other ● potential for serious conflicts between hand has been quite successful, for example, in aquaculturalists and other users of publicly Malaysia.) The destruction of important fishing owned areas (155). grounds and traditional fish pens has resulted ● high cost of culture (materials, land, labor) from dredging and filling for airport extension relative to value of production (43,122), cre- in the absence of thorough environmental as- ating difficulty in competing with artisanal sessments (86). fisheries (162). .

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture “ 233

• lack of appropriate tested technology for ture and mariculture research programs and many species; funding. Cultural settings and levels of tech- ● lack of security of cultured stock from nological development, moreover, ‘vary greatly poaching; among island groups. ● lack of social and traditional context for aquacultural practices; and Increased activities in mariculture may cause ● lack of trained personnel capable of oper- degradation of the reef and lagoon environ- ating sophisticated systems, ments from increased boat traffic, physical impacts on adjacent areas, impacts from placing These constraints are particularly severe on structures on reefs, and intensive grazing by the smaller islands. American Samoa, for ex- fish penned in shallow reef areas. Heavy sup- ample, comprises an area of less than 100 plemental feeding required by some intensive square miles on three mountainous islands. cage or pen culture programs also may increase Freshwater is scarce and lagoon/reef areas are the nutrient load in lagoon waters. The increase communally held. Culture systems beyond the of suspended organic matter may have adverse scale of small family or subsistence farms thus impacts on adjacent reef areas (118). Further, are ruled out in such settings. there exists the potential for introduction of disease. In areas like the CNMI, Yap, Pohnpei, Truk, Kosrae, and the RMI (all small volcanic islands Other Constraints to Marine or atolls with limited land and freshwater, low populations, and undeveloped infrastructure), Resource Development aquiculture potential probably is limited to spe- Risk cies which obtain their own food or can be fed on locally available feeds. The culture of dol- Capture fisheries, based on multispecies re- phinfish, groupers, or snappers would be tech- sources, are inherently more flexible than aqui- nically feasible in those islands with protected culture, which focuses on a particular product. waters, but the cost of importing feeds and of Aquiculture, however, permits more control transporting the product to distant markets of production and harvest of a particular spe- could be prohibitive. (In some cases, fish not cies, whereas capture fisheries generally de- used for human consumption and fish scraps pend on natural abundance. Risk is inherent might be available for economical culture of in both activities, posing a common constraint these species.) Similarly, aquiculture in the to credit and insurance, and both activities are USVI probably will be limited to marine spe- vulnerable to competition from imports. cies raised in the sea (e. g., marine plants, queen Many small-scale fishermen are unwilling to conch, dolphinfish, groupers, or snappers), or engage in capital risk-taking in order to achieve in coastal ponds (e. g., marine shrimp). Since higher profits, preferring the comparative secu- none of these species have been grown in the rity and familiarity of simple, inexpensive meth- USVI, a period of adaptive research and pilot- ods even if they yield only subsistence levels scale testing would be needed in order to de- of income. Those few fishermen who are will- termine applicability of culture methodology ing and can afford to use improved technology used elsewhere. may come to dominate the fishery, while the Other impediments to sustainable develop- standard of living for the rest may stagnate or ment of aquiculture include technical difficul- decline (81; app. F). Others may seek more ties in applying the culture system to the lucrative or less stressful employment in non- selected site, lack of local sources of juveniles productive sectors. and post-larvae, prohibitive shipping costs, lack of aquiculture extension programs and marine Equipment Maintenance and Servicing advisory services, lack of regional planning and Fisheries and aquiculture development com- coordination, and lack of sustained aquicul- monly are hindered by inadequate supplies and 234 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas high cost of replacement parts (i.e., for freezers, portunities that have often been overlooked by motors, and other gear). Metal structures dete- western-trained fishery managers (81). It is dif- riorate rapidly in the tropics due to internal ficult for researchers and decisionmakers to sweating, poor ventilation, corrosion, and elec- predict and assess social impacts of develop- trolytic action (137), In addition, equipment ment activities and projects objectively, since maintenance sometimes is beyond the opera- these may involve changes in the way of com- tors’ skills. munity life, perceptions, and values that are partly products of history and group culture. Transportation It is particularly difficult to assess the social impacts of changes in marine resource uses, Transportation in general is a problem in the It is difficult to observe fishing activities at sea, Pacific islands (see ch. 8). Even routine mail data on marine resources are scarce, and rela- deliveries are jeopardized at times by the lack tionships between socioeconomic and marine of airline service. The costs of air freight within resource systems are complex. the region together with the general lack of airline services greatly hinders development of ex- In areas where traditional ownership and use port fisheries and aquiculture in this region. systems have lapsed or never existed, it is very In Guam, for example, export operations in the difficult to maintain exclusive rights to produc- aquarium trade have been relatively short lived, tion from certain ventures (e.g., sea ranching primarily because of problems related to the and habitat enhancement) because these activ- airlines. Neglect and flight delays have resulted ities involve resources which are traditionally in losses of entire shipments, and shipping ex- considered common property, penses are extremely high. Absence of Federal Agency SmalI Size or Lack of Formal Markets Representatives No formal market structure exists for the non- Most Federal agencies with oversight respon- food products of the Pacific islands. Collection, sibility for development of marine resources analysis, and dissemination of market informa- in the Pacific are not actually present. Federal tion and trends are absent. Usually this means representatives, usually based in Hawaii, make the islands receive less than market value for occasional visits to the islands, but may have their resources (146). little understanding of the islands’ needs. The lack of Federal officials to enforce Federal laws Although ornamental shell industries already poses a severe problem for renewable resource exist in some U.S.-affiliated islands, most of the management in many island areas (155). Bud- handicrafts sold in tourism centers are im- get constraints are cited as the rationale for this ported from the Philippines, where greater va- situation. rieties of products are available at lower prices. Carleton (26,27,28) noted poor organization of Progress in tropical coastal management is handicraft industries in the Pacific. The major handicapped by jurisdictional ambiguities cre- constraints identified were intermittent produc- ated by incomplete and nonspecific laws and tion and lack of business and financial ex- regulatory statutes (50,64,65,159), low levels of pertise. enforcement of current practices leading to overexploitation, insufficient recognition of the regional nature of ecological issues, and lack Resource Use and Ownership Customs of scientific cooperation among Caribbean pol- Fishing customs and rights are intimately en- ities, Due to these limitations, many current or meshed in local social and religious practices potential levels of exploitation already exceed on some U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. This cre- the capacity to either analyze, regulate, or en- ates management impediments as well as op- force resource management programs. Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 235

COMMON OPPORTUNITIES Significant opportunities exist for aquatic re- sea uses, developing these fisheries is likely to source development in the U.S.-affiliated is- have a long-term negative impact. However, po- lands of the Pacific and Caribbean including: tential exists to maintain or enhance nearshore enhancement of artisanal fisheries, develop- fishery productivity through such mechanisms ment of pelagic fisheries, development of small- as preservation of mangrove, seagrass bed, and scale collecting and gathering, and aquiculture. coral reef ecosystems, placement of artificial These opportunities result from substantial nat- reefs, restocking and reseeding programs, and ural stocks, growing markets for fisheries prod- development of markets for underused marine ucts, the favorable climate which permits year- species. Species that currently seem underex- round growth of tropical species, and the avail- ploited include sharks, some outer-reef fish, ability of clean seawater. As with agriculture, deepwater shrimp and crabs, and migratory opportunities include the three main catego- pelagic species. The latter form the basis for ries of import substitution, increased produc- large commercial fisheries in both regions, but tion of domestically consumed products, and the islands are little involved in these in- export promotion. dustries. 1 Although clearly significant as a million- dollar industry, the fishing industry of Puerto Collecting and Gathering Rico and the USVI falls far short of meeting The islands of Micronesia and American local demand for fresh seafood. Demand has Samoa lie within the Indo-West Pacific region increased markedly with expanding tourism in which is characterized by having the most di- the region. Nearly 60 million pounds of seafood verse fauna and flora in the world (46). For this valued at $48 million are imported annually to reason the Pacific islands are also in a position the islands (25). Some island products, besides to supply an expanding specimen market with serving a burgeoning domestic market, would species of shell and corals that are not avail- likely find ready acceptance in mainland mar- able from other sources. However, extreme vul- kets, Because Puerto Rico and the USVI import nerability to overexploitation requires harvest more from the mainland than they export, on a small-scale, selective basis. Long-term sus- favorable haul-back rates are possible for island tainable exports may not be justified, but coral products. and shells have some economic potential for American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the small-scale, tourist-oriented sales. Northern Marianas, and Guam also have been Bans on exports of coral and shells, some of net importers of protein for some time. Guam which play a vital role in the health of coral annually imports at least 390 tons of fresh and reef communities (84,86), have resulted from frozen whole fish (23). The successful Japanese reef destruction caused by overexploitation in fisheries in Micronesia during the mandate some areas (27,28,110,172). However, the value period suggests that a great deal of potential of unprocessed deepwater precious corals for economic development of marine resources ranged from $33 to $2,200/lb (U.S. dollars) in is currently unrealized. 1981 (63); thus even small beds of precious coral could provide important revenues when har- Expanded Use of Underexploited vested on a sustainable yield basis. and Migratory Species An examination of historical catch data in- Because nearshore fisheries of many U, S,- dicates that the Micronesia reefs are capable affiliated islands seem to be near or beyond of sustaining far greater numbers of topshell maximum sustainable yield, and nearshore marine ecosystems are vulnerable to and already 1An assessment of commercial fisheries development for migra- adversely affected by inappropriate land and tory pelagic species is beyond the scope of this report. 236 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas than presently are harvested. Parkinson (130) decrease dependence on imported seafoods. estimated that Palau’s reefs should yield sus- However, many aquiculture projects have been tainable harvests of some 200 tons/year. How- unsuccessful. ever, the few records available for recent years Species that have been identified as having indicate an average harvest of about 100 particular potential for aquiculture develop- tons/year (146). ment in the U.S.-affiliated islands include Current supply does not satisfy demand in sponges, freshwater prawns, marine shrimp, the aquarium fish trade, particularly in the giant clams, pearl oysters, rabbitfish, milkfish, United States. Demand worldwide is expected tilapia, and macroalgae (seaweeds). Much aqua- to increase 10 to 15 percent per year in the fu- culture research has been done on species such ture (26). The Caribbean islands and those Pa- as bait fish which can be more profitably cific islands with direct flights to Hawaii or Ja- produced by capture fisheries. Attention also pan are suitably located to establish small has been given to species, such as marine aquarium fish businesses to take advantage of shrimp, that command high prices in foreign this situation. When nondestructive methods markets. However, the expense and logistical of collecting are used, small-scale fisheries of difficulties of transporting the product to mar- this kind can be developed without upsetting kets may preclude culture of these species. the ecological balance on the reef. Aquiculture Other factors that adversely impact on aqua- of high-value aquarium species may offer an culture include the high cost of imported in- alternative to capture techniques; however, the puts, difficulty in procuring juveniles, and lack general constraints to aquiculture would still of marketing and technological assistance. apply. The potential for development of viable aqua- Sea cucumbers offer some export potential culture also varies with the physical character- today, as they did under the Japanese adminis- istics of the island groups, their location in tration, although several past attempts to de- relation to sources of inputs and markets, avail- velop export industries have failed. Asian mar- ability of suitable sites, cost of production, in- kets require a consistent high-quality product vestment capital, and quality of project man- of a particular species, dryness, size, shape, and agement. color. It has not proved possible to provide the The phycocolloid seaweed industry is rap- required volume of that product; natural abun- idly growing and, for the most part, is still dances may have to be supplemented with mari- limited by the supply of raw materials (the sea- culture to provide long-term economic viabil- weeds) (39,40). The economic situation and the ity, but not enough is known of the biology of growth of the phycocolloid industry have re- commercially valuable species to begin culture. sulted in a worldwide interest in seaweed cultivation, particularly those containing agar or Aquaculture carageenan. Such cultivation maybe well suited While fishing is an important source of jobs to remote islands, since the thalli can be sun- dried and stored for many months (119). The and food protein in the pacific, the supply of fish is variable and sometimes small (163). In- value of the world phycocolloid industry was creases in population have resulted in a higher reported to be about $1 billion (U. S.) in 1978, demand for marine resources than local waters and gel extracts were estimated to be essential often can supply on a sustained basis. Under to some $22 billion (U. S.) in the U.S. gross na- these circumstances, opportunities to increase tional product. marine harvest become increasingly important Pearl oyster cultivation and edible seaweed in the Pacific and Caribbean regions. Aquicul- mariculture offer some export potential. The ture operations have been examined as an op- Japanese administration pursued both of these portunity to remove some pressure from near- endeavors in Micronesia. Japanese technology shore fisheries, reduce unemployment, and and marketing participation would likely be re- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture “ 237 quired for success in export markets today. Joint transport to market (in comparison with the ventures may warrant investigation. costs to competitors), considering the cost of alternative uses of the resource, and evaluat- The challenge is to select species and culture ing the social acceptability of this activity in systems appropriate for subsistence or commer- view of land and water requirements, It also cial use in a given area by: evaluating the local is important to evaluate the environmental im- environment, analyzing the labor and energy pacts of aquiculture projects. requirements and the cost of production and

POTENTIAL STRATEGIES FOR NEARSHORE FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS Introduction and values of coastal communities are considered depends on the degree of interaction be- An increase in fishery production in the U. S.- tween administrators and coastal communities affiliated tropical islands can be realized in sev- on such policy considerations (95). eral different ways, including: ● increased efficiency or intensity of nearshore fisheries; Potential Strategy: Increase Fishery ● development of subsistence and small-scale Exploitation Efficiency commercial fisheries aimed at underuti- To increase the efficiency or intensity of fish- lized stocks; ● ing efforts in the U.S.-affiliated islands, further development of large-scale fisheries aimed improvements are needed in technology related at migratory pelagics; to boat and gear design and construction, credit ● management of nearshore fisheries for sus- availability, subsidies for or reduced taxes and tained yields (fish aggregation devices, arti- duties on fuel and supplies, landing and stor- ficial reefs, restocking, conservation); and ● age facilities, and local and foreign distribu- farming (aquiculture) of selected species tion and marketing capacity (151), However, (95). care should be taken not to oversubsidize the The technical capabilities of fishing commu- commercialization of nearshore fisheries. An nities are major determinants of the appropri- overcapitalized nearshore fishery will encour- ateness of technologies. Sociological factors, age depletion—adding to the income of mar- such as the nature and strength of extended ket participants while reducing the lifestyle of family systems, also play major roles in iden- subsistence participants. Such income redis- tification of technologies appropriate for de- tribution may not lead to desirable long-run re- velopment within the region. sults (174,175). Increasing exploitation of marine resources Given the susceptibility of nearshore marine may be seen by administrators as a method to resources to overexploitation, technologies that alleviate some economic and social problems, would materially increase nearshore harvest- through improvement of exports and balance ing efficiency can be expected to have a nega- of payments, increased local food supply, pro- tive long-term impact in the Caribbean and Pa- vision of employment, stemming of rural drift, cific island areas. In most Pacific island areas, increased profits for local entrepreneurs, and little potential exists for expansion of nearshore improved welfare of coastal communities. fisheries beyond that which may occur natu- Thus, the identification and implementation of rally as island populations increase (127), In- fishery technologies may be determined by the creased pressure on the resource will occur if direction and priorities of local government pol- an increase in harvest efficiency is not met with icy objectives. The extent to which the needs a corresponding decrease in harvest effort (95). 238 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

If currently harvested resources are being har- Thus, methods to reduce waste of current harvested at or beyond maximum sustainable yield vest levels can offer an alternative to increased (as seems to be the case in many localities), ef- exploitation levels in boosting fisheries’ pro- fort within the fishing fleet must either be reduction. Avenues to reduce waste include im- duced or diverted to other stocks. proving storage and processing techniques, increasing efficiency in transportation to markets, Evidence from Puerto Rico and the USVI and developing markets for bycatch (see ch. 8). strongly suggests that availability of harvest technology is not a problem. Rather the need is to apply appropriate technology at a level Potential Strategy: Increase suited to the productive capabilities of natural Support for Subsistence and SmaIl- systems. Continuation of a development style directed solely toward capitalization and har- Scale Commercial Fisheries Aimed vest efficiency without regard for sustainable at Underutilized Stocks yields can only result in resource depletion and The importance of small-scale fisheries lies adverse socioeconomic impacts. in their income- and employment-creating po- A large proportion of total fishery produc- tential and their use of appropriate forms of tion is lost to wastage in many tropical areas. technology. As nearshore resources come un- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 239 der greater pressure, however, fishermen are Sharks represent a potentially important and increasingly moving offshore and/or making virtually underutilized resource in the tropical more use of migratory pelagic fish sometimes Pacific. In spite of the seeming abundance of found in nearshore environments. Pelagic re- sharks, Pacific islands supply only a small sources probably offer an opportunity in the proportion of the market. Sharks are harvested U.S. Caribbean and Pacific for the expansion primarily as a bycatch of Taiwanese tuna long- of small-scale island fisheries—commercial, liners landing at Pago Pago, and the fins are recreational, or subsistence. Proper manage- the only product currently retained (26). ment of these resources can also provide opportunities for economies of scale. Markets for shark products are expected to continue a recent trend of gradual expansion A relatively small number of marine organ- (26,244). Market growth, particularly for shark isms comprise the preferred fishery target in leather, appears to be limited by the supply of most countries. Commonly this occurs because hides (27,135). Novelty products such as jaws the species are plentiful and easy to catch (e.g., and teeth have a ready market in tourism, while a schooling fish which is easy to net), or be- new products such as artificial skin for burn cause a social preference exists for a particu- victims are still in the development stages (3). lar species (95). The identification and devel- Shark resources also are generally underuti- opment of alternative underused stocks may lized in the Lesser Antilles, but are particularly be expected to increase economic benefits from vulnerable to overexploitation because of low the nearshore fishery. reproductive potential, slow growth rates, and greater age at maturity than other fishery stocks. Current Puerto Rico and USVI fisheries development policy emphasizes underutilized off- They can quickly be depleted if commercially developed (61). shore resources (e.g., swordfish) (24) and recreational fishing (61). Although the status of stocks Deepwater species beyond coral reefs may is not known, it is expected that considerable be suitable for development of new fisheries. amounts of pelagic swordfish can be harvested The exact magnitude of the resource is not (45). This approach has considerable merit, and clear, and large-scale harvest and marketing might help divert some fishing effort from problems have not yet been solved (23). Two stocks that currently are overexploited, thus in- species of deepwater shrimp (Heterocarpus creasing economic benefits from the nearshore ensifer and Heterocarpus laevigatus) are fairly fishery. However, while an increase in the har- abundant at depths of nearly 700 feet on the vest of underutilized species is possible, these seaward faces of fringing reefs and probably species can support relatively few fishermen barrier reefs and atolls throughout the U. S.- (94), and there is no reason to suppose that these affiliated Pacific islands. Rough terrain and the stocks are less vulnerable to overexploitation potential for habitat destruction make trawl- than others if reliable estimates of sustainable ing unacceptable, and trapping has not yet yields are lacking (61). proven economically viable. Pacific island Similarly, Pacific island government agencies fishermen recently have been encouraged to have encouraged commercial harvest of iden- exploit forereef deepwater snapper (family Lut- tified offshore resources as it has become clear janidae). The distance of these fish from cigua- that there are relatively few, if any, nearshore toxin sources make them less likely to be con- resources remaining underutilized in the U. S.- taminated with ciguatera (95). affiliated Pacific islands (23). Further, nearshore The development of new fisheries may re- schools of fish provide a food reserve for local quire the introduction of new fishing technol- populations in the event of natural calamities, ogies as well as the surmounting of social making underexploitation preferable to com- prejudices. It may be possible to develop ex- mercial overexploitation. port fisheries for species that have little local 240 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas value but constitute a desirable export com- of pelagic species, primarily tuna (161). Any sig- modity, or to develop export fisheries for highly nificant commercial fishery resource potential valued products. For example, holothurians rests with offshore pelagic resources, not near- (sea cucumber or beche-de-mer) are gathered shore resources. in several Pacific island areas; a particular spe- Highly migratory species—tuna, dolphinfish cies (Microthele nobilis) of this family com- (mahimahi), and billfish–are the major com- mands a high price in Southeast Asian markets. mercial offshore resources in the U.S.-affiliated Fisheries based on tropical lobsters also have islands. Most of the world’s tuna stocks prob- been developed on some Pacific islands (95). ably already are exploited close to maximum Squid and deepwater crab may be underex- sustainable yields (61). An important exception ploited in the Caribbean (124). are the huge Pacific skipjack tuna stocks which still apparently are not exploited at levels close Potential Strategy: DeveIop to those they could sustain (80). Large-Scale Fisheries Aimed at Migrating Pelagics Potential Strategy: Manage The Japanese have been lauded for achiev- Nearshore Fisheries for ing a sound degree of economic progress based Sustained Yields on indigenous island resources in many of the Although attempts at marine resource man- Pacific islands during the mandate period (121). agement were made as long ago as the Middle After more than 2% decades of Japanese fish- Ages (64), serious scientific concern for the con- eries development in Micronesia, exports from sequences of uncontrolled and unplanned ex- nearshore fisheries were relatively small. In ploitation is a relatively recent development. fact, during the Japanese administration near- Primitive efforts to manage coral and mollusk shore production was only sufficient for sub- fisheries involved rotation of harvesting beds sistence needs and supply of local markets for to allow recovery (64,65). Rigorous scientific Japanese immigrants; at least 90 percent of the efforts to manage these resources have emerged exports by weight and value were composed only recently. Management of marine fishery resources commonly involves regulatory measures to conserve individual fishery stocks and critical habitats. More recently, attempts have been made to increase harvestable stock through fish aggregation devices (FADs), artificial reefs, habitat restoration, and restocking programs,

Opportunity: Develop Fish Aggregation Systems One promising technology for augmenting small-scale, nearshore pelagic harvests is the FAD; usually an anchored buoy placed a mile Photo credit: A. Vargo or more outside the reef. Buoys may be con- Pelagic resources around the U.S.-affiliated islands structed of metal, wood, or even bamboo, and form the bases of many foreign commercial fisheries sometimes nets or short ropes are attached to and could offer an opportunity for increased food the buoy and anchor line. production for the U.S.-affiliated islands. Except for a few tuna processing facilities in the U.S.-affiliated It is well known that pelagic fish are attracted Pacific islands, the industry remains largely in the hands of foreign operators. Shown here, a Korean tuna to and congregate around floating debris in boat in Pago Pago Harbor, American Samoa. the ocean (23). Tuna purse seiners commonly Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 241 search out floating logs and other debris and Opportunity: Construct Artificial Reefs may stay with a particular log for some time, In recent years, efforts have been made to setting the net around the log. Floating debris enhance the productivity of reef flats through clearly provide a reference point for excursions of highly mobile pelagic predators, Hundreds the introduction of artificial habitats. It seems that natural production may be enhanced by or thousands of fish may aggregate around a the provision of suitable substrates for coloniz- single log or other floating object, ing sessile species that provide food for near- A variety of mid-water FADs are being used shore fish, resulting in greater harvests than experimentally in the Lesser Antilles (61). would be possible without artificial enhance- Studies by the USVI Division of Fish and Wild- ment (23). Whether artificial reefs in fact en- life have shown that catch rates are significantly hance overall production or merely increase increased by deployment of FADs. Units in- local populations by attracting fish from other stalled close to the edge of the coastal shelf are areas is not yet known, although evidence ex- reported to attract many migratory pelagic spe- ists supporting both theories. cies, but the impact of this technology on fish Old automobiles, ship salvage, and other stocks, and sustainability of high catch rates scrap structures have been placed on Pacific have not been evaluated. Because of the limited island reefs over the years in an attempt to in- nature of nearshore marine resources, the long- crease fish abundance. Wave action and silta- term impact of most innovations is likely to be tion due to steep reef slopes limits the applica- negative unless implementation is consistent tion of this technology beyond natural reefs (23). with the productive capacity of the stocks to Prototype artificial reef projects in Montserrat, be harvested (61), and unless there is adequate regulation of exploitation (12) British Virgin Islands, and the USVI suggest 0 that increased production of shallow-water fish Manufactured FADs can be costly, which is possible using scrap automobiles and tires. may preclude their use in some areas. Materi- Another approach involves the use of structures als and placement costs for a raft can be as high designed specifically to increase production as $8,000; most FADs to date have been in- of selected species. A recent study in Florida stalled through government subsidy. Life ex- indicates that fish biomass on Japanese “de- pectancy currently is between 12 to 24 months signed reefs” was two to six times greater than and FADs frequently break loose and are lost. on scrap metal “reefs” (141). Many fishing communities are reluctant to replace those initially provided under aid. Re- search efforts could be undertaken to increase Opportunity: Restore Mangroves and longevity and lower the fabrication costs, al- Seagrass Beds lowing standardization and mass production Mangroves and seagrasses constitute impor- of FADs (147). tant fish habitats and contribute to sediment Other problems with FADs include: difficul- stabilization in nearshore ecosystems. In many ties establishing ownership of FADs or of the areas, including the U.S.-affiliated islands, nat- fish attracted by FADs, conflicts between com- ural and human perturbations have altered the peting fishermen, presentation of navigational species compositions of mangroves and sea- hazards, possible interruption of normal pelagic grass beds, or seriously damaged and even de- migration patterns, and attraction of fish away nuded these habitats, Depending on the extent from customarily entitled nearshore fisheries of degradation, natural or induced recovery (151). As knowledge is gained on the “catch- may or may not be possible. ment areas” of FADs, deployment methods that Mangrove plantings to restore degraded man- minimize their adverse impacts on nearshore grove habitats or to stabilize unvegetated areas fisheries will develop. For example, subsurface is a management option. Planting large tracts FADs, which do not hinder navigation, maybe is expensive; however, natural recovery of par- as effective as surface FADs (78). tially degraded areas can be accelerated at more 242 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas modest costs by planting in bald spots. Stresses that take up to 100 years to reestablish naturally to the ecosystem must be removed for success- in many locations and may be impossible to ful restoration. reestablish in others. Where possible, restoration can be costly and success is not guaranteed. An acid sulfate condition may develop in degraded mangrove area soils that have been Opportunity: Restock Nearshore exposed to air and disturbed for agriculture or Habitats aquiculture. This condition further hinders reclamation of mangrove areas (68). Farming of marine organisms (mariculture) may become important not only to supplement Nearly three-quarters of Puerto Rico’s man- food resources but to remove pressure from and groves have been destroyed (179), and little at- replenish depleted stocks of fish and inver- tempt currently is being made to restore them, tebrates. For example, although attempts to Replanting mangroves has been practiced in mass-culture pearl oysters in the laboratory Florida, however, at costs equivalent to refor- have failed in French Polynesia, recent success estation on land). Successful rehabilitation of with artificial spat collectors is expected to end a mangrove area damaged by an oil spill has the harvest of wild stocks, permitting recovery been carried out on Guam. of natural populations (29). Techniques for artificial seagrass restoration As the nearshore resources of the Pacific and have been developed and used with some suc- Caribbean regions are becoming overfished or cess in U.S. coastal zones. Recovery of seagrass degraded, the idea of regeneration and “reseed- beds may depend on such factors as cessation ing” of these resources is gaining attention. of stress, level of degradation, availability and Breakthroughs in the spawning and culture of quantity of seed or vegetative tissue, and tur- trochus (Trochus niloticus) and giant clam (fam- bulence level of site. ily Tridacnidae) offer the possibility of reef Restoration methods include plugging; seed- reseeding (see box 7-A) (71,73). Of course, with- ing; sodding; and planting of seedlings, sprigs, out appropriate controls on subsequent har- or shoots. While replanting may be possible, vests, a reestablished population may be ex- it is technically difficult to stabilize the bottom ploited at a greater than optimal rate and sufficiently to prevent the loss of plantings (35). possibly reextinguished (154). However, information necessary for the under- Giant Clams.—Farming of giant clams for standing and use of restoration procedures has the purpose of restocking natural habitats has been inadequately reported. Recovery rates, been compared to resource management in for- both natural and artificial (e.g., transplants of estry (176). The meat and the large shells of the root plugs, shoots, and turf), are poorly docu- Tridacnidae family represent a potential export mented as are return rates of animal popula- if reseeding and grow-out techniques can be tions. Lack of knowledge about the physical perfected. In some of the Pacific islands, tech- environmental factors affecting seagrasses may niques and skills for limited husbandry of clams impede successful restoration efforts (153). already exists and may have useful application Costs of planting seagrass may vary depend- for expanding clam mariculture (154). An Aus- ing on species selected, experience and source tralian government-funded project to develop of labor, and type of equipment needed, as well and transfer giant clam breeding to Pacific is- as geographical factors. The cost of seagrass lands coordinated by the James Cook Univer- restoration may range from nearly $1,200 to sity of North Queensland is nearing comple- $12,000/acre and, the success rate of past at- tion (43). tempts has been less than 50 percent (153). Giant clams, sometimes reaching weights of From an ecological viewpoint, the best strat- 220 pounds, have been overharvested by both egy is to protect mangroves and seagrasses from local inhabitants and poachers from Southeast adverse impacts. They are valuable resources Asian countries to the point of extinction near ———

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 243

Box 7-A.—Culture of Tridacnid Clams Considerable interest exists in the Pacific ~cm;~~ tha dams (Tridacnidae family) in order to r~plenish and manage nktu@ iittockit [II%] and *O ckmsity culture opportunity. Although most dams require adequeta ‘-lies of @mMng cuiture in the tropical iskmds to cwtain areas with wleq@a tridwmids darive most of their nutrfents from symbiotic id@ ~8u8 w@hl ~~ ~@#!!!..sWMA the@oN survive and grow on coral reefs with low populations of dg~e. R@$a_ in @*! ti~~ *m the f@@@W’owinfJ witb mi@mal input (74) bivalve mollush; they provide larga quimtitiea uf .. =

Tridacnfd cuhurecurrtmtlyis practkadma pilot scd~~n ~alau, Yap, and Pohnpei and is planned in Truk and Kusrae. At prwent ody exparimwtxd hwtc~er~ exist; development of local hatcheries is required for widespread application. ,. Metlmds for hatchery culture of four of fha six a-”-of Tridacnidao have been developed and transpkmts have been mada to Guam, Hawaii, M-- pi, Yap, and the U.S. mainland; requests hav~ been received from governme nt h~~~“ in American Samoa, Mexico, and the Caribbean ?egion [74), @tplanting of trial shiprn-ti of j~wniles produced in a hatchery in Palau appear promising, but the t~chmology far more intmwive of Ttidacnid clams has not yet been fully developed or tested. Clams require a suitable s@stmte md ~tM readily in off-bottom culture systems. Therefore clam farming of of cl@m~ VVOU~d ~quire careful site selection. Nevertheless, cbrnsrnightbegro~h vtmtwwain isolated island areas and contribute to local food supplies as well as income.

some islands (95). The two largest clams, Tri- meat per acre from giant clams exceeds that dacna gigas and Tridacna derasa, have been provided by tilapia and nearly reaches that of placed on the International Union for the Con- mussels (75)0 servation of Nature and Natural Resources The basic technologies for both intensive and (IUCN) endangered species list (154). Tridacna extensive giant clam farming now exist. Hatch- gigas still live in the RMI and Palau, but are no longer are found near Pohnpei or in the ery techniques developed at the Micronesia Marianas, although fossil shells have been seen Mariculture Demonstration Center (MMDC) in in these areas (80). Palau employ natural spawning of clam broodstock and rear clams to the juvenile stages (0.4- Giant clams are unique among farmed ani- to 0.8-inch shell size) in seawater raceways. By mals in that they are autotrophic—they feed using plankton-rich lagoon water there is no themselves—through symbiosis with algae need for feeding, but the success rate in breed- embedded in their mantle. Exposure to sunlight ing and rearing juveniles to the macroscopic allows the algae to synthesize food for the clam, stages varies. Little capital investment beyond thus they do not require artificial feeding as the cost of juveniles and protective clam cages do other species (154). This capability also for the earliest stages is required for the ocean makes giant clams well-adapted to the sunlit grow-out phase of giant clams, This phase waters of low nutrient coral reefs, especially seems technically simple and clams of “grow- near atolls. The annual production of edible out size” appear to have few predators. Tim- 244 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

sites during the turtle nesting season, hatch- lings could be captured and retained in mesh pens or tanks, maintained until they pass the stage of high vulnerability, and then released to the ocean. Turtles are raised for release at the MMDC. While wild turtles take between 20 and 50 years to reach sexual maturity, turtles in artificial culture systems may reach sexual maturity in 10 to 12 years (33). The ecological impact of releasing large numbers of young, sexually mature turtles to the ocean has yet to be studied. Queen Conch.–Most reseeding efforts in the Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Caribbean have focused on the queen conch. Giant clams, immortalized incorrectly as “diver-trapping” Natural stocks have declined due to heavy fish- denizens of the deep in children’s cartoons, have been ing pressure throughout the region. Conch overharvested throughout a significant part of their hatcheries have been established in the Turks range. Research on culture techniques for giant clams are ongoing in a number of U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Caicos, Bonaire, Venezuela, Mexico, and islands. at the University of Puerto Rico (Mayaguez). To date, the viability of restocking operations for queen conch has not been demonstrated, ing of the outplanting of clams to maximize ben- though it is technically possible to develop efits of nonreproductive periods of major clam hatchery operations adequate to support a re- predators (e.g., the snail Cymatium muricinum) lease program (143). Preliminary data indicate and, if required, manual removal of predators a possible positive impact of stocking, but only from nursery trays can ensure low predation if the stocked cohort has adequate habitat and mortality rates (145). Still, with a normal grow- is protected from fishing pressure until after out phase of 3 to 5 years, the effects of giant it reaches reproductive age (4,11,79). clam reseeding efforts will not be apparent for at least a decade (154). Coconut Crab.—Populations of coconut crab (Birgus latro), highly prized throughout the Pa- Trochus.—Technology for mass culture of cific, have decreased considerably and may be trochus also was developed at MMDC (72). It extirpated on some islands. The adult crab is being transferred to Pohnpei where it could spends most of its life ashore, while the larval be applied to reseed the regions depleted reefs stages are thought to be spent in lagoons or through a program similar to trout fishing en- within reefs. Thus, changes in these environ- hancement programs in the United States. ments may affect the coconut crab. The ma- However, reseeding trochus could conceivably ture animal possesses a large claw which it uses lead to reductions in populations of herbivorous to open coconuts and extract the coconut meat. reef fish as a result of depletion of standing al- An on-going research program funded by the gal crops. Although trochus has been widely Australian Centre for International Agriculture introduced without obvious disruptions, no Research (ACIAR), is investigating the poten- data are available on interactions between pop- tials of farming this species and reintroducing ulations of large herbivorous snails and her- it regionally (95). bivorous reef fish. Work to gather these data could be undertaken. Opportunity: Conserve Nearshore Resources Sea Turtle.—All four species of sea turtle found in the U.S.-Affiliated islands are listed Ultimately, maximum economic yield can- as threatened or endangered species; thus, ex- not be attained in an open access fishery (129). ploitation is prohibited or regulated. At selected Development efforts directed toward increas- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 245 ing the catch without regard for sustainable of overexploited resources and identifica- yield in the Caribbean appear to have resulted tion of underexploited stocks. in overfishing of shallow-water reef fish stocks, and probably of conch and spiny lobster as well, Restrict Efficiency of Harvest Efforts.-The Black coral fisheries are currently under study Caribbean Fishery Management Council has and/or management in the USVI and Puerto jurisdiction over Puerto Rico and the USVI, and Rico, and harvesting of corals and other ses- has prepared management plans for spiny lob- sile or sedentary animals is restricted in these ster and shallow-water reef fish fisheries. These islands by various Federal and commonwealth plans place restrictions on types of gear that statutes. All four species of sea turtle commonly may be used for harvest, and establish mini- occurring in the islands are protected by liv- mum permissible sizes for harvested individ- ing within Federal waters, or by their status uals of particular species, (Other restrictions, as threatened or endangered species. Other e.g., closure of seasons or fishing areas, are also methods of restricting harvest of particular spe- possible, but have not been enacted.) These cies include: plans provide an excellent starting point for sustained development of nearshore marine re- ● restricting access to fisheries; sources in Puerto Rico and the USVI. Their pri- ● restricting efficiency of harvest efforts; mary shortcomings have been that they are ● restricting harvest seasons, sexes, or sizes; intended to focus on single species or groups and of species rather than entire systems, and must ● restricting markets for products derived address currently exploited species before con- - from certain species. sideration can be given to underexploited re- In addition, many critical marine habitats fall sources. Also, these plans must be adopted and within protected parks and recreation areas enforced by the respective island governments and, thus, certain populations are protected (94). from overexploitation (168). Identification and Harvest Restrictions.—Experience with over- protection of habitats critical to maintenance exploitation has also led to measures to con- of important fishery stocks is a method of conserve marine resources in Micronesia. For ex- serving nearshore resources to ensure a sus- ample, a few years after discovery of topshell tainable yield. as a source of nacre, harvests began to decline Restrict Access.—Action to prohibit a por- in a pattern similar to that of pearl oyster. Is- tion of current fishermen from further partici- land governments attempted to sustain popu- pation in local fisheries politically is not real- lations at fairly constant levels by imposing reg- istic; freezing participation at current levels ulations that controlled the length of the harvest might be more acceptable. More rigorous con- season and the minimum size of shells that straints such as fishing licenses could be ap- could be harvested (107,108). plied to resources not heavily utilized now. Although most island governments have reg- Such restrictions could obviously be modified ulations on the harvest of edible or other com- from time to time as better information became mercially valuable shells, few have enacted pro- available on resource abundance, tective measures for species involved in the Common objections to limited entry meas- ornamental shell trade. Monitoring of this trade ures are reduction in available jobs and possi- among FAS is nonexistent, Additionally, there bly reduced supply of seafood due to decreased is essentially no management of the aquarium numbers of fishermen. These objections do not fish trade, apply to the activities proposed here because: Restrict Market for Certain Species.—Over- 1. the number of fishermen would be stabi- exploitation of corals and shells in some areas lized, not decreased; and have adversely affected the associated coral 2. the supply of seafood should be expected reefs and resulted in bans on exports of corals to increase due to improved management and shells (27,110,172), Most island govern- 246 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ments have legislatively restricted harvest of in New Caledonia. Parts of the barrier reef are coral for commercial purposes, and only a few closed sequentially for 3-year intervals, thereby small-scale coral specimen enterprises cater to allowing each area a 3-year regeneration period the tourist industry (70). There is now no com- and continually maintaining an accessible reef mercial export of specimen corals from the area (36). U.S.-affiliated pacific islands. Ideally, the marine park core area should be Harvest of precious corals in American large enough to be self-replenishing for all spe- Samoa and Guam is regulated by a fishery man- cies the reserve is designed to protect; the im- agement plan under the Magnuson Fishery plication then is to establish a core area with Conservation and Management Act of 1976. the highest degree of diversity (140). If success- However, enforcement of regulations is rare. fully sited, established, and managed, marine The Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Re- parks and reserves may not only protect criti- sources has established permit requirements cal habitats but also provide a source of recruit- for coral harvesting and harvest site restric- ment for restocking exploited surroundings. tions. Harvesting is monitored as closely as As yet few such areas exist in the U.S.-affil- possible under current manpower restrictions iated islands. A wildlife preserve in Palau (155). (Ngerukewid Wildlife Preserve or the Seventy Protect Critical Habitats.—Ultimately, some Islands Park) contains considerable marine extremely sensitive areas and critical habitats areas in addition to the Limestone Islands, and may have to be given special status as marine a federally designated marine sanctuary has re- parks and reserves. Coral reefs, which are cently been established in American Samoa highly vulnerable to degradation, are prime can- (Fagatele Bay). Trunk Bay (St. John) and Buck didates for such protection. Mangroves, Island (St. Croix) and the Virgin Islands Na- seagrass meadows, and other important fish tional Park (St. John) have protected marine spawning and nursery areas are also excellent areas in the USVI, and several sites are pro- site candidates. posed as Federal or State marine sanctuaries in Puerto Rico (e.g., Mona Island). The establishment of protected areas for ecosystem preservation has long been applied to Marine parks can serve numerous purposes. land areas. In recent years, interest in the estab- National marine sanctuaries are designated to lishment of marine parks and sanctuaries has serve the multiple purposes of research, pub- grown. However, definition and protection of lic education, recreation, and preservation of marine parks can be difficult because of the in- ecological or esthetic values. Sanctuaries are terrelated nature of island ecosystems. Marine designed to provide protection and beneficial park definition must consider not only the near- use of distinctive marine resources that require shore habitats (coral reefs, seagrass meadows, comprehensive, geographically oriented plan- shallow bottoms, and mangrove and estuarine ning and management (158). The Fagatele Ma- environments) but also the terrestrial habitats rine Sanctuary in American Samoa may have that are inextricably linked to and ultimately considerable potential for environmental edu- affect the reserve’s quality. Thus, watershed cation and visitor recreation (9). management becomes highly important to the However, the needs for nearshore ecosystem integrity of the marine park (140). protection, public education, and research must Additionally, sociocultural factors, including be carefully balanced. Overuse, for whatever traditional use rights and subsistence gather- purpose, can degrade nearshore ecosystems. ing, may further complicate successful siting For example, tourism impacts in Trunk Bay, of marine reserves for some islands. Opportu- USVI, have resulted in severe degradation of nities exist for developing flexible reserves that corals. Regulations to control access and activ- may ameliorate these constraints. For example, ities are extremely important. In the Pacific, a rotating marine reserve has been established such regulations may be patterned after tradi- Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 247 tional customs that effectively conserved the animal protein and because the marine re- environment prior to westernization (81). sources around small, isolated islands are so vulnerable to overexploitation (81). While fishing efforts might be limited by any or all of the above methods, effective policing Basic marine conservation measures associ- of domestic or foreign fishermen is extremely ated with TURFS include closed seasons and difficult (151), particularly in tropical areas areas, and gear size and catch restrictions (85). where there is an abundance of species, large TURFS continue to play a major role in some numbers of fishermen and boats per unit of island cultures (e.g., Yap, Palau, the outer Caro- catch (relative to western commercial fisheries), line Islands); a diminished but significant role and a paucity of catch and market data. Biolo- in others (e.g., Truk, Samoa); and have lapsed gists also know much less about tropical spe- entirely in others (e.g., Marianas, Pohnpei, Kos- cies than they do about temperate marine food rae). Knowledge of these reef and sea tenure fish and are thus poorly equipped to make use- systems is fragmentary and studies performed ful decisions concerning their conservation. as little as 10 years ago may not reflect ade- Government enforcement of environmental quately the state of affairs today because of the laws is lax in some U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands rapidly changing island economies. and may be further impeded by fishermen who may resent the loss of their traditional fishing Traditional management and conservation rights and the imposition of strange new laws. systems have been seriously disrupted by the In many cases regulatory regimes do exist, but introduction of modern fabrication, harvest, control of fishing effort may require a more co- preservation, and transport technologies. New herent arrangement than the existing pattern materials and technologies have obviated the of fishing agreements (151). Establishment of traditional long apprenticeship period. Conse- the Forum Fisheries Agency Regional Regis- quently, the social status of fishermen has ter represents a major advance insofar as it has diminished and traditional teachings on the in- provided a regional sanction ensuring compli- terdependence of men and the environment ance by foreign vessels with the fisheries laws may no longer be passed on. This disruption of island governments (151). has been accelerated by the economic pressures of commercialization which accompany fast- Opportunity: Learn From Traditional growing urbanization. The public property, Conservation and Management open-access philosophy embodied in U.S. ma- Systems rine law directly conflicts with traditional island conservation mechanisms; thus, the effec- Fisheries science is a relatively modern dis- tiveness of modern conservation legislation has cipline in western societies; however, manage- been constrained from the outset and probably ment measures have been traditional village has been diminished in effectiveness (81). activities in many Pacific islands (95). Fisheries regulations in developed countries usually are Regulations recognizing traditional marine directed simply towards protecting the target tenure in the islands could be established. To species, whereas many traditional measures be successful, management schemes must be were designed to manage the species’ habitat socially acceptable. Furthermore, any legisla- and ecological relationships (95). Despite at- tion that weakens marine tenure laws also re- tempts to protect overexploited resources, west- duces the ability of the owners to police these ern culture techniques may be inappropriate resources—something they do voluntarily at no for management of multispecies tropical reef cost to the government if their rights are se- fisheries. Traditional use rights in fisheries cure. Such legislation therefore would increase (TURFS) is effectively the principle of limited the government’s regulatory responsibilities entry traditionally practiced by the Pacific is- and place serious new burdens on already un- landers. This developed almost certainly be- derstaffed and underfunded fisheries depart- cause they depended on the sea for most of their ments (81). 248 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Management schemes could formally recog- Opportunity: Emphasize Local nize traditional marine tenure in the islands. Management of Marine Resources Sea tenure and exclusive reef ownership underlie traditional island fisheries management, Even in places where traditional authority and private enterprises, such as seaweed and does not exist, is faltering, or has disappeared, local management initiatives, if instituted, giant clam farming, pearl culture, and trochus fishing, probably would respond appropriately could have a positive impact not only on fish- to exclusive ownership. Further, families, clans, eries, but also on recreational and tourism sec- and communities might be more willing to in- tors. Enforcement responsibilities probably vest in the protection and acquisition of ma- would be assumed by villages and other local rine resources and might engage in more inno- organizations if the groups firmly believe that vative resource development efforts due to a the management strategy was beneficial. For greater confidence in their chances for a re- example, village councils in American Samoa turn on investment (23). could take a more active role in conservation and management (170). Where they currently exist, formal recogni- Fisheries cooperatives are another possible tion of TURFS may contribute to fisheries con- means of using nontraditional but still local au- servation in the FAS, but they cannot guaran- thority to pursue management objectives. The tee it. Systems of traditional fishing rights are Japanese took this route, gradually transferring very diverse, and some are more useful in fish- TURFS from traditional village leaders to eries management than others. While TURFS work against maximizing employment in the village-based cooperatives. However considerable expertise—cultural, biological, and short term, in their absence, employment might economic—is required to adapt cooperative be affected much more severely in the long forms of enterprises to island social settings term. Where TURFS impede full exploitation (23). of marine resources, but have strong community support (a characteristic of subsistence Of particular relevance are the activities of economies), it probably would be politically un- the Virgin Islands Resource Management Co- acceptable to abolish them. Where weakly held operative (cf:139), which is currently involved TURFS impede full exploitation, they might be with developing management strategies for the modified to facilitate greater harvests, but Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve. A variety of hastening their demise would rarely be justified. potential benefits to nearshore fisheries are TURFS do pose an impediment to commer- associated with this activity including improved cial tuna fishermen who obtain bait fish from information on major stocks and ecosystem processes, establishment of breeding reserves TURFS. The formalities of requesting and grant- for heavily exploited or threatened species, and ing permission take considerable time and some provision of information needed for rational tuna fishermen have become so frustrated they have left valuable resources unharvested (83). development of underutilized species. Because of the commonality of marine resources, these TURFS also may impede nearshore harvest of migratory pelagic species. A fisheries “progress benefits may also be significant to other Lesser Antillean countries, and prospects for a multi- report” for Truk (133) reported that fishermen site regional Biosphere Reserve are being in- did not buy nets to catch abundant mackerel vestigated. that traveled in schools in the lagoon because the ownership of fishing grounds prevented their pursuing the schools. One possible solu- Summary tion to this is to interest representatives of different TURFS in cooperative arrangements— Considering the limited extent of nearshore for example, in the joint purchase of a single resources in the U.S.-affiliated islands and in- net to be used cooperatively to harvest the dications of probable” overfishing, credit, and migrating fish. incentive programs for purchase of vessels and Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 249 gear (e.g., the program for Fishery Credit con- shortsighted. Development has been viewed as ducted by the Puerto Rican Agricultural Credit being synonymous with the commercialization Corp.) probably are not conducive to sustaina- of the subsistence fisherman. Little attention ble development of fisheries unless the fishing has been paid to either the long- or short-run effort being capitalized is directed toward un- opportunity costs of this “development.” Man- derexploited resources or areas (e.g., offshore agement and conservation regulations have banks or seamounts). usually pursued a species-specific, gear specific, or seasonal format. Enforcement costs The approach to nearshore fisheries devel- have been high and results negligible, opment in the Pacific islands also has been

Introduction Aquiculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms in fresh, brackish, or marine waters, began at least 2,000 years ago in China and developed into a widely accepted procedure for producing food in India, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and elsewhere in tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia (58). A primitive form of aquiculture—holding juvenile fish in coastal impoundments, sometimes with supplemental feeds—was practiced traditionally in various island groups, including Hawaii. The remnants of early fish traps and impoundments can be found on many islands, but few are currently in use (58), Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment This experimental giant clam hatchery in Pohnpei Aquiculture can range from the culture of employs culture techniques developed at the simple (e. g., single-cell algae) to complex organ- Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center in Palau. Success of this experimental hatchery may lead isms (e. g., sea turtles). Similarly, systems range to expanded operations in Pohnpei. from nearly self-sustaining extensive ponds to high energy-, capital-, and labor-intensive hatch- ture. Goals commonly cited for aquiculture de- eries and raceways. Markets are as diverse as velopment include: products: species may be maintained in ponds as a means of storing protein for subsistence 1. to increase the availability of animal pro- consumption, or cultured to supply local de- tein to improve nutrition; mand (e.g., tilapia) or distant specialty markets 2 to increase job opportunities and income (e.g., phycocolloids). Aquiculture’s history and generation in rural areas; range of potential uses, however, conceal a con- 3 to create an additional tax base to gener- siderable number of modern failures; it should ate government revenues; not be viewed as a ready solution for social and 4. to generate export dollars; and economic problems faced in the islands today 5. to supplement marine resources by provid- (163). ing seed stock for reseeding nearshore areas that have been depleted by overex- Most U.S.-affiliated tropical islands have an ploitation (163), and to compensate for de- active interest in the development of aquacul- creasing fish catches, 250 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Although benefits in total dollar value would be any other significant aquiculture develop- be greatest on large islands like Puerto Rico and ment in the USVI. However, the potential for Guam, and least on the small islands and atolls, development of saltwater hatcheries and cage/ on a percentage basis a small increase in em- pen culture of fish in coastal waters has not ployment or food supply on the small islands been adequately researched. might be of greater relative importance (58). In spite of the long-term interest and previ- A large number of tropical and temperate spe- ous work, few commercially viable aquiculture cies have potential for aquiculture in the U. S.- ventures exist in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific is- affiliated Pacific islands. A Pacific islands mari- lands at present. A few have developed in culture conference (69) was convened some Guam, which has a relatively large local mar- years ago to advise in the development of aqua- ket and sophisticated technological base. Sig- culture in this region. Notably, aquiculture has nificant research efforts are under way to de- been proposed for food production, phycocol- velop cultivation of phycocolloid-bearing loid production, water treatment, and bait fish seaweeds (Guam, Kosrae, and Pohnpei), fresh- production. A number of Federal and local water prawns (Guam), giant clams (Palau), and agencies and educational institutions have rabbitfish (Guam and Palau) (119). Other spe- funded aquiculture research in each of these cies identified as having particular potential for areas. Guam has even completed an Aquacul- aquiculture development in the region include ture Development Plan (52) and funded feasi- marine shrimp, pearl oysters, milkfish, mullets, bility studies for the operation of a multispe- tilapia, and bath sponges. cies hatchery (cf:5,154). Many aquiculture projects have failed in the Neither Puerto Rico nor the USVI has an ex- U.S.-affiliated islands. Many efforts were de- tensive history of aquiculture development, al- signed as research and development or dem- though both seem to have good potential for onstration projects and, as such, were not de- aquatic farming. Aquiculture development in signed to show a positive cash flow, Others, Puerto Rico began around 1970 when research although workable, were poorly executed and was initiated with tilapia, catfish (Ictalarus some projects have been supported even when punctatus), and freshwater prawns (Macro- impractical or when they exhibited a subop- brachium rosenbergii). The island has excel- timal use of available resources (33). Most re- lent potential for development of viable aqua- sulting ventures have been unable to market culture projects involving a variety of species products profitably, eventually develop cash (59,128). In general, it has a stable, well-devel- flow problems and subsequently fold. Aquacul- oped infrastructure. Materials and services, in- ture projects supported by international assis- cluding research, extension, and skilled and un- tance agencies commonly are developed by skilled labor are available. temporarily assigned, outside consultants. On their departure, projects may fold due to lack Overall, Puerto Rico has a number of suit- of follow-on assistance, or lack of local technical able sites for pond, pen, and raft production and business management skills (163). Compo- units for freshwater and especially marine spe- nents such as training, economic analysis, com- cies. The USVI seem to have much lower po- mercial development, and technology transfer tential for land-based aquiculture development, often were missing in the failed aquiculture being much smaller. In the USVI, research and projects (163). development have largely focused on a project in St. Croix to evaluate the potential of using Local residents who want to grow food or in- nutrient-rich deep ocean waters pumped to crease their income by raising fish or shellfish shore to grow algae for feeding to various spe- need ambition and a real interest in aquacul- cies of shellfish (138). While technically feasi- ture, as well as a simple, thoroughly proven low ble, the economics of the system and species capital cost system for growing the selected spe- were not promising. There does not appear to cies, readily available low cost inputs (feed and .

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 251 labor) and a local market. Commercial-scale species potentially suitable for restocking also farms require a thorough feasibility study, are considered for sea ranching. Tropical in- sound business and financial management, ade- vertebrates, mainly mollusks, are candidates for quate financing, enough land at an acceptable tropical island sea ranching, in contrast to the cost, identified markets, and adequate techni- temperate zone where migratory fish (salmon) cal staff with culture expertise. are the primary target (12). For example, in Ma- The primary adverse impact of past aquacul- nus (Papua New Guinea), giant clams are col- ture activities has been the introduction of ex- lected and held in walled reef areas until fish- otic species, such as tilapia and the Malaysian ing is bad, providing a secure food source and freshwater prawn into the wild in Puerto Rico. a limited form of conservation. This form of culture does not promote growth, but it does The introduced Oreochromis mossambicus is now considered a pest because its inferior qual- establish property rights, which may result in it y as human food has created consumer resis- the mollusks being held longer before harvest than if they were not in “ranches” (154). A 1982 tance to the cultured species (Tilapia nilotica). There may also be ecological consequences review of recent conch mariculture efforts (13) from introduction of exotics, such as the dis- indicated that commercial conch culture was placement and extinction of endemic species, not a viable proposition, but conch ranching particularly since island species generally may offer potential. However, success with this evolved under less severe competitive pressures technology carries with it the risk that natural than continental species. stocks will be collected at a rate faster than otherwise, leaving few for breeding in common Such scenarios are even more likely in the areas (154). relatively fragile and little understood inland aquatic habitats of the islands. Pests or diseases The success of sea ranching depends on the also can be introduced along with the desired availability of wild broodstock, accessibility of exotics, which can have significant effects on individuals to collect and ranch, property rights local related species. Therefore native species to the species within an area, incentives to con- are preferred to introduced species for aqua- serve breeding populations, and enforcement culture whenever possible (119). measures to protect wild and ranched populations from poaching. To foster success, such Aquiculture activities require a source of programs could be accompanied by strong juveniles for stocking. Juveniles can be supplied measures to control fishery pressure, possibly from broodstock matured and spawned in cap- with habitat protection and/or enhancement, tivity or collected from the wild. Because most locally available species already are exploited Potential Strategy: DeveIop to some degree by the local populace, hatch- Extensive Culture in Natural Waters ery production of young rather than collection from the wild is desirable for most aquiculture Low technology extensive culture systems in the U.S.-affiliated islands. While hatchery, may be most appropriate where available nat- nursery, and grow out can be integrated for ural nutrient abundance is adequate, and mini- large operations, commonly hatcheries are cen- mization of capital expenditures and produc- tralized to provide juveniles for a variety of tion costs are major concerns. However, the grow-out situations and farms (33), reduced inputs and lower stocking densities of extensive culture systems generally is accom- Potential Strategy: Develop panied by reduced yields, In a true extensive Sea Ranching culture system all of the species’ nutritional requirements are derived from natural sources One form of sea ranching involves taking without human intervention. Thus, islands with juveniles or other stock from the wild and grow- greater terrestrial resources and therefore ing them under managed conditions (154), Most greater levels of available organic matter may

63-222 0 - 87-9 QL. 3 252 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas have larger potential for extensive culture sys- Oysters require substantial quantities of tems. A number of species have been identi- phytoplankton, and waters slightly less saline fied as appropriate for extensive culture sys- than those of the high seas. Thus the potential tems including oysters and seaweeds (58). for their culture is higher in the temperate than the tropical zone. Nevertheless oysters occur Opportunity: Bottom and Near-Bottom in isolated tropical locations, especially near Culture of Sedentary Species the large mountainous islands which provide substantial amounts of terrigenous nutrients Intertidal or subtidal culture of high densi- and freshwater to nearshore areas. These areas ties of sedentary species on or off bottom is may have considerable potential for develop- attractive, but practical only where natural sup- ment of family, collective, or commercial oys- plies of phytoplankton provide adequate nutri- ter farms. tion—both quantity and quality—for filter-feeding mollusks or substrates that are suitable for The establishment of oyster farms requires seaweed culture. This generally occurs only in careful site selection and preferably pilot-scale areas receiving nutrients from the land (58). tests. Also the method of culture will depend Aquiculture on coral reefs, or of reef-dwelling on the suitability of the substrate, the exposure organisms, is in the early stages of development to storms, and other biological factors. In some places, off-bottom culture is used to avoid pre- and few species of animals or plants are currently cultured on a commercial scale. dators and to increase growth rate. In this case the oysters can be suspended below fixed racks At present, a red algae (Eucheuma sp.) is cul- or floating rafts (59). Parasite infestations have tivated commercially in the Philippines and a terminated most oyster culture projects in the few other areas for the production of carragee- Pacific islands (162). nin (39,40). Techniques for cultivating Trochus Aquiculture in Puerto Rico includes a small have been developed (72), and hatcheries are oyster fishery and some low-technology efforts planned or operating on a pilot scale in Palau, to develop oyster farming based on research Australia, New Caledonia, and the Cook Is- in the 1970s (169). The limited suitable area, lands. Members of the Tridacnidae family can mainly in Boqueron Harbor, precludes the de- now be cultivated in sufficient numbers for velopment of a large oyster industry. commercial purposes (75,117). In the Bahamas, a significant recent development has been the Pearl Oyster Culture.—Potential exists for recognition that the giant Caribbean king crab profitable farming of pearl oyster species at (Mithrax spinosissimus) is herbivorous, feed- various places in the Pacific islands. These spe- ing mostly on algal turfs, is easily reared, and cies have been important items of commerce grows to at least 2.2 pounds in its first year (134). in Oceania for centuries (123). This type of cul- —The culture of edible oysters tivation is especially suited to atoll lagoon envi- Oyster Culture. ronments. Spat are reared in polyethylene net is a traditional form of aquiculture through- baskets until they reach 3.5 inches in diameter. out Asia, and methods now in use could be readily applied anywhere that the aquatic environ- Then, they are affixed to strings suspended ment is satisfactory. Inputs are relatively simple from underwater platforms where they are left since oysters obtain their own feed from the to grow for 3 years (145). water. In most cases native species can be used, Research was conducted over a period of ap- although some are too small for the market. The proximately 3 years by scientists at CNEXO introduction of acceptable species from simi- (now EFRIMER) in Tahiti to develop technol- lar tropical environments may also be possi- ogies for the mass production of pearl oyster ble, although care should be taken to avoid in- spat. However, oyster hatchery technologies de- troduction of parasites, diseases, predators, veloped for other species apparently were not pests, or competing species. successful when applied to the pearl oysters, Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 253 so the research was discontinued (119). Since industry is limited by the supply of seaweed, hatchery techniques for pearl oysters have not the market situation for seaweed cultivation been developed, seed stock is obtained from nat- seems promising. However, high freight costs ural spatfall. One problem with this method is restrain the financial return to growers, and that spat of the desirable pearl oyster, P. mar- Asian nations may have an insurmountable garitifera, is often mixed with and, at a small advantage over small Pacific islands in terms size indistinguishable from, spat of smaller, un- of scale economies and labor costs (95), that may desirable species (119). affect the long-term economic viability of commercial seaweed mariculture. Some attention Although some attempts have been made to has been given to the cultivation of seaweed develop this industry in Palau, no pearl culture as food for other organisms (53) (i.e., rabbitfish activities are ongoing in the U.S.-affiliated Pa- grown in association with algal turfs), however, cific islands today. The success of this indus- this is likely to remain only a peripheral activity. try in Polynesia, however, and the research under way there indicates that the culture of pearl The Smithsonian Institution’s Marine Sys- oysters has potential to contribute to develop- tems Laboratory (MSL) has been active in mental efforts in other areas of the Pacific, in- mariculture research in Caribbean reefs. Re- cluding Micronesia and American Samoa. The search efforts have led to development of tech- development of this industry in Micronesia or niques for algal turf farming on artificial sur- Samoa would require training in the techniques faces. While the harvested algae has a variety of inducing the oysters to form pearls. The Ta- of purposes a primary interest exists in using hitian Government is sponsoring experts to it as a food source for the Caribbean king crab train culturists in these techniques so, presum- (Mythrax spinosissimus). ably, the technology could be transferred to The MSL and the Puerto Rico Corporation for other areas (119). Development of Marine Resources (CODREMAR) Queen Conch.—The most important edible and the University of Puerto Rico (Mayaguez) mollusk in the eastern Caribbean, the queen will be cooperating in the Caribbean king crab conch (Strombus gigas), is seldom found below mariculture demonstration project sited on Vie- 100 feet, and is highly vulnerable to overfish- ques. Puerto Rico’s Secretary of Natural Re- ing. There have been several efforts to develop sources has committed funding to the project. technologies for conch culture, but a review The U.S. Navy has given tentative approval de- of progress in the field (13) concluded that com- spite the project’s siting in a naval training area mercialization does not seem economically fea- on Vieques. The techniques involved in Carib- sible and a similar conclusion was reached at bean king crab mariculture also maybe appli- the November 1985 meeting of the Gulf and cable to culture of other marine species. Fur- Caribbean Fisheries Institute (61). ther, the demonstration project may provide information necessary for increased develop- Seaweed Cultivation.—Some 10 species of ment of Puerto Rico’s mariculture efforts (134). marine benthic algae reported from the U. S.- affiliated islands may have the potential to yield harvestable commercial products (156). Sea- Potential $trategy: Culture of weed cultivation may be particularly well suited Marine Fish in Enclosures to remote islands, since the thalli can be sun- The culture of marine species in floating net dried and stored for many months. pens or cages is applicable to any island where The red algae genus Eucheuma has been space can be obtained in estuaries or bays pro- farmed successfully on a pilot scale in Pohn- tected from storms. This system requires no pei (41) and Kosrae (146), but no marketing has pumping of seawater and has low initial costs been conducted. Eucheuma is used as a source (58). This culture method is used in many other of carrageenin gel in the food, pharmaceutical, coastal areas (i.e., Japan, Norway, Scotland, the and cosmetic industries. As the phycocolloid United States, and Canada], and several tropi- 254 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas cal species might be grown in cages or en- in Martinique where preliminary results indi- closures in the Pacific or Caribbean islands. cate that yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysu- However, the potential for conflict between rus), permit (Trachinotus falcatus), palmometta mariculture practitioners and other reef and (Trachinotus goodei], and European sea bass lagoon users exists (155), and may require de- (Dicentrarchus sp.) have commercial potential. velopment of mechanisms to ameliorate or pre- Other species under investigation elsewhere vent such conflicts. and deserving attention for the U.S. Caribbean include redfish, epinephilid groupers, striped Dolphinfish, for example, could be grown at hundreds of sites on the islands of the Pacific bass and its hybrids, tilapia, dolphinfish and Caribbean, since it occurs throughout the (Coryphaena sp.), and amberjack. tropical seas. Field trials indicate good potential for growing dolphinfish in large floating Potential Strategy: Pond Culture nets or cages. However, the viability of such culture has not been determined. The chief Traditionally, freshwater fish and shellfish unknowns are the availability and costs of in Southeast Asia were grown in large shallow feeds, the feasibility of operating local hatch- ponds supplied with fresh or brackish water. eries, and the logistics of supplying inputs and The modern version of this system is a series processing and marketing the products. of ponds from less than 1 to as many as 50 acres each with a depth of 2 to 3 feet, supplied with Several species of grouper (Serranidae fam- freshwater at 10 to 50 gallons per minute per ily) are grown commercially or for home use acre from wells (bore holes), streams, or irriga- in enclosures or cages in Southeast Asia. tion canals (58). Groupers occur throughout tropical and subtropical seas and are well accepted as food. A Freshwater ponds are used for growing vari- need exists for research to determine if meth- ous fish and crustaceans including freshwater ods used in Southeast Asia are applicable and prawns, tilapia, catfish, carp, ornamental fish, to evaluate markets, availability and cost of feed crayfish, etc., in monoculture or polyculture and other inputs, development of locally pro- systems. Freshwater pond culture of eels, carp, duced feed, and wild stock availability. and freshwater prawns has been developed on Guam and could be expanded (58). Since water Puerto Rico has an extensive shoreline of is scarce, several species might be cultured in nearly 300 miles with numerous inlets and the same pond and the water reconditioned or small bays which provide protected waters that reused. may be suitable for anchoring floating pens or cages. Guam, surrounded by a surf-swept fring- In Southeast Asia and in some of the Pacific ing reef, has few such areas, precluding most islands such as Hawaii, marine or estuarine fish forms of floating net pen cultures there. On the and some shellfish were grown in shallow other hand, hundreds of narrow channels and coastal ponds which could be flooded at high bays exist between individual islands of Palau. tide. This technology has now been applied in There is potential there for floating net pen cul- many countries to provide low-cost ponds for ture of several species; local experience with aquiculture of marine shrimp and various ma- rabbitfish culture would provide a sound basis rine or brackish water fish. for culturing this species. Sites are available, Coastal farms should be sited on clay or other but to a considerably lesser extent, in the USVI, relatively impermeable soil. Many ponds built the CNMI, FSM, and the RMI. Because of heavy earlier in mangrove swamps were found to be reliance of some of these islands on fish im- unusable. The swamps’ acid sulfate soil made ports, evaluation of this means of increasing pond waters highly acid, which was detrimen- domestic production could have merit. tal to fish health and growth. To avoid this, Most investigations of cage culture potential ponds must be constructed inshore of man- for Caribbean finfish appear to have been done grove forests, even though ponds must then be Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 255 pumped full (58). Recent studies in the Philip- Two early prawn farms failed in Puerto Rico, pines have developed methods of pond-building following extensive flood damage in 1975 and in acid soils (162). 1979 (58); a third discontinued operations in 1982, but was reactivated by Sabana Grande Freshwater Prawn.—The culture of the gi- Prawn Farms, Ltd., and is now in operation ant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosen- with 86 acres of ponds and a hatchery (57). bergii on a small commercial scale has been There is considerable interest in expansion with accomplished in Guam, and pond production export to the United States and other markets. of the species has proven satisfactory (55). M. rosenbergii has also been cultured on an experi- Marine Shrimp.—Potential exists in Puerto mental scale on Palau. Areas especially suitable Rico for farming marine shrimp (Penaeus sp.), for Macrobrachium culture occur on Pohnpei but few large coastal tracts are available. Farms and Palau as well as Guam, although freshwater would need to include hatcheries with facilities is in severely limited supply during the dry sea- for maturation of brood stock, since no wild son. In Pohnpei, freshwater might be adequate stocks occur in the area. Adaptive research and for small-scale prawn farming. Since the de- pilot-scale tests to determine the applicability velopment of hatchery techniques for mass proof Latin American technology for marine duction of post-larval stages, interest in prawn shrimp culture would be advisable, culture has been considerable. However, no Technical potential also exists for marine operating hatcheries exist in Guam or Palau at shrimp culture in the Pacific; preliminary trials present, and pond operators have been dissat- have been conducted in Guam and American isfied with Hawaiian supplies of post-larvae. Samoa (119). Juveniles are not available, how- In addition, past trials have exhibited relatively ever, and stocks of the shrimp in shallow near- poor performance and interest has waned (162). shore waters are too small to supply a hatchery. There is some potential for growing marine Although M. rosenbergii occurs naturally in shrimp on the island of Babelthaup (Palau). Al- Micronesia only in streams of Palau (112), sev- though suitable land is limited, small-scale eral endemic species of Macrobrachium occur farms might be established for the local marin freshwater habitats of the region, including ket and for air shipment to Guam, another large species, M. lar. Work has focused on this species with the idea that ponds could The technology of broodstock maturation is be stocked with post-larvae and juveniles from developing slowly for marine shrimp. The de- local streams. The simultaneous introduction velopment of this technology will stimulate ex- of predators and competitors poses problems pansion of marine shrimp farming in the Carib- (166), but to date no other source of the post- bean islands, and possibly in the Pacific islands. larvae exists. This species requires higher sa- The MMDC in Palau has facilities for marine linities than M. rosenbergii and is more aggres- shrimp culture and could be activated with new sive, but is worthy of attention for cultivation broodstock maturation technology develop- on a cottage scale basis in areas where M. rosen- ment (33). bergii cultivation is not feasible. Mangrove Crab.—Another crustacean with Because of rapidly increasing prawn culture potential for cultivation in the Pacific region within the Pacific region, prawn culture in is the mangrove crab Scylla serrata. Potential Micronesia probably can be developed only to for its culture has been examined in Guam, but fulfill local demand. Prawn aquiculture in the no commercial development has been realized Indo-Pacific area is predicted to triple by 1990, and little interest in the species exists elsewhere in the region (119). This species is successfull which may result in an oversupplied market. y Only 100 tons of the total estimated 140,000 tons cultured in Taiwan and Japan (33). is expected to be produced on Pacific islands Rabbitfish.—Several species of rabbitfish (95). (Siganidae), a prized fish throughout the Pacific 256 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas are attractive candidates for aquiculture (98, be economical because mullet feed largely on 103) in ponds, as well as in natural enclosures pond biota, requiring only fertilization. Mul- or cages, or in association with algal turfs. They let culture in the region deserves further con- are herbivorous, juveniles can be collected from sideration. Sources of fry need to be identified reef-flats in large numbers (91), will readily ac- as an initial step. cept and thrive on commercially available pelle- tized diets, and survive in brackish water as Redfish.—The redfish (Sciaenops ocellata) is well as seawater. Research efforts currently are attractive as an aquiculture species since it can underway in Guam and elsewhere. tolerate salinities from nearly 0 to as much as 45 parts per thousand. It can be grown in shal- Since the abundance of juveniles is extremely low ponds similar to those used for marine variable from year to year, the availability of shrimp and prefers temperatures of 68 to 92° C. stable supplies will eventually depend on mass Although predacious in nature, redfish can be production in hatcheries; the development of conditioned to feed on formulated pellets with hatchery technologies is under way and sev- acceptable conversion ratios. The redfish is eral species have already been spawned and highly esteemed as a food fish. Juvenile redfish reared in captivity (89,132,167). Juveniles were could be obtained from a commercial hatch- consistently produced on a small scale at a ery in Texas and raised to adults at the site hatchery of the MMDC in Palau for several selected for the culture operations to provide years. Further work on reducing hatchery mor- brood stock (58). talities, and on the development of grow-out technologies is warranted since siganids bring Tilapia.—Tilapia, a staple food in many de- a higher price than most other reef fish. veloping countries, are perhaps the easiest fish to grow in tropical aquiculture systems. They Milkfish.—Milkfish (Chanos chanos) are are extremely resistant to disease; withstand hardy and tolerate a range of environmental high density; and tolerate low dissolved oxy- conditions from freshwater to saltwater, al- gen, a wide range of salinity levels, and other though they are most often cultured in brack- adverse environmental conditions (58). ish ponds. Milkfish have been successfully cultivated in several adjacent regions and are being cultured in ponds in Guam. However, wild stocks are too small to support a fry fishing industry. Areas with sufficient wild stock (e.g., Palau) have not developed milkfish culture, and export of fry from the Philippines, where milkfish culture is an economically important industry, has been banned by the government. Recently, however, aquaculturists have been able to spawn pond-reared broodstock, hatchery techniques are being developed (42), and it seems the availability of fry will increase, removing a major constraint to culture. Mullet.—Several species of mullet may have considerable potential for development and have received some attention in Guam. Growth Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment rates are slower than those of milkfish, but tech- Intensive aquiculture systems, employing supplemental niques for induced spawning and grow-out of feeding and high stocking density, may increase the larger species such as the grey mullet (Mugil production significantly. Shown here is commercial tilapia aquiculture in Guam; peletized feed is cephalus) have been well developed (142). The discharged periodically from a homemade automatic culture of juvenile mullet to market size can feeder at the right edge of the pond. Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 257

Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) are cul- ever, this form of aquiculture is attractive be- tured fairly successfully on a small commer- cause of the high value of the product, the short cial scale in Guam and will probably continue time required to reach market size and the small to serve the local market. However, this spe- quantity of feed required (58). cies can readily establish itself in a variety of Bait fish.—Extensive efforts to culture bait aquatic habitats, and the introduction of tila- fish have taken place in American Samoa with pia into islands where it does not already exist monies, and in the RMI and Kiribati with milk- may have undesirable consequences (119). Tila- fish (58). Results of the work in American pia eradication projects are underway in Samoa and test fishing at sea show that mol- Kiribati and Nauru (162). lies are acceptable as live bait for skipjack and One commercial venture based on this spe- yellowfin tuna but culture has been uneconom- cies was started in Puerto Rico in about 1980 ical under experimental conditions (22,165). but was unsuccessful because of a poorly de- Similar results were obtained from the Kiribati signed culture system. Research and develop- experimental farm. The milkfish were accept- ment by the University of Puerto Rico has able for pole and line fishing for tuna, however, shown that tilapia culture with well-designed an economic analysis of the project indicated systems has much potential. Many areas in little or no profit margin existed (163). There Latin America and the Caribbean islands are also is the possibility of growing native marine ideally located for large-scale culture of tilapia species such as the nehu or anchovy (Stole@ o- which might enter the world trade as frozen rus purpureus), the apagons (Apogonidae), and boneless fillets (58). the white goby (Glossogobius giurus) or other species which are captured in the lagoons by The efficiency of tilapia culture on a com- tuna fishermen. mercial scale depends on establishing the natural biota which provides part of the food and The emergence of purse seine fishing as the supplementing this with artificial feeds contain- dominant technology for pelagic tuna harvest ing about 20 percent protein. Tilapia can be has reduced the importance of pole-and-line grown at lower density in family or subsistence fishing, for which live bait is essential. If the farms without supplemental feeds or fertiliza- technology for culture of native marine species tion with animal manures. Production can be could be developed, a stable aquaculture indus- increased to at least 6,000 lbs/acre/year by stock- try could be developed in many islands of the ing at high density and providing supplemen- Pacific and the pole and line tuna fishery could tal feed (58). be expanded. Again, this probably could expand only to fulfill local demands as the more Ornamental Fish.—Potential for growing efficient purse seiners are driving down inter- various species of freshwater and marine trop- national tuna prices (105). Alternatively, col- ical fish for the aquarium trade exists in the lecting fees for baitfish harvest may provide a Caribbean and Pacific regions. While fresh- source of income for bait ground owners and water tropical fish commonly are cultured, ma- local governments, although this probably is rine tropicals usually are collected from the hindered by difficult negotiations (95). wild. Species already are imported from Guam, American Samoa, the RMI, and Hawaii. To be competitive, such ventures would need to un- Summary dercut production and shipping costs from other countries and production costs in Florida. Freshwater and saltwater pond culture, cul- In practice, most tropical aquarium farms raise ture in net pens, cages, and intertidal or subti- several species and carefully select the best dal culture (on or off the substrate) are all appli- specimens for breeding purposes to maintain cable to tropical environments and species of high quality of the product. This requires con- the U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the siderable expertise and strict procedures. How- Caribbean. Adaptive research will be required 258 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas to test the applicability of culture systems to In Puerto Rico, the lower elevations of the local environments and species. Although sea- coastal plains are generally considered primary water is plentiful, site availability is still a prob- locations for aquiculture. Coastal lands near lem, and economic feasibility uncertain. Logis- urban areas commonly are unavailable or pro- tical constraints plague nearly all island groups hibitively expensive, but large areas of agricul- (58). tural and rural lands could be used for aquaculture. For example, property abandoned from Neither the U.S. Caribbean nor U.S. Pacific islands have the large expanses of low-cost sugar cane production may be suitable for aquaculture. The south and southwest coasts pro- coastal land and wild seed resources necessary vide the most protected areas for onshore and to support significant “extensive” commercial offshore culture. Areas below 700 feet gener- pond aquafarms. Extensive aquiculture is char- ally have high enough temperatures to support acterized by low stocking density, little or no year-round production of certain warm-water supplemental feeding, low yields per unit area, species. More cold-tolerant species such as and high labor inputs. These systems are appro- channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) could be priate to Southeast Asia, where many devel- reared at somewhat higher altitudes (58). oped, but are less suitable for the Pacific islands where marine farming is not a common tradi- In the Pacific islands, aquiculture operations tional activity (95). Extensive aquiculture on which employ simple methods to culture highly a family scale may be possible, however, and desired species for local businesses (hotels and could supplement family diets. tourist facilities) or species to restock depleted Both island areas; however, have sites suit- areas may have the greatest potential. Produc- able for “semi-intensive” commercial operation costs most likely would raise the price of tions, which are characterized by smaller, more products above the financial reach of many lo- engineered and managed ponds, supplemen- cal islanders participating in market economies tal feeding and fertilization, higher stocking (95). However, aquiculture as a supplement to density, and heavy or complete reliance on a subsistence activities and contributor to non- hatchery for supply of seed. Some aquafarm market economies may be practible (33). development of this type is already under way It is apparent that the availability of technol- in Puerto Rico (e. g., Sabana Grande Prawn ogy itself is inadequate to stimulate develop- Farms, Ltd.), and semi-intensive pond culture ment. The technology must be economically of various species is likely to be a major area feasible and socially acceptable. Most aquacul- of commercial aquiculture development for the ture projects that have been initiated in the is- island in the future. lands attempted to prove the technology–a Intensive culture, involving a high degree of risky proposition—and many did not address environmental control (i. e., tanks and race- economic or social issues. Thus, even if tech- ways), high stocking densities, complete reli- nical difficulties were overcome, the project ance on commercial feeds, high energy inputs, had little chance of developing into a sustaina- considerable technical expertise, and very high ble operation (163). Unfortunately project fail- productivity per unit area remains in the ex- ures have had an unfavorable impact on the perimental or pilot phases of development and development of aquiculture: in the long-run, probably is not yet feasible for most U.S. failures discourage governments and agencies islands. from going into aquiculture. Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 259

SUMMARY OF MARINE RESOURCE STATUS AND POTENTIAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT GOALS Few, if any, nearshore resources remain un- Optimum use of nearshore marine resources derused in the U. S.- affiliated tropical islands. in the U.S.-affiliated islands probably requires Based on past trends of fisheries development, attention to both aquiculture and capture fish- future development of nearshore fisheries in eries. The climate and traditions of the tropi- the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands might be cal Pacific islands are well-suited to many types guided by several underlying concepts: of aquacultural development. Although the potential for such development remains largely ● that growth embody the idea of smallness unrealized, a high level of interest exists in and technical appropriateness, ● aquiculture and mariculture within the region. that import substitution and long-run self- This method of food production is appealing sufficiency be the foremost development as a result of the traditional reliance of the is- goals, and ● lands on the resources of the nearshore waters. that export of nearshore marine products Most island groups have operated experimental be fostered only when it does not have neg- or pilot-scale culture operations of one form ative impacts on present or anticipated fu- or another. ture subsistence activities and only when such exports result in a significant local Aquiculture ventures have had mixed success retention of revenue (175). in the U.S. Caribbean, but with increasing do- Management and conservation concerns are mestic (including tourist) demand for seafood, critical. An overcapitalized nearshore fishery opportunities exist for aquiculture develop- will encourage depletion—adding to the income ment. While the USVI has little potential for of market participants while reducing the land-based aquiculture, some sites might be lifestyle of subsistence participants. Such in- available for culture of marine fish in offshore come redistribution may not lead to desirable enclosures. Puerto Rico has much greater po- long-run results (174,175). tential for both land-based and offshore aquaculture. A number of stocks appear to be overexploited in the U.S. Caribbean (61). Little em- Wild stocks are needed to supply seed or pirical evidence exists of the present status of brood stock for many aquiculture operations; marine resources in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific some aquiculture operations (sea ranching) are islands, but circumstantial evidence leads to essentially manipulations of natural processes the strong suspicion of an ever-growing sphere in the wild, Aquiculture can provide adjunct of resource stress surrounding population or alternative opportunities to fishing enter- centers (17,127). prises which currently are marginal, and may have the potential to rehabilitate overexploited Fisheries development and management stocks. could be carried out more in harmony with traditional social institutions. Cooperative orga- While future development of nearshore fish- nizations present a potential mechanism for ac- eries is likely to continue to emphasize small complishing this. However, considerable operations, aquiculture may be developed as expertise—cultural, biologic, and economic— individual or commercial enterprises depend- is required to adopt the western cooperative ing on the species being cultured. Certain econ- form of enterprise to the island social setting. omies of scale, for example, make small prawn 260 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas farms less desirable than larger ones. Aquacul- general responses to this problem, neither ture projects have had a disappointing history novel: 1) obtain additional information, and 2) in part because of the lack of site-specific pilot encourage and support increased local involve- evaluations and logistic difficulties character- ment in marine resource management. istic of small islands. Aquiculture development largely has focused on proving the technology, Baseline BioIogical, Ecological, and and paying little attention to financial, market, Technical Research and socioeconomic aspects. Lack of attention to these aspects may result in failure of a tech- More baseline research on important marine nologically successful pilot project as it at- resources and on ecological processes in trop- tempts to transform into a commercial opera- ical marine habitats is needed, particularly for tion (162). Adequate planning with thorough resource management in the Pacific islands. feasibility studies are needed to select appro- Research projects that may not lead directly to priate species and sites and to reduce risks in commercial development still are valuable in new public programs or private ventures. Such that they may identify constraints to develop- planning studies should include sociocultural ments or indicate which fisheries or aquacul- and institutional factors which often have a mature activities are not feasible. Consideration jor effect on the success or failure of aquacul- of such information in project design may de- ture projects. termine and will increase the likelihood of project success. Positive impacts of aquiculture development include increased employment opportunities, Marine biological research in the U.S.-affil- strengthening of traditional subsistence econ- iated Pacific islands is centered at the Univer- sity of Guam Marine Laboratory (UGML). This omies, reduction of imports, development of export products, improved use of marginal agri- laboratory has a faculty of seven full-time researchers working in various fields within the cultural land, and potential increases in standing stocks of certain commercial fishery spe- discipline. Environmental impact studies, cies. The most probable negative impacts are studies in aquiculture techniques and species possible removal of a few coastal areas from potential, and resource assessment surveys have been performed by UGML personnel at general public access, and introduction or in- various islands throughout the region. Coop- advertent release of exotic species. Negative impacts may result from small or even unsuccess- erative research programs have been developed ful ventures, while the magnitude of benefits with Taiwan, Indonesia, and French Polyne- sia, and visiting scientists from around the will depend largely on the eventual scale of suc- world have conducted research at the facility. cessful aquiculture operations. Introductions The Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Re- are best undertaken with caution and only af- sources (DAWR) is active in marine resource ter thorough studies of the potential impact on management and to that end performs pertinent the native fauna have been completed. Local research related to Guam’s marine resources. species are preferable to introduced species The DAWR uses annual fishery statistics to as- whenever possible. sess pressure on nearshore to offshore bank aquatic resources resulting from recreational, Research subsistence and commercial fisheries (66). Resource management problems in the U. S.- Additional marine research has been per- affiliated tropical islands are not only very com- formed at the MMDC in Palau. Although there plex at any one place or time, they also vary are no resident scientists at MMDC, a number greatly with space and time. Resource mana- of important advances in mass culture of tro- gers are simply not in a position to solve them chus and giant clams have been made by re- unilaterally; the biological and socioeconomic searchers visiting this lab. Most islands of the knowledge bases are too slim. There are two Federated States of Micronesia have plans for Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture ● 261 small giant clam and trochus mariculture lab- programs, and could undertake these activities oratories which eventually will supply their in coordination with the CFMC. reseeding programs. Several general areas of biological research Fisheries biologists of the U.S. National Ma- are relevant to decisions involving marine re- rine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries sources in both the Pacific and Caribbean Center, Honolulu Laboratory conduct occa- regions: sional island resource surveys. However, their ● life history characteristics of important work has focused primarily on commercial food organisms, species. ● larval ecology, Fisheries officers employed by local govern- ● ecological interactions among species, and ments also have been involved in marine re- ● role of disturbance in community structure search. Generally these studies have been re- and development (168). lated to resource assessments of edible marine For planning, even more detailed informa- organisms and technologies such as artificial tion is required. For example, in order to de- reefs. termine the potential for development of rele- Local institutions in Puerto Rico and the U.S. vant aquiculture in each island territory or Virgin Islands have demonstrated capabilities nation, sufficient information must be collected for undertaking much of the work needed to to establish a database, including: realize opportunities related to the sustainable ● identification of land or site availability and development of marine resources. The College land use regulations; of the Virgin Islands through its Ecological Re- ● assessment of water availability and quality; search Station and the U.S. Virgin Islands De- ● recommendations for appropriate species; partment of Conservation and Cultural Affairs ● identification of current aquiculture proj- and the Fisheries Research Laboratory in ects; Puerto Rico have undertaken a number of ● existing tax structures and financial in- studies of local fisheries potential (cf:21,37,125, 152). Several activities of the Caribbean Fish- centives; ● availability and cost of transportation; eries Management Council (CFMC), comprised ● inventory of local energy supplies and cur- of the University of Puerto Rico and the Virgin rent costs; Islands Marine Resource Management Coop- ● identification of legal or institutional con- erative are relevant to development and man- straints; agement of nearshore marine fisheries, and ● identification of construction and operat- these institutions have the ability to gather in- ing costs; formation needed for preparation of develop- ● social, cultural, and environmental impact ment and management plans for nearshore ma- considerations; rine systems (61). ● assessment of potential markets for rele- However, further research is needed. For ex- vant species; ample, the University of Puerto Rico and Med- ● assessment of local technical capability ical University of South Carolina, in collabo- and available institutional support; and ration with other agencies and institutions in ● consideration of the prospects for man- Puerto Rico and the USVI could expand the cur- power training (164). - - rent research programs directed toward devel- Collection, assembly, and management of this oping a field test for ciguatoxic fish (61). Based information probably will require substantial on the recommendations of the CFMC, local external assistance (55). government, academic, and nonprofit institutions could prepare proposals to support rele- The research priorities of individual islands vant research activities under applicable funding rarely correspond to U.S. national priorities. 262 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

For example, research funds for aquiculture rent status of TURFS in the Pacific islands, have been difficult to obtain on a sustained ba- especially American Samoa, Truk, and the sis. Further, it requires several years to develop outer Caroline Islands. Biologists, geographers, a project from the experimental stage to a com- or anthropologists could carry out such studies. mercially viable operation. Many Federal grant- However, because resources within island fishing agencies restrict research proposals to short ing grounds are becoming increasingly valu- timeframes that are unrealistic for establishing able as human populations increase and trans- a database, developing management models, portation to export markets improves, the value and transferring technology to industry. Facil- of TURFS is increasing. Under the circum- ities are needed that could maintain a long-term stances it is not surprising to find that villagers financial commitment to an activity and fo- will invent “traditional” fishing rights. Infor- cus on transformation from pilot to commer- mation obtained from villages on their fishing cial scale (33). rights and customs is thus likely to be more reliable if it is elicited prior to the introduction Academic institutions in Hawaii could assist of plans for commercial fisheries development aquiculture development in the U.S.-affiliated in their waters. Pacific islands by conducting adaptive research to determine the applicability of culture tech- Needed, along with improved information on nology used in other areas and by conducting the contemporary status of traditional sea rights research to solve problems during production. practices, is more detailed local knowledge of The logical roles of academic institutions are the relevant aspects of marine resource use to provide such information and to train aqua- (locations, species, quantities harvested, meth- culture scientists and operators of aquatic ods used, distribution of the catch, the relation farms. Centralization of Federal support into between the size of the fishery and of the re- regional approaches and regional research and source base, the effects of adjacent or overlap- development centers would lead to more cost- ping commercial fisheries, etc.). No substitute effective expenditures. exists for detailed, locale-specific studies of current traditional sea rights and how they fit into In many cases it would be helpful for gov- the complex and varied sets of biological, po- ernments to support pilot-scale tests and dem- litical, economic, cultural, and geographic fac- onstrations of aquiculture systems conducted tors relevant to marine resource management. by local academic institutions. A program of adaptive research is, for example, needed to de- Assessment also is needed of the implications termine the applicability of culture methods for of TURFS for island aquiculture development. snappers, sea perch, breams, rabbitfish, and It should involve a review of the literature per- milkfish developed in Southeast Asia to the is- taining to other areas (Southeast Asia in par- lands of the Pacific and Caribbean. If success- ticular) and field research in the islands. One ful, this could facilitate the development of fam- main objective of field research could be to de- ily, cooperative, and commercial aquiculture termine whether past failures or successes in in many islands which lack adequate supplies aquiculture efforts were associated with tradi- of freshwater. tional tenure systems. A thorough examination of TURFS and their implications for manage- Social, Cultural, and Economic Research ment also could form a part of the training for resource managers in the Pacific islands. The management of biological resources demands the expertise of social scientists and bi- A number of writers have called for studies ologists, however, there has been almost no di- of the causes for the failure of many artisanal rect input from social scientists concerning the fisheries development and management pro- role of social and cultural factors in marine re- grams. Today, our understanding of those gen- source management in the U.S.-affiliated Pa- eral causes has increased. More valuable might cific. More needs to be known about the cur- be the identification and evaluation of programs Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture “ 263 that have succeeded. Factors supporting suc- Asian experience may not provide a good cess would be directly relevant to management model for the Pacific islands with respect to and extension efforts. For example, it may be markets and factors of production, Asia has that charisma, empathy, and patience count for large populations and markets that are easily as much as or more than scientific expertise. accessible by reliable transportation networks. In the Pacific islands, small populations mean small markets with unreliable and expensive Extension transport links. In Asia, the subsistence-level The ultimate value of information depends market is large, with people facing a real pro- largely on the degree to which the affected pub- tein shortage. In the Pacific islands, the diet lic, legislators, and enforcement personnel ap- is nowhere near the crisis level of Asia; there preciate the major ecological, social, and eco- are few starving Pacific islanders. In addition, nomic issues involved in management and land, labor, and water are abundant and cheap development of coastal resources, and on ex- in Asia. In the Pacific islands, labor and land tension of technical and managerial informa- are limited and freshwater supplies may be crit- tion to potential practitioners. Given the finan- ical (163). cial constraints on local enforcement (159), it The typical fisheries manager in the U. S.- is likely that public awareness and cooperation affiliated islands, whether indigenous or ex- will prove as important as regulation in pre- patriate, generally has responsibilities too nu- venting overexploitation. merous to allow much time to be spent on ex- The transfer of technology, often as part of tension activities. Carefully chosen individuals fisheries aid projects, sometimes has not been whose sole responsibility is to serve as liaison successful or appropriate. The term “appropri- between fishing communities and the govern- ate” could mean using materials that are locally ment are needed. Often such work would re- available, with a retention of local ways; or it quire living in fishing communities for weeks could mean using the most efficient methods or months at a time (cf:83 for a discussion available and adapting local conditions to these. of some of the practical aspects of such in- Truly appropriate technology transfer may lie volvements). between these extremes. Many initially enthusiastic aquaculturists be- Introduced technologies should fulfill the re- come discouraged as a result of management quirements of the territory or country and problems or inflated expectations. This prob- should not greatly exceed the general techno- lem could be alleviated through proper coun- logical level of the area (95). Additionally, train- sel from knowledgeable extension agents and ing of personnel in the use and maintenance marine advisory agents. Such services gener- of equipment is integral in technology trans- ally are lacking in most of the Pacific region. fer. Imported technologies generally are more The only formal marine extension programs successful when they can be adopted by arti- in the U.S.-affiliated islands are the Sea Grant sanal fishermen with a minimum of training. Extension Service, at the University of Puerto This is particularly so when the project is of Rico and the University of Guam Marine Lab- real interest to the participants and where in- oratory (a cooperative project of the University frastructure levels are sufficient to allow the of Hawaii Sea Grant College Program and the maintenance of imported equipment without University of Guam). Staffed by a single agent, creating an economic burden on the fishermen the latter program has concentrated on fisheries (95), development, marine conservation, and pub- While the technologies developed in South- lic information and awareness. east Asia may be more appropriate for the Pa- Local fisheries officers have been involved cific islands than technologies developed in in extension efforts from time to time. A num- Western temperate countries, the Southeast ber of fishermen’s training programs have been —

264 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

conducted through marine resources offices. be strengthened is the Coral Reef Symposium If significant development of nonfood marine which is held every 4 years; another is the Pa- resources is to occur, especially in the more cific Science Congress. The contacts made and remote islands, marine extension and advisory the information gathered at such international programs throughout the region will need to meetings could facilitate the development of be strengthened. aquiculture within the regions. Representatives could be sponsored to attend regional techni- Marine extension agents could be established cal conferences and appropriate international in major population centers, and could travel meetings whenever possible. regularly to more remote fishing communities. Working closely with the islanders, the agents Collaboration with other Lesser Antillean would transfer new and proven technical in- countries on management and development formation from researchers to the harvest sec- activities is also of great potential use to Puerto tor and facilitate research by relating problems Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Such collabo- encountered in the resource management sec- ration could provide for improved access to de- tor to the appropriate researchers. It would be velopments in other areas and to regional mar- useful to educate extension agents as well as kets and sources of supply; and help to improve administrators, scientists, and resource man- economic, social, and political ties between the agers from outside the area on local customs United States and the strategically important and cultures. To perform more efficiently, the countries of the Eastern Caribbean. extension agents could receive annual updates Many of the potentials and constraints to de- and training programs in technology and mar- velopment of capture fisheries and aquiculture ket developments. This effort could be coordi- in the U.S. Caribbean also apply to most of the nated on a regional basis through Sea Grant programs. The coordinator would be respon- other Lesser Antilles. As a result, important opportunities exist for joint marine resource de- sible for collection, analysis, and dissemina- velopment ventures between the U.S. islands tion of this information through the extension and the Eastern Caribbean countries. network. The U.S. territories might assist and benefit from efforts in other Caribbean countries to Regional Coordination manage common nearshore marine species. and Cooperation Some fishery stocks (e.g., spiny lobster), for example, have long larval lives which makes it Clear advantages exist in establishing a mech- difficult to determine the origin of adult popu- anism to promote active cooperation between lations. Consequently, stocks in Puerto Rico and the U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the the U.S. Virgin Islands may depend on produc- Caribbean, and among islands within each area. tion in other locales. As is the case with dol- Since both areas rely on assistance from the phinfish fisheries, this potential interdepen- United States, especially in technical areas, dence offers substantial justification for joint programs could be helpful. collaboration with other Lesser Antilles coun- Regional coordination in the planning and tries in developing marine resource manage- development of aquiculture within the Pacific ment strategies. and the Caribbean regions might be highly Further, a regional approach to training for desirable. Regional technical conferences could maritime industries would mitigate costs for be convened for these purposes. Many island developing territories which lack investment groups have common interests in aquiculture capital for expensive training facilities and development which enhances the value of such equipment, and expedite reciprocal recognition conferences. These islands are under-represented of regional standards. However, difficulties at most international meetings dealing with may arise with this approach because of the aquiculture and other marine resources. One varying levels of development within the region setting where the regional representation could (101). Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture . 265

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ments, Training Equipment, Costs, Concepts (Decapoda, Palaemonidae),” Crustacean 29 and Issues for the Marine Industry,” paper pre- (1):31-32, 1975. In: Nelson, 1986. sented at the Australian National University 113. Milone, P,, et al., Potential for Fisheries De- Workshop on New Marine Technology and So- velopment in the Marshall Islands, paper sub- cial Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13, 1985. mitted to the Trade and Development Program 102. MacInnes, A., “Saving the Queen,” Marine (Washington, DC: International Development Biological Laboratory, Science Bulletin 1(1):11- Corporation Agency, 1985). In: Callaghan, 12, 1984. In: Wahle, 1986. 1986, 103. Macintosh, D. J., “Fisheries and Aquiculture 114. Minale, L,, “Natural Product Chemistry of the Significance of Mangrove Swamps, With Spe- Marine Sponges,” International Symposium cial Reference to the Indo-West Pacific Re- on Marine Natural Products, R. Thomson (cd.) gion,” Recent Advances in Aquiculture, J.F. (Aberdeen, Scotland: 1976). In: Wahle, 1986. Muir and R.J. Roberts (eds.) (Boulder, CO: 115. Motoda, S., “Useful Shells in the Palau Is- Westview Press, 1982). In: Nelson, 1986. lands,” Journa/ Sapporo Society Agriculture 104. Mates, C. A., Marine Pollution in the South Pa- and Forestry 30(146):315-324, 1938. In: Smith, cific, Topic Review 11 (Noumea, New Caledo- 1986. nia: South Pacific Regional Environment Pro- 116. Munro, J. L., “Actual and Potential Fish Pro- gramme, 1981). In: Smith, 1986. duction From the Coralline Shelves of the 105. McCoy, M. A., Micronesia Maritime Author- Caribbean Sea,” FAO Fisheries Report 200:301- ity, personal communication, March 1986. 321, 1977. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. 106. McCoy, M. A., “Man and Turtle in the Central 117, Munro, J. L,, and Heslinga, G. A., “Prospects for Carolinas, ” Micronesia 10(2):207-221, 1974. the Commercial Cultivation of Giant Clams In: Smith, 1986. (Bivalvia: Tridacnidae),” Proceedings of the 107, McGowan, J. A., The Trochus Fishery of the Gulf Fisheries Institute 35:122-134, 1983. In: Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: A Re- Nelson, 1986. port and Recommendations to the High Com- 118. Munro, J. L., and Williams, D. McB., “Assess- missioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific ment and Management of Coral Reef Fishers: Islands, unpublished draft report, April 1958. Biological Environmental and Socio-Economic In: Smith, 1986. Aspects,” Fifth International Coral Reef Con- 108. McGowan, J. A., The Current Status of the gress, Tahiti, May 27-June 1, 1985. Trochus Industry in Micronesia: An Interim 119, Nelson, S. G., “Aquiculture and Mariculture Report to the High Commissioner of the Trust Development in the U.S. Pacific Insular Territory of the Pacific ]slands, unpublished Areas,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. draft report, 1956. In: Smith, 1986. 120. Neudecker, S., Effects of Thermal Effluent on 109. McKoy, J. L., “Biology, Exploitation, and Man- the Coral Reef Community at Tanguisson, agement of Giant Clams (Tridacnidae) in the Technical Report 30 (Agana, Guam: Univer- Kingdom of Tonga, ” Fisheries Bulletin 1 sity of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1976), In: (Nuku’alofa, Tonga: Ministry of Agriculture, Smith, 1986. Forestry, and Fisheries, 1980). In: Nelson, 121. Nishi, M,, “An Evaluation of Japanese Agri- 1986. cultural and Fishery Developments in Micro-

110. McManus, J. W., “Philippine Coral Exports: nesia During the Japanese Mandatef 1914- The Coral Drain,” ICLARM Newsletter 3(1):18- 1941,” Micronesia 4:1-18, 1968. In: Callaghan, 20, 1980. In: Smith, 1986. 1986. 111. McRoy, C. P., “Nutrient Cycles in Caribbean 122. Ogden, J., Director, West Indies Laboratory, Seagrass Ecosystems,” Coral Reefs, Seagrass Christensted, St. Croix, USVI, personal com- Beds and Mangroves: Their Interaction in the munication, September 1986. Coastal Zones of the Caribbean, J.C, Ogden 123. Oliver, D. L., The Pacific Islands (Honolulu, HI: (cd.), report of workshop held in St. Croix, University of Hawaii Press, 1962). USVI, May 1982 (Montevideo, Uruguay: United 124. Olsen, D. A., et al., “Portunus spinimanus Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Latreille, a Portunid Crab With Resource Po- Organization, 1983). tential in the U.S. Virgin Islands,” Marine Fish- 112. McVey, J. P., “New Record of Macrobrachium eries Review 40(7)12-14, 1978. In: Goodwin and rosenber~ii (de Man] in the Palau Islands Sandifer, 1986. 270 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

125. Olsen, D. A., and LaPlace, J. A., “Demonstration 138. Reels, O. A., and Gerard, R, D., “Artificial Up- of Advances in Virgin Islands Small Boat Fish- welling,” Food-Drugs From the Sea Proceed- ing Techniques, ” Marine Fisheries Review ings 1969, 1970, In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 43:11-15, 1981. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986, 1986, 139. Rogers, C, S., and Zullo, V., “Research and Re- 126. Orbach, M. K., “Draft Report on the Social, Cul- source Management Program at Virgin Islands tural, and Economic Aspects of Fishery Devel- National Park/Biosphere Reserve,” Park Sci- opment in the Commonwealth of the North- ence 5:3, 1982. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, ern Mariana Islands” (mimeographed) (Santa 1986. Cruz, CA: University of California, Center for 140. Salm, R. V., and Clark, J. R., Marine and Coastal Coastal Marine Studies, 1980). In: Callaghan, Protected Areas: A Guide for Planners and 1986. Managers (Columbia, SC: State Printing Co., 127. Pacific Basin Development Council, Central 1984), and Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Devel- 141, Schmeid, R., “Saltonstall-Kennedy Projects opment Plan, Vol. 4: Regional Plan (Honolulu, Underway or Completed,” NA4FS News- HI: Pacific Basin Development Council, May breaker, 1985. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. 1983). 142. Shehadeh, Z. H., and Nash, C. (eds,), “Review 128. Pagon-Font, F. A., “Aquiculture: Investment of Breeding and Propagation Techniques for Opportunities in Puerto Rico,” Proceedings of Grey Mullet Mugil cephalus L.,” ICLARM the Gulf Caribbean Fisheries Institute 34:73- Studies and Reviews 3, Manila, 1980, In: Nel- 75, 1982. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. son, 1986. 129. Panayotou, T., “Management Concepts for 143. Siddall, S, E,, “Biological and Economic Out- Small-Scale Fisheries: Economic and Social look for Hatchery Production of Juvenile Queen Aspects,” FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. Conch,” Proceedings of the Gulf Caribbean 228 (Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Orga- Fisheries Institute 35:46-52, 1983. In: Goodwin nization of the United Nations, 1982). In: Good- and Sandifer, 1986. win and Sandifer, 1986. 144. Slosser, V., A Study of U.S. Shark Markets (St. 130. Parkinson, B. J,, “Trochus Resources Survey,” Petersburg, FL: National Marine Fisheries unpublished draft report, 1980. In: Smith, 1986. Service, 1983). In: Smith, 1986. 131. Petit-Skinner, S,, The Nauruans (San Fran- 145. Smith, B. D., Marine Advisor, University of cisco, CA: McDuff Press, 1981). In: Nelson, Guam Marine Laboratory, Mangilao, Guam, 1986. personal communication, September 1986. 132. Popper, D,, et al., “Fertilization and Hatching 146. Smith, B. D., “Non-Food Marine Resources De- of Rabbitfish Sigan us rivu)atus, Aquacu2ture velopment and Management in the U.S.-Affili- 2:37-44, 1973. In: Nelson, 1986. ated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned pa- 133, Powell, R,, “Marine Resource Development per, 1986, (Truk),” unpublished manuscript, 1972. In: Jo- 147, South Pacific Commission, Fifteenth Regional hannes, 1986. Technical Meeting on Fisheries, Meeting Re- 134. President’s Economic Adjustment Committee, port, Noumea, New Caledonia, Aug. 1-5, 1983 Economic Adjustment Program for Vieques, (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Com- Puerto Rico (Washington, DC: Office of the mission, 1983). In: Callaghan, 1986. Secretary of Defense, November 1985), 148, Suarez-Cabro, J. A., and Rolon, M, A,, “La Pesca 135. Preston, G. L., “Market Requirements for Shark en Puerto Rico, ” vol. VI, No, 1 (San Juan, Products,” South Pacific Commission Fish- Puerto Rico: Departemento de Agricultural, eries Newsletter, No. 30, 1984. In: Smith, 1986. 1973). In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. 136, Pulea, M., Customary Law Relating to the Envi- 149. Sudo, K., “Social Organization and Types of ronment, Topic Review 21 (Noumea, New Sea Tenure in Micronesia,” Senri Ethnologi- Caledonia: South Pacific Regional Environ- cal Studies 17:203-230, 1984. In: Johannes, ment Programme, 1985). In: Smith, 1986. 1986, 137. Riley, N. T., “Aid for Maritime Developments 150. Summers, C. C., “Hawaiian Fishponds,” Ber- in the Pacific, ” paper presented at the Aus- nice P. Bishop Musuem Special Publication 52 tralian National University Workshop for New (Honolulu, HI: Bishop Musuem Press, 1964). Marine Technology and Social Change in the In: Nelson, 1986, Pacific, Mar. 12-23, 1985. 151. Sutherland, W. M., “Policy, Law and Manage- —

Ch. 7—Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture ● 271

ment in Pacific Island Fisheries, ” paper pre- 162. Uwate, K. R., Chief, Marine Resources, Yap sented at the Australian National University State Department of Resources and Develop- Workshop for New Marine Technology and ment, personal communication, September Social Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13, 1985. 1986. 152. Sylvester, J. R., and Dammann, A. E., “Some Ob- 163. Uwate, K. R., Aquiculture Assessment servations on the Deepwater Fishery Re- Project—Final Report (Honolulu, HI: Pacific sources of the Virgin Islands, ” Caribbean Jour- Islands Development Program, East-West Cen- nal of Science 14:163-165, 1974, In: Goodwin ter, May 1984). and Sandifer, 1986. 164. Uwate, K. R., and Kunataba, P., “Aquiculture 153, Thorhaug, A., “Review of Seagrass Restora- Development: The Pacific Way?” South Pacific tion,” AMBIO 15(2):110-117, 1986. Commission Fifteenth Regional Technical 154, Tisdell, C., “Giant Clams in the Pacific—The Meeting on Fisheries, Noumea, New Caledo- Socio-Economic Potential of a Developing nia, Aug. 1-5, 1983. Technology for their Mariculture,” paper pre- 165. Vergne, P., Bryan, P., and Broadhead, G., sented at Australian National University Work- “Large Scale Production of the Top Minnow shop for New Marine Technology and Social (Poecilia mexicana) in American Samoa and Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13, 1985. the Testing of Their Efficiency as Tuna Bait, ” 155, Torres, E., Director of Agriculture, Guam De- Pacific Tuna Development Foundation, Tech- partment of Agriculture, personal communi- nical Bulletin 1, 1978. In: Glude, 1986. cation, September 1986. 166, Villaluz, D. K., “Aquiculture Possibilities in 156, Tsuda, R. T., “Seasonality in Micronesia Sea- Some Islands of the South Pacific” (Rome, weed Populations and Their Biogeography as Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the Affecting Wild Crop Potential,” Proceedings United Nations, 1972]. In: Nelson, 1986. of Republic of China-United States Coopera- 167. Von Westerhagen, H,, and Rosenthal, H., “in- tive Science Seminar on Cultivation and Utili- duced Multiple Spawning of Reared Siganus zation of Economic Algae, R.T. Tsuda and oramin (Schneider) (S. canaliculatus Park), ” Y.M. Chiang (eds.) (Mangilao, Guam: Univer- Aquiculture 7:193-196, 1976. In: Nelson, 1986. sity of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1982). In: NeL 168. Wahle, C. M., “Non-Food Marine Resources son, 1986. Development and Management in the U. S.- 157, Tyson, G. F., “Notes on Caribbean Resource Affiliated Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commis- Use History,” OTA commissioned research sioned paper, 1986. notes, 1986. 169 Walters, K. W,, and Prinslow, T. E., “Culture of 158. U.S. Department of Commerce, National the Mangrove Oyster, Crassostrea rhizophorae Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Na- Guilding, in Puerto Rico, ” Proceedings of the tional Marine Sanctuaries Status Report World Mariculture Society 6:221-233, 1975. In: (Washington, DC: March 1984). Glude, 1986; Nelson, 1986. 159. U.S. Department of Commerce, National 170. Wass, R. C., “The Shoreline Fishery of Amer- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, ican Samoa—Past and Present, ” Marine and Sanctuary Program Office, “Proposed La Para- Coastal Processes in the Pacific: Ecological guera National Marine Sanctuary,” Draft Envi- Aspects of Coastal Zone Management (Jakarta, ronment tal Impact Statemen tlibfanagemen t Indonesia: United Nations Educational, Scien- Plan (Washington, DC: 1983). In: Wahle, 1986. tific, and Cultural Organization, 1982). In: Jo- 160. U.S. Department of Commerce, National hannes, 1986. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Of- 171. Wells, S. M., “International Trade in Ornamen- fice of Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico tal Corals and Shells, ” Proceedings of the Coastal Zone Management Program and Final Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Environmental Impact Statement (Washing- Manila, Philippines 1:323-330, 1982. In: Smith, ton, DC: 1978). 1986. 161, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wild- 172 Wells, S. M., “International Trade in Ornamen- life Service, “Survey of Fisheries of the Former tal Shells” (United Kingdom: International Japanese Mandated Islands” (mimeographed], Union for Conservation of Nature and Natu- Fishery Leaflet 273 (Washington, DC: 1949). In: ral Resources, Conservation Monitoring Callaghan, 1986. Centre, 1981). 272 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

173. Wendler, H. O., “Draft Recommendations for periences, World Bank Staff Working Paper Fisheries Development and Management in No. 423 (Washington, DC: The World Bank, American Samoa” (mimeographed) (Portland, 1980). In: Callaghan, 1986. OR: Pacific Marine Fisheries Commission, 176. Yamaguchi, M., “Conservation and Cultivation 1980). In: Callaghan, 1986. of Giant Clams in the Tropical Pacific, ” Bio- 174. World Bank, Sociocultural Aspects of Devel- logical Conservation 11:13-20, 1977. In: Smith, oping Small-Scale Fisheries: Delivering Serv- 1986; Nelson, 1986. ices to the Poor, World Bank Staff Working Pa- 177, Yamaguchi, M., “Sea Level Fluctuations and per No. 490 (Washington, DC: The World Bank, Mass Mortalities of Reef Animals in Guam, 1981). In: Callaghan, 1986. Mariana Islands,” Micronesia 11(2):227-243, 175. World Bank, Rethinking Artisanal Fisheries 1975. Development: Western Concepts. Asian Ex- Chapter 8 Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development CONTENTS

Page Introduction ...... 275 integrated Development of a Food and Kindred Products industry...... 276 Food Preservation and processing ...... 277 Marketing Development ...... 285 Integrated Production, Processing, and Marketing ...... 288 Transportation ...... 292 Intersectoral Integration ...... 296 Integrating Agriculture and Aquiculture With Energy Development .. ...296 Integrating Tourism and Resource Development ...... 302 Integrating Urban Development With Resource Management ...... 309 Chapter 8 References ...... 311

Box Box Page 8-A. Zeolite Refrigeration Systems ...... 279

Figures Figure No. Page 8-1. Modern Food Industry Components...... 276 8-2. Common Island Food Industry Components ...... ,.....277 8-3. Organizations Supporting Food Industry Development ...... 277 8-4. Components of On-Farm Biogas Systems ...... 299

Tables Table No. Page 8-1. Effects of Food Irradiation ...... 281 8-2. Primary Resources Used in Craft Production in U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands...... 306 Chapter 8 Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development

INTRODUCTION

Consideration of the ecological integration serve endangered species or habitats of critical of island resource systems is integral to island importance to fisheries in multiple-use pro- renewable resource management and develop- tected areas, and development of the handi- ment and to optimum use of human and natu- crafts industry associated with tourism can pro- ral resources. Two other kinds of integration vide a means for rural people to earn income are important as well: 1) integration in the de- and to maintain traditional skills. velopment of the various components of food and kindred products industries, and 2) integra- Agriculture, aquiculture, and fisheries pro- tion of resource development with other forms duction systems also can be integrated with of economic development. energy production technologies. For example, intensive mariculture farms need large quan- Little is gained from increasing agriculture tities of seawater to supply oxygen to and flush or fisheries production if what is grown or wastes from ponds, and pumping is an energy- caught is not purchased, if a substantial part expensive operation. Such farms could be built of it is lost to pests or deterioration before it around powerplants which pump large quan- can be purchased, or if no means exist to get tities of cooling water daily from the sea. In it from the producer to the consumer. Thus, the future it may also be possible to integrate integrated development of food and kindred aquiculture with ocean thermal energy conver- products industries requires that attention be sion (OTEC) systems, passive seawater energy given not only to the modes of production, but systems, biomass conversion systems, and so- to preservation or enhancement of product lar pond systems. On-farm production of energy quality and value (preservation and processing), from animal and/or crop wastes, using digesters, fulfillment of product specifications deter- can reduce energy costs to farmers. Such sys- mined by consumer demand (marketing), and tems may help islands reduce their reliance on product storage and transportation. imported oil. Conversely, integration of the provision of basic human services (e.g., water, energy, and Both of these forms of integrated develop- waste treatment) with resource management ment commonly involve comprehensive plan- and development is not a required component ning and broad government involvement, For of resource development and is not commonly example, development of the various components practiced on continents. However, such in- of food industries may require government integration can provide “double-duty” from gov- centives to entrepreneurs to enter lagging sec- ernment infrastructure investments on small tors so that their services can be provided to islands. Airstrips and even roads can be used growing ones. Similarly, determining the po- as passive water catchments on water-poor is- tential for investments in large public infra- lands. Residential wastes can be a source of nu- structure to provide secondary benefits prob- trients for farms or forests. Aquiculture of cer- ably will require considerable detail in project tain plants can even aid water purification planning, specification of engineering design, allowing reuse by humans. Development of facility siting, etc. Analysis of such factors must tourist attractions could include efforts to pre- occur on an island-by-island basis.

275 276 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT OF A FOOD AND KINDRED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY A commercial food and kindred products in- economy to a cash economy. Finally, because dustry includes not only food and fiber produc- convenience foods are preferred on many is- tion activities (see chs. 6 and 7), but also proc- lands, increased local processing of foods has essing (the biological, chemical, or mechanical substantial potential to replace products cur- transformations of products subsequent to har- rently imported. vest), distribution, and marketing (figure 8-l). In the United States, before agricultural com- On most U.S.-affiliated islands, fresh food is modities reach consumers, they must be assem- marketed directly by the producer (farmer or bled, processed, packaged, warehoused, stored, fisherman) to the public through roadside or transported, and distributed through the institu- harborside stands and open air markets. Thus, tional food trade wholesale and retail outlets the producer is responsible for transporting, (93). marketing, and maintaining the quality of the product. Some food may be sold to government In a well-developed food and fiber industry, food distribution centers, a small amount is sold each of these components commonly is under- to small retail stores, and still less is distrib- taken by different private individuals, busi- uted to supermarkets or off-island (figure 8-2). nesses, or cooperative organizations. With each successive step, value is added to the product Only Puerto Rico’s food industry approxi- through transformation or distribution. Prices mates that of the United States or other de- are raised, but revenues also are captured veloped countries. In the absence of comple- within the local economy. (For example, the mentary private sector development of the nonfarm activities provide as much as 85 per- components of food industries, the processing, cent of the value added to the U.S. food and marketing, and distribution components can fiber system’s output (93)). be centralized–through government-supported cooperatives or organizations—until private Food and feed processing technologies essen- sector entrepreneurs take over (figure 8-3). tially transform raw materials into higher valued products with uniform marketing charac- Besides raw materials, resources critical to teristics and longer shelf lives than the source processing include skilled people, information, materials. Such technologies tend to augment and supporting infrastructure such as energy, interdependence, encourage specialization, water, and transportation facilities. Marketing, and are subject to economies of scale (82). They in particular, depends on reliable transporta- also promote the transformation from a barter tion systems.

Figure 8-1 .—Modern Food Industry Components

Producing Processing Marketing

In a well-developed food industry different private sector individuals, businesses, or cooperative organizations commonly are responsible for each segment of activity. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986, Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 277

Figure 8-2.—Common Island Food Industry Systems

On most U.S.-affiliated islands, fresh food is marketed directly by the producer (farmer or fisherman) to the public through roadside stands

In the absence of private sector development of the roles of food industries, processing and marketing components can be centralized, via cooperatives or centralized organizations, to provide these services until private sector enterprises can take over. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986.

Food Preservation and Processing shipping and marketing (82). Food processing also may increase market demand (e.g., by in- Several methods of preserving and process- creasing ease of food preparation). Further- ing traditional foods for subsistence use exist more, local processing of food may provide sub- in the U.S. Pacific islands. These include dry- stitutes for products currently imported. ing or smoking of fish, coconut meat, Pandanus fruit; fermenting coconut sap for coconut wine; Primary and secondary processing and pres- and, in some areas, preserving breadfruit by ervation methods range from simple and small- storing it in the soil (2). The primary objective scale to complex, large-scale operations. Pri- of traditional food preservation/processing was mary processing involves the preservation of to ensure continuous food supplies during war- crops and other products, whereas secondary fare, natural disasters, and off-seasons. processing deals with more complex processes such as extraction of plant oils, fermentation, Today, the major goals of preservation/processing are to increase product storage life and or manufacturing of food products. quality, to minimize crop wastage and spoil- Food and feed processing methods through- age during peak production seasons, and to ease out the U.S. Pacific territories are generally un- 278 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas developed. In Puerto Rico, the food process- American Samoa tuna cannery has a large, ing industry is a strong manufacturing sector, commercial refrigeration and freezing facility. primarily processing raw material imported Icemaking and refrigeration are essential if from the United States and foreign countries (77). The strength of this sector may be due, fish are to be sold at other than dockside locations. High temperature is the single most sig- in part, to the existence of a Food Technology Laboratory established at the University of nificant factor leading to loss of quality. Fish Puerto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. that can be stored for 2 weeks frozen may last only a day or two at 500 F. It is generally recognized that a large part of the growing demand Primary Food Processing Methods for marine products must be met through im- Primary processing and preservation meth- provements in fish utilization, not just ex- ods include refrigeration and freezing; dehydra- panded catches (54). tion (sun-drying, smoking, hot-air drying, and Losses of fish may be heavy even on board, freeze drying); retort processing; irradiation; and in the period after docking and before mar- and hot-water bath treatments. Several of these keting. Keeping fish alive in “wells” until land- processes can be combined or conducted se- ing, shaded, or covered with wet seaweed or quentially. other such materials may also enhance preser- Refrigerated Storage.—Proper storage facil- vation. Losses could be reduced from the be- ities are needed to reduce postharvest losses ginning by keeping vessel surfaces clean and from spoilage, insects, rats, or other pests. On cooled with seawater, and by careful handling most U.S. Pacific islands, storage facilities are (48). inadequate because it is costly to provide mod- If transport to markets is required the catch ern storage facilities for the many small islands is further reduced from exposure as well as in- that are scattered throughout vast expanse of sect infestation. For many fisheries use of ice ocean. Low-temperature storage can provide during transport is not possible; icing can, how- protection from pests and spoilage and extend ever, be delayed up to about 6 hours if the fish the shelf-life of perishable fresh products such is consumed soon thereafter. Rapid chilling can as fruits, vegetables, and fish. However, low- be efficiently achieved by layering ice (prefer- temperature storage generally is not economical for most island crops because of the high energy cost. Furthermore, for most Pacific islands the use of cold storage is constrained by lack of or irregular power supply, Refrigeration of foods for short-term storage (freezing for long-term storage) is nonetheless desirable, as it is safe, maintains flavor, and is suitable for many foods. Controlled atmosphere refrigeration (using carbon dioxide gas) can preserve certain fruits and vegetables for up to 21 days (82). Easy processing and packaging and acceptance of products worldwide make the potential for frozen tropical food excellent (cf: Bacardi frozen concentrate tropical fruit mixers).

While refrigeration is common in the U. S.- Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment affiliated Caribbean, refrigeration and food Packing fishery products in ice remains a primary freezing facilities other than household refriger- preservation technique on many Pacific islands despite irregular ice availability. Shown here, fish are being ators largely are limited to larger hotels and removed from ice packing and displayed for sale restaurants throughout the U.S. Pacific. An in a local market. Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development “ 279 ably in flakes or small pieces) and fish in a covered box or hold area. Only sanitary water should be used to make the ice, and ice should not be reused once fish have been stored in it. Ice machines that do not require gasoline, diesel oil, or electricity are being developed in some areas. A low maintenance biomass-fueled icemaker has, for example, been developed at the Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand. Ice forms as heat is extracted from water in but the energy requirements of conventional absorption refrigeration systems pose a con- a closed container during the conversion of liq- straint to the application and use of this tech- uid ammonia to gaseous ammonia. A compact nology. solar refrigeration system uses the same technology but the ammonia-water solution is heated Solar coolers, using natural zeolite minerals in the pipes of a solar collector (48). Solar-pow- as the adsorbant, are now being developed (86) that show promise for use on small tropical ered zeolite refrigeration systems are now be- islands to extend the life and therefore the po- ing developed and may have particular rele- tential markets for perishable food products. vance for use in small remote island areas (86). Because of several unique, properties of zeo- Dehydration.— Food dehydration is a com- lites, they can be used to provide efficient re- mon, relatively simple, and inexpensive pri- frigeration with low-grade energy such as solar heat. Once fully developed and available mary processing technology. Depending on the for purchase, zeolite-based solar coolers have product, sun-dried items can be placed on racks the potential to provide food refrigeration or or on iron roofs. Sometimes wire netting is freezing; refrigerated transport; and space placed over drying racks or platforms to reduce conditioning (heating and cooling, depending dirt and insect contamination (82). Although on seasonal need) for livestock and for com- sun-drying is simple, cheap, and easily trans- mercial and tourist facilities. ferable, it is limited by the availability of sunny The solar refrigerator and walk-in cooler are days. In some areas, in fact, peak crop harvest the technologies of most immediate applica- coincides with the rainy season. Sun-drying tion and widest possible use. Coolers can be alone, moreover, frequently will not reduce the used onsite or installed on flat bed trucks or moisture content of products to a level low on boats for field use. One technology being enough to prevent fungal or bacterial growth developed uses waste heat from internal com- (82). Thus, while sun-drying is suitable for home bustion engines, significantly reducing the use, for initial preservation, or for nonfood weight of the system as compared to solar items, handling and sanitation problems ren- based~systems. der it less suitable for most volume processing Zeolite solar technology is initially highly for sale (65). capital-intensive, thus those people who most need it probably cannot afford it without gov- Fish commonly are preserved in rural areas ernment or private subsidy. However, where of the tropics by sun-drying, but significant such technology is used to market more pro- losses result from spoilage, contamination, and duce than could otherwise be saved and sold, insects. Drying on raised structures could re- increased income can be expected to result, duce some of these losses. Solar fish dryers can and Low-interst might be repaid in a rea- be made simply and inexpensively with wood sonable time. Nonsolar zeolite systems have (to form a frame) and plastic or glass (to pro- low initial costs and can be used without sub- vide cover), A wide variety of solar dryers have sidies wherever waste heat is available. been designed with these and other inexpen- 280 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

particularly in the presence of salt. Simple smokers consist of trays hung in the column of smoky air above a fire. A variety of ovens and kilns have been developed in Africa and the Philippines (48). Smoking, hot-air drying, and sun-drying may be used in combination for drying products. Dehydration also is frequently combined with other processes such as salting (used for thousands of years to preserve fish) and sugar cur- ing. Spices, seasoning, tropical fruit flavors, and other specialty products seem to offer primary areas for expansion of dehydrated products. In addition, byproducts and waste products of dried foods can be added to animal feed formulations (82). Dehydration also may be accomplished by Photo credit: D. Tchernev freezing and drying at the same time. Freeze- This small-scale solar-powered zeolite refigeration system drying technology may be applied to selected, may be particularly appropriate for remote areas or high-valued products, provided reliable elec- roadside markets where energy availability prevents the tric power is available (82). Freeze-drying main- use of conventional refrigeration systems. tains the flavor and helps protect the cellular integrity of the food. However, this technology sive and readily available materials (including requires high amounts of energy and skilled la- old oil drums, thin metal sheeting, and even bor, and therefore cannot be applied economi- sun-dried mud). Fish exposed to the flow of cally on many islands. heated air in such structures dry very rapidly, and high temperatures reduce spoilage by mold Retort Processing.—Retort canning or pres- and bacteria. Low-cost agrowaste-fueled fish sure cooking is a common method of preserving fruits and vegetables, and can be used on dryers and combined agrowaste/solar dryers some fish and meats. The goal of such thermo- have also been designed and constructed in the Philippines (48). processing is to heat the product to microbe- killing temperatures of around 100° F. Tradi- Hot-air drying and smoking are accomplished tional canning equipment is readily available by placing the product on drying shelves or and systems have been developed for lesser de- racks in ovens using natural-draft smoke or veloped areas of the world (82). Acid fruit prod- forced hot air. Hot-air dryer designs vary de- ucts are easily canned without substantial pending on the crops, on the types of dried health hazards as the acid level prevents spoil- products desired, and on the type of available age by most toxic organisms. Retort canning fuel (82). Hot-air drying and smoking may be of nonacid foods such as vegetables and meats, limited by fuel availability and cost. Dryers can however, can be a health hazard if quality-con- be made from simple wooden or bamboo racks, trol procedures are not followed. steel racks, or durable steel drums. Forced hot- The retortable pouch–a multilayer adhesively air dryers have been used effectively for drying various island products such as copra, black bonded package that will withstand thermo- pepper, chili peppers, and herbs. processing temperatures—may maintain higher quality foods than those retorted in conven- Smoking is a traditional method of preserv- tional cans and may require less energy due ing fish products. Smoking dries the product, to shorter cooking times at lower temperatures and certain substances in smoke kill bacteria, (97). Further, retort pouches have an improved Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 281 product-to-package weight ratio compared to some foods more available or less expensive. cans, providing savings in transportation. This Application of irradiation technology, however, saving may be reduced by secondary packag- requires the availability of electric power, ing used to increase product durability in skilled personnel, and a high initial capital cost transport. making it an unlikely prospect for use on most Irradiation.— Irradiation for preserving food islands. and crops has been used both experimentally Hot-Water Bath Treatments.—Hot-water bath and commercially in many countries (69). Ir- treatments are an alternative to fumigation or radiation is considered an alternative to chem- irradiation to eliminate pests, especially fruit ical preservation of foods and crops, or where flies, in fruits. It has been used as an alterna- refrigeration and retort processing are not fea- tive to fumigation with ethylene dibromide, sible (table 8-l). Low doses of radiation prevent which recently was banned from use on all fruit sprouting of tubers, destroy insects, and inhibit and vegetables for trade in the United States. mold on fruits and vegetables. Medium to high Fruit, such as papaya, are immersed in water doses of radiation can preserve foods for long for 40 minutes at 108° F followed by a 20-minute periods of time (69,70). Low doses of radiation immersion in water at 120° F. This treatment for spices, hog carcasses, and some fruits and killed all eggs and 99 percent of insect larvae vegetables have been approved by the U.S. Food in commercial-sized lots of papaya in Hawaii. and Drug Administration (83). Use of high doses In general, hot-water bath-treated papaya main- of radiation for control of insect pests on pro- tains its quality, including the flavor, texture, duce, and for preserving fruit and vegetables absence of blemishes, and absence of hard spots recently has been approved. Irradiated man- on fruits (98). This method holds promise for goes have been exported from Puerto Rico to wide application on islands because it is sim- the U.S. market (60). ple, inexpensive, and does not depend on expensive imported materials. Irradiation could reduce the use of pesticides and inhibit maturation and spoilage of crops, Secondary food Processing Methods thus extending shelf life and possibly making Secondary food processing systems, in general, involve more complex techniques, higher Table 8-1 .—Effects of Food Irradiation capital investments, and more energy-intensive technologies than primary processing. On U. S.- Dose Rads Purposes affiliated islands, secondary food processing Low-dose ...... 1-1oo Control insects in grains kilorads and flour systems include fermentation, oil extraction, Inhibit sprouting in and starchy crop processing. potatoes Sterilize trichina worms in Except for coconut oil extraction, commer- fresh pork cial secondary food processing methods are un- Inhibit decay, control insects in fresh fruits developed in U.S. Pacific islands. However, in and vegetables Micronesia a traditional coconut wine (toddy) Medium-dose. . . 100-1,000 Destroy Salmonella and is made by cutting the stalk of a coconut flower kilorads other bacteria in meat and allowing the sap to drip into a container and poultry to ferment naturally. Secondary processing is High-dose . . . . . 1,000-3,000 Control insects, micro- kilorads organisms in dried common in Puerto Rico; for example, brine- spices and enzymes fermented citron is one of the oldest fruit proc- used in food processing; essing operations on the island (77). destroy botulism spore Dose: Dose is calculated by knowing the energy given off by the radiation source, Fermentation.—Fermentation of fruits is a the distance between the energy source and the target material (food and its packaging) and the duration of treatment. “Rad” stands for “radiation absorbed dose.” common method of preservation and flavor- 1 kilorad = 1,000 rads. enhancement, and is used in many cultures to SOURCE: S, Sachs, “Q & A Irradiated Food at the Supermarket, ” USDA Food News for Consumers 3(1): 14-15, 1986. derive alcoholic beverages. Fermentation of fish 282 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas and shrimp was originally developed in South- small and unreliable domestic production of east Asia as a means of flavor enhancement. raw materials. The energy requirements for cer- Since this generally involves hydrolysis in the tain processing technologies, such as freeze- presence of high salt concentrations, products drying, refrigeration or freezing, irradiation, (generally a liquid or paste) have good keeping and retort processing, can be substantial. This qualities. Nutritive quality is maintained, and may seriously handicap application on U. S.- the process is simple (48). affiliated islands where energy is costly and ir- Plant Oil Extraction Methods.—Chemical regularly available. Availability of fresh water and physical extraction methods are available may also be a constraint for resource poor is- for extraction of oils from plants. Depending lands such as atolls. on the products, oil extraction ranges from Although Puerto Rico has the capability for simple, inexpensive, small-scale techniques to processing most food products, it is constrained complex, capital-intensive extraction methods. by the limited quantities and the high prices Basically oil extraction involves drying the of raw materials produced locally. Hence, food product, chopping it into small pieces for press- processing industries are forced to import raw ing and/or chemical extraction and fractiona- materials from neighboring islands or from the tion to obtain the desired oil (82). Coconut oil mainland United States (77). can easily be extracted from dried coconut meat (copra), by pressing or boiling. This can be ac- Establishment of regional or local coopera- complished using common kitchen implements tive food processing centers may overcome the or in a factory setting with proper quality con- constraints provided by the small size and frag- trol and precise extraction procedures (67,82). mentation of islands of the U.S. Pacific territories. A processing center could provide a strong Oil from the ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) flower is extracted through similar procedures. link between processing and production, and may provide technological support to produc- Starch-Crop Processing Methods.—A num- ers and marketers thus facilitating commerciali- ber of relatively simple processing technologies zation of local products (82). for making flour, chips, and pellets from common starchy island crops such as rootcrops, Cooperative processing and preservation coconuts, breadfruit, plantain, and banana are centers could absorb crop surplus not taken by available. These are relatively simple technol- the fresh produce market, preventing waste and ogies which basically involve chopping and/or providing intermediate products for further shredding the crop into small pieces and dry- food and feed formulations. Local producers ing it or grinding it into flour. Flour may be might be encouraged to expand crop produc- processed into pellets and packaged in various tion if processing facilities guaranteed a market for excess products: sustained levels of pro- ways (21,77). duction above local subsistence needs can take A simple cottage-scale flour-grinding opera- place when a stable cash market exists to ab- tion has been in operation for several years at sorb the surplus (70). It is estimated that be- Macheweichun Xavier Society in Truk. It in- tween 30 to 50 percent of fruits and vegetables volves the use of wood-fired dryers, a flour produced in the Commonwealth of the North- grinder, a drum shredder, and miscellaneous ern Mariana Islands (CNMI) have been discarded hoppers, trays, and containers (21). because they have no market outlets (87). Development of cooperative food processing Summary facilities will require coordinated development Although U.S.-affiliated islands offer oppor- of marketing services, island infrastructure, tunities for food processing development, the agriculture production, and managerial skills. pacific islands in particular are constrained by Government cooperation and support probably high energy costs, small markets, and relatively is necessary. Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development w 283

Opportunity: Expand Research (AMS). Although ARS conducts some posthar- in Postharvest Technologies vest research, including some in Puerto Rico for Island Products and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI), it is not orga- Postharvest technology research commonly nized to manage, conduct, or be responsive to is biologically or physically oriented, thus com- regional research needs (93). ERS has Interna- plementing production research. Some posthar- tional Economics Divisions which identify vest technology research focuses on the biologi- trends in food demand in foreign countries (on cal or chemical properties (e. g., composition, a regional basis) and draw implications for ex- quality, safety, nutritional value) of products port markets in those countries. Its National that affect the handling, storage, transportation, Economics Division primarily assesses the preservation, and effective use of such prod- organizations and performance of the major ucts. Other postharvest technology research fo- U.S. commodity subsectors (animal products; cuses on the mechanical technologies used to crops; and fruits, vegetables, and sweeteners). assemble, process, package, warehouse, store, transport, and distribute products. AMS is an action agency primarily devoted to distribution of market news to the agricul- A 1983 OTA assessment concluded that pub- tural community, inspection and grading of lic sector research in postharvest technology food products, and other regulatory activities and economics can be justified because: and some research. AMS has responsibility for 1. benefits are distributed beyond those who the conduct of studies of the facilities and meth- bear the costs, and substantial social ad- ods used in the physical distribution of food vantages are derived from both public and and other farm products; for research designed private research; to improve the handling of all agricultural prod- 2. in the absence of public sector support and ucts as they move from farm to consumers; and guidance, postharvest research might be for increasing marketing efficiency by devel- biased strongly toward mechanical and oping improved operating methods and facilities (93) chemical technologies, since economic 0 returns can be extracted in the short run; and The Agricultural Experiment Station of the 3. for those situations where private research University of Puerto Rico has developed a Food might be detrimental to industry competi- Technology Laboratory devoted to fostering the tiveness, a mix of public and private re- development of processing industries. An asso- search may best preserve competition or ciate degree in Food Technology is offered at reduce market power. the University’s Utuado Regional College. Prod- uct research since its inception in the late 1940s Some areas of research, such as: has included: canned sweet potatoes, canned fruit nectars, frozen fruit concentrate, canned 1. new food sources and their development, 2, naturally occurring food contaminants, soups, frozen root crops, jams, jellies, and mar- and malades. Although many of these efforts failed 3. yields in relation to productivity versus nu- to reach commercialization, and others failed to survive (primarily due to economic reasons), tritional components, might best be undertaken by joint public sector/private sector the food processing industry showed rapid organizations. growth between 1960 and 1970 in diversification and sales volume (77). However, because Three research agencies in the U.S. Depart- quantities of acceptable quality fruits and vege- ment of Agriculture (USDA] conduct and fund tables were not reliably available from local pro- postharvest research: the Agricultural Research ducers, the Puerto Rican food processing in- Service (ARS), Economic Research Service dustry shifted to the processing of imported raw (ERS), and Agricultural Marketing Service materials.

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Opportunity: Develop New Products sionally to supplement cattle feed. In Puerto From Extant Crops and Catch Rico, hay is fed to horses and calves during the Local processing of crops can provide higher dry season. About 10,000 tons of hay are pro- returns to growers than exporting raw materi- duced yearly on about 2,000 acres and another als, and can provide import substitution oppor- 4,000 tons are imported (101). tunities. Major opportunities for development Although the demand for animal feed is high, of new products from locally available crops practically all feed concentrates are imported are coconut oil products; fruit juices, jams, jel- to U.S.-affiliated islands. Pohnpei imports about lies, and marmalades; and animal feeds. 400 tons of pig feed concentrates annually (85) Coconut Products.—The major commercial and Puerto Rico imports about 500,000 tons of crop in the U.S. Pacific is coconut, from which raw materials for livestock feed concentrates copra is made. Copra oil processing plants ex- annually. None of the latter incorporate ingre- ist on Majuro, Moen (Truk), and Pohnpei. Yap dients that can be produced locally (5). is in the process of building a plant. The Pohn- High costs of imported feed concentrates con- pei Coconuts Products plant has developed a strain development of livestock industries on line of products—laundry and bath soap, dish most islands. Imported feed concentrates are soap, cooking oil, body oils, and shampoo—for expensive and may represent one-half to two- the local and tourist markets. Plants on Truk thirds of the total cost of producing meat and and Yap will offer similar products, mainly for dairy products in the U.S. Pacific territories import substitution. Copra oil also is a poten- (38). Furthermore, unreliable shipping has tial substitute for diesel oil, but its cost ($4.00/ caused shortages of feed forcing farmers on gallon) compared to imported diesel oil ($1.50/ small islands to ration and substitute feed. Ra- gallon) is prohibitive at present (73). tioning and substituting local materials for feed Fruit Products. —Surplus fruit crops can be have resulted in decreased livestock produc- made into jams and jellies, juiced and bottled, tion and reduced feed conversion efficiency. or used in production of fruit ices, currently Shortages may also cause a “feed shortage men- popular in areas having refrigeration. Small- tality” on the part of unsophisticated farmers scale juicing machinery, suitable for small resulting in rationing of feed even when an ade- quantities, are available and are employed on quate supply of concentrates is available on is- some Pacific islands. Through a successful Yap lands (5). government-sponsored radio campaign, coco- Establishment of plants that process local raw nut milk has replaced large amounts of im- materials for feed may minimize crop waste, ported canned beverages; similar campaigns provide a market for crop surpluses during peak could promote locally produced juices (73). production seasons, and make use of currently Animal Feed.—Another major avenue for underutilized resources. Such plants could also substitution of imports with locally produced provide substantial benefits to farmers by in- and processed products is animal feeds. Feeds creasing market demand and absorbing sup- for livestock come from a variety of sources de- ply not taken by the fresh produce market (38). pending on the kinds of livestock raised and Development of alternative markets can mod- the husbandry methods. Livestock feeds in- erate supply fluctuations and contribute to include green forage, pasture grasses, hay, silage, creased market efficiency. feed concentrates and, for some livestock such Many attempts have been made to produce as pigs and chicken, left-over food or crop feed concentrate from local raw materials. For wastes, In Puerto Rico and the USVI, most cat- example, a feed processing plant on Palau, tle are raised on improved or unimproved pas- using copra meal, fish parts, and imported rice tures. Dairy cattle are supplemented with feed hulls, grain, and vitamins, was established in concentrates (5), and silage and green forage 1976. However, the plant was forced to close such as Leucaena leucocephala are used occa- when the copra oil mill closed down (45). In Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 285 general, ingredients such as fish meal, vitamins, ation of local processing plants in most U. S.- and mineral supplements still must be imported affiliated Pacific islands. (5,85). An animal feed processing plant currently is operated on Guam, but low-quality feed Marketing Development hinders its ability to compete with imported products (65). Opportunities for market development exist On U.S. Pacific islands, a variety of local raw despite small local markets and highly competi- materials offer potential as feed components, tive export markets. In addition to the small such as copra meal, breadfruit, banana, root- size of local markets, marketing on U.S.-affili- crops, and various agriculture wastes. Leu- ated islands is constrained by low levels of pro- caena leaves, which contain up to 30 percent duction, lack of marketing skills, and for small protein (49), can be dried and used as an ingre- producers primarily on U.S. Pacific islands, by dient of feed concentrate. Excessive feeding of the inability to meet marketing demands (e.g., Leucaena to nonruminant animals can cause consistency in quality, quantity, and pricing). hair loss and ill health and poor feathering in Under certain circumstances, however, cooper- poultry, because it contains a harmful chemi- atives may overcome these constraints (102). cal called “mimosine” (49). However, the toxic Another way to facilitate marketing, is linking effects of mimosine are reversible and can be small-scale “satellite” farmers and fishermen neutralized when certain micro-organisms are to large-scale, well-established, producers. This inoculated into cattle feed (79). Mimosine con- system has been effectively instituted for or- tent in Leucaena leaf meal also can be reduced namental plant producers in Puerto Rico (6). by adding ferrous sulfate to rations, soaking it Although increased penetration of export marin water overnight, or boiling it for a few kets is possible, it is considerably more diffi- minutes. cult than developing local markets. In either case, government intervention may be needed. In Puerto Rico, byproducts from local pharmaceutical companies, tuna or pineapple canning plants, rum breweries, and sugarcane Development of Local Markets refineries can be used as ingredients for ani- Farmers and fishermen use a variety of mar- mal feed concentrates (72). Quantities of these keting methods to sell their product. In general, byproducts, however, are limited and only local markets are small relative to agriculture seasonally available. These products could sub- production potential. The absence of alterna- stitute for only about 10 percent of currently tive market outlets, such as export markets and imported feed concentrates (5) and are not suffi- food processing plants, and inefficient distri- cient alone to support a feed processing facility. bution and marketing of fresh produce, lead Although the use of local produce for ingre- to unstable prices, unnecessary product losses and spoilage, and inability to meet the demands dients in animal feed is technically feasible, it of institutional buyers. is seriously constrained by the high production costs for small-scale operations and by the un- The local market in Puerto Rico, although reliable and seasonal availability of local raw relatively small for most commodities, is stable. materials (5,67,82,85). Because of these con- Although local marketing methods in Puerto straints, local raw materials generally can only Rico are not as advanced as in the mainland be used as an extender for imported animal United States, they appear adequate. Local pro- feeds (67). However, in most cases it is cheaper duce such as plantains, bananas, pineapples, to import finished feed from large foreign oper- and others are sensitive to market fluctuations; ators than to blend imported and domestic raw even small surpluses can depress prices, since materials (5,67,85). High fuel costs, costly main- surplus crops cannot be readily exported off- tenance of equipment, and difficulty in getting island. Thus, some crops, such as coffee, are spare parts are also major hindrances to oper- protected against competing imports by local 286 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Large open-air markets, where the majority of locally produced agriculture and fishery products are sold directly from the producer to the consumer, are typical of many island areas. regulations (47). On the other hand, the local Only a small fraction of the urban populations market for some crops is, in a sense, “pro- consume imported fresh food. Therefore, only tected” by relatively high transportation costs a small amount of imports can be substituted of imports from the mainland United States by locally produced fresh food. Opportunities (about 2.5 cents/lb for grain and 6 to 7 cents/lb to develop the local markets on U.S.-affiliated for refrigerated products) (101). islands and reduce imports are based on the potential for supplying various sectors of the About half of the food tonnage consumed in local markets such as government-sponsored Puerto Rico is produced locally (100). The per- programs (e.g., school lunch, food stamp, and centage of the local food market that can be old age programs), tourist, and military markets. captured by Puerto Rican food producers is limited by local production potential and by Currently, most food products for the mili- consumer preference for supermarket conven- tary and tourist markets in the Pacific are im- ience food produced mainly by mainland U.S. ported from suppliers outside Micronesia, thus, food processing corporations (40). the potential for import substitution is great, However, hotels and military facilities require In the U.S. Pacific islands, food imports are regular supplies of high-quality produce cur- substantial. However, imported commodities rently unavailable on the islands. Even if only are mainly sold in the major urban centers (38). part of the fresh produce requirements can be Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development “ 287 supplied locally, it could make a significant of the tourist industry and have set up a num- difference to local economies. ber of barriers for local suppliers to access this market. Only small amounts of commodities Opportunity: Substitute LocaIly such as food and locally made handicrafts en- Produced Food for Imports in FederaIly ter into the tourist market (102). Funded Food Assistance Programs In American Samoa, Guam, and the CNMI, Opportunity: Supply Military Markets opportunities exist to increase gradually the use The military presence on Guam and Kwaja- of locally produced commodities in federally lein represents potential demands for local agri- funded food assistance programs. Part of block culture and fishery products. Military person- grant funds (e.g., for school lunch or old age nel and dependents in Guam make up roughly programs), could be used to purchase locally 20 percent of the resident population. In the produced commodities, including processed Marshall Islands, the Kwajalein Missile Base items, instead of imports. The CNMI Food has a population of about 7,500, most of whom Stamp program requires that 25 percent of food are Marshallese employees and dependents liv- stamp expenditures go to the purchase of lo- ing on nearby Ebeye Island (35]. Although these cally produced commodities. These require- populations represent potential markets for ments increase the use of local products and fresh produce, most food is currently imported benefit local producers (38), Gradual increases from suppliers outside Micronesia. in the required percentage could result in ad- While local farmers could supply at least part ditional benefits to producers and consumers. of the fresh produce requirements, irregular and limited supplies of local produce make it Opportunity: Develop the impractical for satisfying the military markets Tourist Market (see app. c). In addition, accounting advantages Tourism represents potential demand for accrue through military dependence on cen- agriculture and fisheries products where sig- tralized supply of warranted products. Only if nificant tourist industries have developed, such the centers do not carry a particular com- as in Guam, Palau, the CNMI, Puerto Rico, and modity, or fail to meet minimum quality stand- the USVI. For Puerto Rico, the impact of tour- ards, are local commanders encouraged to pro- ism on agriculture development is not known. cure locally. A Department of Defense team In the USVI, however, certain small-scale agri- recently was sent to Guam to evaluate prospects culture ventures are directly dependent on the for greater reliance on local markets, particu- tourist industry (13). Tourism in the Freely larly of fresh foods. However, only small Associated States (FAS) and American Samoa amounts of local products are likely to be is hindered currently by weak airline linkages bought by military employees, dependents, and with major Asian/Pacific markets and relatively civilian employees in the near future (35). expensive fares (38), but has the potential to become a significant market as it develops. In Opportunity: Develop Guam and the CNMI, tourism provides the ma- Interisland Markets jor private sector income generating activity; Trade in selected agricultural commodities about 450,000 tourists visit Guam and Saipan annually (38) and prospects for continued growth within Micronesia also is possible. The poten- in visitors is high (3). tial for intraregional trade depends both on coordinated development planning and strength- Although large numbers of tourists visit the ening surface and air transportation services CNMI and Guam, local producers can take lit- among the islands (38), The most direct step tle advantage of this market because of the to developing markets for Micronesia crops monopolistic practices of tourist facility (e. g., would be to conduct a pest and disease survey hotel) operators. Japanese interests control most of Micronesia to provide a basis for U.S. Fed- 288 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas eral quarantine regulations affecting Guam and tion of transportation costs. To increase food other potential markets. If quarantine regula- exports, Puerto Rican producers must both re- tions were revised, some traditional crops could duce production costs and improve the qual- be exported to Guam and other areas where de- ity of their produce, thus reducing competition mand for traditional foods is unfulfilled (15). between Puerto Rican products and foreign substitutes. Development of Export Markets Export potentials for the U.S. Pacific differ Integrated Production, Processing, from that of the U.S. Caribbean islands, due and Marketing to differences in geography, and the socioeconomic conditions. Puerto Rico and the USVI Neither production nor marketing can be de- have ample opportunity to export fresh produce veloped in isolation and one cannot be success- due to the cheap and frequent ocean transport fully developed without attention to the other. to major east coast markets (60). Without viable markets, production will stagnate or decline. Without regular and reliable Currently Guam and CNMI have the best sources of product, market development and prospects for agriculture exports outside of expansion cannot occur. Many opportunities Micronesia. Guam and Saipan islands have exist for integrating production and marketing good air transportation links to Japan, a poten- to make these activities more efficient and tial overseas market. Wide-body passenger air- mutually supportive. Such integration can re- craft serving Micronesia have the capacity to move certain constraints that affect each sec- ship air freight containers. Japan seems to be tor in isolation. For example, commercial small- the most promising export market, because of scale operations may be handicapped by small its high per capita income and already large and unstable markets or inadequate transpor- volume of imported fresh produce. A recent tation services; small producers commonly are study concluded that avocados and papayas not able to produce uniform quality products, had the best export potential in the Japanese do not have access to adequate capital and, gen- markets, with other possible exports being erally, lack marketing skills. Cooperatives and/ tomatoes, sweet corn, bell pepper, melons, and or vertical integration of agricultural systems ornamental plants (12). However, Japan’s strict (linking smallholder farmers with large produc- quarantine regulations preclude most fresh pro- ers or processors) may help mitigate such con- duce exports from Micronesia. Until the fruit straints and provide enterprises capable of cap- fly is eradicated on Guam and the CNMI and turing economies of scale. effective methods for treating fresh produce are found, Japanese markets will remain closed to Cooperatives1 Micronesia exports. At present, only copra and green bananas can be freely exported into Cooperatives are known to be a useful way of organizing and mobilizing capital and peo- Japan (app. F, 65). ple in developing communities. Cooperatives Removal of U.S. import tariffs on produce offer an alternative when conventional corpo- from Caribbean Basin countries as a result of rations are unable or unwilling to enter mar- the Caribbean Basin Initiative, has not seriously kets because of inadequate return, high risk, affected the local market for Puerto Rican prod- or lack of capital. A producer cooperative pro- ucts. However, import tariff reductions seriously vides some economic benefit to individuals as hurt the potential for export of fresh produce they earn a livelihood. A consumer coopera- from Puerto Rico (101). Exporting Caribbean tive—in essence, a buying club—helps individ- countries have a competitive advantage in lower wage structures ($2 to $4 daily as com- 1This section is summarized from N. Nathanson, “The Suit- ability of Cooperative Enterprises for the Production of Food pared to $16 to $26 in Puerto Rico), which re- on the Territorial Islands of the United States, ” OTA commis- sults in lower product prices even after addi- sioned paper, 1986. Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 289 uals pool their resources to obtain products not have a direct need for the produce or service otherwise available on acceptable terms. The supplied. return on the member’s investment is almost A Successful Small-Scale Cooperative: always of secondary importance; the desire for SFCA.—Only about 5 percent of the land in the a particular type or quality of product is Northern Marianas is suitable for agriculture, paramount, and much of that requires irrigation. Public re- While small farmers face real difficulties pur- sources and private capital directed at the prep- chasing small quantities of supplies competi- aration of farmland have been very limited. tively, and can ill-afford expensive equipment, Nevertheless, the Saipan Farmers’ Cooperative farmer co-ops can competitively purchase sup- Association (SFCA) is demonstrating that, with plies, services, and equipment and market pro- competent management, and a modest amount duce for the benefit of the entire group. Groups of public and private capital, small-scale agri- of farmers may even purchase a sizable tract cultural co-ops can have a measurable impact of land and work it together, either by subdivid- on food supply. With nurturing, SFCA could ing the land or sharing in the production of the become a model for agricultural development entire tract. The more highly organized food in other Pacific islands. producer cooperatives provide fully integrated SFCA has 85 producing farmers as members. programs for their members. These may ar- Its principal activity is the retail sale of mem- range bulk purchases of supplies, lease plant- ber produce; a secondary activity is the procure- ing and harvesting equipment to individual members, process and market the finished ment of supplies and animal feed for sale to product, provide financing for members, and members. Chartered in 1972, SFCA was nearly even conduct research and development in new bankrupt by 1980, but since new management took over in 1982, it has been far more success- crops or techniques. Other co-ops are more ful. Sales have increased from $133,000 in 1982 limited in purpose. to $575,000 in 1984. The co-op has little capital Advantages and disadvantages to co-ops ex- but a $10,000 line of credit allows it to pay mem- ist relative to capital enterprises. One major bers cash for products. advantage is the built-in incentive for members to use services offered, increasing the cooper- SFCA does not guarantee members a fixed ative’s revenues, However, members generally price, or purchase products that are below a lack incentive to purchase more than one share; market standard, but it has been able to purchase most of what its members produce, Most this limits cooperative capital and can ultimately necessitate debt financing. There also products sold are fresh fruits and vegetables is a danger of short-sighted decisions by mem- along with some locally processed and baked bers with diverse interests or limited knowl- goods, eggs, and honey. No meats or fish are sold. A major problem in earlier years was spoil- edge of market economies. Some argue that not enough profit motivation exists in a coopera- age, but with more attentive management and tive organization to assure sufficient earnings a higher sales volume, this has been greatly reduced. for future growth. Nonetheless, the cooperative structure seems, in some cases, to be en- SFCA sales, while growing, still represent couraging increased agricultural production on only a small fraction of the market potential. the islands. To serve more of Saipan’s dispersed popula- In Puerto Rico and the USVI, some tradition tion, SFCA will need more retail outlets. of market-oriented agriculture exists, but there A Struggling Multiservice Cooperative: is little modern, competitive agriculture in the FEDA. —The Federation Para El Desarrollo Pacific under the control of indigenous popu- Agricola de Puerto Rico (FEDA) is a complex lations. Exceptions occur with the help of co- federation of some 20 producer associations in operative enterprises, whose member-investors Puerto Rico. It operates a tropical fruit juice 290 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas processing and marketing plant and provides ice of USDA, between 1975 and 1978, partially financial and technical assistance to 600 regu- financed fishery cooperatives in St. Thomas larly participating and 600 intermittently par- (with 44 fishermen) and St. Croix (with 51 ticipating member-farmers who supply the fishermen). The cooperatives were formed to fruit. FEDA has developed all the elements of provide a more organized and sanitary method a fully integrated agribusiness program, includ- of selling catch and to help members purchase ing a modern processing plant, new techniques supplies such as fuel and ice. Most members to raise productivity, a revolving loan fund to were part-time fishermen who had been sell- finance plantings, and a functional organiza- ing their catch on street corners. Spoilage and tional and management structure. The average fish poisoning were common. member earns about $4,000 per year farming, Each proposed cooperative called for the and through FEDA can increase the farm’s in- eventual construction of a waterfront supply come by at least 50 percent. and receiving facility with a cooler, freezer, fuel The primary product of the federation plant pumps, cleaning area, and retail sales area. The is passionfruit juice, but seven fruits are proc- co-ops would also sell fish to hotels and restaur- essed. FEDA also raises rabbits and pigs for ants. Both co-ops appear to have been well- sale as food, using the waste from the juice plant planned technically, but both failed. Several fac- for animal feed. FEDA also has spawned a non- tors contributed: profit institute which conducts botanic research ● members were required to sell their catch to improve productivity and trains farmers to to the cooperative at a price well below grow tropical fruits. street market price, and the volume avail- FEDA enjoyed considerable success in its able for sale was consistently below pro- early development years, but with an enormous jection due to overfishing, theft, and dam- debt load and high overhead costs, it is not yet age to the fishermen’s traps; financially self-sustaining. FEDA’s obligation ● both operations were substantially in debt to purchase the product of participating farmers as a result of their financing structures, ex- places a tremendous demand on its financial pensive overheads, soaring fuel prices, and resources. Member farmers who set policy inflation; and through their elected directors tend to set the ● the fishermen’s association never became price they receive above market price, further a strong, cohesive organization and had dif- taxing FEDA’s resources. ficulty setting operating policy, maintaining market discipline, and selecting com- To assure financial success and to use the petent management. plant fully, new off-island markets for fruit juice must be developed. Major U.S. distributors re- A Potential Cooperative in Koror, Palau.— quire enormous quantities of product, more At least one-half of Palau’s population lives in than FEDA can now provide. Ultimate success the capital city of Koror, where traditional foods will depend on the ability to market an esti- largely have been replaced by canned imports. mated 10 million pounds of fruit annually. Although consumers seem to prefer fresh lo- FEDA is attempting to market to local distri- cal produce, interest in farming has declined. butors in South Florida and New York where Residents of some outlying communities rec- large Caribbean populations live. It may be, however, that greater returns to the farmers ognize the market potential of island crops, and have steadily increased production of fruits and could have been realized by concentrating on vegetables since 1977. Primary factors limiting locally used foods rather than specialty export further growth in local food production appears products. to be related to distribution problems: bad Cooperatives That Failed: USVI Fishery roads, lack of refrigeration during shipment, Cooperatives. —The Farmer Cooperative Serv- rats, and handling all take their toll. Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 291

All farming is done on individual plots, but “advances” to promising organizations to de- some rudimentary cooperative associations velop business plans or marketing programs, have formed. One group of Melekeok farmers and could provide term financing for projects shares the cost of shipping produce from their like SFCA or FEDA, but probably should not island to Koror. Two small retail outlets have be considered a primary source of startup or developed to market the produce of certain sup- development capital. The National Cooperative pliers on an informal cooperative basis. With Business Association provides education and some assistance, these associations could de- information-sharing services to cooperative velop a formal cooperative similar to the Sai- businesses through publications, conferences, pan Farmers’ Cooperative Association. seminars, and direct technical assistance. Opportunity: Support Cooperative Organi- The Agricultural Cooperative Service (USDA) zations.—Few local government agencies or helps farmers maintain successful cooperatives private organizations on the islands actively en- by performing studies on the production, mar- courage the development of agriculture or fish- keting, financial, organizational, legal, social, eries cooperatives. Although the Government and economic aspects of cooperative activity. of Puerto Rico has established financing and The service also provides technical assistance technical assistance programs to encourage the (based on applied research findings) in running development of cooperatives, the emphasis has cooperatives, organizing new cooperatives, co- been in housing development and retailing. De- operative merging, and in developing strategies spite attempts for at least 3 years, FEDA was for growth. The service collects and publishes unable to obtain local financing, although it se- statistics on cooperative activity in U.S. agri- cured almost $3 million off island. Only after culture, and its monthly “Farmer Cooperatives” FEDA obtained considerable mainland atten- magazine reports on developments in the field tion was it able to obtain local support. of cooperative development and management.

Local governments can encourage develop- Verticality lntegrated ment of cooperatives by investing in infrastruc- "Contract" Systems ture (e.g., roads) and providing tax benefits and technical assistance. Production and market- The formation of integrated food producing specialists may be particularly needed. tion/processing/marketing systems is likely to Guaranteed contracts for the purchase of lo- be a successful method of increasing food pro- cally produced items by schools, welfare and duction on U.S.-affiliated islands. Contract social service programs, or tourist facilities farming is one method of vertical integration could provide market stability. The CNMI gov- which extends benefits to small farmers as well ernment’s preparation of a 56-acre plot of land as to large producers. for lease to local farmers has contributed to the Under this system, businesses contract with success of SFCA; continuation and expansion small farms to raise a specified amount of raw of such actions could bring the local economy materials at a guaranteed price (and may pro- sizable benefits. duce materials themselves]. To coordinate this A number of mainland-based organizations system, the company determines product quan- could become involved in development of co- tities required to fulfill identified consumer de- operatives on U.S.-affiliated islands. The Na- mands and maintain desired market prices, tional Cooperative Bank chartered by Congress Commonly, the company provides farming in- in 1978 provides financing and development puts (e.g., fertilizer), some production assistance assistance for cooperative business and hous- (technical and financial), and central processing. A nonprofit subsidiary, the Consumer Co- ing facilities and marketing services. Thus, the operative Development Corporation (CCDC) farmers own and operate their farms, the cen- has the specific mission of assisting low-income tral operation unit buys, processes, and sells development cooperatives. CCDC will provide the product, resulting in an integrated enter- 292 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas prise capable of capturing economies of scale equipment (73) and, presumably, return to the (6). integrated production/processing/marketing system originally established. Integrated contract farming provides significant benefits to both producers and consumers:

● small farmers can capture the benefits of Transportation economies of scale in processing and marketing and so obtain greater returns than Good transportation services are essential for as independent producers; marketing produce as well as for agricultural ● because pricing decisions are made prior and aquacultural development. In the Pacific to delivery of the product to market, price islands, sea transportation services are inade- uncertainties are shifted from farmers to quate to provide farmers with access to mar- consumers; kets within Micronesia or to Hawaiian or Asian ● farmers receive greater access to markets, export markets (38). Inter-island transportation which may be expanded through advertis- problems most often exist in the frequency and ing and promotion underwritten by the expense of transportation services, as well as central company; the absence of any scheduled transportation ● consumers are assured of more standard- service to some outlying islands. Intra-island ized product quality and, perhaps, access shipping services are few and roads connect- to a range of product quality at varying ing outlying areas to urban centers commonly prices; and are unpaved and irregularly maintained. Scat- ● consumers receive relatively stable prod- tered location of islands, great distances be- uct availability and price (71). tween producers and markets, and small volume of product constrain increased transportation Numerous examples of successful vertical in- services. Because of inadequate road systems, tegration of agricultural enterprises exist in farmers from remote villages are unable to bring Puerto Rico (71). For example, the Puerto Rico their products to markets in the urban centers Department of Agriculture provides financial (19,38). assistance to both the processing and distribution facilities and to “satellite farmers” supply- The U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands gener- ing the broiler and ornamental plant industries ally have adequate and regularly scheduled, (6). reliable transportation services. Puerto Rico and the USVI have close contacts with the U.S. Black pepper production on Pohnpei initially mainland and many island residents frequently was similarly integrated, although farmers were travel there (101). The Caribbean islands have not under contract and the central processing long been a tourist haven and thus airline and and marketing unit was a government-run agri- cruise ship transportation is readily available. culture station. Since high quality is essential Additionally they lie within major shipping to market Ponape pepper successfully, the state routes and historically have been transshipment government subsidized quality control by sup- points between South and Central America to plying staff and processing equipment to the Europe. Transportation related difficulties in Agriculture Station. Farmers brought mature these islands are more often related to expense pepper to the station for weighing and proc- rather than availability. essing by agriculture division staff. The close control of the drying process and prompt pack- Even where sea transportation services are aging by agriculture division staff helped to adequate, e.g., between the U.S. mainland and ensure a uniform, high-quality product (19). Af- the U.S. Caribbean islands, the costs are high. ter sale of the processing equipment to a non- This is partially due to U.S. Federal regulations governmental organization, pepper quality and requiring the use of U.S. carriers for interstate exports have declined. The Pohnpei State gov- commerce and Federal Government negotia- ernment plans to repossess the processing tion of air routes between the United States (in- Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development “ 293 eluding U.S.-affiliated islands) and foreign tage, attributable partially to transit expenses countries. for inputs. where production cost, including transportation, is a key determinant in the suc- The availability or frequency, quality, and cess of a producer, the transport equation is cost of transportation in island economies is a major factor in economic development. The generally dictated by: distance and geography, value of the products needing transportation, market size or demand, and technology. In the and their perishability or sensitivity to trans- Pacific, the general pattern is one of substan- port risks must be carefully assessed prior to tial distance, small markets, and technologies investment. In a large transportation market, that make transportation an expensive service a canceled flight may mean a delay of several (25). hours, while it could well mean a several day Technological advances have increased the delay or total loss of goods in a small market. transportation options available; however, costs and investments required to use these techno- Intra-island and Inter-island logical opportunities also have risen substan- Transportation tially. For example, with increases in aircraft size and carrying capacity providing greater In many Pacific islands, inter-island and intra- passenger/cargo and distance capabilities, oper- island surface transportation typically is inade- ating costs have risen and larger airport facil- quate to provide producers with reliable mar- ities are required. Newer aircraft are cheaper ket access and inputs, such as animal feed and to operate than older designs when fully loaded, fertilizers, are difficult to obtain. Inter-island but can be significantly more expensive if not shipping services and associated harbor dock- full. If cargo carrying capacity is to be in- ing/storage facilities need to be upgraded to en- creased, vessel/aircraft size and/or trip fre- able an expansion of renewable resource-based quency must generally move upward. with this enterprises. For example, the general logisti- increase, freight costs and attendant business cal problems of supplying feed, equipment, and risk would likely also be higher (25). supplies and transporting the products to markets, as well as expense imposed by current Economic risks for transportation businesses transportation systems, hinder aquiculture de- are compounded in small markets where the velopment (20) and often preclude significant potential for local fluctuations are greater. commercial livestock production (38) in many Maintenance and enhancement of international of the U.S.-affiliated islands. transportation infrastructure is a particularly difficult economic development task. The ma- Intra-island Transportation. -Lack of farm jor capital assets of transportation providers, and other secondary roads on many Pacific ships and aircraft, are unlike other corporate high volcanic islands inhibit accessibility to cur- capital assets: airplanes and vessels can be rap- rently unused agricultural land and hinder mar- idly relocated to other markets. Even when a ket access from existing farms. Fostering of transportation company is financially solvent agricultural and aquatic enterprise develop- or is making a modest profit, the level of busi- ment will necessitate construction of second- ness success is often measured against stand- ary roads where this deficiency represents a ards other than local or corporate gains. Prof- significant constraint, such as in the Federated itability and business risk are measured not only States of Micronesia (FSM) and Palau (38) and within the local economy, but also are com- the south side of Pohnpei (19). Although infra- pared with other markets (25). structure development generally is given high priority in development plans, the amounts al- Many producers will assume transportation located to road construction may not be ade- costs in order to become or remain competi- quate to address farm needs. tive in a market: this is frequently the case for outlying producers. It should be noted that these The dirt and coral roads of Micronesia are outlying producers begin with a cost disadvan- notoriously poor and heavy rains result in im- 294 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

passable mud, ruts, potholes, and sometimes Many development activities on outlying is- washouts. In addition, poor roads result in high lands currently are determined by the availabil- vehicle repair costs and can reduce the produc- ity and frequency of sea-going transportation tive lifetime of vehicles already shortened due services. On many small atolls and remote is- to salt-air corrosion. The expense and exper- lands, boat visits are infrequent and often un- tise required to maintain roads in good condi- predictable. Part of the frequency problems are tion may be beyond some local government ca- attributable to the lack of appropriate ocean in- pabilities (19). In addition, while roads bring frastructure compounded by the natural rough- access to markets, they also expose formerly ness of the Pacific Ocean’s high seas. Relatively traditional communities to outside influences loose scheduling of calls is commonly required and accelerate the departure from the tradi- because narrow, dangerous channel passage tional lifestyles to which some people prefer or anchorage/cargo handling often is achiev- to adhere (27). able only at certain tides (25). In some cases alternative transportation Some islands within this category rely on might be considered. For example, for several copra production, which requires little support years, a locally built shallow-draft barge has infrastructure. Copra transportation within the transported lumber successfully from Pohn- Marshall Islands is well organized, though pei’s southern mangrove forests into Kolonia. logistically it is not a simple task. Sailing ca- while the use of draft animals for transporta- noes or small boats (20 to 30 feet) with small tion is not a viable alternative for most is- outboard motors or inboard diesel engines landers, the practice exists in some rural areas. transport the copra to a common collection Carabao (a Southeast Asian water buffalo) are point within each atoll (67). used by some rural families for transport of Copra from the outer islands is transported such items as building materials. The number to Majuro for processing by small transport ves- of carabao—130 in the FSM islands in 1983, sels which carry trade goods, cargo, and pas- and 16 on Palau in 1982—is so small that use sengers throughout the Marshalls. Four “field trends cannot be determined (85). trip ships” currently are operated by the Repub- Inter-island Transportation: Remote Islands lic of the Marshall Islands Government and pri- to Population Centers.—The remote or small vately owned ships have occasionally provided coral islands and atolls provide a special set similar services in recent years. A typical round- of management problems. The infrequency and trip voyage from Majuro lasts 2 to 3 weeks and often unpredictable transportation service some- includes stops at four to six atolls. The length times result in occasional food and supply of each stop and duration of the entire trip is shortages in the outer Marshall Islands (67). unpredictable because departure and arrival Many outer islands, and particularly atolls, lack times and transit of reef passes must be adjusted basic infrastructure and transportation facil- daily to tides and weather conditions. This un- ities necessary to future economic development predictability can compromise the quality of activity such as medium-draft docks or harbors the copra, since it deteriorates if it is stored too for export and import trade, to support fishing long, and may prevent the product from reach- fleets, or airstrips to facilitate emergency evacu- ing buyers in a timely manner (67). ation in case of storms, injuries, or epidemics. A dilemma in interisland transportation is the Opportunity: Upgrade inter-island cargo capacity limitation imposed by airstrip Air Links size. The length of most outer island runways precludes economically efficient cargo air- Each of the FAS governments has devoted planes; conversely, the short-takeoff and land- considerable efforts to upgrading inter-island ing (STOL) craft used have minimal cargo ca- air links. For example, 19 runways have been pacity and, thus, the cargo space tends to be constructed on the outer Marshall Islands since relatively costly (25). 1980. These can accommodate small 14- to 16- Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 295

where transportation services are available, the expense often hinders tourism and export potential of certain commodities. Rates for air cargo from U.S.-affiliated islands are based on international schedules rather than domestic rates, making shipping expenses extremely high (80). An additional factor is the nature of most Pa- cific markets. Generally, the markets are import- heavy, with very limited out-bound cargo. The one-way traffic is a contributing factor to high cargo carrying costs; in Pacific markets, these rates must amortize the costs of virtually empty cargo holds on the out-bound voyage (25).

Opportunity: Coordinated Regional Transportation Development Strategies to increase resource industry de- Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment velopment would necessarily involve develop- This Airline of the Marshall Islands (AMI) aircraft and ing adequate land and water transportation airfield on Ailinglaplap (Marshall Islands) are typical and, in some instances, air shipment (30). The for those remote atolls having airfield facilities. potential for intraregional trade depends on strengthening surface and air transportation services among the territories and on coordi- passenger planes operated by the Airline of the nated development planning (38). Quarantine Marshall Islands (67). Recently, a missionary and inspection services must be upgraded con- organization, Pacific Missionary Aviation, or- currently with transportation to reduce the risks ganized villagers in the outer atolls of the FSM of accidental introduction of harmful pests into to construct short airfields for emergency air the islands (88). evacuation, improved communication, and mail service. Today, airfields have been com- Coordinated regional development of the pleted on Pingelap and are being constructed transport network is one means to address the on Mokil and Ngatik in Pohnpei (39). The con- problem of virtually empty back-haul. Experi- struction of small airstrips on other outer is- ence in the deregulated air industry has shown lands (that can afford the loss of productive that focus of commercial carriers on the more copra land) could help to stimulate economic lucrative parts of the Pacific regional market activity, tourism, and communication, and fa- has generally left the smaller Pacific points with cilitate government administration (39). reduced service (25). Another strategy for increasing cargo capac- lntraregional and International ity and reducing freight costs is a passenger/ Transportation freight mixed load approach. Dedicated air potential for intraregional and international cargo services have had little success in the pa- commodity exports in the Pacific islands are cific due to the economic context. The mixed hindered by inadequate transportation services, use approach probably would increase revenue/ particularly in the FAS and American Samoa. load potential while reducing business risk. Little or no regularly scheduled surface ship- This strategy, however, does not overcome the ping exists between the FAS or American problems of converging seasonal peaks of pas- Samoa and Asian-Pacific markets (38). Even sengers and cargo. 296 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Opportunity: Subsidization and/or research into more cost-effective forms of Air Transport of transportation for the U.S.-affiliated islands, could be considered to help remedy this sit- General transportation problems in the Pa- uation. cific islands may restrain development of certain enterprises which require imported inputs Another approach would be to amend the Es- or export capacity. For example, the high costs sential Air Services program, which guaran- of air freight within the region, together with tees a minimum level of service to small com- the general lack of airline services, make it dif- munities, to include cargo movement needs in ficult to obtain needed equipment and supplies. the service level determination process. Al- The high cost of transportation also reduces though this would increase Federal liabilities or eliminates the profit margin on products des- by raising minimum guarantees, carriers may tined for export. Some form of government sub- fulfill minimum requirements without subsidy sidy for the shipment of supplies and products as island economies develop. (56), or government-sponsored identification

INTERSECTORAL INTEGRATION

Some basic human services required by is- ● integrating tourism and resource develop- land people as by those elsewhere are clean ment, and water, energy, and safe disposal of wastes. In ● integrating urban development with re- addition, development trends of U.S.-affiliated source management. islands require that the services required by tourists and increasingly urban populations be provided. These services commonly require Integrating Agriculture large government investments in infrastructure and Aquaculture With and dedication of land and other resources to Energy Development their operation. However, these forms of economic development are not necessarily com- Energy is a major limiting factor to economic peting with resource management and devel- development, particularly in the U.S.-affiliated opment. In many cases, they can be designed Pacific islands. Fossil fuels must be imported and developed to provide long-term secondary and the operating and maintenance costs for benefits to agriculture, aquiculture and fish- oil and gas energy production systems are high. eries. For example, the airstrip on Majuro (RMI) Thus technologies conserving imported fossil also serves as a passive water catchment, col- fuels or using renewable energy sources are pre- lecting the rainwater that falls on the cement ferred. surface and directing it into a holding pond that The energy demands in Micronesia are small can be tapped for use. Roads can be similarly but increasing; in aggregate 5.8 million barrels designed. of petroleum fuels (excluding jet fuel) are im- Although analyses of the potentials for com- ported annually. The cost to local governments bining such developments with renewable re- is high. Metered rates, where they exist, usu- source development must be performed on an ally have little correlation to the cost of pro- island-by-island, and probably case-by-case ba- duction. Local governments often subsidize use sis, which is beyond the scope of this report, by at least 50 percent (91). Given policies of not a number of means to derive benefits for re- actively collecting bills, this can rise to 100 per- source development from infrastructure devel- cent (24). opment can be suggested, including: Puerto Rico and the USVI have well-devel- ● integrating agriculture and aquiculture oped networks for electricity production and with energy development, distribution. It is unlikely that development of Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 297 renewable resources (e.g., for processing plants) bearing plants, seaweed, and many other ma- may be hindered by the lack of electricity. The terials (50,95). cost of electric power, however, is high (77). In the past, the rural poor in Puerto Rico de- Wood Fuels.—Fuelwood, including coconut husks and shells, is the most plentiful and least pended on cheap, accessible wood for cooking, but today that demand has diminished consid- expensive source of energy in Micronesia, and on most atolls the only source. Most of this fuel erably and firewood is only used occasionally is used for cooking and sometimes for creat- (68). However, charcoal commonly is used for ing smoke to repel insects from homes and backyard barbecues and roadside food stands, gardens. Fuels used in cooking largely are by- Energy availability and cost will continue to products of the food production system: dried be a major economic development problem in husks of mature coconuts, husks of Inocarpus the Caribbean and the Pacific. In the short run, nuts, and wood from secondary vegetation gen- energy conservative activities and technologies erally from fallowing garden sites (15). Char- not dependent on expensive fuels are needed. coal is not widely used, though species that In the long run, renewable sources of energy, make high-quality charcoal (Leucaena spp., based primarily on the sun and the oceans, must casuarina, and mangroves) occur commonly on be developed. Although this energy has been the high islands (24). considered “free,” establishment and maintenance of the infrastructure required to tap it Conversion to wood-fired electric plants in are costly and can require long payback peri- Micronesia is not foreseeable in the near fu- ods. Alternative energy sources are being ex- ture. Labor and capital investments are gener- plored in all of the island areas. These sources ally higher for fuelwood plantations than for include energy from biological processes, ther- conventional stands due to higher stocking den- 20 40 mochemical processes, ocean-related energy sities (often to times as high) which in generation, and hydropower.2 Each of these can turn affect the cost of seedling production. be developed to include components mutually More mechanized harvesting and processing beneficial to agriculture, aquiculture, and methods are also required. Converting electric energy. plant facilities and adjusting existing grid sizes also would be costly. Agriculture and Energy Development Coconut-Derived Energy Products.—A num- Agriculture can be integrated with several ber of coconut palm products traditionally have other technologies to conserve and recycle served as primary fuel sources in the U.S.-affili- resources and energy, increase production effi- ated Pacific islands. Coconut husks and shells ciency, and improve island environments. Op- have been the major Marshallese cooking fuel portunities exist for generation and use of bio- for centuries. Husks and shells also fuel copra mass for energy generation and biogas energy dryers; distillation of salt from seawater; melt- from animal and crop waste and residue. ing of lead for fishing weights; and bleaching of the Pandanus leaves used in woven sleeping Energy from the conversion of wood and mats and fine handicraft items (67). other plant matter represents an important, potentially underexploited resource for the is- Coconut shell charcoal has been considered lands. As renewable domestic energy resources, as a possible byproduct of copra making in the these can help the islands reduce their depen- Marshall Islands. High shipping costs, rela- dence on imported oil. Energy could be derived tively high labor costs, and small potential from numerous types of biomass, including output would make centralized processing pro- wood, grass and legume herbage, crop residues, hibitively expensive, although decentralized animal manure, food-processing wastes, oil- processing on the outer islands (where there is excess labor) might be possible (67). 2A complete analysis of these technologies is beyond the scope of this assessment. For further information see (50,51,52,53, The use of coconut palm biomass to fuel 55,94,96). larger scale activities such as steam generation 298 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas is technically possible (16). Difficulties lie in Biogas. —Considerable interest exists in en- in collecting, storing, and handling the quanti- hancing agriculture production through new ties needed for such uses. In the Marshall Is- and sometimes innovative integration of di- lands, husks could be gathered in large quanti- verse technologies into one production system. ties on Majuro Atoll. However, husk shipments These include waste recycling by anaerobic to Majuro from the outer islands are not possi- digestion to derive energy and nutrients— ble given current shipping capacity; the sheer energy-integrated farming. By adding simple volume of whole nuts or husks would be 10 components, this system also can be integrated times greater than the volume of copra from with aquiculture or residential waste disposal. an equivalent number of nuts. The costs of ex- This innovative system has not been used panding service and of acquiring new ships widely for commercial application, perhaps due probably would be prohibitive. If husks were to lack of support by local practitioners, conti- gathered in large quantities for fuel, moreover, nuity in technical assistance, or social or eco- they would not be available for decay and re- nomic analysis. turn to the soil. Atoll soils are very sandy and The major objective of energy-integrated organically poor, and loss of this nutrient in- farming systems is to transform animal or crop put overall could have a negative impact (67). wastes cheaply into useful products and, thus, The use of coconut oil as a substitute for diesel effectively recycle a wasted resource. The core fuel is being examined in a number of coun- of the system is a digester: an oxygen-free con- tries. Tests conducted in Western Samoa have tainer in which organic matter is fermented by shown that coconut oil can be used alone or micro-organisms producing “biogas” and a in a blend with diesel fuel without affecting en- thick slurry (l). Biogas is comprised of about gine power. Particulate matter in the coconut 60 percent methane and 40 percent other gases oil, however, clogged fuel filters after a few principally carbon dioxide. The same fermen- hours of operation. Injector coking and resi- tation process occurs in nature whenever or- due accumulation on other internal parts were ganic matters decompose in the absence of oxy- expected to be serious problems (63). Further gen, e.g., in animal digestive tracts or in swamp research may reveal a way of avoiding these muds. The organic matter for recycling need by pretreatment of the coconut oil, modifica- not be animal wastes. Crop residues, leaves, tion of engine design, fuel blending with pe- grasses, straw—virtually any organic material troleum products or ethanol, or a combination suitably prepared—can be used independently of approaches (67). or in conjunction with manures to produce biogas. Induced fermentation processes in diges- Successful coconut oil-fueled engines also ters can be made more efficient by controlling could be used for power generation, thus elim- the variables such as quantity and quality of inating the supply problems inherent in bas- organic materials and temperature (l). The ing petroleum-fueled generating systems on re- quantity of biogas and residue produced in the mote islands. A 1983 cost comparison in the digester depends on the amount and types of Marshall Islands showed that a 10-kW coco- organic matter, the capacity of digester, and nut oil-fueled, generator-expeller combination ambient temperature. would be cheaper than a photovoltaic system of the same size (28). Neither system, however, Completely fermented slurry has reduced is affordable by outer island standards, and they harmful organisms, is virtually odorless, and were not compared to standard diesel-powered retains the fertilizer value of the original mate- systems. Moreover, the comparison did not ac- rial. Solids can be manually or mechanically count for fluctuations of coconut oil prices or separated from the liquid. The resulting sludge declining costs for photovoltaic systems as the can be processed and used for various purposes, efficiency of that technology improves. These such as potting soil or as an animal feed addi- factors could drastically affect the comparison tive (1,11). Slurry and sludge also can be used (67). for fertilizing agricultural lands or to fertilize Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 299

Figure 8-4.—Components of On-Farm Biogas Systems ● sales of farm products which are otherwise wasted; Conversion and products ● increased yield and quality of traditional farm commodities; ● reduced production costs; ● decreased purchased fuel or fuelwood use through substitution of biogas; and ● reduced health hazard and environmental I t d pollution caused by improper treatment of wastes (l). In addition, water is needed to wash wastes into the system on a daily basis. Thus, a program to build biogas systems could result in ● Kitchen refuse Y I I i I1 J improved water systems for families as well as Water Slurry cleanup Aquiculture improved sewer systems which could help al- subsystem Irrigation leviate health problems (15). t I Biogas production lends itself to a broad scope t of applications ranging from single-household, Solids Fertilizer manually operated digesters with little need for Aquiculture high efficiency, to huge, costly, corporation- Feed recycle SOURCE A.G. Alexander, “Assessment of Energy-Related Farming Technologies sustaining complexes totally reliant on high for U S Insular Areas,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986 technology and having closely calculated “payback” scenarios that dictate their ultimate success or failure (1). Currently, a viable biogas aquiculture ponds. Biogas can be used to fuel plant requires a minimum of four to five con- a variety of gas burning appliances such as fined pigs or cattle (53). Development of en- lights, stoves, refrigerators, or even to run mod- ergy-integrated farm technologies in the near ified gas-fueled engines (1,32). term (6 to 7 years), probably will affect com- paratively few farmers having existing large Although each system is different, the basic manure supplies and pressing need for its dis- components of an energy-integrated farming posal. In the longer term (8 to 20 years), small- system are the same, with three basic units (fig- farm and household-level biogas units could be ure 8-4) (l): 1) a collection and blending system implemented that could contribute to the gen- in which organic matter (manure and wastes) eral welfare of insular communities. is collected and mixed with water before fermentation, 2) a biogas digester wherein anaero- Small-Scale Operation. —In small farm oper- bic fermentation of organic matter takes place ations or rural family farming, biogas can be and biogas is produced and stored, and 3) slurry used for lighting or cooking. The solids can be and wastewater storage or separation. Effluent separated from the residual liquids by coarse can be used directly or the solids can be sepa- sieving or merely by gravity separation in a rated from the liquid and used separately. small settling pond designed for periodic draining and cleaning (l). Wastewater can be used Social, economic, and environmental bene- for garden irrigation, or can be cleaned by an fits derived from the digester system include: inexpensive aquiculture of organisms such as reduced fuel, fertilizer, and/or animal feed tilapia and water hyacinths that thrive on the use; rich suspended organic matter still contained ● avoided costs of waste disposal to achieve in the digester effluent. The major constraint compliance with Environmental Protec- for increased application of small-scale operation Agency regulations; tions is the strong cultural resistance of many 300 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

islanders to handling animal wastes. Further- the recycled mineral nutrients contained in the more, the initial capital cost is outside the ca- digester solids and wastewater, in protein recy- pacity of most small farmers. cled to farm animal feed, in imported dry-feeds Large-Scale Operation.—Although opportu- and feed concentrates substitution with green- feed, and on-farm production of plants and nities for large-scale integrated farming systems aquatic organisms produced in the aquiculture exist, implementation and widespread appli- subsystems (l). cation are seriously constrained by: 1) lack of large livestock operations that can produce enough recoverable wastes, 2) lack of exper- Aquaculture and Energy Development tise in design, installation, and operation, and 3) lack of capital support (1). The largest com- Aquiculture can be integrated with irrigation mercial application of energy recovery of wastes and other agricultural support systems, as well using fermentation principles was recently in- as with wastewater treatment and energy de- stalled by the Bacardi Corp. in Puerto Rico (84). velopment, to the mutual benefit of each de- Benefits derived from large-scale operation in- velopment component. Because power is a clude potential direct substitution of purchased basic commodity in developed and developing utility power and periodic sales of excess power economies, and most power-producing plants to local utilities. Indirect substitutions include are constructed in coastal zones, powerplants Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development . 301

cold water from considerable depths effectively precludes the development of small-scale OTEC systems. A byproduct of OTEC schemes is artificial upwelling of deep, cold waters. Tropical surface waters are nutrient poor, but the deep water is nutrient-rich. Such water, after its temperature change has been used to generate energy, can be used for mariculture. The culture systems use the upwelled, nutrient-rich water and abundant sunlight for primary productivity (mainly phytoplankton) on which other organisms are cultured in sequence. Such Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment technology may be applied wherever the land Slurry derived from this large-scale biogas system is borders deep seas (e.g., atolls and volcanic is- directed through aquiculture tanks containing tilapia lands) primarily along the equatorial belt, where and water hyacinth before being discharged through solar radiation is plentiful. an irrigation system, thus, providing several benefits in addition to energy generation. Artificial upwelling mariculture systems have been demonstrated on St. Croix and in Hawaii. The USVI project has since closed and is con- and mariculture systems could be designed to sidered a failure due to a need to supplement be mutually beneficial. upwelled water with additional nutrients and The oceans of the world, and the Pacific in rapid spread of infections and disease within particular, are a reservoir of potential energy. the monoculture organisms (59). There currently is no available low cost and Since 1981, a number of mariculture experi- simple means of exploiting this potential in sub- ments have been conducted at the Natural stantial quantity. Numerous technologies being Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NELH), an alter- researched may one day change this situation nate energy research, development, and dem- although, with the exception of wind-powered onstration center. Some species demonstrated shipping, this does not seem likely to occur for higher growth rates in comparison to natural several decades. Major ocean energy systems rates or those in other aquiculture systems. Cur- potentially suitable for the tropics are ocean rently kelp and abalone are being commercially thermal energy conversion (OTEC), passive sea- cultured using NELH’s “artificial upwelling,” wave energy systems, and biomass and solar and plans are underway to grow algaes to pro- pond systems. Integration of aquiculture with duce a nutritional additive, pharmaceutical- these technologies may improve their economic grade biochemical, pigments, vitamins, and feasibility and make productive use of ocean fertilizers. Indications are that development of energy “wastes.” artificial upwellings do not need to be involved OTEC systems use large quantities of cold in power generation to be financially attractive water pumped from deep ocean areas to the (9). surface, similar to natural upwellings of cold Wave energy systems are a more steady and waters along some continental coasts (94,96). predictable energy source than the winds from OTEC uses the surface water as a heat source which they draw their energy, yet variations and the cold deep water as a heat absorber. The in wave size and energy are substantial. Wave “fuel” is free, but low efficiency means that very energy is concentrated at the sea surface, con- large volumes of warm and cold water must sequently a wave energy collection device needs be circulated through the system. The energy to be of substantial extent, hindering its applica- and material cost of pumping large volumes of bility to small islands (14). However, sedentary 302 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas species can be cultured in much of the area The integrated development of renewable re- otherwise reserved for energy generation. source uses and of tourism will require careful planning, but is preferable to isolated and pos- Biomass energy generation systems have pri- sibly conflicting approaches to these two op- marily focused on using kelp, a large, coldwater portunities for economic development on the seaweed. Submerged reef areas and lagoons are islands. probably available near the U.S.-affiliated islands where other macroalgae could be grown, Economic benefits and negative environmental but the nutrient-rich water required is largely and social impacts as well have been attributed lacking in tropical areas. to tourism in developing countries (33). Whether the former outweigh the latter has been a mat- In several places in the Caribbean, includ- ter of some debate among economists and so- ing St. Croix, pilot programs have studied the cial scientists. While small tropical islands may feasibility of converting raw algal biomass into be particularly vulnerable to tourism’s negative methane gas and other sources of cheap, non- impacts, with proper planning and management, polluting energy (17). Algae are grown on en- tourism development may be paced and inte- closed (often floating) artificial substrates, har- grated with resource management in ways that vested periodically, and converted chemically maximize the economic and environmental to gas. Two major problems influence the suc- benefits of a tourist industry and mitigate its cess of this process: 1) the relative scarcity of adverse impacts (3). For example, tourism can large, fleshy algae in island waters, particularly provide both the need and the capital means in light of intense fish grazing; and 2) the cost (as well as one rationale) for protecting natu- of nutrients and processing chemicals (103). ral areas, as well as the impetus for repairing This technology probably is more suitable for environmentally degraded areas. Tourists rep- open ocean culture rather than nearshore sys- resent potential consumers of island products, tems (14). and their presence creates jobs in a variety of Solar ponds use a strong salinity gradient to production and service sectors. suppress convective mixing of a body of water Local governments can set objectives for in- heated by the sun (55). A substantial supply of tegrating tourism into island economies and de- salt is needed to maintain the required highly cide what environmental and social changes saline bottom layer. Hypersaline ponds in Puerto can be tolerated and what resources can be Rico and the USVI and Pacific atoll lagoons committed. If the scale of development exceeds may lend themselves to solar pond energy gen- the limits of change acceptable to the environ- eration. The cleanliness of the air on small is- ment or community, a tourist destination could lands and the clarity of the sea water would quickly “peak out” and stagnate or decline in greatly reduce one of the problems with land- popularity. based ponds: heat-absorbing leaves, dirt, etc., accumulate in the surface layer reducing the Impacts of Tourism heat collected by the highly saline lower layers. Certain salt-tolerant species, such as brine Tourism research to date has primarily fo- shrimp (used in livestock and fish feeds) prob- cused on economic and social impacts (3). The ably can be cultured in these ponds with little potential benefits of a tourist industry include detriment to energy generation. increased job opportunities, improvements in infrastructural services, and increased tax revenues and foreign exchange earnings. Income Integrating Tourism and from tourism can help offset deficits created Resource DeveIopment by imports of raw materials and manufactured goods. Tropical island environments not only encompass a variety of economically important renew- The quality of the environment, which is what able resource systems, they also attract tourists. attracts tourists to the islands, however, can Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 303 be compromised by tourists themselves. De- The failure of tourism to benefit the local mands for land, water, and waste disposal gen- economy on a greater scale, and the imposi- erated by tourism may stress the limited re- tion of burdens on the local population to the source base of small islands. Waste disposal, benefit of the industry (e.g., loss of public especially from large development, can be a par- beaches to resorts) has, in some cases, contrib- ticular problem if effluents are discharged into uted to a sense of resentment by the resident lagoons or other nearshore areas with limited population. Tax incentives encouraging to tour- circulation. Other potential contributors to ism development means loss of revenue for lo- environmental stress are construction and rec- cal governments. Local people become frus- reational activities (66). Tourists may disturb trated because, while they are employed in a wildlife, trample coral, and collect live shells range of jobs from low service positions to mid- and corals. It has been estimated that 1 live coral dle management, top managers and owners are head was collected for each 230 visitors to usually foreign (10). It has been argued that po- Hawaii—equivalent to about 19,000 to 24,000 tentially negative impacts of tourism on a host specimens in 1 year (3). All of these environ- country are primarily a concern and responsi- mental impacts will vary with the character and bility of government (26), since private sector intensity of tourist site-use and development, involvement is likely restricted to financial and and resiliency of the ecosystem (7). economic considerations. Some of Caribbean tourism’s most visible im- Pacific Tourism.—Tourism has developed pacts are on the environment. In the space of only on certain Pacific islands; vast stretches one generation, natural coastal and beach areas of ocean separate destinations. Statistics on have been displaced by hotel and marina ex- tourism in the Pacific are scattered among pansion. Mountain faces and pristine land- myriad sources and are not presented in a con- scapes have been etched with condominiums sistent or standardized format. The Pacific Area and roads. Large developments have alienated Travel Association annually compiles one of vast land areas from traditional uses and even the more complete and detailed compendiums modified climatic features (41). Sensitive eco- of statistical information on tourism, but does systems like swamps and mangroves have been not cover Palau or the Marshalls. irreversibly disturbed and lobster and fish beds Tourism development is a stated goal of each have deteriorated (43). of the U.S.-affiliated island governments. Guam Tourism may also have negative socio-cultural impacts, including changes in demogra- phy, lifestyles, consumption patterns, work and leisure habits, and loss of traditional values and customs, These effects vary with the numbers of tourists (relative to native population), and with the extent of the cultural and sociological differences between the tourist and indigenous populations (89), Their impact can be large on island territories with small populations. Finally, some of the positive economic benefits of tourism may have been overstated. Tour- ism can function as a seed industry if profits are reinvested in other sectors of the economy.

This does not happen as often as expected; Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment much of the income from tourism goes off is- The natural beauty, unique cultural settings, and historic land to purchase imports, many for the tourist sites of the U.S.-Affiliated tropical islands attract industry (3). growing numbers of tourists. 304 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas and Saipan have reached the intermediate Caribbean Tourism.—Many attractive stages of the tourist development model pro- beaches, an ideal climate, and proximity to ma- posed by Butler (4), as defined by: 1) increas- jor markets have given the Caribbean an advan- ing external influence on tourist infrastructure, tage in competing for international tourists. 2) large numbers of tourists who use the serv- However, only with the advent of mass tour- ices of travel agents and other organized infra- ism of the 1950s and early 1960s did tourism structure, 3) declining rates of increase in tour- become a major economic activity in the region ist numbers, 4) heavy advertising and marketing (81). The Caribbean region captures almost 3 to attract visitors and extend the tourist sea- percent of world tourism. As a result, the im- son, 5) the presence of major franchises and portance of tourism has become pervasive, and chains, and 6) some local opposition to tour- it has become the leading sector for the majority ism. The more remote islands of Micronesia of Caribbean microstates (42). attract considerably fewer visitors than do those Puerto Rico and the USVI depend largely on of the Marianas chain. In 1981, only 20,981 vis- visitors from the urban populations of the itors were recorded for Palau and the FSM com- United States and Europe. In the USVI, tour- bined, most from the United States (44,61,62). ism is the base of the private economy and the American Samoa also receives few tourists. major economic activity contributing to the Many of the same factors that constrain gross domestic product (GDP) and employment renewable resource development also constrain generation (43). Tourism is economically, so- the development of the tourist industry in the cially, and physically pervasive. The territory Pacific region. These include lack of reliable, has received over a million tourists annually inexpensive, frequent air service; lack of de- since 1972 and, in 1979, total visitors outnum- velopable land for transportation and facilities; bered local residents by a factor of 13. Their insufficient infrastructure; a reliance on im- gross expenditures were double the entire oper- ported foods, materials, and energy; and lack ating budget of the Virgin Islands local govern- of trained personnel. Availability of transpor- ment. Because it is so labor-intensive, the tourist tation is often cited as the primary limiting fac- industry has a considerable impact on employ- tor in the development of an island’s tourist ment, generating nearly one-third of all island industry (64). The distance between service jobs. Tourist infrastructure dominates the in- points necessitates large aircraft, but lack of sular landscape. The islands’ tourist economy market populations prohibits reasonable oper- makes the territory a major growth center ating cost structure (62). Carriers, routes, and within the eastern Caribbean; however there timetables change frequently. Water supplies is no consistent, reliable, quantitative base from critical to tourism also are small on many is- which to assess the economic contributions and lands. Depending on the nature of development, performance of the tourism industry (81). potable water requirements could vary from In Puerto Rico, which is economically more 100 to 500 gallons per person per day (22,99). diversified, tourism accounts for a smaller por- Finally, in some areas, cultural traditions in- tion of the GDP and total employment (81). Al- hibit acceptance of tourism as a viable option though tourism accounts for only about 5 per- for earning a living (29,31,90). Even where tour- cent of GDP, it creates linkages throughout the ism employment is acceptable, avoidance of economy which result in increased total out- hostility among local people is linked to the pro- put by nearly all other economic sectors. Thus, vision of good jobs, not menial employment for every tourist dollar spent between 1970 and only, and to local ownership (66). Management 1980, GDP increased by an estimated average jobs, however, are primarily filled by expatri- of $1.25 and total gross output by an average ate personnel rather than local people, possi- of $2.08. In all, 142 jobs were created in Puerto bly leading to frustration. Rico in fiscal year 1980 for every $1.0 million Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 305 spent by tourists, including an estimated total Handicrafts Industry Development3 of 1,442 jobs in agriculture (75). Island peoples have traditionally used fibers, Caribbean tourism appears to face a challeng- shells, wood, and other local materials to make ing period ahead. A new recognition exists a wide variety of implements and decorative within Caribbean governments of the costs and objects (table 8-2). Although some loss of skills benefits of tourism, and of the need for long- has become evident on some islands in recent term planning with accurate market informa- years, considerable interest in and demand for tion (81). Long-term tourism viability will prob- island handicrafts exists, mainly on the part of ably require a more focused marketing strat- expatriate and tourist populations. Handicraft egy, and it may depend on the industry’s linkage industries, if developed with attention to effi- potential with domestic sectors, such as agri- cient production, marketing and quality con- culture and fisheries (43). trol, could contribute significantly to island economies; attract more tourists; foster pres- Local governments may need to insist on sub- ervation of traditional art forms and pride in stantial local shareholding and participation in indigenous skills; and make productive use of tourism-related companies. Residents could be some natural resources that might otherwise trained as tour leaders in a program similar to be left unused. the intensive summer training at the Univer- sity of Hawaii School of Travel Industry Man- Many contemporary handicrafts in the is- agement. lands are derivatives of traditional forms, in some cases miniaturized and standardized for Opportunity: Create Linkages Between sale to tourists. Other are innovations, fash- Tourism and Island Producers ioned with newly imported tools and materials, and geared to the tastes of tourists and other Systematic management to promote increased nonnative buyers, Few handicrafts today are use of local agricultural produce in hotels and integral to life and culture on the islands. restaurants could help encourage regularity of supply and quality (18). Similarly, increased use Pacific.—The rich variety of traditional han- of island handicrafts for decor in tourist facil- dicrafts in Micronesia reflects the cultural ities, and sales of handicrafts to tourists can diversity of the islands. Basketry and hand- foster this resource-based productive sector. weaving of natural fibers was the most widely spread skill, developed to a fine art in eastern Whereas large, “industrial tourism, ” charac- Micronesia where wood was scarce. Containers terized by hotels and infrastructure meeting in- with elaborate shell inlays were characteristic ternational standards, require substantial in- of Palau, and pottery was made where clay was vestments in support facilities, and largely available in Palau, Yap, and Saipan. Loom depend on imported foods, smaller scale, econ- weaving was practiced in the central Carolines omy-class tourism, and “craft tourism” with and tapa cloth (made from tree bark) was made “homestays” can make more use of island prod- in Samoa. The Trukese were skilled in both ucts. The islands could strive to attract more woodwork and fiber arts. tourists of the second type, including “explor- ers” and “adventurers” (3). Educational tourism also is becoming popular as upscale travelers seek opportunities to learn about the culture 3This section is summarized from M. Vitarelli, “Handicrafts and environment of remote areas. Promotion Industry Development and Renewable Resource Management could be approached from the islander’s per- for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986; and from D. Sheehy, “Traditional Crafts in the U.S.-Af- spective. What is special and important to the filiated Caribbean Islands: An Addendum to Handicrafts Industry person who lives there? What would they like Development and Renewable Resource Management for U. S.- the tourist to see to get a true sense of the place? Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 306 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Table 8-2.-Primary Resources Used in Craft Production in U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

Type of material Name of raw material Where used (and part used) Crafts made from materials Coconut (tree) ...... all islands fiber (leaves) baskets, purses, mats wood (trunk) spears, bowls husk, shell of nut twine, ladles, jewelry, belts Pandanus (tree) ...... all islands fiber (leaves) mats, fans, purses, baskets, pillows, hats, wall wood decorations, cigarette cases, woven sails for model canoes, etc. Banana (tree) ...... most islands fiber (leaf sheaths) lava-lava skirts, cordage, wrapping used in other crafts Mangrove (tree) ...... high islands wood wood carvings, statues Breadfruit (tree) ...... low islands wood carvings, model canoes Ivory nut palm (tree) . . . . . Pohnpei nut carvings, jewelry Mahogany (tree)...... high islands wood carvings lronwood (tree) ...... most high islands wood carvings some low islands Dort (tree) ...... Palau wood carvings Ifil (tree) ...... many islands wood carvings Paper mulberry (tree) . . . American Samoa fiber (inner bark) tapa cloth Hibiscus (bush) ...... all islands fiber (inner bark) fiber Ieis, mwarmwar, ropes, nets, “grass” skirts, wood carvings Bo-jo-bo (vine) ...... Saipan nut bo-jo-bo dolls Tumeric (herb) ...... most islands root yellow dye for fibers Bamboo ...... high islands woody fiber fish traps, hair combs, navigation charts Trochus Shell ...... most islands shell jewelry (exported for use as buttons) Pearl oyster ...... most islands nacreous shell jewelry, inlay for wooden bowls, carvings Turtle shell ...... most islands tortoise shell jewelry, combs, women’s “money plates” Cowrie & other shells . . . most islands entire shell jewelry, purses, ornaments, parts of decorative wall hangings Coral (red & black) ...... W. Carolines coral jewelry SOURCE: M. Vitarelli, “Handicrafts Industry Development and Renewable Resource Management for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986

While the range, diversity, and variety of example, attracts many tourists and has numer- form; quantity; and quality of handicrafts have ous outlets for sale of handicrafts, yet few are all decreased, only certain traditional skills have locally produced. The lure of a steady income disappeared. Many interesting new forms of through government employment may be largely handicrafts have emerged in part because tour- to blame. Handicrafts are normally home-pro- ists, foreign museums, and shops all express duced and marketed on an individual basis, and an interest in purchasing island crafts. Market in one’s spare time. Production is rarely an surveys have shown that Pacific island handi- organized group effort, although exceptions oc- craft products are readily salable within and cur (e.g., museum-employed draftspersons on outside the territory, for example, to major out- American Samoa; a National Endowment for lets in Hawaii, the U.S. mainland, and Canada the Arts project on Palau; the Small Industries (78). However, production at reasonable prices Workshop on Truk; Ponape Coconut Products must be stimulated and the success of the packaging; crafts groups at Kolonia, Pohnpei; industry currently depends on tourism, not and a few government-sponsored projects). export. Few producers have marketing skills and no Development of handicrafts as a small indus- cooperatives or intermediary marketing agen- try has not yet occurred within the Pacific is- cies exist to supply these and help assure regu- lands for a number of reasons. Local products lar quality production. Also lacking are mech- often lose out in competition with cheaper im- anisms for the preservation and transfer of ports. In some areas, tourist demand for han- handicraft skills; a guaranteed market in some dicrafts outstrips local supplies of quality prod- areas; and an assured, constant supply of raw ucts offered at consistent prices. Guam, for materials, some of which must be prepared for Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development • 307

Certain musical instruments, carved wooden animals, and santos (religious icons) are uniquely Puerto Rican but draw from Spanish prototypes. Other prominent Puerto Rican craft forms are pacemaking; jewelry made from local seeds, shells, and coconut shell; basketry; machetes; wooden furniture and caning; tin- work; and pottery and papier mache masks. As the modern technology and factory-made goods of the United States were increasingly imported by the islands from the 1920s to the present, three general trends of change were observable. First, many handicraft skills were eclipsed or were forgotten through disuse, as foreign-made or factory-made items were imported. Skills at roof thatching, for example, were all but lost as corrugated tin and other ready-made materials were used to cover people’s homes; brooms, vine baskets, palm hats, hand-hewn wood furniture, fish traps, and other common necessities were increasingly of foreign origin. Second, as society became more commodity- oriented and the dictates of the marketplace played an ever-increasing role in the production of handicrafts, crafts that were not com- Photo credit” M. Vitarelli petitive as commodities fell into desuetude. As Traditional crafts, although gaining importance as the set of esthetic criteria that determined qual- commercial items, retain their practical application in ity shifted from those of the local, primarily ru- everyday island life. Shown here, coconut leaves are being woven into a utility basket by an ral and agricultural community members to island draftsperson. those of the city-dwelling consumers of urban San Juan and foreign lands, traditional crafts that could find a niche in the marketplace com- use. Even today, periodic depletion of resources, monly suffered an esthetic disjuncture. In some and delays in getting materials to draftspersons cases, the change in the process of crafts pro- sometimes hampers production. duction from the craftsman devoting great at- Caribbean.— As in the Pacific, traditional tention to each individual piece to the crafts- crafts until recent decades played a vital role man having to maximize the number of pieces in the daily lives of most Puerto Ricans and Vir- produced in order to meet the demand resulted gin Islanders. Historically, most were depen- in greater standardization, reduced artistic dent on traditional craft skills for many of their diversity, and miniaturization. everyday necessities. Finally, the burgeoning tourist industry, The traditional handicrafts currently found hand-in-hand with underemployment, created in Puerto Rico clearly reflect three major strains an economically appealing situation for those in the island’s cultural history. Woven hemp interested in producing and selling handicrafts hammocks were common to the local Arawak for foreign tourists. Many (if not most) of these Indians and are still fabricated locally. The craft items were made and marketed as sou- bomba drums and painted coconut husk masks venirs or “hand-made” crafts and did not draw and maracas are clearly of African derivation. on local traditional craft skills or esthetic ideals. 308 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo cradit: M. Vitarelli Traditionally used raw materials such as pandanus and coconut leaf fibers and shells still are used today in many fine island handicrafts. Clockwise from top left 1) Marshall Islands’ place mats, 2) Trukese wall decoration with cowrie shell accents, 3) Marshall Islands’ sewing basket with cowrie shell accents, and 4) Trukese decorative tray.

Although Puerto Rico’s crafts have clearly promoted as symbols of insular identity, such suffered a decline in this century, in many cases as the omnipresent carved wooden coqui (a there has been a renewed vitality since the small frog). 1950s. The Institute of Puerto Rican Culture, Traditional crafts of the U.S. Virgin Islands created in the 1950s, began a policy of stimu- suffered a similar decline as did the crafts of lating the practice of indigenous traditional arts Puerto Rico, but have not enjoyed a similar through contest, local and islandwide crafts renewal of vitality. Few traditional craft items fairs, exhibits, and education programs. More have been converted successfully to commodi- recently, the Office of Crafts Development of ties for the tourist or local market. Some crafts the Administration de Fomento Economico traditions continue, such as fishnets, fish traps, provides technical assistance and some tools and the woven grass hats of Frenchtown, but to traditional craftsmen. It also has instituted they are to be found at the margins of daily life. an annual recognition program of Master Crafts- man of the Year and Young Craftsman of the Traditional crafts have not received the gov- Year, bringing prestige, recognition, and great- ernmental recognition and support in the USVI er visibility to Puerto Rico’s craftsmen. In addi- as they have in Puerto Rico. The Virgin Islands tion, several crafts items have been consciously Council on the Arts and the multicultural edu- Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultual, and Fisheries Development • 309

cation divisions of the local public schools have handicrafts must be long-term (56). A wise ap- given some attention to local traditional cul- proach to development might be cautious step- ture, but to date there has been no comprehen- by-step expansion, building on existing skills sive survey to inventory local crafts and assess and focusing on quality and organization be- the needs of local traditional craftsworkers, nor fore mass-production is attempted. has there been any focused government effort at conserving local handicrafts. If a systematic effort is made to improve and expand the handicraft industry, methods of Opportunities to Encourage Handicraft In- conserving and/or replenishing supplies of raw dustry Development.–Several measures can materials must be researched and implemented be taken to mitigate these constraints and to to avoid depletion. As limited rural lands con- encourage the growth of a handicrafts indus- tinue to be developed in the U.S. Caribbean, try in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Producers, for and as certain crafts grow in popularity, re- example, can cooperate for specific purposes source depletion may hinder development of (advertising, participation in fairs) and stand- some crafts. Reforestation programs could be ardize prices for handicrafts. Island hotels, initiated to ensure a continuous supply of wood, restaurants, and offices can make more use of laws enacted and enforced regulating the col- handcrafted items in place of imported glass lecting of shells and coral, and neutral lands and plastic decorative items. Perhaps with Fed- set aside for cultivation of fibers (40). eral Government support, island governments could: Integrating Urban Development ● aid in the provision of tools, materials, and With Resource Management workplaces; Renewable resource management can be in- ● help establish vocational training in tegrated into urban development in a number schools and master-apprentice programs of ways, including: wastewater treatment and for transfer of skills from elders; reuse to protect nearshore ecosystems and for ● provide publicity, sales promotion, and land fertilization, and development of urban sales agents; forestry to provide noise reduction and other ● establish museums and cultural centers environmental services and a source of high- (with handicraft sales shops) on major value wood for small-scale artisans. islands; ● provide funding for filming or other doc- Wastewater Treatment and Reuse umentation of crafts being made to aid skill transfer and educate visitors; Providing safe drinking water and protection ● where export is feasible, compile a trade of groundwater supplies are important goals index or list of overseas products, produc- in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Solid waste man- ers, and retailers for distribution overseas; agement, including controls over littering and ● create tax incentives for organizations and centralized refuge collection and disposal, is businesses who support local handicrafts, also needed. Sewerage linkups to appropriately or culture and the arts; and designed treatment plants and outfalls are ● prepare handicraft development plans. needed by many urban subdistricts and villages (39). In the latter, planners must choose between emphasis on limited production or mass-pro- Most U.S.-affiliated islands are facing prob- duction; indigenous handicrafts or innovative lems in ensuring safe water supplies and ade- derived forms; local consumption or export. Ex- quate sewage disposal. For example, reports cept in unusual cases, in the near-term han- from diving groups suggest that Truk lagoon dicrafts are likely to remain a source of sup- is becoming so polluted that, unless waste dis- plemental income to small-scale artisans, thus posal in the lagoon is minimized, divers may programs to increase the earnings potential of venture elsewhere in the future, reducing tour- 310 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ist income (39). In July 1982, sewage pollution Adequately digested and disinfected sewage in Truk lagoon activated a cholera outbreak sludge could be valuable as a soil conditioner leading to loss of life (8). and fertilizer in many areas. On Guam, treated Although EPA is constructing outfalls and sludge is used to a very limited extent by local farmers. In other areas, cultural beliefs would treatment facilities for domestic sewage on the have to be overcome and facilities constructed islands, funds are inadequate for hookups to to yield safely treated sludge. An increasing individual houses and businesses. Thus, sew- concern is the extent to which heavy metals age pollution remains a serious problem. Con- struction of sewage outfalls and treatment and toxic substances enter sewer systems and plants has been accomplished or is planned for concentrate in sewage sludge (37). Only the Pohnpei, Kosrae, Yap island, and Falalop on Umatic/Merizo waste treatment facility on Guam employs land treatment on a relatively Ulithi (Yap). Solid waste disposal and landfill large-scale, but the success of this operation has management continue to be challenges (39). The need to manage wastewater discharges and been hampered by operating and maintenance difficulties. These, plus land availability and solid waste disposal will continue to grow with the populations unless remedial actions and public acceptance constraints are major obstacles to land treatment of wastes. novel approaches which reduce construction and maintenance costs are identified and ini- Urban Forestry tiated. Integrated Aquiculture/Wastewater Treat- Urban forests have a number of influences on the quality of the residential and urban envi- ment Systems.—Seaweed or aquatic plant cul- ronment in addition to contributing to an es- tivation might also be used for water treatment thetically pleasing environment. Although little (57,58). Aquatic plants effectively strip much information exists on the effects of open-grown of the nutrients from wastewater, thereby re- trees and 30 to 50 percent tree canopy cover ducing eutrophication effects in the receiving water body (46). The use of aquatic plants for applicable to urban forest situations (74), urban trees can reduce the kinetic energy of rain- wastewater treatment has considerable poten- drops thus protecting parks, lawns, and unpaved tial for use in the tropics because of the stable roads and may help regulate water runoff. Trees environmental temperatures. Aquaculture sys- shade buildings, thus reducing ambient air tem- tems for water treatment have been instituted peratures and, perhaps, reducing energy con- in several areas of the continental United States (23,76) and this concept deserves more atten- sumption by air-conditioners. On the other hand, trees can restrict air flow around build- tion for application on the islands (56). ings and reduce the cooling effect of wind on Land-Application of Sewage Sludge and the buildings. Urban noise can be ameliorated Wastewater.—Treated wastewater is not now by woody vegetation, which serves as a barrier used for irrigation on the U.S.-affiliated islands. to sound waves, and dense litter layers, which On St. Croix, use of a saltwater flush system absorb sound (74). in some areas makes wastewater too saline (47). Forests and forest soils in and around urban However, wastewater blended with impounded areas can serve as “sinks” for air pollutants runoff can be used for irrigation. such as carbon monoxide although, of course, Some wastewater facilities plans in Puerto they also can be a source of allergens. Urban Rico call for the land disposal of some effluents forests also commonly are inhabited by birds, via irrigation (34). However, there is declining some of which are insectivorous and reduce interest in this since irrigation demand has di- insect populations perhaps reducing the need minished (47). for pesticides. Finally, urban forests can serve Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development . 311

as a source of valuable woods. Urban and roadside trees that must be removed for other reasons supply much of the raw material for a small wood crafts and specialty furniture industry on St. Croix (USVI). This use of available wood could be a model for economic use of wood where large-scale commercial forestry is not feasible (92).

CHAPTER 8 REFERENCES

1. Alexander, A. G., “Assessment of Energy-Inte- 9. Corbin, J., Manager, Hawaii Department of grated Farming Technologies for U.S. Insular Land and Natural Resources’ Aquiculture De- Areas, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. velopment Program, personal communication, 2. Atchley, J., and Cox, P. A., “Breadfruit Fermen- September 1986. tation in Micronesia, ” Economic Botany 39(3): 10. Coulianos, K. E., “Concepts for Ecodevelop- 326-335, 1985. mental Tourism for Small Caribbean Islands, ” 3. Auyong J., and Tabata, R., “Tourism Develop- thesis, Landscape Architecture Program, School ment and Sustainable Renewable Resource Man- of Natural Resources, University of Michigan, agement for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” April 1980. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986. OTA commissioned paper, 1986, 11, Day, D. L., “Processing Manure for Use as Feed 4. Butler, R. W., “The Concept of a Tourist Area Ingredients, ” Animal Wastes Treatment and Cycle of Evolution: Implications for Manage- Utilization, Chung Po (cd.), Taiwan, Council ment of Resources, ” Canadian Geographer for Agriculture Planning and Development, 24(l): 5-12, 1980. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986. 1980. In: Alexander, 1986. 5. Caro-Costas, R., “Assessment of Livestock Pro- 12. Decision Analysts Hawaii, Inc., Agriculture, duction Technologies in the U.S.-Affiliated Municipal and Industrial Water Demand and Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned pa- Benefit Parameters on Guam, prepared for the per, 1986. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean 6. Castillo-Barahona, F., and Bhatia, M, S., “Assess- Division, 1983. In: Lucas, 1986. ment of Agriculture Production Technologies 13. Dillingham, E. “Agriculture Development Needs in Puerto Rico, ” OTA commissioned paper, and Opportunities in the U.S. Virgin Islands, ” 1986. OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 7. Cohen, E., “The Impact of Tourism on the 14. Ellis, M. “Ocean Energy Developments: Pros- Physical Environment, ” Annals of Tourism Re- pects for Island Communities, ” presented at search 5:215-237, 1978. In: Auyong and Tabata, the Workshop for New Marine Technology 1986. and Social Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13, 8. Connell, J., University of Sydney Department 1986, Australian National University, Can- of Geography, personal communication, Sep- berra, Australia. tember 1986. 15. Falanruw, M. V. C., “Traditional Agriculture/Re- 312 • Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

source Management Systems in the High Is- lands (Atolls),” Technical Bulletin No. 2, Majuro, lands of Micronesia,” OTA commissioned pa- Marshall Islands: Office of Planning and Sta- per, 1986, tistics, 1983. In: Poison, 1986. 16. Feinstein, R. D., “Wood-Fired Cogeneration for 29. Kent, G., “Development Problems of Pacific Is- Rural Pacific Communities: Taveuni Case lands,” New Pacific 6(6):21-25, 1981. In: Auyong Study,” Pacific Islands Development Program and Tabata, 1986. and Resource Systems Institute, East-West 30. Kiste, R. C., “Implications of History and Cul- Center, Honolulu, HI, 1984. In: Poison, 1986. ture for Sustaining Development of Renewa- 17. Fenical, W., “Marine Plants: A Unique and Un- ble Resources on U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Is- explored Resource,” OTA workshop proceed- lands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. ings, Plants: The Potentials for Extracting Pro- 31. Kiste, R. C., “The Policies That Hid a Non- tein, Medicines, and Other Useful Chemicals Policy (A View From Honolulu),” Pacific Is- (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing lands Monthly, October 1983, pp. 37-40. In: Office, September 1983). Auyong and Tabata, 1986. 18. Gee, C. Y., Dean, University of Hawaii School 32. Koh, M. T., et.al., “Trial Use of Biogas as Fuel of Travel Industry Management, personal com- for Gasoline Engines” Animal Wastes Treat- munication, September 1986, ment and Utilization, Chung Po (cd.), Taiwan, 19. Glenn. M., “An Analysis of Black Pepper Pro- Council for Agriculture Planning and Devel- duction in Ponape,” OTA commissioned pa- opment, 1980, pp. 133-139. per, 1986. 33. Latimer, J., “Developing-Island Economies— 20. Glude, J., “Aquiculture Development in the Tourism v. Agriculture,” Tourism Manage- U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned ment 6(l): 32-42, March 1985. paper, 1986 34. Lizardi, Gonzalez, and Maldonado Consulting 21. Graham, D., “Report on Breadfruit Flour Pro- Engineers, “201 Facilities Plan: Lajas-Boqueron duction,” Truk State Industries Center, FSM, Region,” report to the Puerto Rico Aqueduct unpublished report, no date. and Sewer Authority, San Juan, 1975. In: Morris 22. Groves, T., “Tourism Plant Expansion,” pres- and Pool, 1986. entation at the 3rd Pacific Islands Coastal Zone 35, Loftus, S. A., “Impacts of U.S. Military Pres- Management Conference, Kahuku, Oahu, HI, ence on U.S.-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA commis- Sept. 17-19,1985. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986. sioned paper, 1986. 23. Haines, K. C., “Growth of the Carrageenan-Pro- 36. Lopez, B., Executive Director, Consortium of ducing Tropical Red Seaweed Hypnea mus- Pacific Arts and Cultures, personal communi- ciformis in Surface Water, 870 m Deep Water, cation, September 1986. Effluent From a Clam Mariculture System, and 37. Lovelace, N., Chief of Territorial Programs, in Deep Water Enriched With Artificial Fer- Environmental Protection Agency, personal tilizers or Domestic Sewage,” Proceedings communication, October 1986. 10th European Symposium on Marine Biology, 38. Lucas, R. L., “Role of Smallholder in Agricul- vol. 1, 1975, pp. 207-220. ture Development in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific 24. Halbower, C., “Forestry and Agroforestry Tech- Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. nologies: Developmental Potentials in the U. S.- 39. Maragos, J. E., “Coastal Resource Development Affiliated Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands, ” paper, 1986. OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 25. Imamura, C., Director of Planning and Pro- 40. Martin, G., Trade and Economic Consultant, grams, Pacific Basin Development Council, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Federal Affairs personal communication, September 1986. Administration, personal communication, Oc- 26. Jenkins, C. L., and Henry, B. M., “Government tober 1985. Involvement in Tourism in Developing Coun- 41. McEachern, J., and Towle, E., “Ecological tries,” Annals of Tourism Research 9(3):229- Guidelines for Island Development,” Interna- 249, 1982. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986. tional Union for Conservation of Nature and 27. Johannes, R., Chief, CSIRO Marine Labora- Natural Resources, Merges, Switzerland, 1974. tories Division of Fisheries Research, personal 42. McElroy, J., Department of Business Admin- communication, July 1986. istration and Economics, Saint Mary’s College, 28. Kasper, S., “Cost Comparisons for Different IN, personal communication, July 1986. Systems of Producing Electricity on Outer Is- 43. McElroy, J. L., “A Note on the Tourism Dem- Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development “ 313

onstration Effect, ” prepared for the IX ArznuaZ harvest Food Losses in Developing Countries Caribbean Studies Association Meeting, St. [Washington, DC: National Academy Press, Kitts, West Indies, May 30- June 2, 1984. 1978). 44. Micronesia Regional Tourism Council, AnnuaZ 55. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- Report, Agana, Guam, 1983. In: Auyong and search Council, Board on Science and Tech- Tabata, 1986. nology for International Development, Energy 45. Migvar, L., formerly with TTPI Department of for Rural Development: Renewable Resources Agriculture, personal communication, Sep- and Alternative Technologies for Developing tember 1986. Countries (Washington, DC: National Acad- 46. Morris, G., Consulting hydrologist, personal emy Press, 1976). communication, September 1986. 56. Nelson, S., “Aquiculture and Mariculture De- 47. Morris, G. L., and Pool, D. J., “Assessment of velopment in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, ” Semiarid Agriculture Production Technologies OTA commissioned paper, 1986. for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands,” 57. Nelson, S. G., and Tsutsui, R. N., “Ammonium OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Uptake by Micronesia Species of Gracilaria 48. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- (Rhodophyta),” Western Pacific Technical Re- search Council, Board on Science and Tech- port No. 23, University of Guam Water and nology for International Development, “Fish Energy Research Institute, 1981, Processing and Preservation,” prepared for 58. Nelson, S. G., Smith, B. D., and Best, B., “Ki- Innovative Marine Technologies for Lesser De- netics of Nitrate and Ammonium Uptake by veloped Countries (Washington, DC: National the Tropical Freshwater Macrophyte Pistia Academy Press, in press). stratiotes L., ” Aquiculture 24:11-19, 1981, 49. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- 59. Odgen, J., Director, West Indies Laboratory, search Council, Board on Science and Tech- personal communication, September 1986. nology for International Development, Leu- 60, Ortiz-Daliot, J., Director, Commonwealth of caena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, Tropics (Washington, DC: National Academy personal communication, September 1986. Press, 1984). 61. Pacific Area Travel Association, “Truk: A 50. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- Study of Tourism Development,” San Fran- search Council, Board on Science and Tech- cisco, 1977. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1985. nology for International Development, Diffusion 62. Pacific Basin Development Council, “Essen- of Biomass Energy Technologies in Develop- tial Air Service in the American Pacific Is- ing Countries (Washington, DC: National lands,” PBDC Staff Study, Honolulu, HI, 1985. Academy Press, 1984). 63. Pacific Energy Programme, “Energy Mission 51. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- Report, Western Samoa,” East-West Center, search Council, Board on Science and Tech- Honolulu, HI, 1982, In: Poison, 1986, nology for International Development, Alco- 64. Pacific Island Development Commission, Pa- hol Fuels: Options for Developing Countries cific Islands Cooperative Tourism Develop- (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, ment Study, prepared for PIDC by Peat, Mar- 1983). wick, Mitchell & Co., Honolulu, HI, 1978. 52. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- 65. Pangelinan, M., Director, Saipan Farmers Co- search Council, Board on Science and Tech- operative Association, personal communica- nology for International Development Pro- tion, July 1986. ducer Gas: Another Fuel for Motor Transport 66. Pearce, D. G,, Tourist Development: Topics in (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, Applied Geography (New York, NY: Longman 1983). Publishers, 1981). In: Auyong and Tabata, 53. National Academy of Sciences, National Re- 1986. search Council, Board on Science and Tech- 67. Poison, S., “The Marshall Islands Coconut In- nology for International Development, Food, dustry: Prospects for Expansion and Develop- Fuel, and Fertilizer from Organic Wastes ment,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 68. Pool, D, J., “Forestry and Agroforestry Tech- 1981). nologies: Development Potentials in U.S.-Affil- 54, National Academy of Sciences, National Re- iated Caribbean Islands, ” OTA commissioned search Council, Board on Science and Tech- paper, 1986. nology for International Development, Post- 69. Porter, D. V., and Hoffman, M. K., “Preserva- 314 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

tion of Food by Irradiation,” (Washington, DC: Orlando, FL, January 1983. In: Alexander, Library of Congress, Congressional Research 1986). Service, June 1983). 85. Szentkiralyi, M., “Assessment of Livestock 70. Potter, N. N. Food Science (Westport, CT: Avi Production Technologies in Micronesia and Publishing Co., 1973). In: Stiles, 1986. Feasibility Study for Locally Produced Pig 71. Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, Pro- Feed on Ponape, ” OTA commissioned paper, gram Agricola, September 1985. In: Castillo- 1986. Barahona and Bhatia, 1986. 86. Tchernev, D,, “Applicability of Zeolite Refrig- 72. Randel, P. F., “Feeding Lactating Dairy Cows eration Systems to Small Tropical Islands, ” Concentrates and Sugar Cane Bagasse as Com- OTA commissioned paper, 1986. pared With a Conventional Ration,” Journal 87. Tenorio, J. A., Chief, Plant Industry and Exten- of Agriculture, University of Puerto Rico 50(4): sion Services, CNMI Department of Natural 255-269, 1966. In: Caro-Costas, 1986. Resources, personal communication, March 73. Raynor, W., “Commercial Crop Production 1986. Technologies and Development Potentials for 88. Torres, E,, Director, Guam Department of Agri- the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, ” OTA com- culture, personal communication, September missioned paper, 1986. 1986. 74. Rowntree, R. A., “Ecology of the Urban Forest— 89. Travis, A. S., “Managing the Environmental Introduction to Part I I,” Special Issue on Ecol- and Cultural Impacts of Tourism and Leisure ogy of the Urban Forest, Part II: Function, Ur- Development,” Tourism Management 3(4):256- ban Ecology 9(3/4):229-244, 1986. 262, 1982. In: Auyong and Tabata, 1986. 75. Ruiz, A, L., “Tourism and the Economy of 90. University of Hawaii, School of Travel Indus- Puerto Rico: an Input-Output Approach,” Tour- try Management, “Tourism Services Manpower ism Management 6(1):61-65, March 1985. Development Study of the American Pacific 76. Ryther, J, H., et al., “Physical Models of In- Islands,” prepared for the Pacific Basin Devel- tegrated Waste Recycling—Marine Polyculture opment Council, Honolulu HI, 1983. In: Auyong Systems,” AquacuZture 5:163-177, 1975. and Tabata, 1986. 77. Sanchez-Nieva, F., “Assessment of Food Proc- 91. U.S. Congress, General Accounting Office, essing Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Carib- “The Challenge of Enhancing Micronesia bean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, Self-Sufficiency,” 1983. 1986. 92. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 78. Schultz, W. G., Trade Development of South Pa- ment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical For- cific Handicrafts: A Project Study, United Na- est Resources OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: tions Development Advisory Team, Fiji, 1973. U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984). 79. Science News, “Goat-to-Steer Cud Trans- 93. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- plant, ” Jan, 18, 1985. ment, Agricultural Postharvest Technology 80. Smith, B., “Non-food Marine Resources Devel- and Marketing Economics Research OTA-TM- opment and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated F-21 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Print- Pacific Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, ing Office, April 1983), 1986. 94. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 81. Spinrad, B. K., Seward, S. B., and Belisle, F. S,, ment, Recent Developments in Ocean Thermal “Introduction,” Tourism in the Caribbean: The Energy, Technical Memorandum, NTIS PB80- Economic Impact, International Development 201825 (Springfield, VA: National Technical Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada, 1982. Information Service, April 1980), 82. Stiles, P, G., “Food and Feed Processing Tech- 95. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- nologies in the U.S. Insular Areas, ” OTA comment, Energy from Biological Processes OTA- missioned paper, 1986, E-124 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government 83. Swientek, R.J. “Food Irradiation Update, ” Printing Office, July 1980). Food Processing 46(6):82-90, 1985. In: stiles, 96. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 1986. ment, Renewable Ocean Energy Sources: Ocean 84. Szendrey, L. M., “The Bacardi Corporation Thermal Energy Conversions, NTIS PB-283104 Digestion Process for Stabilizing Rum Distill- (Springfield, VA: National Technical Informa- ery Wastes and Producing Methane” IGT Sym- tion Service, May 1978). posium: Energy From Biomass and Wastes VII, 97. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- Ch. 8—Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development ● 315

ment, Emerging Food Marketing Technologies: Study of Puerto Rico report prepared by the A Preliminary Analysis OTA-F-79 (Washing- Interagency Task Force, 2 vols. (Washington ton, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Oc- DC: Government Printing Office, 1979). tober 1978), 101. Vicente-Chandler, J., “Assessment of Agricul- 98. U.S. Department of Agriculture, “Papaya Get tural Production Technologies for U.S. Carib- Into Hot Water, Leave Hawaii, ” Agriculture bean Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, Research Service 33(2):12, 1985. 1986. 99. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic 102. Vitarelli, M., “Handicrafts Industry Develop- and Atmospheric Administration, Office of ment and Renewable Resource Management Coastal Resources Management, Final Envi- for U.S.-affiliated Islands,” OTA commissioned ronmental Impact Statement and Coastal Re- paper, 1986. sources Management Plan for the Common- 103! Wahle, C. M., “Non-food Marine Resources De- wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, velopment in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, ” Washington, DC, 1980. OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 100. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economic

63-222 0 - 87-llQL. 3 Chapter 9 Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands CONTENTS

Page Introduction ...... 319 Resource Planning Goals for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ...... 320 Planning Needs and Constraints...... 321 Resource Data Collection and Information Management ...... 324 Ecological Baseline Surveys ...... 324 Monitoring ...... 325 Data Management ...... 325 Analytic Techniques for Resource Development Planning ...... 326 Environmental Impact Assessment ...... 326 Resource Suitability Analysis ...... 327 Carrying Capacity ...... 329 Benefit-Cost Analysis...... 329 Multi-Objective Analysis ...... 329 During and Post-Project Evaluation ...... 330 Implementation of Resource Planning Programs ...... 330 Participatory Approaches to Planning and Management...... 331 Special Application: Parks and Protected Areas...... 332 Special Application: Coastal Resource Management...... 337 Summary ...... 340 Guidelines for Information Management ...... 340 Chapter 9 References ...... 342

Figure Figure No. Page 9-1. Typical Siting of Land Uses on U.S.-Affiliated High Islands ...... 342

Tables Table No. Page 9-1. Selected Socioeconomic and Resource Conservation Issues Suitable for Inclusion in Future CRM Initiatives in the FAS ...... 339 9-2. Potential Implementation of Planning and Management Technologies To Address Selected CRM Issues ...... 339 Chapter 9 Resource Development Planning for U.S.-AffiIiated Islands

INTRODUCTION

The small size of islands, and consequent refers to the broad choices that must be made scarcity of land and resources makes it un- among multiple and frequently competing re- desirable and probably infeasible to concentrate source management objectives. At this level the human populations and activities on ever questions to be answered are explicitly value smaller areas of land, Similarly, although some choices. In practice, such policy choices com- resource recovery efforts are needed, small pop- monly are expressed in terms of 5-year devel- ulations and economies disallow expense of opment plans, State policy plans, or similar doc- large amounts of scarce capital and labor on uments. Such policy statements provide some artificial provision of environmental services indication of a general awareness of resource or continuous reclamation of degraded areas. management problems as well as the empha- Clearly, the preferred alternative is to prevent sis that such problems should receive. There degradation of the island ecosystem, Through are, however, no guarantees that resource man- application of rational management activities, agement problems will receive systematic man- ecosystem benefits may be sustained over the agement attention (25) long term. Program planning refers to the identification Resource management refers to decisions of and evaluation of alternative ways to achieve policy or practices regarding how resources are some resource management objective. A par- allocated and under what conditions (or ar- tial list of such techniques includes zoning, tax rangements) resources may be developed (30). incentives, or direct subsidies to resource Resource management includes both planning owners to maintain certain resource uses (e. g., activities in which resource management ob- agriculture, protected habitat), outright pur- jectives and techniques for achieving those ob- chase of development rights to lands, and per- jectives are systematically identified and im- formance standards for certain uses. All of plementation activities in which specific these management techniques have been or are management techniques are used to allocate re- currently being employed in a number of U.S. sources among uses (and users) (25) continental States (25). Planning processes typically involve several steps: Project planning is sometimes used to de- 1. identification of some goal to be achieved scribe the detailed administrative guidelines (or problem to be mitigated), and procedures for implementing a particular 2. identification of alternative ways in which management strategy, or the detailed specification of a particular resource use consistent with the goal can be achieved, resource management program objectives (25). 3. evaluation of these alternatives, 4. choice of a strategy, and 5. specification of how that strategy is to be Policy, program, and project planning require implemented (25). different kinds of information and analysis. Pol- icy planning must address a mix of value and In the development of resource management empirical questions. As planning becomes programs, there are three levels of planning: more specific there are fewer explicitly value policy, program, and project. Policy planning issues and more empirical questions (25).

319 320 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Photo credit: J. Bauer

Landslides, a common hazard on tropical high islands, may be promoted by inappropriate land use such as hillside construction or agricultural cultivation in erosion-prone areas.

Basic information and the appropriate tech- Resource Planning GoaIs for nologies for analyzing that information are U.S.-AffiIiated Islands widely agreed to be a fundamental requirement for successful resource management (3). How- Island resource systems exist in close prox- ever, the types of information collected and imity and are strongly interrelated. Decisions stored, the types of analysis performed and how that affect one resource are likely to affect other these activities should be integrated into re- “downstream” resources. For example, conver- source management programs depend on the sion of island forests to agriculture, or removal nature of the resource management problems of mangrove habitat for the purposes of coastal confronted by an island, the degree of geo- development can lead to degradation of reef graphic specificity in planning and manage- areas through increased siltation. Conversely, ment efforts to deal with these issues, and the mining of reefs, which act as natural wave particular management techniques that are be- energy and storm surge buffers, may lead to ing employed for problem mitigation. increased erosion or other damage to coastal —

Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 321 areas, Integrated management of natural sys- to do with it to promote national economic and tems requires thorough knowledge of the in- human well-being (18). terrelationships between resource systems. These interrelationships are often critical to the Both approaches are predicated on concerns functioning of the whole island system (11). about the long-term ability of the resources to provide goods and services efficiently and Natural systems management problems are safely. Efficient resource uses are keyed to the usually perceived in two ways: 1) as the conse- natural constraints of a site. Such uses gener- quences of particular resource uses, or 2) as ally are efficient in maintaining a flow of goods conflicts over alternative resource uses. Ac- (e.g., crops) and services (e.g., watershed pro- cordingly, two general approaches exist to re- tection), although there are exceptions where source planning: a higher flow may be provided efficiently by 1. A use in mind; where to do it or put it? overcoming minor physical limitations (e.g., by improving drainage in soils). Safe uses build 2. A particular resource or an area of land; in an avoidance of ecological backlash (e.g., what to do with it? avoid unstable slopes, flood-prone areas— The first approach is a frequently used, single- unless one wants to take a risk or alter the site purpose planning methodology, After having by making corrective investments) (18). established need and other socioeconomic considerations, the process involves translating use Planning Needs and Constraints1 requirements into biological and physical (biophysical) site-selection criteria. As perceived Each U.S.-affiliated island government has resource values change, this has increasingly designated a planning office. In general, these become a question of “where not to put it?” offices are responsible for compiling informa- Overlay maps showing areas of high economic, tion on factors affecting the economic devel- social, or cultural value plus physical impedi- opment of these islands, presenting a frame- ments commonly are used in a technique ad- work for decisionmaking by island leaders, vocated by McHarg (29) to show where devel- planners, and the public and advising their gov- opment would adversely affect the least number ernments on rational development planning. of community-determined values (18). Some of these planning offices also are re- The second approach is relevant where a sponsible for maintaining libraries and bibliog- landowner, administrator, or manager wants raphies of information for use by government to assess the resources under his jurisdiction personnel and the public. For example, the and determine if an area is allocated to the most Guam Bureau of Planning has established a cat- productive sustainable uses. To a limited ex- aloged Planning Library to assist people content, this planning approach may be taken by ducting research on Guam. A Coastal Planning a private landowner who has flexibility in his Bibliography was produced in 1978 in associa- operation, surplus resources, and usually sub- tion with the development of the Guam Coastal stantial areas of land. It is not characteristic Zone Management Plan, and a “Guam Inven- of tradition-bound agriculturists or pastoralists tory of Planning Information” was prepared living at or near subsistence levels, nor of cor- in 1976 and updated in 1981 (17). porate landowners with a narrow mandate and large plant investment to protect through using products from the land (e.g., pulp and paper 1 company). It does, however, often character- The Office of Technology Assessment conducted a survey of resource development planning and management offices in U. S.- ize the planning and management of public affiliated islands in April 1986. Respondents were asked to com- lands (excluding military lands or nature re- ment on how important they perceive the planning constraints serves). Countries undergoing rapid increases identified by Lowry (25), whether their office uses any of the analytic techniques described, and the actions they think would in population are adopting the approach of look- do the most to improve resource development planning on their ing at the limited land estate and asking what island. Of the 80 surveys sent out, only 8 were returned. —

322 c Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

A number of plans analyzing resource man- Inadequate Planning Expertise agement and impacts of development activities The number of people involved in planning have been prepared in each island area either on the islands and their total years of experi- by internal planning offices, in cooperation ence are limited. Resource planning and man- with the Department of Commerce through de- agement offices in the FAS, for example, are velopment of Coastal Zone Management plans, understaffed; they lack resource data and ex- or by the United Nations. Unfortunately, differ- ercise little regulatory authority (app. F). Envi- ent plans are rarely centralized or aggregated. ronmental protection boards in the FAS have The Freely Associated States (FAS) were re- not effectively compelled developers to evalu- quired to prepare 5-year comprehensive devel- ate alternate sites and procedures. Outside ex- opment plans under the terms of the Compact pertise is needed, at least initially, to help train of Free Association. These plans commonly de- planners and to plan and evaluate specific describe goals and problems, but tend to remain velopment proposals. so general that they provide little guidance for island decisionmakers to evaluate potential Lack of Data for Planning projects. A further constraint is posed by the lack of Although ample evidence exists that improved reliable data on almost all aspects of the eco- resource management is unlikely in the absence nomic and population structures of the islands. of planning, it cannot ensure sustainable re- Census data commonly are suspect and many source management. Planning processes may other data have not been collected. The unavail- go awry for a number of reasons, including: ability of such data presents considerable prob- ● lack of resources for planning, lems for development planning (8). ● inadequate planning expertise “in-house” While some insular polities have gathered ex- and heavy demand on existing island tensive data and developed data management planners, systems, others are still in need of basic infor- ● lack of data for planning, mation. Regardless of the island’s level of data ● lack of understanding of natural processes, management development, an overall need still ● lack of understanding of the social and po- exists for further information gathering and re- litical contexts in which plans are to be im- search on basic biological systems, as well as plemented. improved data management and communica- ● inadequate problem specification, tion systems (app. F). ● inadequate specification of management alternatives, and Detailed economic development planning, in- ● use of planning as a substitute for man- cluding identification of manpower and management. power training needs, is required to instigate any significant movement towards self-reliance Lack of Resources for Planning (8). However, collection and analysis of many data are largely beyond the current capabilities Lack of resources for planning is a common of many insular government planning offices, constraint on U.S.-affiliated islands. Planning especially since each government agency com- requires a substantial amount of skilled person- monly collects information specific to its own nel, information, and time. Those resources fre- functions. These data may not be collected for quently are not available for resource system each island or island region within a territory, planning or, when they are available, they may may not be standardized to allow aggregation, be diverted to other planning enterprises that and may not be integrated into one system (5,6, show more promise of immediate payoffs. 7,8,9,10). Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 323

Lack of Understanding of be consistent with those values, they are not Natural Processes likely to be successful (25).

Designing a resource management program Inadequate Problem Specification requires a basic understanding of cause and effect relationships of biological and physical In developing a resource systems manage- processes. Ignorance of such relationships can ment program, the possibility of inadequate give rise to unexpected and sometimes severe problem specification always exists—of focus- unintended impacts. In addition to inadequate ing on the wrong problem. For example, rather baseline biological data for organisms or re- than identifying a problem as its underlying sources to be managed, this appears to be an cause (e.g., overpopulation), it maybe more use- important constraint confronting island plan- ful to define the problem by its adverse effects ners and resource managers. related to the underlying cause (e. g., resource overexploitation). In specifying resource management issues to be addressed, the central Lack of Understanding of the Social question should be: what adverse conditions and Political Contexts in Which Plans need to be avoided or reversed? Are To Be Impemented inadequate Specification of A central problem in the evaluation of man- Management Alternatives agement alternatives is the question of which values (or whose values) will be used to assess Many contemporary resource management the worth of proposed management strategies. programs are “technique-driven” rather than If the management alternatives do not reflect “issue-driven.” Often some particular manage- the values of those who are most affected by ment technique is touted as the management the plan, the effectiveness of management ef- technique to be employed with particular re- forts are likely to be undermined. The evalua- source management problems. Too little attention of alternatives is particularly critical in is- tion is paid to other alternatives or to the par- land environments in which the values of the ticular political and social context within which planners may be different from those of would- a resource management technique will be em- be “clients.” ployed.

One way of ensuring that the choice of man- Use of Planning as a Substitute agement strategies reflects the values of clien- for Management tele is to involve them more intimately in planning processes. However, such involvement Planning sometimes becomes a substitute for need not take the form of public hearings at management because it was hoped that the which clientele may respond to a completed activity would be a catalyst for generating pub- plan—a conventional strategy of “citizen par- lic support for resource management activities ticipation” used in U.S. community planning that would be socially or politically divisive. processes of the 1960s and 1970s. To the ex- When that support fails to materialize, the tent that resource management programs do “plans” are left unimplemented. Planning activ- not reflect island values regarding man/envi- ities also may be encouraged as symbolic activ- ronment relationships or cannot, through a ities to reassure people that “something is be- process of community education, be shown to ing done” about some problem or condition, 324 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

RESOURCE DATA COLLECTION AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

Most resource planning techniques require Moreover, the techniques neglect gradual a number of “sub-assessments” each requiring changes in biophysical factors that can even- different types of information necessary to the tually limit various resource uses. Unless com- formation of effective management plans, in- bined with simulation modeling, these tech- cluding: niques do not reflect changes in the magnitude of types of impacts over time (36). 1. Biophysical assessment—requiring information on factors affecting the physical and Data on tropical ecosystems, both terrestrial biological suitability of a site for various uses, and marine, are insufficient for many planning including climate, geomorphology and geology, needs. Resource management and development soils, flora, and fauna. This information can for sustained yields requires up-to-date base- be used directly for site selection; after iden- line data on current resource use patterns and tification of the desired resource activity, the the distribution and status of natural ecosys- planner identifies constraints that could inhibit tems. without such information, it is impossi- that resource use and looks for sites where the ble to determine the capabilities of each re- constraints do not exist or are manageable (36). source for supporting various types of uses, or to predict the consequences of various resource 2. Land classification-the objectives of land use decisions on island ecosystems and popu- classification are to identify the resources of lations. a given area, determine appropriate management practices for existing resource uses, and predict the consequences of proposed changes Ecological Baseline Surveys in land use and policies (36). Overlay mapping techniques commonly are used to select sites Many jurisdictions rely heavily on environ- for particular land uses. One such technique mental impact statements to provide basic is to produce maps using white, black, or shades information about the condition of natural of gray to show the suitability of locations for systems at a given time. However, when sub- specific types of development. The suitability sequent developments are planned in the same ratings are combined by superimposing the area, a new environmental impact assessment maps, either manually or by computer, and is made and much of the same information is examining the distributions of shading inten- gathered again, with resultant duplication of sities. effort (and waste of scarce resources) (2). One alternative would be to design and manage envi- Land classification techniques assume natu- ronmental assessments so as to contribute to ral system relationships are determined by land a central database which could then be used physiography. Such techniques can be helpful to prepare future EISs, thus minimizing dupli- in resource development planning, but they cation. However, care must be taken to ensure have limitations. Some systems are oriented that the information in the central database is toward a particular land use such as agricul- updated to reflect changes in land use or re- ture and, therefore, tend to assess suitability source systems. for that use rather than overall resource suitability. No single land classification system A second alternative would be to put in- measures resource productivity directly; this creased emphasis on development of ecologi- would be too costly and time-consuming. Some cal baseline surveys which incorporate a “com- techniques are more appropriate for use in eco- prehensive appraisal of important natural logical studies than for helping decisionmakers systems parameters at a given time” (2). Re- with land management questions. None of the source inventories which identify natural re- techniques identifies the direct or indirect bi- sources in specific geographic areas and indi- ophysical impacts of land use conversions. cate their quality and variety commonly are part Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 325 of an ecological baseline study. The principal project management. It can indicate a need to uses of such information are in the prepara- change the timetable, scale, geographic location of land and water use plans and other tion, resource allocation, or staffing of activi- program plans, project assessments, environ- ties (36). The difficulties in developing and mental impact assessments, area plans, and per- maintaining a monitoring system are compar- mit decisions. able to those of developing and maintaining ecological baseline studies. The primary obstacle to development of ecological baseline surveys is cost of data collection, storage, and retrieval. The greater the Data Management number of variables and the greater the geographic scope, the more expensive it is to meas- Within many governments, data are collected ure comprehensive resource data. One way to by more than one agency, sometimes leading analyze cost-effectiveness of collection proce- to unnecessary duplication. Further, such in- dures and data parameters is to proceed with formation commonly is not centralized and a “test case” by: 1) seeking interagency agree- may not be exchanged between agencies in the ment about what parameters to collect, and 2) government. Data may be collected in differ- collecting information for a well-defined geo- ent formats and at different scales, making use graphic area where resource use is high. This of the information difficult without expensive makes it possible to examine the utility of the reformatting, In some cases, mapping and data information collected as well as the costs and collection are not comprehensive (app. F); and skill requirements for collection. scales are not consistent within a territory, or even within individual agencies in the same ter- Data storage and retrieval systems also may ritory (31). be costly. To avoid costly duplication, a scale must be chosen for mapped data that is appro- An institutional Structure for priate for different users. Detailed mapping of Data Management the sort that is useful for permit decisions may result in maps that are too cumbersome for Some opportunities exist for alleviating the other uses. Some information may be stored problem by reorganizing responsibilities for and exchanged electronically, but a great deal environmental data collection. A separate de- of advance preparation may be needed to department or ministry might be responsible for velop formats for storage (25). the environment including setting standards for uniform methods of data collection, scales, and Monitoring formats, which all other departments would be obligated to follow. The environmental minis- Environmental monitoring refers to periodic try would also be responsible for obtaining and measurements of natural resources and envi- maintaining a national or territorial database, ronmental quality parameters to allow analy- as well as conducting the needed monitoring sis of trends or departures from a standard (usu- of key data elements. A second possibility is ally predevelopment) which result from either to organize all environmental data collection natural causes or human activities (2). For many under one agency responsible for national map- projects, the preproject planning phase is the ping. Ministries concerned with specific proj- only time when a substantial effort is made to ects requiring baseline data would then request determine how the project’s products and serv- the national mapping organization to carry out ices will contribute to larger development goals the needed surveys. A third alternative is to (36) and when data are collected on the re- leave organizations as they are now but ensure sources and resource uses that are likely to be coordination among them and uniformity of affected by the project. Monitoring, on the other environmental information by forming a co- hand, takes place during implementation and ordinating committee. It would probably be is intended to meet the needs of day-to-day wise for the coordinating committee to have 326 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas its own separate staff of a small number of qual- resources show up as dark-colored areas and ified environmental scientists who would ad- areas whose resources are less affected by the vise on methods, techniques, scales, precision proposed development show up as light colored standards, and time intervals for collecting areas. This system, however, depends on the data. planner’s judgment as to which resources are valued and assumes that all are equally impor- An organizational structure that assures that tant. Much labor, time, and money also are re- needed data are collected and made available quired for map preparation and minor changes to all agencies, without duplication or nonuni- in methods or values may often necessitate form methods and standards is needed for sus- complete redrafting (24). tainable resource management. Environmental data are too important and expensive to collect, In recent years, many local governments have to let duplication, incompatible formats and graduated to computerized systems in which scales, and other obstacles hinder the most ef- the maps are transformed to databases linked ficient use of information (31). to a spatially divided base map. Thus, data can be updated easily, and a great number of vari- Resource Data Management Systems ables can be considered in analysis. From these Almost every Federal policy statement, computerized geographic information systems, whether legislation, executive orders, or agency maps can be “overlain” by the computer with guidelines, contains some requirements for data relatively little difficulty to produce compos- collection and monitoring (l). Most regulatory ite maps (cf: METLAND system). A computer permit programs also contain data collection model can also be used to weigh the various requirements. However, few provisions exist land factors according to some measure of their for updating or aggregating data. Comprehen- importance to development to produce a ca- sive resource planning systems, such as geo- pability map (20) graphic information systems, can centralize the storage and processing of spatial data reduc- Feeding inventory and monitoring data into ing duplication, and thus, costs (20). the physical and economic planning process can be relatively simple; in fact, there is a dan- Many States have adopted the map overlay ger of imposing procedures that are unneces- system developed by McHarg in 1969, in which sarily cumbersome for island communities. resources important to the decision to be made Ideally, a microcomputer could be programmed are identified, located, and mapped. By super- to process data and present it in simple form imposing maps, areas containing many valued to island planners (11).

ANALYTIC TECHNIQUES FOR RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

Analytical techniques for resource develop- on land tenure, needs, skills, available resources ment planning are methods of manipulating to invest, cultural constraints, political goals, data to generate and analyze information for and other factors besides biophysical suitability. resource management. Given the current dearth of data and skilled personnel on some Environmental Impact Assessment U.S.-affiliated islands, analytical resource planning techniques should be inexpensive, should The National Environmental Policy Act re- not require a great deal of baseline data, and quires the preparation of environmental impact should not be too complicated or sophisticated statements (EISs) for “significant” Federal ac- (18). In addition, the technique should make it tions such as the construction of ports and air- clear that resource use decisions will depend fields. Some States have additional EIS require- Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 327 ments covering certain land and water uses Resource Suitability Analysis and/or all uses in select geographic areas. Resource suitability or capability analyses EISs are preproject reports on possible posi- provide information about the supply of re- tive/negative short- and long-term impacts resources at various levels of suitability for vari- sulting from some public or private policy, pro- ous uses. Such analyses generally involve gram, or project. The central assumption of EIS delineating landscape (or seascape) units on a requirements is that cause and effect relation- map, or an air photo and assessing the capabil- ships between project activities and resource ity of these areas to sustain an array of poten- conditions can be identified with sufficient cer- tial uses without unacceptable degradation and tainty to make them a valuable tool for analy- given certain levels of management and tech- sis and decisionmaking. Continuous monitor- nology (18) (see fig. 9-1 on p. 342). Land suita- ing and evaluation provide mechanisms for bility analyses, the most common form, include EIS-based planning to deal with uncertainty agricultural classification systems and hazard (14), but these are only rarely practiced in the maps charting flood zones or landslide areas. islands, More complex suitability maps have been de- Environmental impact statements usually veloped using multiple land characteristics, but emphasize potential impacts on natural sys- the costs of developing such information are tems, but some jurisdictions require more ex- high and the results frequently are mixed. tensive analysis including potential impacts on Resource suitability analysis usually involves publicly funded infrastructure, historic and ar- several steps: cheological resources, and demographic and other social and economic conditions. Most 1. identification of the uses for which suita- environmental assessments contain at least the bility is being determined (e.g., agriculture, following elements: low-density housing); 2. identification of the biophysical attributes 1. a description of the proposed project or of the area in question that significantly activity; affect suitability (e.g., soil type, slope, depth 2. identification of selected alternatives to the to bedrock); proposed project or activity; 3. identification of the significant categories 3. description of the existing conditions (nat- of each attribute (e. g., slopes less than 10 ural, social) at the proposed project site; degrees, between 10 and 30 degrees, over and 30 degrees); 4. identification of the nature and magnitude 4. determination of the degree of importance of possible project impacts at the proposed of each biophysical attribute and each sub- site. category of that attribute to suitability of Some jurisdictions also require identification the resource uses in question; of trade-offs or possible mitigative actions. 5. development of a rating system that makes it possible to combine biophysical attri- Environmental impact analysis is a short- butes into an index of suitability for poten- term investigation of the likely impacts of pre- tial land uses on different land or sea areal viously identified policy or project options and, units; and thus, does not permit evaluation of the full range 6. expression of these indices on maps, of development alternatives (14). If resource planning began by incorporating the appropri- The areal units identified should be part of ate environmental and resource capability in- a hierarchical system of land classification, so formation, EISs might be rendered redundant that they can be aggregated for general plan- (18), ning purposes, or subdivided for detailed on- 328 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

site work. In predicting response, and then tentially feasible uses. Assumptions must be suitability, levels of most likely management made as to the likelihood of remedial measures inputs are assumed, and these can be varied being instituted to modify land attributes (e.g., for any socioeconomic situation with a cultural terraces to “correct” steep slopes). Such things context (18). as custom, economics, skills, innovativeness, A central problem in constructing resource likely technology, and institutions come into play in making the rating. Although based in suitability maps is in developing methods for science, these interpretations are certainly combining resource attributes in ways that are partly intuitive (18). practical, technically correct, and easy to understand and communicate. Three basic ap- No judgments are made as to which use is proaches are used: mathematical combination, the “best” or most appropriate for a given plan- regional identification, and logical combination ning unit. No master plan results. Rather, there (21). Mathematical combination involves as- may be several uses that can be easily sustained signing weights to each biophysical attribute on a given unit of the landscape. The decision and then calculating weighted averages. Be- as to which use will depend on many factors cause underlying relationships among attrib- such as resource tenure, needs, skills, available utes commonly are poorly understood and do resources, or political plans for development. not, in practice, lend themselves to easy appli- A change in technology (e.g., a new method of cation in standard resource management, the making terraces) may alter the suitability rat- mathematical approach generally is not appli- ing as would development of a new market. cable to island resource management. The re- Thus, resource suitability rating is specific to gional identification approach involves iden- the general area under planning scrutiny, and tifying subregions within a larger geographical may be quite different for similar biophysical area that are homogeneous with regard to im- units in different watersheds or for ones close portant attributes, and then identifying the to urban centers as opposed to ones in remote suitability of each type of subregion for vari- areas (18). ous resource uses. The logical combination approach assigns Ecologically based planning, if properly done, suitabilities to sets of attributes (rather than sin- indicates an array of uses which are suitable gle attributes) which are expressed in terms of and an array of uses which are not sustainable verbal logic rather than in quantitative indices. and, hence, not suitable. The specific sustaina- For example, a set of simple rules can be de- ble use for a unit of land, and the mosaic of rived that take into consideration the inter- uses on several units or an entire watershed dependence of slope, soil permeability, and sub- will be determined by those close to the land surface material in determining suitability for who have more detailed knowledge of their own hillside residential development. The logical goals and lifestyles, whether the land is man- combination approach to suitability analysis aged by a government office, a cooperative, or would seem to offer the most promise in island a group of individual landholders (18). contexts; the rules are explicit, can be devel- Although developing land suitability maps for oped on the basis of known interdependent at- (25). island resource management may be appropri- tributes and are easy to communicate ate and useful, a more immediate application The task of predicting suitability for an ar- may be ocean and nearshore suitability analy- ray of uses is the most difficult part of the proc- ses. The same principles of logical combina- ess. At this stage, it is necessary to incorporate tion of interdependent attributes might also be information on prevailing or likely resource used for mapping nearshore areas suitable (and management practices of the future users, and unsuitable) for various types of ocean-depen- the resulting likely output for each array of po- dent uses. Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 329

Carrying Capacity tempts to encompass the array of secondary and intangible benefits and costs (22). Propo- Carrying capacity analysis, when extended nents of extended benefit-cost analysis claim from its original use in determining the num- that it can (13): ber of range animals capable of surviving on a piece of land to the optimal human popula- 1 provide an orderly, systematic way to ana- tion that can be supported at given levels of lyze a problem; technology and amenity, has been infrequently 2 provide a “neutral” approach; applied. Islands would seem to be ideal con- 3 illustrate the benefits and costs of alterna- texts for application of the carrying capacity tive land uses; concept because the analyst is dealing with rela- 4 clarify the question of determining project tively closed natural systems. boundary; 5 attempt to include the benefits and costs The basic steps of carrying capacity analy- of unintended beneficial or adverse effects ses include: of the proposed action (externalities); 1. identification of major systems necessary 6 attempt to include intangibles; and for regional development; 7. raise questions of provision of goods, serv- 2. identification of geographic areas for ap- ices, and development options between plication of carrying capacity analyses; current and future generations (intergener- 3. definition of limits of “critical systems” ational equity) (13). (i.e., those systems with capacities that This method incorporates value judgments have been exceeded or are close to over- regarding unquantifiable variables (e.g., es- load conditions); thetics) and social preferences, thus requiring 4 measurement of current use of critical sys- 0 participation by potentially affected groups as tems; and well as experts and decisionmakers. Few guide- 5. determination of the margins for growth. lines exist for implementing this kind of par- Carrying capacity studies were performed in ticipatory planning because of the great varia- Hawaii in the 1970s in response to a legislative tion in forms of economies and government, resolution requesting that the governor and the cultural backgrounds, and traditions. Department of Planning and Economic Devel- opment establish criteria which could then be Multi-Objective Analysis used to limit, restrain, or redirect the State’s growth (25). In general, these studies were com- Once information is available on the likely plex and expensive without revealing the “crit- biophysical, economic, and sociocultural as- ical thresholds” for resource use. Carrying ca- pects of a development project, decisionmakers pacity was not particularly useful in providing need some way to judge the relative importance a scientifically determined population limit for of the findings. Too frequently, decisionmakers particular geographic areas although it was avoid confronting trade-offs among conflicting somewhat useful in substantiating critical re- objectives and only consider the most obvious source use decisions (19,26). or serious effects. Considerable progress has been made in the last two decades in develop- Benefit-Cost Analysis ing multi-objective techniques that address these trade-offs (4,32). Benefit-cost analysis originated in connection with the assessment of U.S. Federal flood con- Multi-objective planning is broader than trol projects in the mid-1930s. The technology more traditional single-objective approaches, has since developed to handle more than merely such as benefit-cost analysis, which require that the direct costs and direct benefits of water re- all the effects of alternative projects be meas- sources projects. Under the name of extended ured in terms of a single unit, usually money. benefit-cost analysis, the methodology now at- Multi-objective planning attempts to compare 330 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas effects within categories, but does not force ef- revealed in preproject assessments and to trace fects into the same measurement units. The causal sequences linking project activities with techniques also provide formal means for deci- such adverse impacts. sionmakers to assign relative values to each cat- Evaluations performed before project com- egory (e.g., number of people employed, reduc- pletion can be used to formulate recommenda- tion in reservoir capacity). tions for changes in objectives, strategies, tech- Using multiple objectives in the planning niques, institutional arrangements, priorities, process can improve resource development in and government policies. Their effective use at least three ways. First, value judgments are depends on the project’s flexibility-i. e., whether determined by decisionmakers rather than by it can respond to recommended changes. Such the analysts. Second, a wider range of alterna- evaluations have a secondary purpose of fa- tives usually is identified, and the relationship cilitating communication among persons con- between alternatives can be described clearly. cerned with the project. Evaluations conducted Third, the analyst’s perceptions of a problem after a project is complete can: probably will be more realistic if the full range ● identify a need to compensate people ad- of objectives is considered (4). versely affected by environmental impacts, ● suggest followup or complementary projects that build on the original project, During and Post-Project Evaluations ● assist in reformulating broader policies and strategies, and Despite EISs and other preproject assess- ● provide lessons for planning other projects ments, projects sometimes generate unantici- elsewhere (36). pated negative impacts. Ongoing evaluations measure a project’s outputs and impacts on in- Post-project assessments frequently are re- tended beneficiaries and assess the project’s garded as a luxury that most jurisdictions can- unintended impacts. Evaluations begin with not afford. However, they should be regarded preproject documentation of potential impact, as a necessary supplement to preproject anal- such as EISs, to assess the predictions of im- yses, particularly to environmental impact as- pacts. However, they should be sufficiently sessments, to provide information needed to broad in scope to examine adverse impacts not revise and reformulate EIS requirements (25).

IMPLEMENTATION OF RESOURCE PLANNING PROGRAMS

A complex array of resource management dredging permit from the U.S. Army Corps of programs already exist in the U.S.-affiliated is- Engineers before dredging can be undertaken. lands. Existing management programs are char- Similarly, the Environmental Protection Agen- acterized by four basic approaches: activity cy regulates the discharge of wastewater efflu- management, area management, sectoral man- ents under Section 402 of the same act. One agement, and integrated management. form of activity management important to island resources is management of activities re- Activity management refers to those programs that seek to ensure specific resource use lated to tourism, e.g., siting of hotels and resorts, and tourist transportation facilities. activities are conducted in ways that minimize adverse impacts on resources. ‘Dredging, for ex- Activity management is a reactive type of ample, is regulated in the U.S. States, common- management. Developers propose specific re- wealths, and territories under Section 404 of source uses or activities at a specific site and the Clean Water Act. A private developer or regulatory agencies must decide whether the government agency is required to apply for a proposed uses are appropriate at that site or, Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 331 if not, whether they can be modified to make at specific sites in advance of actual develop- them acceptable, In this approach to implemen- ment proposals. They are most frequently ex- tation, the types of resource impacts likely to pressed in terms of resource maps and detailed be associated with the proposed use commonly use guidelines. Thus, they frequently require are well known. The degree and type of analy- a full range of resource analysis techniques. ses associated with activity management vary At the national level, perhaps the best exam- greatly. However, regulation of activities usu- ple of an attempt to create an integrated natu- ally requires some sort of environmental assess- ral systems management program is the Coastal ment, including formal environmental impact Zone Management Program. The program fo- statements. cuses on a specific geographic area—the coastal Area management refers to natural systems zone—and seeks to harmonize multiple man- management programs that focus on specific agement objectives within that zone by provid- geographic areas deemed worthy of special pro- ing incentives to States to develop programs tection. The most common area management that incorporate both resource development programs are parks and protected areas (see and resource protection strategies (see “Spe- “Special Application: Parks and Protected cial Application: Coastal Resource Manage- Areas”). Many special area management pro- ment”). Comprehensive community planning grams are intended to achieve a single resource efforts at the municipal level have the same mul- management objective, although “multiple-use” tiple objectives and methods. and “dominant-use” (in which an area is “zoned” for primary uses) plans are being developed for some protected areas in the main- Participatory Approaches to land United States. Special area management Planning and Management usually requires detailed analysis and planning. The need for public participation is based on Once the purposes of special area management several factors. First is the understanding that are agreed on (e. g., watershed and habitat protection), the major analytic tasks involve re- the local knowledge of an area’s natural systems often exceeds or complements scientific source surveys, mapping, boundary setting, and knowledge and is needed for decisionmaking. the development of standards governing uses of be regulated. Such tasks may require re- Another is the desire to design actions that resource specialists. spect people’s priorities, which requires understanding of those priorities. And finally, the suc- Sectoral management refers to the manage- cess of any action depends on public support, ment of a single resource such as forests or fish- which is best marshaled by local involvement eries. The U.S. Forest Service and the National throughout the course of a project (15), Inten- Marine Fisheries Service are examples of Fed- sive regulation and enforcement are undesira- eral sectoral resource management agencies. ble because of the adversary relationship they At local government levels, sectoral manage- create and also are financially impossible on ment is exemplified by water management many islands (16). agencies. Sectoral management usually involves substantial analysis of the supply and Sound resource management requires good understanding of ecological and human use sys- demand for specific resources. Hence, analytic techniques that provide information on sus- tems. The depth and quality of local knowledge of these can be considerable. Gathering this tainable yields and resource carrying capacity knowledge can be a cost-effective means for are likely to be most useful. providing the information base needed for re- Integrated resource management refers to source management projects. In addition, lack multisectoral, multidisciplinary resource man- of necessary biological and social information agement efforts, Integrated resource manage- is an opportunity to begin to achieve partici- ment plans are anticipatory in the sense of seek- pation objectives by involving local people in ing to identify optimal uses of specific resources the identification, design, and implementation 332 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

of research activities. Data gathering also is a In order to tap local sources of information, way to improve the resource users’ understand- it usually is necessary to give equally in return. ing of the natural systems and processes on projects that are based on people’s priorities which they depend, which can give them and fulfill their needs create trust and cooper- greater control over their livelihoods and help ation. Commonly those whose needs, as well them be better able to make informed decisions. as dependence on natural resources, are greatest are usually the most “marginalized” from For example, a project supported by the East- the local society and so the hardest to reach. ern Caribbean Natural Areas Management Pro- For these people especially, the need to build gram in St. Lucia had secondary school stu- confidence and to demonstrate a project’s tan- dents carry out, as part of their regular gible benefits is important. The following con- curriculum, a study of charcoal production in ditions have been suggested as guidelines for the project site (a mangrove area), in which they interviewed the charcoal producers. This sim- public participation in resource management: ple project provided: 1. A long-term presence to understand a 1. information on which to base preliminary community’s structure, build rapport, and foster mutual respect. decisions about the management of the 2. Local involvement in all aspects of a mangrove and determine additional data project from design to implementation, as needs; well as a respect for local input. Seeking 2. an educational lesson for the students in which they learned more about social, nat- ideas and advice and then ignoring them ural, and economic systems; creates animosity rather than cooperation. In order to get active local involvement, 3. a way to inform the resource users about project objectives must coincide with or the project, gauge their needs, and solicit at least include objectives of local users and their involvement; groups. 4. an experiment in alternative educational 3. Local participation in concrete activities techniques for project personnel and the from which people can gain tangible students’ teachers; and benefits. 5. information which influenced decisions on 4. Education and research activities in activities in the mangrove area (15). which local people are equal partners Generating public participation in resource with government, project staff, and profes- management projects can be extremely time- sionals. When knowledge and information consuming. Because of the common lack of are freely shared, everyone learns and dis- organization of island resource users commu- parate groups gain respect for one another. nities, simply calling public meetings, putting The final responsibility for the environment up posters and preparing radio programs is gen- falls on the shoulders of governments and of erally insufficient (15; app. F). Considerable effort must be expended in meeting resource resource users and the general public. There- fore, to be effective, resource managers must users, showing interest in their problems, gaining their trust individually, and bringing them understand local human needs and cooperate with government and community groups to en- into project activities. Generally resource users sure that valuable natural resources are used are interested in finding viable solutions to lo- wisely (16). cal social and resource problems, but are “tired of enthusiastic plans that promise much and Special Application: do little.” Further, projects involving many diverse actors can create dissention and chaos Parks and Protected Areas rather than lasting linkages between resource Introduction users; the importance of diplomacy to the success of the project cannot be underestimated Protected areas like national parks and re- (15). serves are one approach to the conservation of Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 333 species and ecosystems. The establishment and maintenance of parks and protected areas may, in fact, be necessary if life-support systems and essential ecological processes are to be maintained, genetic diversity is to be preserved, and use of species and ecosystems is to be sustainable. Different kinds of protected areas are adapted to different requirements for the use and conservation of resources. In traditional Pacific island cultures, access to scarce resources was restricted through taboo areas (reserves) and temporary closed areas, among other means. Today there is a range of options for designating and managing protected areas. Which option is taken depends on the nature, status, extent, and potential uses of the resource or ecosystem in question. Phofo credit Office of Technology Assessment In a broad sense, setting aside natural areas Multiple use protected areas integrate traditional resource uses, such as traditional subsistence need not imply setting aside development: it gathering, with conservation. may be a part of the development process, especially when development’s objective is to sustain society. Where a species or ecosystem is anced use and protection of coral reef areas. sensitive to any human interference, however, Other areas requiring the careful balancing of a strict nature reserve may be appropriate. different resource requirements such as watershed protection, hunting, and gathering of tradi- Large and small areas where conservation is compatible with recreation and education can tional forest products can be made into be made into national parks and natural mon- multiple-use management areas. The kind and degree of protection can vary to fit almost every uments, respectively. Where some management local circumstance (11) is necessary to protect a species or maintain its habitat, managed nature reserves or wild- Protected areas with suitable resources to life sanctuaries can be created. The scenic generate tourism can stimulate the economy beauty and traditional resources or lifestyles and provide employment. In many cases, proof inhabited areas can be maintained through tected areas result in increased government em- designation as protected landscapes, anthropo- ployment and private sector investment, logical reserves, or customary protected areas. Temporary resource reserves can be estab- Need for Protected Areas and lished in areas where decisions on development Selection Criteria must await further study. On some of the U.S.-affiliated islands only Marine reserves permit protection and man- fragments of undisturbed natural areas remain, agement of important coastal resources. Strict and many species are endangered. Natural controls over activities in the coastal zone and areas serve a variety of economically and eco- in adjacent watersheds, together with careful logically important functions. Forests, for ex- fisheries management and a network of pro- ample, provide watershed protection and water tected areas should permit sustained use of catchment, control soil erosion, and contain some protected areas such as reefs. The Aus- useful predators that control mosquitoes and tralian Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author- other insect pests. While lowland rain forests ity has been successfully pioneering the bal- once covered one-quarter of Puerto Rico, little 334 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas of this forest remains today. Two-thirds of The typical biosphere reserve contains spe- American Samoa’s lowland rain forests have cific areas to accomplish a variety of research, been destroyed, Pohnpei’s and Yap’s are mostly monitoring, and conservation tasks. These disturbed, and in Truk no undisturbed areas areas generally are: exist, Only scattered and inaccessible remnants ● core area—strictly protected from human remain on Guam and there are none remain- disturbance, ideally containing much of the ing on the Marshall Islands or the U.S. Virgin biological diversity of the area; Islands. Where such forests remain, some por- ● experiment] research area—manipulative tions could be preserved. Forests might be man- research is performed on managed eco- aged to include protected natural areas, areas systems; used for local wood production and/or agro- ● rehabilitation area—demonstration of re- forestry, and fallow areas where appropriate. covery of degraded lands; Despite unclear legislation and policies re- ● traditional use area—conservation and lated to protected areas in the former Trust Ter- study of sustainable resource development ritory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), some pro- practices; and tected areas have been established in the region ● area of cooperation—managed to foster un- (Bikar and Pokak in the Marshall Islands, derstanding of the biosphere reserve, such Ngerukewid in Palau, and Maug and Sariguan areas may include human settlements, for- in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mari- ests, and rangelands. ana Islands) (23). Protected areas have been cre- Ideally, research performed within an individ- ated in Guam and American Samoa through ual biosphere reserve can provide important various Federal agencies. A number of National information on natural and managed ecosys- wildlife Refuges have been established in the tems for local use in resource development. Pacific, including Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Atolls, Midway Island, and Rose Atoll in Amer- There are three designated biosphere reserves ican Samoa. protected areas in the Caribbean within the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands: Lu- are well developed. For example, Puerto Rico quillo Experimental Forest (Caribbean National alone contains 14 State forests and the Carib- Forest) (28,112 acres); Guanica Commonwealth bean National Forest (Luquillo Biosphere Re- Forest Reserve on Puerto Rico (9,930 acres); and serve), and nearly two-thirds of St, John (one Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve (15,188 acres) of the three major U.S. Virgin Islands) is desig- on St. John Island in the U.S. Virgin Islands. nated as both a national park and a biosphere The only designated biosphere reserve in the reserve. U.S. Pacific islands is located on Hawaii (35,38). The concept of the biosphere reserve was in- The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands would troduced in 1971 by the United Nations Edu- likely benefit from creation of biosphere re- cation, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s serves in the region. Sustainable resource de- (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere program. velopment research performed on biosphere re- Biosphere reserves are part of a worldwide net- serves could provide useful information for work of protected environments with a primary local resource development planning. Poten- intent of promoting international scientific co- tial sites suitable for biosphere reserves would operation and the study of human interaction need to be identified and technical assistance with the environment. Ideally, the biosphere probably would be required initially. Although reserve integrates conservation with research, strong local land- and sea-tenure customs in environmental monitoring, education, training, some Pacific islands may pose a major con- traditional landuse, and surrounding socioeco- straint to reserve development, extant parks nomic needs. Local participation and accept- may prove to be appropriate sites. A regional ance is particularly important to the concept cooperative effort in developing biosphere re- of the biosphere reserve (39). serves may mitigate some of the economic, Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 335

Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment

Ngerukewid Wildlife Refuge (Seventy Islands Park) in Palau, containing considerable open marine areas and unique marine lakes, may offer a potential biosphere reserve site. staffing, and technical constraints that exist in clude environmental programs extended to pri- the islands. The Hawaiian Islands Biosphere mary and secondary schools, field trips, and Reserve might serve as a model and a source workshops for educators (33). of technical assistance in the development of Micronesia biosphere reserves. The Virgin Islands Resource Management Co- The Virgin Islands National Park was for- operative (VIRMC), established in 1982 through mally designated the Virgin Islands Biosphere an initiative of USNPS, has a primary goal of Reserve (VIBR) in 1983. The reserve covers bringing local and regional expertise together nearly two-thirds of the island of St. John and to solve resource management problems. VIRMC represents many of the areas ecosystems. The is active in carrying out the objectives of the U.S. National Park Service (USNPS) manages biosphere reserve on St. John and has per- VIBR and has a declared commitment to insti- formed relevant resource inventories, monitor- tute research, management, and education pro- ing, and characterization studies towards that grams and further to coordinate these programs goal. Long-term projects of VIRMC include with other Lesser Antillean institutions. On- monitoring of St. John’s coral reefs, fisheries going VIBR educational outreach activities in- resources, and vegetation (33). 336 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Constraints to Designation of the Pacific islands to anything that interferes Protected Areas with traditional cultural practices, such as hunting native birds. On islands where land is On small islands it is often impossible to limited and has been held in customary owner- maintain an adequate physical separation be- ship for generations, protected areas that ex- tween damaging human activities and natural clude people and their activities probably will systems. Certain activities (i.e., use of pesticides be difficult to implement. This is even more dif- and other toxic chemicals, and certain types ficult if populations are approaching or exceed of industrial development) may simply have to island carrying capacity. be strictly regulated, avoided, or prohibited. The establishment and effective management Resource protection will succeed only if it of protected areas certainly can contribute has the support of local populations, particu- significantly to sustainable use of renewable larly resource users, traditional leaders, and the resources, but may be constrained by such fac- heads of land-owning families. This support can tors as: extreme vulnerability of island eco- be generated if local people participate from systems, lack of trained manpower and money, the beginning in their planning and definition. weak local institutions, increasing demand for Benefit-sharing arrangements with landowners limited resources by growing populations, lack may also help ensure public support. If enforce- of information on the dynamics of island eco- ment can be left to landowners, protection systems, and the deep spiritual and cultural ties might be achieved without actual government of island peoples to ancestral lands (making acquisition. public acquisition difficult). Protected areas may gain local acceptance Relatively few protected areas exist in many more readily if they are carefully chosen and of the U.S.-affiliated islands, suggesting that developed to demonstrate the value of parks Federal agencies responsible for establishing and preserves to the public and decisionmakers. protected areas have not been very active or Interpretive materials can be developed to ex- effective in the islands. Part of the problem may plain what is protected and why. Parks could be the difficulty of adapting U.S. law concern- become environmental education laboratories ing different types of protected areas to situa- for school groups, and increase in number as tions prevailing in smaller islands (11). U.S. pro- public understanding and support increase. visions for protected areas lack a strong role Traditional knowledge of resource use, man- for local people in planning and management agement, and conservation remains in many such as would be necessary in many island situ- island areas and could form a base for public ations. Primary responsibility for creation of support of park and protected area develop- protected areas may have been left to local gov- ment. Parks and protected areas could be dem- ernments with neither expertise or means to onstrated as a method to preserve island her- pursue such goals. Flexible programs, such as itage, culture, and traditional practices while the National Marine Sanctuary Program, may protecting island ecosystems. Direction of this prove more adaptable to island needs (11). type may foster local support for and participation in protected area establishment and Local Participation in Protected Area management. Designation and Management The need for protection in some cases can Modern attempts to protect or preserve is- be identified by local people rather than gov- land resources, whether through establishment ernments. Techniques that allow untrained lo- of protected areas or through other means, must cal people to monitor coral reefs have been de- consider traditional factors as much as possi- veloped (12), and similar approaches could be ble. Resource management technologies that developed for other resources. When local peo- reinforce traditional ways or ideas will have ple see for themselves what happens to a re- a better chance of success than those imposed source, they may be motivated to modify their from outside. For example, resistance exists in own behaviors if they have options to do so. Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands “ 337

Experience in both the Pacific and Caribbean ● assessing the environmental consequences demonstrates that no substitute exists for pub- of a range of options for each development lic support and involvement (15,34). proposal, and ● selecting the alternative that best max- Conclusion imizes economic development and conservation of coastal resources (28). Without effective protection, further species extinctions and the disappearance of some eco- The planning process should be iterative and systems where damage has already been severe open to ensure that communication, under- are likely on the U.S.-affiliated islands. The standing, and eventually agreement is estab- broader use of protected areas for resource lished among all individuals with information, management will depend on comprehensive claims or interest in the resources. island planning and management and on prac- Under the Coastal Zone Management Act of tical experience with different management 1972 (CZMA), the United States provides a max- technologies. There will inevitably be conflicts imum of four annual “incentive” grants (Sec. between measures for the sustainable use of re- 305) to eligible coastal States and territories to sources and desires for more rapid or immedi- promote timely development of plans. After ate development. The resolution of such con- technical, policy, and legal review and approval flicts will, in part, determine whether the by the national office (now the Office of Ocean islands maintain a sustainable base for their and Coastal Resource Management of the Na- populations, or slowly decline in productivity tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- and become increasingly dependent on outside tion [NOAA]), areas with approved plans be- sources of support. come eligible for additional funds (Sec. 306) to implement and operate the plan, subject to an- Special Application: nual reviews. Grants may also be made to areas Coastal Resource Management to carry out research studies and training required to support CRM programs (Sec. 310). Coastal resource management (CRM) is a holistic form of planning and decisionmaking Regional (State or territorial) governments are charged with the responsibility to develop and that aims to maximize sustainable multiple uses administer the CRM plan. This usually involves of coastal resources (28). Little land in the U. S.- affiliated islands can be termed noncoastal, so a geographic inventory of resources; one or more analyses; and preparation of implemen- that coastal resources management is, in effect, island resource management. tation plans, guidelines, or policies applicable to the region designating preferred uses of re- Although there is no set procedure for CRM, sources. The CZMA required that an inventory planning in this context consists of several com- of natural and manmade resources be under- ponents: taken and requires that resource use determination be based, in part, on “the capabilities ● a government commitment to CRM; of each resource for supporting various types ● a geographical inventory of important resources and resources uses, demands, of uses and the impact of various resource uses upon the natural environment” (37). Other anal- values and functions; and yses, such as legal-institutional analysis, pub- ● development of policies and guidelines for lic attitude-value surveys, and economic and resource allocation. social needs-demands studies also may be per- Management involves: formed to fulfill information requirements for developing a coastal resources management ● assigning responsibilities for CRM to lead and participating agencies, plan. ● evaluating proposed development and use Regional programs may sponsor participa- options for coastal resources against the tion of other State or local government agencies plan, in research and development projects, and 338 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas plans for areas of particular concern. Also, re- mation and advice. Some large construction gional governments review proposed Federal and piecemeal landfill projects approved in the or other development projects to determine U.S. Pacific islands have caused significant ad- consistency with the approved State CRM plan. verse impacts which could have been avoided with better planning (28). Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Pacific flag territories of Guam and American Freely Associated States’ environmental pro- Samoa became eligible for Section 305 funds tection boards have had principal environ- under CZMA. (The Commonwealth of the North- mental responsibility, but their authority ap- ern Mariana Islands became eligible in 1978.) pears limited to water quality, sanitation, and By 1980, each of these areas had approved CRM the effects of earthmoving. They have been in- plans and became eligible for Section 306 funds. effective in compelling applicants to evaluate All continue to receive Section 306 funds to help alternative sites and procedures, and lack au- operate and manage their programs. Annual thority over aspects of development not strictly evaluations by NOAA and continued Federal dealing with earthmoving. Similarly, planning support indicate that all five existing manage- and marine resource management offices have ment programs are operating satisfactorily and had little impact on CRM: staffs are small, data in compliance with CZMA policies and regu- are limited, and permitting and project approval lations. authority is essentially nonexistent. Although development plans are prepared and updated The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands was periodically for major islands, comprehensive not eligible for funds under the original author- land-use planning and controls (e.g., zoning) ization for CZMA. When the act was reauthor- are lacking (28). ized in 1980, the TTPI was made eligible for Section 306 funds but not for Section 305 funds Provide Financial and Technical (28). The TTPI could not take advantage of its Planning Assistance to the FAS eligibility for Section 306 funds because they had neither the technical nor financial re- The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has spon- sources to develop the plans in the first place sored a number of coral reef and coastal re- without Federal assistance. Because of the size source inventories in the tropical pacific since of land and ocean areas comprising the TTPI, 1978. These projects, with one exception, were an acceptable CRM plan would have cost an supported by Section 22 (Planning Assistance amount comparable to what was spent on the to States) of the Water Resources Development Section 305 studies for the three Pacific flag Act. A Corps-managed American Samoan coral territories and Hawaii. Even if initial efforts reef inventory was sponsored by CZMA funds were limited to district centers, funding would transferred to the Corps by the American Sa- have exceeded the TTPI budget (28). The Com- moan Government, at the latter’s request. The pact of Free Association does not include or Corps has received further requests to initiate mention funds specifically directed to devel- resource inventories in the U.S. Pacific, but con- opment of coastal resource management plans tinued use of Section 22 funds for original data although it allows for provision of technical collection is in doubt. assistance by U.S. Federal agencies (Article II; Coastal resources planning and management Sec. 226). might offer a sound means of addressing a num- Under the TTPI, key coastal permitting re- ber of important socioeconomic and resource sponsibility was with the U.S. Army Corps of conservation issues facing the FAS (table 9-1). Engineers in accordance with Section 404 of These might include identification of impor- the Clean Water Act. The Corps historically re- tant subsistence fishing grounds; planning for lied on other Federal agencies (e.g., U.S. Fish small dock, airfield, and water catchment and Wildlife Service, National Marine Fisheries projects in the outer islands; and means to Service, EPA) and territorial offices for infor- evaluate potential agriculture or aquiculture Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 339

Table 9-1. —Selected Socioeconomic and Resource Table 9-2.—Potential Implementation of Planning Conservation Issues Suitable for Inclusion in and Management Technologies To Address Selected Future CRM Initiatives in the FAS CRM Issues (identified in table 9-1)

1. Socioeconomic issues ● Public meetings, hearings, and workshops to evaluate A. Outer islands needs for CRM in the FAS ● Population density and out-migration ● Legislative endorsement and commitment to CRM by ● Conservation of subsistence lifestyles legislatures of new countries ● Small dock and airfield development ● ● Water supply and catchment facilities Administrative reorganization to establish a CRM lead ● Copra industry development or rejuvenation office or agency in each new country ● Other cash crops and handicrafts ● Coastal resource inventories of valuable resources and ● Commercial fishing their uses ● Tourism management —Urban centers—first priority ● Aquiculture development —Outer islands—second priority B. Urban centers ● Draft CRM plan development ● Population growth, immigration, and redistri- ● bution Public review and final CRM plan approval ● Land ownership disputes ● Implementation of approved plans to meet following ● Landuse planning and management goals: ● Water supply and quality —promote economic development ● Self-reliance in energy generation —promote conservation of important resources ● College and university facilities or assistance —waste management ● Agricultural and aquiculture development —research and management of areas of particular ● Tourism management concern ● Controls over Iandfilling for houselots and other —others (e.g., development of institution or facilities residential and urban uses for higher education and research) ● Commercial fishing, facilities and permits ● Education and training programs on CRM within each Il. Conservation of natural resources new country ● Conservation of subsistence resources ● ● Historic preservation Publication and telecommunication of CRM activities ● Protection of endangered and threatened species in native languages ● Fishing with explosives and poisons SOURCE: J. Maragos, “Coastal Resource Development and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. ● Landfilling of important coastal habitats ● Water pollution and degradation of important habitats Micronesia, the Republic of Palau, and the ● Controls over dredging, filling, and construction in coastal waters Republic of the Marshall Islands. Each program Ill. Waste management could be subdivided to address separately the ● Wastewater and sanitation facilities needs of the urban centers and outer islands. ● Solid waste control and management faciIities Each nation would require a centralized coordi- ● Cleanup of hazardous materials and war explosives and debris nating and planning agency to develop, man- ● Contamination from nuclear testing and oil age, and enforce CRM programs. Existing plan- pollution ning offices, marine resources offices, and SOURCE: J. Maragos, “Coastal Resource Development and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986 environmental protection boards need substantial upgrading, reorganization, training, and ventures. In urban centers, CRM planning ini- staffing to assume that role, An alternative tiatives could help to identify priorities and sites would be to establish new coastal offices, draw- for future public works projects, especially ing on the resources of the other offices for sup- water supply, wastewater management, energy, port and coordinating with them to develop and solid waste management facilities. Land- plans. use planning supported by a CRM program could mitigate ecological and public health im- Outside expertise probably will be required, pacts of urban development. Table 9-2 presents at least initially, for resource inventories, re- technologies for fulfilling the planning and search and development projects, manpower CRM needs of each area. training, planning, and evaluation of specific development proposals. Considerable assis- In light of the Compact of Free Association, tance could come from outside universities with technical assistance for development of coastal tropical coastal experience, such as the Univer- resource management plans could be requested sity of Guam, the University of Hawaii and by the governments of the Federated States of University of the South Pacific (Suva, Fiji). 340 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

Resource planning is a means of strengthen- carrying capacity analysis of certain systems, ing the ecological foundation for future re- such as water supply, may be useful. - source management and of putting this information into the decisionmaking process along with economic, social, cultural, and adminis- GuideIines for Information trative information (18). Planning for sustaina- Management ble use of resources is not only a scientific tech- The selection of specific techniques nology but has to do with the basic topics of for economic development strategy, land distribu- gathering and analyzing information for re- tion and tenure, interagency rivalry in control source management could be based on several of resources, peoples’ wants and needs, and so guidelines. forth. It is a “people-problem,” extremely po- 1. Identification of specific information litical in nature, and must be dealt with from needs and analytic techniques for resource the outset in a manner in which education and assessment should be based on analyses training are important, although slow-acting in- of current and projected planning and reg- gredients (18). ulatory information needs. Planning and implementation require infor- A detailed survey should be performed for mation and analysis in order to make optimal each island covering what types of resource use resource use decisions. Specific analytic tech- decisions are currently being made, the type niques have been developed to assist those who and quality of information and analysis on make resource use decisions. which these decisions are based, availability In the short run, EISs are likely to remain the of advisory services, and access to databases in other agencies. Detailed information also is primary technique used by island resource needed about the present scope of data col- managers for natural systems assessment be- lected, methods of data acquisition, frequency, cause activity management is currently the geographic scale, format of presentation, ac- dominant approach to resource management cessibility, and costs of collection (2). and of several “off-the-shelf” approaches to impact assessment make it relatively cheap and Current resource management programs easy to implement. A review of current proce- sometimes reflect Federal requirements or the dures for conducting EISs could help planners availability of funds for management rather identify and develop more “island relevant” EIS than locally perceived management needs. procedures. Post-project evaluation would be Hence, the survey of planners and resource one way to reveal the strengths and weaknesses managers also should address the issues of cur- of current EIS procedures. rent resource use problems that are under- managed and anticipated resource use prob- Resource capability assessments have some lems for which information will have to be promise but, because they usually require high gathered for management efforts. levels of expertise and because their value is questionable in the context of small islands, 2. Opportunities for sharing existing Federal they are less likely to be adopted by island plan- and local data should be considered prior ning offices in the near term. However, the pos- to gathering more data. sibility of constructing capability analyses for Agency personnel frequently are unfamiliar nearshore waters has considerable potential with data collected by personnel in other agen- and should be explored further. cies or, if they are aware of data acquisition Carrying capacity analysis also has limited efforts, commonly there are questions about the immediate potential because of high costs and quality of the data and difficulties in receiving skill requirements. However on some islands data on a timely basis, An island-by-island Ch. 9—Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 341 assessment of data collection could be a first are most appropriate for island management step toward identifying opportunities for shar- should be addressed on a case-by-case basis (25). ing data and collaborating on the acquisition However, satellite information and computer- of additional data. A preliminary study also ized geographic information systems soon may should identify current incentives and con- be cost-effective methods of data collection, straints for sharing data. A long-term goal could analysis, and display (31). The Natural Systems be interagency protocols for acquisition and Assessment for Development ecological sur- sharing of data useful to several agencies in veys and monitoring program can be effective their resource management efforts. in assisting countries to make optimum use of available modern technology (31). Local resi- Priorities should be established for the ac- 3. dents can be used to provide observations quisition of new data or the development of which can be used as ground truth data for rean interagency information clearinghouse. motely sensed data, and can provide detailed Few islands can afford a major data acquisi- knowledge about specific areas (27). Again, an tion effort. An initial priority for data collec- incremental strategy of focusing on training tion would be to ensure that essential data— and demonstration projects probably is war- those which, if lacking, prevent program ranted. implementation—are being collected. After en- Emphasis should be placed on dissemina- suring this, an incremental approach to collect- 5. ing desirable data can be established. Rural is- tion as well as acquisition of data. land residents commonly are the best source Distribution of data to users may be en- of information based on intimate, long-term couraged through preparation of data lists and familiarity with an area’s resources and trends. inventories, reproducing reports, air photos, Information from these sources can be com- topographic maps, sponsoring workshops and piled through interviews, surveys, workshops, seminars, and adopting an “open files” policy and other techniques. for other agencies (25). If participatory ap- By gathering data on a case-by-case or area- proaches to planning are adopted, dissemina- by-area basis, managers can determine what tion of information can be more direct. the costs of data acquisition are, what ecologi- 6. Training of local data collectors/mappers cal and social parameters are most useful, and should be part of basic resource informa- what the requirements are for a larger scale data tion acquisition. collection effort, Initial data collection efforts could be concentrated in areas where devel- Short-course training in resource information opment pressures are the greatest in order to collection and mapping techniques is needed identify baseline conditions from which trends to ensure usefulness of resource planning ef- in resource conditions can be determined, and forts on many U.S.-affiliated islands. Such on undisturbed or nearly undisturbed areas courses are provided by many U.S. universi- which may have species or ecosystems of par- ties. An example of this kind of program is the ticular value. International Land Use Planning Training Pro- gram; its first phase was held by Cornell Univer- 4. Data acquisition, storage, and retrieval sity in 1983. Perhaps more appropriate for de- should be based on appropriate tech- velopment of land assessment and mapping nologies. skills would be on-island training sessions—a The availability and continuing improvement traveling workshop. A collaboration of Depart- in remote sensing and electronic data process- ment of the Interior-U. S. Man and the Bio- ing pose a dilemma for island natural systems sphere program in training for land assessment, managers. These technologies commonly require classification, mapping, and suitability rating high levels of skill, and are being modified so could be initiated using the East-West Center rapidly that determining which technologies assessment manual (3). 342 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure 9-1.— Typical Siting of Land Uses on U.S.-Affiliated High Islands Man- Reefs Ocean Interior Coastal Flatlands groves

SOURCE: N. H. Cheatham, quarter, 1975, pp 7-11

CHAPTER 9 REFERENCES

“Land and Natural Re- 3. Carpenter, R., et al., Preliminary Report of the 1. Aspen Systems Corp., Workshop on Ecological Baseline Surveys and sources Management: An Analysis of Selected Monitoring, Federal Policies, Programs, and Planning Mech- East-West Center unpublished report, February 1985. In: Lowry, 1986. anisms. ” Report to the President’s Interagency 4. Cohon, J. L., Multiobjective Programming and Task Force on Environmental Data and Moni- Planning (New toring Programs, prepared for the Council on York Academic Press, 1978). 5. Connell, J., “Country Report No. 3: Federated Environmental Quality and the Resource and States of Micronesia,” South Pacific Commis- Land Investigations Program of the U.S. Geo- logical Survey, Department of the Interior, 1979. sion, Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983. 6. Connell, J., “Country Report No. 12: Northern 2. Carpenter, R. (cd.), Natural Systems for Deve]- South Pacific Commission, opment: What Planners Need To Know (New Mariana Islands,” York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1983). Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983. Ch. 9–Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 343

7. Connell, J., “Country Report No. 6: Guam, ” 22< Hufschmidt, M., et al., Environment, Natural South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Systems and Development: An Economic Valu- Caledonia, 1983. ation Guide (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins 8. Connell, J., “Country Report No, 13: Palau, ” University Press, 1982). In: Hamilton, 1982, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New 23. International Union for the Conservation of Na- Caledonia, 1983. ture and Natural Resources, IUCN Directory of 9. Connell, J., “Country Report No, 8: Marshall Is- Protected Areas in Oceania, IUCN Conserva- lands, ” South Pacific Commission, Noumea, tion Monitoring Centre, IUCN Commission on New Caledonia, 1983. National Parks and Protected Areas, Third 10. Connell, J., “Country Report: American Samoa,” South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Con- South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Cale- ference, Apia, Western Samoa, June 1985. donia, draft report, 1983. 24. Laird, R. T,, et al., “Quantitative Land-Capability 11. Dahl, A,, “Tropical Island Ecosystems and Pro- Analysis: Selected Examples From the San Fran- tection Technologies To Sustain Renewable Re- cisco Bay Region, California, ” U.S. Geological sources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA com- Survey professional paper No. 945 (Washington, missioned paper, 1986. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979). 12. Dahl, A., CoraZ Reef Monitoring Handbook 25. Lowry, K., “An Overview of Selected Natural (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Com- Systems Planning and Management Techniques mission, 1981). (Reprinted as Reference Meth- for U. S,-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA commissioned ods for Marine Pollution Studies No. 25, UNEP, paper, 1986. 1984). In: Dahl, 1986. 26. Lowry, K., “Reflections on the Concept of Car- 13, Dixon, J., Pricing the Unpriced, Using 13ene- rying Capacity, ” WP74-002 (Honolulu, HI: Uni- fit/Cost Analysis to Value the Environment, versity of Hawaii Environmental Simulation East-West Center Seminar (unpublished), Hon- Laboratory, December 1974), In: Lowry, 1986. olulu, HI, 1982. In: Hamilton, 1982. 27. Makap, N. N., “Papua New Guinea: Natural Sys- 14. Dutton, I., Research and Monitoring Section, tems Baseline Surveys and Monitoring, ” Eco- Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, logical Surveys and Monitoring Data Needs in Townsville, Australia, personal communication, Asia and the Pacific, Morgan, J.R, (cd,) (Hono- September 1986. lulu, HI: East-West Center, 1986). 15. Geoghegan, T., “An Experiment in Participa- 28. Maragos, J, E., “Coastal Resource Development tory Resource Management: A Case Study From and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands, ” St. Lucia, ” West Indies Lab, Christiansted, St. OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Croix, USVI (unpublished draft) 1986. 29. McHarg, I. L., Design With Nature (Garden City, 16. Geogehan, T,, “Public Participation and Man- NY: Doubleday/Natural History Press, 1968). aged Areas in the Caribbean, ” Parks 10(1):12- 30. Mitchell, B., Geography and Resource Analy- 14, January-March 1985, sis (New York: Longman Publishing, 1979). In: 17, Government of Guam, Bureau of Planning, Plan- Lowry, 1986, ning Information Program, “Guam Inv-entory 31. Morgan, J. R. (cd,), “Introduction,” Ecological of Planning Information, ” 1981. Surveys and Monitoring Data Needs in Asia and 18< Hamilton, L. S., “Land Use Planning Technol- the Pacific, East-West Center Working Paper, ogies To Sustain Tropical Forest and Wood- Honolulu HI, 1986, lands,” 1982, paper commissioned by the Office 32. Nichols, R., and Hyman, E., “An Evaluation of of Technology Assessment for Technologies To Environmental Assessment Methods, ” Journal Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, 1984, of the Water Resources Planning and Manage- 19. Hawaii Environmental Simulation Laboratory, ment Division, American Society of Civil Engi- Carrying Capacity AnaZysis in Context (Hono- neers 108, No. WR1, March 1982. lulu, HI: University of Hawaii, 197.5). In: Lowry, 33. Rogers, C., “Toward a Lesser Antillean Bio- 1986. sphere Reserve, ” Parks 10(3):22-24, July- 20. Hess, A., “Land Capability Analysis Technol- September 1985. ogies,” OTA working paper (unpublished draft, 34. South Pacific Regional Environmental Program, 1984), Proceedings Third South Pacific National Parks 21. Hopkins, L, D., “Methods for Generating Land and Reserves Conference held in Apia, West- Suitability Maps: A Comparative Evaluation, ” ern Samoa, June 24-29, 1985 (Noumea, New Journal of the American Institute of Planners Caledonia: 1985). In: Dahl, 1986. 43(4):386-399, 1977, In: Lowry, 1986. 35. United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cul- 344 ● Integrated RenewabLe Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

tural Organization (UNESCO), “Action Plan for 38. von Drost zu Hulshoff, B., and Gregg, W. P., Jr., Biosphere Reserves,” Nature and Resources “Biosphere Reserves: Demonstrating the Value 20(4):1-12, October-December 1984. of Conservation in Sustaining Society,” Parks 36. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess- 10(3):1-18, July-September 1985. ment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest 39. Wood, J. (cd.), Proceedings of the Workshop on Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. Biosphere Reserves and Other Protected Areas Government Printing Office, March 1984). for Sustainable Development of Small Caribbean 37. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Islands, May 10-12, 1983, Virgin Islands Na- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, The tional Park, Cancel Bay, St. John, USVI, U.S. De- Virgin Islands Coastal Resource Management partment of the Interior, National Park Service, Plan and Final Environmental Impact State- 1984. ment, Washington, DC, 1978. Chapter 10 Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress CONTENTS

Page Introduction ...... ,....347 Congressional Oversight...... 348 Coordination of Federal Agency Activities ...... 349 Extension of Technical Assistance to the Islands ...... 351 Federal/Insular Information Sharing ...... 351 Data Collection, Information Management and Planning ...... 352 Agriculture and Forestry ...... 354 Aquiculture and Nearshore Fisheries...... 355 Education ...... 357 Issue: Traditional Knowledge and Skills ...... ,357 Issue: Environmental Education ...... ,357 Research ...... ,358 Agriculture and Forestry ...... 359 Aquiculture and Nearshore Fisheries...... 360 Local and Regional Cooperation in Research ...... ,....361 Extension and Training ...... 362 Agriculture and Forestry ...... 362 Aquiculture and Nearshore Fisheries...... 363 Issue: Species Introduction ...... 363 Incentives ...... 364 Issue: Marketing Assistance ...... 364 Issue: Conservation Cost-Sharing ...... 364 Issue: Impacts of Income Support and Food Programs ...... 365 Chapter IO References ...... 366 Chapter 10 Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress

INTRODUCTION

In addition to being part of the United States, ● education, the U.S.-affiliated islands of the Pacific and ● research, Caribbean are of importance to the United ● extension and training, and States for strategic, economic, and diplomatic ● regulations and incentives, reasons, Because of their geographic (small size Little can occur without the necessary infor- and isolation) and economic characteristics, mation: both problems and opportunities may economic sectors dependent on the islands’ nat- be overlooked. Not only is the appropriate data ural resources—agriculture, aquiculture, fish- necessary, management systems that allow easy eries, and tourism—have the greatest potential access and manipulation for various needs are to form the basis of their economies. Growing economies are required to support the islands’ necessary to put that information to use. Plan- growing populations and aspirations, and to ning of resource and economic development assist those that are becoming independent to takes that information one step further—social, cultural, and political considerations must be enter the international economy. integrated. The U.S. Congress, as the primary policy- Education provides the personnel interested making body for the U.S.-affiliated islands, has considerable latitude to assist with the sustaina- and, perhaps, skilled in the disciplines and tech- ble development and management of the is- nologies needed for sustainable resource man- lands’ renewable resources. Numerous Federal agement on islands. Research is the source of agencies already house expertise and programs those technologies and extension and training provide the means to deliver them to the even- that are extended to the islands and others that could be tuned to their needs. However, poten- tual practitioners. Finally, regulatory measures tial exists for Congress to modify the structure and incentives are needed (or disincentives of certain committees/subcommittees in such need to be removed) in order to encourage those a way that opportunities for Federal assistance practitioners to adopt new technologies and activities, are readily apparent and easily available, In addition, the Department of the Interior’s Of- Within the above categories, opportunities ex- fice of Territorial and International Affairs, ist for improved and expanded Federal agency which has been designated as the major point support for agriculture, forestry, aquiculture, of contact between the insular governments and and nearshore fisheries development appropri- the U.S. Congress, could strengthen its role in ate to the tropical insular environment. While agency coordination and technical assistance. the structures of both Federal and local gov- These underlie the first options for the U.S. ernment agencies tend to follow the separate Congress. resource-related divisions (agriculture, etc.), Further options are categorized by major area tropical insular resources need to be viewed of public sector involvement in management as a single system in order to make resource and development of renewable resources: development and management productive and sustainable. Thus, programs designed to de- ● data collection and information man- velop and manage island resources would ben- agement, efit from improved coordination of those agen- ● planning, cies dealing with single resource systems.

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This study shows the importance of renewa- Option: New Congressional Subcommittee(s) ble resource development to increasing self- Congress could establish new subcommit- reliance on U.S.-affiliated islands and the im- tees in the House and Senate committees portant linkages that exist among renewable listed above that would focus on improving resource use, environmental protection, island self-sufficiency in the U.S.-affiliated islands cultures, population growth, political systems, through an integrated renewable resource and economic development. These relation- l approach. ships or linkages underlie integrated renewable resource management on U.S.-affiliated in- Positive responses have been common from sular areas. In addition, it is clear that the U.S.-affiliated island residents to the leadership picture that develops from these relationships Congress has shown in requesting this study. is not typical of the 50 U.S. States, especially Having new subcommittees designed to deal because all of the islands lie within tropical specifically with these island resource issues climates. probably would expedite congressional actions for taking advantage of opportunities to work The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), toward increasing island self-sufficiency. Island National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- officials would have focal points within the two tration (NOAA), and Department of the Interior congressional committees where integrated ap- (USDOI) probably comprise the agencies hav- proaches to island resource development could ing the greatest number of Federal programs be handled easily and effectively. bearing on integrated renewable resource management and planning within the islands, al- In addition, convictions are growing that the though some resource-related activities are un- U.S.-affiliated islands are likely to become in- dertaken within other Federal agencies such creasingly important in matters of national as the Departments of State and Energy. How- security in the next decade. Having subcom- ever, activities related to the U.S.-affiliated mittees accustomed to dealing with island re- islands are spread among a large number of pro- sources, and their associated cultural, economic, grams within these institutions, hindering con- and political aspects, and capable of dealing gressional oversight of Federal agency activi- with issues of overall U.S. security might ties specifically designed for or conducted strengthen existing links between the U.S. Gov- within the islands. ernment and the U.S.-affiliated islands. Today, no single subcommittee of the House Reorganizing committee structures would Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs or take time from other committee activities and of the Senate Committee on Energy and Natu- the new subcommittees may require additional ral Resources is structured to deal with all of staff. Thus, this reorganization might be viewed the related aspects of integrated renewable re- unfavorably. source management as they relate to the U. S.- affiliated islands. Further, the emerging Freely Associated States have no direct representation in Congress. For Congress to take advantage of the OTA study and to oversee the network of diverse activities and efforts underway in executive branch agencies dealing with island 1Moving in this direction the House Interior and Insular Af- renewable resource issues, mechanisms to fa- fairs Committee recently established the Subcommittee on In- cilitate congressional oversight probably are sular and international Affairs, chaired by the USVI delegate needed. Ron deLugo. Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 349

Option: Joint Territorial Policy Study Group and planning designed for the islands and implemented therein. Congress could have Congress could establish a Joint Territor- the three executive agencies appear at over- ial Policy Study group to produce analyses sight hearings related to island resource of island matters to require congressional management and planning issues. action related to the U.S. insular areas and could provide initial territorial impact anal- Alternate Option: Federal Island Program Re- yses of current legislation affecting the views by the General Accounting Office islands. (GAO) The Joint Territorial Policy Study Group would Congress could direct GAO to conduct the be composed of congressional committee staff above reviews that could be used later in who have demonstrated a continuing interest congressional oversight hearings related to and knowledge of the U, S.-affiliated Pacific and island issues. Caribbean islands. This group could request Many individual programs of these agencies assistance from two very active bipartisan con- receive favorable comment from island resource gressional caucuses serving the House and Sen- managers, planners, and government represen- ate: the Congressional Clearinghouse on the Fu- tatives; some do not. Agency reviews could be ture and the Environmental and Energy Study useful to Congress and the agencies themselves Conference, both of which address long-term in determining which approaches have worked issues and the impacts of possible new legis- best in the islands and which ones might be lation. modified to improve their chances of success. Option: Review Effectiveness of Federal Is- The agencies know the details of their pro- land Programs grams and could probably conduct the review Congress could direct USDA, NOAA, and with minimal delay. Congress on the other hand USDOI each to evaluate the effectiveness may feel that outside eyes may be the most re- of its own agency’s programs related to in- vealing and, therefore, choose GAO to conduct tegrated renewable resource management the evaluations.

COORDINATION OF FEDERAL AGENCY ACTIVITIES

The Department of the Interior’s Office of tended to the islands. Oversight hearings might Territorial and International Affairs (OTIA), un- provide an initial means of evaluating OTIA der the Assistant Secretary, is responsible for capabilities to coordinate Federal activities and promoting the economic, social, and political to review new island activities that any of the development of the U.S.-affiliated islands. In executive agencies plan to undertake. These addition, OTIA is responsible for analysis, de- hearings may indicate where alternate or sup- velopment, coordination, and review of the de- porting coordinating activities are needed. partment’s policy and programs pertaining to international activities and opportunities for Option: Designate an Interagency Coordinat- support of U.S. foreign policy through the use ing Group on Resource and Economic De- of the department’s natural resource and envi- velopment in U.S.-Affiliated Islands ronmental expertise. Congress could authorize the creation of The extensive mandate of OTIA may hinder an interagency coordinating group on U. S.- regular coordination of Federal agency activi- affiliated islands, designating the Depart- ties in the U.S.-affiliated islands. No other for- ment of the Interior as the lead agency, that mal mechanism exists to coordinate the large would provide policy guidance to Federal number of Federal programs and policies ex- departments and agencies on extension and 350 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

modification of programs to assist in island lematic during the current period of budget re- resource management and development. ductions. Members of the interagency coordinating Alternate Option: Designate U.S. Man and the group should represent USDOI/OTIA; Depart- Biosphere program (U.S. MAB) as Lead Co- ment of State; and resource-related offices of ordinating Agency for Federal Resource- NOAA (e.g., Offices of Sea Grant and Coastal Related Activities on Islands Resource Management, National Marine Fish- Congress could identify the U.S. MAB in eries Service); USDA (e. g., Soil Conservation the Department of State as a lead coordi- Service, Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- nating agency for Federal resource-related vation Service, Forest Service); USDOI (e.g., activities in the U.S.-affiliated islands, U.S. Geological Survey, Bureau of Reclamation, appropriate funds specifically for the U.S. Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Service); De- MAB program and encourage increased co- partment of Energy; Environmental Protection ordination between U.S. MAB Islands Direc- Agency; Small Business Administration; and 2 torate, the Department of the Interior’s Of- Economic Development Administration. This fice of Territorial and International Affairs, group should be closely associated with the In- and other appropriate Federal agencies. teragency Group on Freely Associated States’ Affairs authorized in the Compact of Free Asso- Federal agencies already supporting U.S. ciation (Public Law 99-239). MAB include the Department of State, U.S. For- est Service, National Park Service, National The first responsibilities of the interagency Ocean and Atmospheric Administration, and coordinating groups might be to: 1) identify pro- the National Air and Space Administration. grams for which the islands are currently eligi- U.S. MAB also collaborates on a bilateral and ble and their rates of participation, and 2) to multilateral basis with other MAB national pro- solicit information regarding the suitability of grams as well as the United Nations Educa- Federal programs to the islands. Second, the tional, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s interagency y coordinating group could identify International MAB program, the U.N. Environ- means for integrating programs within and ment Program me, and the U. N. Conference on among the agencies into packages that might Trade and Development. However, funding for allow for simultaneous or sequential develop- U.S. MAB has been low, and the U.S. MAB Pa- ment of: 1) insular resource management and cific Islands Directorate has been inactive. planning institutional capabilities; and 2) private sector activities in management, production, In 1985, the U.S. National Committee for processing, and marketing of insular products, MAB identified small island ecosystems as a Third, the coordinating group could suggest priority for U.S. MAB support, emphasizing funding priorities for the agencies’ technical “ecology and rational use of island ecosys- assistance programs to the Territories, Com- terns.” U.S. MAB has funded such research monwealths, and Freely Associated States (see projects as oil spill contingency planning for Public Law 99-239, Sec. 105(1)). Fourth, repre- small Caribbean islands, a workshop on Man- sentatives from these agencies to the interagency agement of Marine protected Areas in the Carib- coordinating group could serve as insular gov- bean and one on Planning for World Small ernment contact points to the Federal agencies. Islands Environmental Management and De- velopment. U.S. MAB also has organized a Such an interagency coordinating group prob- global meeting known as “Interoceanic Work- ably would need one or more full-time staff from shop on Sustainable Development and Environ- each office, and a budget allowing travel to each mental Management of Small Islands” (3). Is- of the island areas. These additions seem prob- sues such as environmental and socioeconomic

2 changes associated with tourism and industrial This list is not intended to be exhaustive, but only representative of the types of agencies, bureaus, and offices that might be development also are being examined. A ma- involved. jor U.S. MAB Caribbean Island Ecosystems ef- Ch. 10—issues and Options for the U.S. Congress . 351 fort has been to encourage the designation of MAB and USDOI/OTIA might assist U.S. MAB- a Decade for Small Islands (1990-99) to organize supported research and training projects de- a lo-year concentrated program of studies re- signed for Caribbean and Pacific Basin coun- lated to development of small islands (l). tries to be applicable to U.S.-affiliated islands. Increased support for the U.S. MAB islands To undertake such a leadership role, the U.S. program could allow them to expand their re- MAB program would need to be upgraded and search, coordination, and training functions in strengthened substantially. In addition, iden- the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially in the Pa- tifying the U.S. MAB as the primary coordinat- cific, and might improve coordination of fed- ing group could be seen to be in conflict with erally supported resource-related island activ- the mandate for OTIA. ities. Increased coordination between U.S.

OTIA’s Technical Assistance program has Preparation of the “Capability Reports” should responsibility for extension of technical assis- be carried out in close coordination with the tance grants to insular governments and indi- insular governments and should be readily avail- viduals to support the development of local able to insular governments and entrepreneurs. institutional capability and private sector en- Regular updating of these reports could allow terprises. This program has been referred to continued modification of technical assistance as “the most effective utilization of United programs to match insular needs. States dollars in the Pacific Basin” (2). The staff These reports could be used to redirect Fed- is competent in its island-related work, but is eral agency programs as well as to provide small and its budget is declining. guidelines for technical assistance. Further, Option: Strengthen OTIA Technical Assistance technical assistance programs developed from these reports could be used to link production, Congress could direct the OTIA Techni- processing, and marketing enterprises on the cal Assistance program to prepare reports islands. on development of local institutional capability to foster private sector development Data needed for preparation of the Capabil- in renewable resource enterprises (produc- ity Reports may be difficult to collect or unavail- tion, processing, and marketing) in each is- able, requiring that this effort be postponed un- land area, and to establish priorities for its til improved statistical collection programs are technical assistance program that reflect implemented. Further, preparation of such re- insular needs. In addition, Congress could ports does not guarantee that future grant pro- appropriate additional funds as needed to posals submitted to OTIA will reflect identi- allow expanded technical assistance to in- fied insular needs or that coordinated resource sular resource management institutions development follows. and entrepreneurs.

U.S.-affiliated islands have difficulty in iden- it is scattered through the various Federal agen- tifying what Federal data/information and pro- cies and sometimes is not associated directly grams exist that are relevant to island needs with island needs. An examination of agency in integrated renewable resource planning and data/information and programs, an assessment management. Much information does exist but of their relevance to island needs, and making 352 w Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas this information known to island governments Option: Establish Regional Information Clear- would be an important step in improving is- inghouse(s) land natural resource planning, management, Congress could establish or support one and development. or more existing regional island centers to act as a clearinghouse for relevant island Option: Interagency Task Force on Federal information produced at national and in- Information ternational levels. Congress could direct the Department of the Interior to lead an interagency task Such information could include: Federal Gov- force charged with assessing the data/in- ernment announcements on new programs pertaining to the islands; island government an- formation and programs that exist in each nouncements; similar international program relevant Federal agency related to integrated information; market information on agriculture, renewable resource management and plan- mariculture and aquiculture; and information ning that is likely to be of benefit to island governments. on island experts, their specialties, backgrounds and availability. Such a clearinghouse(s) would The task force would make a summary of this gather such information, assess, and dissemi- information available in published form to Con- nate it to island governments. In addition, the gress in one year to serve as the substance for clearinghouse(s) could maintain directories of a congressional hearing on the topic. Island rep- Federal, regional, and international programs resentation would be included in the task force related to island resource development and pro- activities. Each agency could establish an “is- vide assistance with grant proposal prepara- land desk” that could act as a contact point for tion. Congress might choose to strengthen and island liaisons during and after the task force broaden the scope of one or more of the fol- activities. lowing centers to handle this role: Pacific Ba- sin Development Council, East-West Center, Identification of such data/information and programs in existence could eliminate the pos- Micronesia Area Research Center’s Informa- tion System, Island Resources Foundation or sibility of unwanted duplication and could Eastern Caribbean Center. make Federal information (such as the Pacific Island collection housed in the Smithsonian Communications among U.S.-affiliated islands Institution—currently an unorganized, largely and with the continental United States are slow inaccessible library) more readily available. In but particularly so in the Pacific. A clearing- addition, it could help expedite island activi- house(s) for island information is very likely to ties that rely on such data/information and as- improve this situation and may in fact improve sure the island governments that Federal pro- communications between the Pacific and the grams that could be applied appropriately to Caribbean islands. However, establishing a new the islands are not overlooked. Nevertheless, center(s) or strengthening others will require a task force of this sort can consume a signifi- additional funding at a time when such fund- cant amount of time at each participating Fed- ing is scarce. Further, startup costs for estab- eral agency as well as initiate additional asso- lishing a new center(s) will be higher than ciated costs. strengthening an existing institution(s).

INSULAR DATA COLLECTION, INFORMATION MANAGEMENT, AND PLANNING

Insular governments, like governments any- for future actions. Clearly, adequate data for where, need a natural resource database on these purposes seems wanting on most U. S.- which to base their land-use plans and decisions affiliated islands. In addition, no consistent Ch. 10—issues and Options for the U.S. Congress “ 353 source of economic and social data exists from Such an analysis could provide an islandwide which informed judgments on future island de- basis for a coordinated, effective action on im- velopment and conservation can be made. It proving island data needs and data manage- is important to have not only adequate and ap- ment, thus, filling a long overdue gap. The proc- propriate data but also the technology for ef- ess would raise the awareness of the islands’ fective data management and analysis and the needs, problems, and opportunities and may skilled staff to carry out these tasks. The day- provide improved linkages between the Fed- to-day needs of local governments necessitates eral agencies and island governments. Con- that the data are easily accessible and that they versely, this may be viewed as just “another can be manipulated in useful combinations study” and further wasted time. Such an assess- quickly and accurately. ment may take one year or so to complete, whereas some people may feel that direct ac- Many of these data will pertain to the island tion to collect the needed data on the islands locality whereas other data may have a Fed- should begin now, eral, regional, or international flavor. All of these data types are useful to island planning Option: Training Programs for Data Managers and terrestrial and marine natural resource and Users management, monitoring of environmental Congress could direct the Department of changes, and development of strategies for sus- the Interior in cooperation with the Depart- tainable development. With the modern, rea- ment of Agriculture to arrange for periodic sonably inexpensive, computer systems avail- training programs on manual and comput- able today, data storage, analysis, synthesis, and erized data management techniques and dissemination no longer seem insurmountable analysis for the islands. problems. Still, many of these problems exist in the U.S.-affiliated island governments. The training programs could be held at the land-grant institutions on U.S.-affiliated islands Option: Analyze the Adequacy of Island In- in the Caribbean and Pacific and on Hawaii formation Management Systems for appropriate data managers and users from the island governments. USDOI and/or USDA Congress could direct the Department of could provide technical assistance grants to the Interior to take the lead role in an inter- eligible island governments for the integration agency task force including island repre- of currently held databases. sentation to determine the adequacies and inadequacies in natural resource, economic, Where no local data collection expertise is and social databases for the various U. S.- available, U.S. agencies also could allocate affiliated islands as well as the means to funds for a local person to work side-by-side handle the data. with Federal data collectors to provide some on-the-job training and improved understand- The task force should prepare a report for ing of eventual interpretations of data, Congress on the status of these databases as well as an assessment of the island needs to Such courses could expand the usefulness of manage this information resource effectively. island databases as well as the number of data The assessment should include an analysis of users in government service, Carrying out such the adequacy of local government computer fa- training at island land-grant institutions in turn cilities and the personnel to maintain, manage, may help strengthen the institutions’ training analyze, and interpret such data. Consideration and education programs. Such training could should be given to ongoing training for govern- begin even as extant computerized data man- ment users of these data, training quality, and agement systems were being evaluated for im- needs. This report should be produced in an provement, although for training to be effec- expeditious manner and should serve as the ba- tive, the computer hardware and software sis for congressional hearings wherein Congress systems used in training and on-island should can determine appropriate further actions. match. In order for a government employee, 354 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas however, to take advantage of such training cropped with others, and agroforestry. This he/she will be required to be away from his/her database contains important agricultural infor- job and probably off-island for certain periods. mation relevant to ecosystems of the U.S.-af- During the initial training periods, data man- filiated tropical islands. No other similar data- agement in the island government, therefore, base is known to exist. may be slowed down. The information included in USDA’s minor An on-the-job association would increase the economic crops database has taken many years understanding of technical data collection tech- to accumulate and check and, therefore, is a niques, increasing the potential for future up- valuable resource. The database also provides dating of data. In addition, eventual usefulness a mechanism of linking island agricultural data of data in decisionmaking may be improved. from the Caribbean with that of the Pacific, Conversely, this may slow data collection ef- thus, providing both with additional important forts and increase the costs of data provision information. Should USDA reactivate this data- to the islands. base, it would incur additional operational costs. Because maintaining this database historically was of small cost to USDA, it seems unlikely Agriculture and Forestry that the cost of reactivating it would be pro- To accelerate agriculture development, there hibitive. is a need to understand the socioeconomic sit- Option: Have USDA Develop Small-Scale Is- uation of small farmers and to diversify islands’ land Farmer Profiles agricultural bases to avert the “boom-and-bust syndrome. ” Congress could direct USDA Extension to gather the necessary data to prepare “small- Option: Reactivate USDA Minor Economic scale island farmer profiles” for U.S.-affil- Crops Computer Database iated islands in the Caribbean and the Pa- Congress could direct USDA to reactivate, cific to be used in the process of identify- update, and maintain their computer file ing agricultural technologies that will be on minor economic crops. economically beneficial to the farmer and will sustain the productivity of the natural A summary of the contents of the database resource base. could be made available to island governments so they can use the information in agricultural In order to determine which food/fiber/fish activities. Further, island governments should technologies have the greatest possibility for contribute suggestions on how to improve the ready and profitable adaptation, a need exists database for their use by identifying crops not for additional specific information on: yet included, as well as important measurable • how smallholder subsistence and semi- properties and characteristics of plants and commercial farmers actually distribute environmental aspects needed to assure crop their labor and capital resources in their success. farming effort, ● which activities are part-time v. full-time, USDA previously maintained a computer data- and base on minor economic crops, many of which would grow in tropical climates, but no longer ● how much output is consumed, etc. keeps this computer database active. Data in- Farm economic information is needed on, for cluded in it cover important and diverse topics: example: the farmer’s sources of income and the climate and soil conditions necessary for labor effort; patterns of planting, cultivating, growing various crops, yield information, the fertilization, harvesting, and storage; nonfarm climatic range over which a plant would grow, resources used; and home consumption v. mar- nutrition data, medicinal use, pesticidal prop- ket sales, in order to assess the farmer’s adapt- erties, food crops that grow well when inter- ability to change, and the system’s openness Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress . 355 to modification, Access to such information tional Marine Fisheries Service acknowledged may help farmers and others avoid mistakes that the island fisheries differ significantly from made in past technology selection. Technol- mainland fisheries and established a special set ogies were promoted in certain instances which of priorities for Saltonstall-Kennedy funding of were not accepted by the farmer because the projects in the Pacific Basin. technology did not readily and profitably fit the existing agricultural system, The PFDF, the Pacific Basin Development Council, and the Western Pacific Fishery Man- Introduction of inappropriate agricultural agement Council subsequently established a set technologies can be economically detrimental of priorities for fisheries development in the to the farmer and ecologically detrimental to Pacific, based around: the farmer’s land. Minimizing such failures ob- ● stabilizing island fisheries, viously is cost-effective over the long term, Yet, ● emphasizing and improving quality in is- to minimize these costs requires the expendi- land seafood production, ture of funds for developing the needed data- ● expanding domestic harvesting of under- base to develop the small-scale island farmer utilized species and stocks, and profiles. While such profiles are being devel- ● on developing fisheries resources in harmony oped, agricultural technologists the island with non-American Pacific island neighbors. may have a tendency to slow down the rate of new technological implementation, Then too, The emphasis is on coordination of nearshore there is the question of the future role of the and offshore fisheries development, consider- Extension Service at a time when it is under ing both conservation and development objec- possible severe budget cuts. It seems likely that tives, and development of an ordered, incre- the Extension Service’s new role may be largely mental program of assistance. in assisting the small and part-time farm oper- Option: Fisheries Statistics Collection ator. This may be an opportune time to have them expand their work with the U.S.-affiliated Congress could provide funding to the Pa- island governments. cific Fisheries Development Foundation for Freely Associated States island fisheries statistics collection programs. Aquaculture and Nearshore Fisheries Collection of statistics should focus on determination of stock levels and estimates of In the U.S. Caribbean, local departments of maximum sustainable yield for economically marine resources collect aquatic and fisheries important fisheries, as well as identification of data, and share it regionally through the Gulf current catch levels. Funding could be appro- and Caribbean Fisheries Association and the priated under either the Saltonstall-Kennedy Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity Pro- grant program or appropriations to the Cen- gram. The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, how- tral, Western, and South Pacific Fisheries De- ever, have no such data collection and aggre- velopment Act, This information should be in- gation structure. tegrated with the WESTPACFIN database on In 1974, a private nonprofit corporation— fisheries maintained for Hawaii, American the Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation Samoa, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the (PFDF)–was established to carry out the direc- Northern Marianas by the Southwest Fisheries tives of the Central, western and South Pacific Center. Fisheries Development Act (authorized in 1972), Collection of baseline data often is costly. Be- The Western Pacific Fishery Management Coun- cause most insular nearshore fisheries are ar- cil was created by the Magnuson Fishery Con- tisanal, and markets are informal, collection of servation and Management Act of 1976, to man- catch statistics may be difficult, Data collec- age the fisheries within the 200-mile zone around tion might be facilitated by development of U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. In 1983, the Na- small fish-markets to centralize sales and sta- 356 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas tistics collection. Similarly, identification of acterize artisanal (subsistence and semi-com- particularly favored fisheries areas near islands mercial) fisheries in the islands. They could be (such as near fishery aggregation devices) could used, in conjunction with sea resource atlases, aid collection of subsistence fishery statistics. fisheries statistics, and estimates of maximum Development of such a program also will re- sustainable yield, to determine technologies po- quire development of a local institutional ca- tentially suitable for introduction to the islands. pability to collect, organize, and manipulate data requiring skilled individuals who may not Unless this effort is coordinated with exten- be available on some islands. sion of the Sea Grant Advisory Service to U. S.- affiliated Pacific islands beyond the current rep- Option: Develop Sea Resource Atlases resentative on Guam, this will require increased Congress could direct the U.S. Army Corps funding to the University of Hawaii Sea Grant of Engineers and the Sea Grant Marine Program to cover travel and other costs. Advisory Service to develop sea resource atlases for each of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Option: Marine Resource and Aquiculture Database Sea resource atlases (similar to land capability assessments) could identify marine areas Congress could direct USDA’s National with particular fisheries or tourism value, areas Agriculture Library to provide assistance of current or probable future resource degra- to the Micronesia Area Tropical Agricul- dation, and areas suitable for certain forms of ture Data Center (MATADC) at the Univer- marine development, such as marinas, marine sity of Guam to include appropriate tropi- parks, or mariculture enterprises. cal aquiculture information developed locally and culled from USDA’s Aquacul- Funding could be derived from Section 22 ture Information System. Similar informa- of the Water Resources Development Act, al- tion on warmwater aquiculture could be though changes in legislative language maybe provided to the University of Puerto Rico. required to allow this. Atlas preparation should be closely coordinated with or performed jointly MATADC maintains a computerized data- with insular Coastal Zone Management pro- base of published and unpublished documents grams. For most effective use of atlases in ma- produced in Micronesia concerning tropical rine resource development, the Sea Grant Ma- agriculture and related subjects, and provides rine Advisory Service could conduct training bibliographic information retrieval and docu- programs for marine resource managers follow- ment dissemination services. In addition, ing completion of the effort on each island or MATADC maintains a database of scientists island area. and current research to assist with location of Development of atlases may represent a re- experts in various resource-related fields. Ex- organization of information already available pansion of these databases to include informa- to some U.S.-affiliated islands, requiring little tion on warmwater aquiculture, tropical ma- effort or funding and potentially little additional rine resources and resource uses, and scientists benefit. In other cases, particularly for remote with expertise relevant to the islands could pro- outer-islands, little baseline information or vide valuable, additional benefits from this pro- maps may be available, requiring substantial gram in supporting local research and resource and potentially costly data collection programs. development. Option: Artisanal Fisheries Profiles Because bibliographic information on aqua- Congress could direct the Sea Grant Ma- culture already is collected and organized in rine Advisory Service to develop Artisanal USDA’s Aquiculture Information System, this effort should be inexpensive and readily accom- Fisheries Profiles. plished. To maintain its usefulness, regular in- These profiles, similar to the smallholder formation updates should be provided under farmer profiles described above, would char- a continuing program. Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 357

Future development of sustainable, renewa- the importance of maintaining traditional knowl- ble resource development programs and proj- edge and skills and on making use of the infor- ects and maintenance of esthetic, productive mation and skills in resource and economic de- environments depend heavily on: 1) the avail- velopment. ability of an ecologically aware public, 2) technologically capable practitioners, and 3) scien- Option: Preserve and Support Traditional tifically skilled entrepreneurs and managers. Skill Education Programs Education underlies the development of these Congress could support National Endow- cadres of people. ment for the Arts (NEA) educational programs designed to transfer traditional knowl- Issue: Traditional Knowledge edge and practices using island renewable and Skills resources to island youth. Traditional knowledge and skills are eroding The Palau Museum’s Master-Apprentice program, supported by a grant from NEA, allows as older generations cease to teach younger is- master carvers to pass on their knowledge to landers and as island youth increasingly look unemployed but talented youth. A second NEA to emigration or professional education for project in American Samoa supports master “white-collar” employment opportunities. carvers in rotating employment. Tapa artists Many traditional island renewable resource visit schools on the island to instruct students uses and products can be considered manifesta- in their craft. Other traditional skill studies are tions of cultural identity and, thus, their pres- occasionally inserted into school curricula, but ervation is of importance to island cultures. this varies with administrative policies and Some traditional resource use systems, when funding, and such studies are considered sec- incorporated with modern techniques, may ondary to academic studies. Through NEA, the form the basis for development of sustainable Federal Government could encourage more of technologies. In addition, traditional insular this activity throughout the Pacific and Carib- resource-related knowledge could be of consid- bean regions. erable value to island renewable resource management and development. Traditional products might form the basis of local industries, such as handicrafts industries. Similarly, traditional skills could provide the basis for non- While the island areas each have well-devel- traditional small industries development, such oped educational systems, few curricular materials are available for primary and second- as carpentry. ary schools developed specifically to educate Option: USDOI Historic Preservation Eval- students on island land and sea ecology, on the uation relationships between environment and development, or on the relationship of traditional Congress could direct USDOI to reexam- ine its historic preservation activities on culture to resources. In addition, most U.S. Pa- cific colleges are 2-year institutions, necessi- the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially re- tating study off-island to complete graduate-or garding the preservation, oral or otherwise, college-level educations. of islanders’ knowledge of resource systems and of skills related to sustainable uses of Option: Develop Environmental Education renewable resources. Programs USDOI could evaluate and report to Congress Congress could direct the U.S. Department the effectiveness of current historic preserva- of Education’s Office of Education Research tion activities in fostering local awareness of and Improvement, in cooperation with lo- 358 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

cal government Departments of Education, contribute to the maintenance of environmental Coastal Resource Management programs, quality. In addition, such programs could in- and other programs already interested and crease students’ scientific knowledge and in- involved in environmental education, to as- terest and stimulate them to seek further edu- sess ecology curricula materials for island cation in resource-related areas. environmental education programs. Option: Assess Island Manpower Needs and Educational materials developed by regional Skill Requirements for Resource Devel- and international organizations for small trop- opment ical islands (e.g., the South Pacific Regional Environment Program) should also be assessed. Congress could direct USDOI to assist is- where appropriate, financial assistance could land governments in analysis of manpower be provided for dissemination of identified ma- needs and subsequent education require- terials, and for development of materials suit- ments to fulfill insular development plans. able for primary and secondary schools. These analyses could be carried out in coop- Improvements in ecological education pro- eration with local government agencies, and grams in primary and secondary schools could reports made available to Congress for consid- assist development of an island environmental eration annually or with evaluation of each 5- ethic, that eventually could reduce the need for year development plan required under the Com- regulatory and incentives programs and could pact of Free Association (Public Law 99-239).

RESEARCH

Improvement in the fit between present and U.S.-funded research conducted by the Food future Federal programs for U.S.-affiliated is- and Agricultural Organization of the United lands relating to integrated renewable resource Nations, and the World Bank, is directly appli- management and planning and island economic cable to tropical insular resources. The islands development is a key element to a program’s benefit little from this relevant agricultural and success. Many Federal programs extended to renewable resource research. the u. S.-affiliated islands are based on research conducted in the temperate continental U.S. Option: Screen U.S. Development Assistance environment. This environmental misfit in Research for Its Application to U.S.-Affil- some cases causes programs to fail and may iated Islands even cause hardships to island inhabitants. Yet research results potentially applicable to the Congress could direct USDA’s Office of U.S.-affiliated islands are housed in certain Fed- International Cooperation and Development, eral, regional, and international agencies and and Forestry Support Service, which work closely with AID, to screen U.S.-funded re- opportunities exist for improved transfer of that information to the islands. search results on agriculture, forestry, and other renewable resources in tropical de- Programs exist in certain Federal agencies veloping countries for its applicability to that commonly are designed with a tropical U.S.-affiliated islands, and to provide the environment in mind; these programs relate information for island use in an appropri- mostly to renewable resource management in ate published form. tropical developing countries. For example, the U.S. Agency for International Development AID has had about 25 years of on-the-ground (AID) supports resource-related research and experience in working with the developing development in many developing countries. In countries of the tropics worldwide. This wealth certain cases, this AID research as well as other of experience and the associated research pro- Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 359 vide a storehouse of information on renewa- necessary funding to pursue the goals of the ble resource management, planning, and de- section. velopment in the tropics, large parts of which institutions are: the may benefit the island governments. USDA, Tropical land-grant University of Guam, American Samoa Commu- with its great diversity of technical skills, would nity College, the College of Micronesia, the Col- be in a position to adapt this information for lege of the Northern Marianas, the University island needs. The cost to the United States for of Puerto Rico, and the College of the Virgin this development assistance information is large, Islands. yet the cost for making it available to the islands would be small. Section 406 of the Food for Peace Act of 1966 directs USDA to develop research contracts and Agriculture and Forestry agreements with American institutions in the field of tropical and subtropical agriculture, and Option: Link Tropical and Nontropical Land- that USDA should make the results available Grant Institutions to friendly developing nations. The goals of Sec- Congress could direct AID to develop a tion 406 are twofold: 1) to provide USDA and mechanism whereby nontropical U.S. land- land-grant scientists with tropical experience grant institutions could link their research and training, and 2) to provide foreign nationals activities, funded under Title XII of the For- with a place to learn techniques and method- eign Assistance Act of 1966, with the re- ologies from U.S. specialists under tropical con- search activities of tropical land-grant in- ditions. The University of Hawaii and the Uni- stitutions on U.S.-affiliated islands. versity of Puerto Rico were the two original tropical institutions to receive research funds Such arrangements would allow for testing under Section 406. Today, five additional trop- of the applied research of the continental land- ical land-grant institutions exist in Guam, Amer- grant institutions for suitability in a tropical ican Samoa, the Federated States of Micronesia, environment prior to transfer to developing coun- the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, tries, This linkage would very likely strengthen and the U.S. Virgin Islands. the island land-grant institution’s activities in integrated renewable resource planning and This congressional action would very likely management. result in a substantial increase in the total tropical agricultural research in the United States This Title XII-funded research arrangement and its territories. Island residents and particu- ultimately could improve U.S. development larly college-level students would have access assistance efforts in developing countries. In to training that they commonly have to travel addition, it should strengthen overall U.S. thousands of miles to obtain. Many of these in- competence in tropical natural resource man- stitutions are small and will need funds to equip agement. research and training facilities to complement Because of the travel that would be required Section 406 funds. Population growth rates on from the continental research institutions to the most of the islands are high and, therefore, it islands, larger amounts of the overall Title XII seems probable that the new tropical agricul- funds would go for travel, thus reducing the tural research will quickly show benefits in ex- funds for research. panding sustainable agriculture on the islands. Because of the proximity of foreign countries Option: Extend Section 406 Programs and to many of the island land-grant institutions, Funding to All Tropical Land-Grant Insti- it may be likely that these institutions will tutions strengthen linkages between the United States and countries neighboring the islands. Congress could extend Section 406 of the Food for Peace Act of 1966 to cover all trop- Education and research are costly, and pro- ical land-grant institutions and provide the viding funding at the early stages of develop- .

360 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ment of many of these institutions may be tists probably are few overall in USDA, it may viewed as wasteful. It may take many years for bean unduly heavy additional load to place on these schools to reach productivity levels com- these few specialists. parable to the Universities of Hawaii and Puerto Rico. Option: Expand Tropical Agriculture and For- estry Research Stations Option: USDA Island Screening Committee Congress could direct USDA to evaluate for Agriculture Research research priorities and increase support for applied research in agriculture and forestry Congress could direct USDA to establish development on U.S.-affiliated islands con- a small screening committee within USDA ducted by the Tropical Agriculture Research charged with reviewing USDA-funded proposals, and research results for their ap- Stations, and Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico, and the Institute of Pacific plicability or possible applicability to agri- Islands Forestry in Hawaii. culture on U.S.-affiliated islands. The screening committee could use USDA Examples of areas in which applied research Current Research Information System com- might be expanded are: puter data on research being planned or re- ● research on traditional farming systems; search that is underway to identify points of ● crop interactions and mechanisms govern- opportunity for the research to benefit the is- ing productivity and stability in tropical lands. The screening committee could suggest agriculture systems; to appropriate researchers possible ways that ● identification, maintenance, and increased the research projects might incorporate certain use of superior varieties of local cultivars; aspects of importance to U.S.-affiliated tropi- ● sustained-yield mangrove forestry prac- cal islands. The individual researcher would tices; and make the final decision whether the research ● stable agroforestry systems for montane design should be modified or not. watersheds. The USDA funds important, major agricultural research across the United States. How- Aquaculture and Nearshore ever, much agricultural research sponsored by Fisheries USDA does not specifically consider its applica- centers in tropical bility to the tropical environments of the U. S.- While insular research affiliated tropical islands. Inadvertently, oppor- agriculture and island forestry have been estab- tunities to apply the results of the research to lished, no corresponding organization exists for this special environment may be missed. Cer- warmwater or tropical aquiculture. The univer- tain small modifications made in research plans sities of Puerto Rico and Hawaii have been des- at the start of projects designed for continen- ignated as Sea Grant institutions, and a Sea tal, temperate lands may have significant pay- Grant representative is based at the University offs later to tropical island agriculture if the of Guam. However, funding for Sea Grant re- researchers have kept island agricultural prob- search has been declining and the representa- lems in mind. tives have little capability to direct research towards the needs of other islands. This probably is an inexpensive way to “piggy back” island agriculture research. Because the Option: Establish an Institute of Tropical researcher would have the final decision, it Aquiculture Research seems unlikely that having a screening com- Congress could direct NOAA to establish mittee suggest possible changes would adversely one or more Institutes of Tropical Aquacul- affect the researcher or his/her project. Research- ture Research, based in the U.S.-affiliated ers like challenges and some might welcome islands, which could serve as a center of the chance to approach the research in a differ- excellence for tropical aquiculture technol- ent light. Because tropical agricultural scien- ogy development. Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 361

The Institute(s) might profitably be associated regional research institutions can provide use- with established Sea Grant institutions, but ful information. should have the mandate and capability to serve other U.S.-affiliated islands. Like the other fed- Option: Increase East-West Center Activities erally funded tropical research institutions in U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands based on the islands, the Institute(s) would be a relatively small cadre of experts performing Congress could direct the East-West Cen- relevant research and could serve as a facility ter to increase resource-related research supporting graduate and post-graduate study. and analysis for the U.S.-affiliated Pacific It also could serve as an information clearing- islands and provide increased funding for house and assist in identification of U.S. warm- such activities. water aquiculture experts for private firms, Activities could include increased support of tropical universities, or government agencies the Research and Information Network of the interested in collaborative work and by iden- South Pacific Regional Environment Program, tifying sources of funding for these kinds of ex- which includes the U.S.-affiliated islands. changes. The East-West Center, established by Con- Development of such an Institute would re- gress in 1972, is mandated to provide analysis quire funding for development of facilities and of social, political, and other issues for Asia and probably would take several years. Increased the Pacific. However, the Environment and Pol- support for development of Sea Grant Program icy Institute often has to work where the larger and/or insular government research capabilities populations and matching resources can be might achieve virtually the same goal, poten- found (i.e., Southeast Asia and South Asia). Sim- tially in a shorter time. Thus, alternatively, Con- ilarly, the Pacific Islands Development Program gress could increase support for NOAA Sea research and training activities in Micronesia Grant basic and applied research in such areas might be expanded. as aquiculture, fisheries, marine biotechnology, seafood quality, and seafood processing and Option: Support Development of the Eastern marketing. Caribbean Center Congress could extend continued support and Regional Cooperation Local and appropriate funds through the Depart- in Research ment of the Interior and/or the Department of State to accelerate development of the While U.S. Federal research organizations have considerable expertise in resource-related Eastern Caribbean Center. fields and technologies, little of this research A regional research and information dissem- is expressly oriented to tropical environments, ination center for the eastern Caribbean, based and still less is aimed at the social and cultural at the College of the Virgin Islands, has been conditions found on the U.S.-affiliated islands. modeled on the East-West Center. The Eastern In addition, island governments have limited Caribbean Center was proposed to serve as a capability to conduct research on other than link between the United States and the island critical local needs. nations of the eastern Caribbean. The center’s Local and Federal research could be supple- areas of study include: mented by taking advantage of research per- ● agriculture and aquiculture technology formed by regional and international organiza- needs assessment, tions, and at similar institutions on neighboring ● insect and disease distribution, islands. Research conducted by the South Pa- ● food production research, cific Commission, South Pacific Regional Envi- ● food processing, ronment Program, the Caribbean Agriculture ● water research inventory, Research and Development Institute, and other ● data systems improvement, 362 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

● professional and midmanagement train- For the most part, Department of State assis- ing, and tance could take the form of identification of . telecommunications. such organizations and of expertise relevant to islands within the organizations. For the This center would expedite two-way exchange Freely Associated States, assistance also could of information relevant to sustainable resource include funding for informal participation in management on small Caribbean islands. international conferences or meetings relevant Option: Establish Cooperative Relationships to sustainable resource management and devel- With Regional and International Research opment on the islands. Organizations These efforts would cost little, but may re- Congress could direct the U.S. Department quire that Department of State staff be increased of State to assist the insular government re- or redirected to allow timely response to insu- search organizations in establishing coop- lar requests, potentially detracting from other erative relationships with regional and in- programs. ternational research institutions or major universities that can help with broad strategic and basic research.

EXTENSION AND TRAINING

Even where research has been conducted, Goals would be to improve local extension where information is available, and technol- skills and to assist extensionists to understand ogies have been deemed appropriate to island the assistance opportunities offered by Federal conditions, few technologies will be widely agencies and local departments of agriculture, adopted without: 1) extension of that informa- marine resources, and fish and wildlife agen- tion to potential practitioners, 2) demonstration cies. This could improve the efficiency of ex- of the associated technologies, and 3) training tension on limited budgets. of the practitioners to develop any new skills They might also establish regular joint pro- needed for implementation. Most local govern- grams to assist island practitioners in locating ment departments of agriculture and marine and communicating with island resource ex- resources have designated extension staff, but tensionists, given that most islanders are not these offices tend to be small, underfunded, and solely farmers or fishermen, but engage in mul- to have numerous responsibilities, hindering tiple enterprises. their effectiveness in transferring technology to practitioners. Agriculture and Forestry Option: Joint Extension Programs Each island area has a designated Land Grant Congress could direct USDA, NOAA, and college or university with an associated joint USDOI to have the major Federal resource- USDA Extension Service/Land Grant College/ related agency extension programs—Coop- territory government Cooperative Extension erative Extension Service, Marine Advi- Service. While this system is a uniquely in- sory Service, State and Private Forestry, and Fish and Wildlife Service—in cooperation with local department extension serv- 3The College of Micronesia, with headquarters on Pohnpei, ices to hold jointly conducted training serves the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of Palau (the Micronesia Occupational College) and, when the Nursing workshops for field extensionists in the School is relocated from Saipan to Majuro, the Republic of the islands. Marshall Islands. Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 363 tegrated Federal Government/local government/ fisheries, and marine resource management academic system designed to educate and as- for islands having Sea Grant representa- sist agriculturists, the isolation of populations tives and to make such services available and travel difficulties create special conditions to the other U.S.-affiliated islands. in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, Neither the Additional Marine Extension Agents could local colleges nor the local governments can serve the various island groups, either as on- supply adequate funds to maintain the exten- island Sea Grant representatives or from bases sion staff needed to reach remote rural and out- at the Universities of Puerto Rico and Hawaii lying populations. with travel funds provided to allow extension Option: Increase Support for Island Extension of information and technologies to other islands. Services The infrastructure for the administration of Congress could direct USDA to increase the program already exists, but appropriate new support of insular agricultural extension personnel need to be identified and funded to programs to allow expansion of programs serve islands presently without Sea Grant rep- to reach remote populations. resentatives, These people could be immediately tied into the existing Sea Grant System This would coincide with the emphasis in the at universities that have the expertise to address 1985 Farm Security Act on support for small- the various problems, Training in key areas scale farms. However, this would require that could then be more readily accessible to islanders monies be increased despite the current Ad- wishing advanced technology or degrees. ministration’s efforts to eliminate the program, or that funds be diverted from other extension programs for the continental United States dur- Issue: Species Introductions ing a period of decline in moderate- and small- A need exists on the U.S.-affiliated islands sized farms, and may only be achieved within for expert advice on proposed species introduc- the framework of a general reorientation of the tions for aquiculture development and biologi- USDA Extension Service. cal pest control and their likely impacts on island ecosystems, Without such expertise the islands run the risk of inappropriate species in- Aquaculture and Nearshore Fisheries troductions with possible harmful effects on resources. The University of Hawaii and University of Puerto Rico Sea Grant programs have estab- Option: Resident Fish and Wildlife Service lished Marine Advisory Services to extend to Scientists practitioners information and technology for aquiculture, fisheries, and related marine- Congress could direct the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (perhaps jointly with NOAA resource management, While these organizations have had a long-term interest in working Office of Sea Grant) to provide a resident with the other islands in their regions on prob- scientist to the regions. lems pertaining to marine resource develop- The scientist could provide advice on eco- ment, staffing and funding levels hinder the logical aspects of agriculture and aquiculture, extension of Marine Advisory Service to U. S.- especially on introduction of aquiculture and affiliated islands other than Guam. biological pest control species and recovery of endangered species, and to conduct the neces- Option: Expand Sea Grant Marine Advisory sary research to backup the advice. The resi- Service Activities in Islands dent scientist could be located at a certain land- Congress could appropriate funds and di- grant institution within the islands, and pro- rect NOAA to increase Sea Grant assistance vided with a budget to allow extension of this in training and extension for aquiculture, service to islands throughout the regions, 364 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

INCENTIVES

Some amount of regulatory measures and in- Product Grading provides the producer and centives are needed to prevent resource and marketer of agricultural commodities with environmental degradation in the short term meaningful grades indicative of product quality. until island residents become predisposed towards maintenance of resource productivity Although the Federal-State Marketing Im- provement Program probably has the greatest and environmental quality. In addition, incen- latitude for serving insular needs, Marketing tives may be necessary to encourage people to News and the Agricultural Product Grading undertake new or potentially high economic can to risk activities. programs be directed provide information on major tropical agricultural commodi- Initial incentives are availability and knowl- ties, such as fruits, to the insular governments. edge of potentially profitable technologies (pro- This may require expansion of their current vided by research and extension) and ability programs. to implement them (provided by training). In some cases, where the social benefits are per- Option: Sea Grant Evaluation of Aquacultural ceived to be higher than the private benefits, Marketing and Economics incentives or removal of disincentives maybe Congress could direct the Department of needed to encourage undertaking of appropri- Commerce to have NOAA’s Office of Sea ate activities. Incentives can be technical (e.g., Grant programs conduct an assessment of marketing assistance) or financial (e.g., cost- aquacultural marketing and economics is- sharing programs). sues for island aquiculture development. NOAA does not have a marketing assistance Issue: Marketing Assistance program corresponding to that of USDA described above. However, identification of po- Increasing agricultural productivity and es- tential markets is integral to the development new is tablishing island crops for export impor- of successful aquiculture enterprises. An tant but only part of what is needed. Agricul- assessment of local and export markets for ture producers must have accurate, thorough aquiculture products that could be grown on information on markets for their products, and the islands could provide an improved basis may need assistance in accessing those mar- for estimating the potentials for aquiculture de- kets. Identifying markets and potential markets velopment on the islands, and might serve as needs improvement in U.S.-affiliated islands. an indicator of research needs (e.g., if a sub- Option: Agricultural Marketing Service As- stantial market is identified but the present cul- sistance ture technology is unsuitable for implementation in the islands). Such an assessment might Congress could direct USDA’s Agricul- also identify barriers and means to overcome tural Marketing Service to assist insular the barriers to exporting products into non-U.S. governments through three major programs: islands and nearby countries, such as Japan. 1) the Federal-State Marketing Improve- ment Program, 2) provision of market news, Issue: Conservation Cost-Sharing and 3) agricultural product grading. Programs The Federal-State Marketing Improvement Program provides funds to States to solve mar- In recent years, cost-sharing and other incen- keting problems at the State and local level tive/assistance programs have been reduced in through Federal-State cooperation. Market favor of U.S. Federal income tax incentives. News provides timely information on prices, However, such incentives programs have, in demand, movement, volume and quality of all some cases, formed the basis for local govern- major agricultural commodities. Agricultural ment activities to develop resource enterprises. Ch. 10—Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ● 365

Because the islands do not participate directly lands under the School Lunch Program. Locally in U.S. Federal income tax structures, tax-based grown island commodities, in some cases, ac- incentives are an ineffective means to encourage count for 15 percent of program lunches. In- participation in sustainable resource-related creased use of locally grown foods in such pro- activities. For example, despite a recent resur- grams could provide markets and incentives gence in forest planting and management in for expanded island agricultural activities and, Puerto Rico, further reduction or elimination as such, increased economic benefits to the of the USDA Forestry Incentives Program (FIP) islands. (which offers up to 70 percent of forest establishment costs) may bring local planting to a Option: Analyze Income and Other Support standstill. Programs Option: Establish Insular Resource Manage- Congress could direct USDA and HHS to ment Cost-Sharing Programs perform a joint analysis of eligibility formulae, nutritional and other impacts of Congress could authorize and appropri- U.S. income and other support programs. ate for a new USDA program to provide cost-sharing and technical assistance to in- Should such an analysis indicate a high level sular individuals undertaking approved of “marginal participants” (i. e., those partici- agriculture, soil and water conservation, pating in but not substantially benefiting from forestry activities (such as those offered by such programs), support funding could grad- the current Agricultural Stabilization and ually be reduced or a proportion of such fund- Conservation Service’s Agricultural Con- ing could be redirected to cost-sharing assis- servation Program and Forestry Incentives tance programs. Program), and fisheries and aquiculture Option: USDA Analysis of Island Contribu- activities. tions to the School Lunch Program To ensure that activities are appropriate to maintain island resource sustainability and Congress could direct USDA to prepare productivity, individuals’ development plans a report assessing the current and poten- might require approval by an appropriate Fed- tial role of locally grown island food in is- eral agency representative (as FIP participation land School Lunch Programs. requires plan approval by the U.S. Forest Serv- USDA should address questions of nutrition, ice). Local government agencies, regional cen- and the beneficial or adverse economic impacts ters of excellence or similar agencies might be on the island economies from increasing locally designated to administer the programs to miti- grown food in the program. Also, USDA should gate travel costs and similar problems. recommend a target level for incorporation of island grown food in the program and in pro- Issue: Impacts of income Support posing the target level, examine whether the and Food Programs locally grown food’s contribution to the program should, for example, be measured as a A high percentage of island populations are dollar percent, a weight percent, a volume per- eligible for and participate in U.S. income sup- cent, or as a percent of the total nutritive value port programs. Some analysts argue that this of the lunches. Other USDA/DHHS food and reduces the incentives to invest money and la- nutrition programs such as Women, Infants and bor in resource-related enterprises. Children; Nutrition Program for the Elderly and derivatives of the Food Stamp Program could In addition, USDA and the Department of also be assessed. Health and Human Services (DHHS) food programs operate in most U.S.-affiliated islands. Locally grown island foods may find greater For example, some 1 million pounds of food acceptance among school children than certain is imported each year into the U.S. Pacific is- imported items because of the familiarity with 366 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas the local crops. However, local storage and re- programs may have deleterious effects on the frigeration facilities may not be adequate to as- availability or price of food available on open sure schools of delivery on a regular basis. In- markets. creased purchase of local food to supply these

CHAPTER 10 REFERENCES

1. Beller, W., Director, U.S. Man and the Bio- terior and Related Agencies, Committee on sphere Program Caribbean Islands Direc- Appropriations, Apr. 29, 1986. torate, personal communication, September 3. U.S. MAB Bulletin, Highlights From the 1986. Directorates: Caribbean Island Ecosystems 2. de Bruin, O., Hearings, statement before the (MAB-7), 8(1):5, July 1985. Subcommittee on the Department of the In-

Appendix A

Maps of the U.S.-Affiliated Islands

● Pacific Figure A-l. -U.S.-Affiliated Islands in the Western

Anatahan.’ Sarigan MARIANA

10”

I a Nukuoro I .Merir PALAU I I FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA obi o . Helen I (BELAU) • Kapingamarangi I I . . ‘ . . .’:

4 , , ,- Hawaii Department of Planning and Economic Development,

369 370 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure A-2.— Island of Guam

Ritidian Point

_ Pati Point

Philippine Sea . i.

,. Jr Pacific Ocean Harbor I - Pago Bay Agat Bay 7 Agat~ I Talofofo Bay

Fac Island of Guam r Inarajan 1 21 0 2 4 6 8 \ 1 Scale in miles Cocos Island

Legend

● Municipal village center

— Major roads

SOURCE: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division, Honolulu, HI in J. Maragos, “Coastal Resource Management and Development in the U.S. Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1966. App. A—Maps of the U.S.-Affiliated Islands ● 371

Figure A-3.— Islands of American Samoa

Pacific Ocean

1 01234 Scale ~ Mile SOURCE. U S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, American Samoa Coastal Management Program and Final Environ- mental Impact Statement, Office of Coastal Resource Management, NOAA, Washington, DC, 1980 372 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure A-4.—Major Islands of Puerto Rico

Camuy Hatillo

SOURCE: Adapted from R. Pico, The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago IL: Aldine Publishing Co, 1974)

Figure A-5.—Major Islands of the U.S. Virgin Islands

SOURCE: Adapted from President’s Economic Adjustment Committee, Economic Adjustment Program for Vieques, Puerto Rico (Washington DC: Office of the Secretary of Defense, The Pentagon, November 1985). Appendix B Other U.S. Island Possessions in the Tropical Pacific1

Introduction Howland, Jarvis, and Baker Islands There are eight isolated and unincorporated is- Howland, Jarvis and Baker are arid coral islands lands and reefs under U.S. control and sovereignty in the southern Line Island group (figure B-l). Aside in the tropical Pacific Basin. Included in this cate- from American Samoa, Jarvis Island is the only gory are: Kingman Reef, Palmyra and Johnston other U.S.-affiliated island in the Southern Hemi- Atolls in the northern Line Island group; Howland, sphere. These islands lie within one-half degree Baker and Jarvis Islands in the southern Line Is- from the equator, in the equatorial climatic zone. land group; Midway Atoll at the northwest end of During the 19th century the United States and the Hawaiian archipelago; and Wake Island north Britain actively exploited the significant guano de- of the Marshall Islands. Evidence indicates that posits found on these three islands. Jarvis Island some of these islands were not inhabited prior to was claimed by the United States in 1857, and sub- “Western” discovery; and today some remain unin- sequently annexed by Britain in 1889. Jarvis, Howland, habited. and Baker Islands were made territories of the These islands range from less than 1 degree south United States in 1936, and placed under the juris- latitude to nearly 29 degrees north latitude and from diction of the Department of the Interior. The is- 162 degrees west to 167 east longitude. The climate lands currently are uninhabited. regimes range from arid to wet and equatorial to These atolls were used as weather stations and subtropical. Wildlife resources are similarly varied, military outposts during the World War II years and with endemic threatened and endangered wildlife debris from military presence during the war re- species existing on several of the islands. The geo- mains on the atolls. The U.S. Army Corps of Engi- graphic area covered by these islands has made neers presently is investigating whether to clean de- many of them nesting areas for seabirds and habi- bris, drums, and discarded fuel from the islands as tat for some rare mammal species such as the Ha- part of its responsibilities under the new Defense waiian monk seal. Several of these islands are of Environmental Restoration Account. Presently, all extreme scientific interest because of their age, with three are National Wildlife Refuges administered origins in the Mesozoic era, and the majority are by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. designated wildlife refuges or contain designated wildlife refuges. Kingman Reef Both Wake Island and Midway Island figured prominently in World War II, as did many other Kingman Reef is in the northern Line Islands; its U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. The Battle of Midway land area is exposed only at low tide and is essen- frequently has been called the “turning point” of tially a coral reef and shoal. The U.S. Navy currently World War II. Today, military installations remain has jurisdiction over Kingman Reef. on Midway, Wake, and Johnston. Johnston Atoll, an important site during the era of nuclear testing, Midway Atoll remains a storehouse for chemical munitions and defoliants. During the storage period, some of the Midway Atoll is at the northwest end of the Ha- storage drums leaked chemicals into the ground; waiian archipelago and consists of two main is- the U.S. Army is currently taking remedial actions lands, Sand and Eastern, and surrounding reefs (fig- to restore the island. ure B-l). There is no evidence of prehistoric human occupation at Midway prior to its discovery in the last century. Midway was claimed for the United States in 1867. Soon the atoll became important as a link in the first global communication system; later as part of a trans-Pacific flight route and as a quaran- 1 Condensed from ‘‘Coastal Resource Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Islands,” J.E. Maragos, OTA commissioned paper, tine station to control the introduction of exotic and 1986. pest species to Hawaii.

373 374 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Figure B-1 .—Other U.S.-Affillated Pacific Islands 30

1600 180 “ 1700 1600 150 0

NOTE: Names in parenthesis depict individual or chains of seamounts far below sea surface and therefore lacking living reef corals. SOURCE: J. Maragos, “Coastal Resource Management and Development in the U.S. Pacific Islands,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986

Midway was bombed by the Japanese in 1941 on portant natural resources; at times the seabird pop- the return from the Pearl Harbor raid. The success- ulations approach one million birds, and over 60 ful U.S. defense of Midway during World War II species have been recorded. Fishery and coral reef was a turning point in the war and arrested the Jap- resources have also been the subject of study in re- anese attempt for broader control of the Pacific. cent years, and for a time commercial fishing in- Presently, the Navy maintains a Naval Air Station terests were allowed access to the island for refuel- at Midway, including airfields and a deep draft ing; however, this arrangement was terminated harbor. after a few years. Several rare or endangered spe- The severe reduction of Midway’s seabird popu- cies inhabit Midway including the Hawaiian monk lation by plume and feather hunters resulted in the seal, short-tailed albatross, green sea turtle, and pos- designation of the Leeward Hawaiian Islands, in- sibly the hawksbill sea turtle. cluding Midway, as part of a National Wildlife Ref- Significant environmental issues at Midway in- uge. Large populations of migratory and nesting sea- clude: 1) the high incidence of seabird mortality due and shorebirds remain one of Midway’s most im- to air strikes with planes and collisions with radio App B.—Other U.S. Island Possessions in the Tropical Pacific ● 375

antennas; Z) the continued vulnerability of the monk Palmyra Atoll seal to human induced disturbances; and 3) the occurrence of ciguatera fish poisoning which is be- Palmyra is a wet atoll located in the central Pa- lieved to be linked to dredge and fill activities. cific and is comprised of three sub lagoons and over 50 separate islets totalling some 1,800 acres (figure Wake Atoll B-1), Palmyra was discovered by Western man in 1802 by Captain Sawle, and in 1859 it was claimed Wake is an isolated atoll island located north of by the American Guano Company. Palmyra offi- the Marshall Islands and consists of three islets and cially became part of the Hawaiian Kingdom in a reef enclosing a shallow lagoon (figure B-l). The 1862, and in 1911 became privately owned. When written historical record provides no evidence of Hawaii became a U.S. territory in 1899, Palmyra prehistoric populations on Wake Atoll. Marshall Is- was officially included; however the island was ex- landers occasionally visit Wake, have given it a Mar- plicitly excluded from the Hawaii Statehood Act of shallese name (Enenkio), and also occasionally 1960. All land titles (except those for a few small claim it, The atoll was claimed by the United States islands at Palmyra) were transferred in 1922 to pri- in 1898, and annexed in 1899. Prior to the 1930s vate ownership, which still continues. Although the only visitors to Wake were scientists and sur- there is no direct evidence of prehistoric occupa- vivors of shipwrecks. The Navy received adminis- tion of Palmyra, the presence of coconut palms on trative control of Wake in 1934, and a Naval air base Palmyra and a Polynesian ceremonial platform on was established on the atoll in January 1941. nearby Fanning Atoll suggest the early Polynesians Wake Atoll was bombed at the beginning of World may have visited Palmyra. War 11 by the Japanese on their return from the Pearl A seaplane base and other defense facilities were Harbor raid. Shortly thereafter the Japanese invaded constructed on Palmyra in the late 1930s in prep- and took control of Wake after heavy fighting. Heavy aration for possible war. The extent of World War bombardment by United States forces throughout II involvement was the Japanese bombing of the World War II neutralized Wake’s strategic impor- atoll in December of 1941. The atoll was continu- tance. Considerable damage to the resource base ously occupied by the U.S. Navy or other Federal occured as a result of bombing and port dredge and installations after the war until 1949 and was also fill activities. Seabird populations were severely occupied during nuclear testing programs in 1962. decimated during World War II and an endemic The Navy attempt to regain control of Palmyra af- bird (the Wake rail) became extinct during this ter World War II ended with a U.S. Supreme Court period as well. decision to return the atoll to the present owners. The United States reoccupied the atoll after the Palmyra has some unique ecological resources war and administrative authority was held by the due to its wet climate and equatorial location. A va- Federal Aviation Administration until 1962, At that riety of seabirds nest there, and coconut crabs, and time, authority was transferred to the U.S. Depart- land crabs are common. The marine populations, ment of the Interior which in turn assigned author- though only partially sampled, seem large. The la- ity to the U.S. Air Force. goon is brackish and estuarine, Construction activ- Significant coastal resources include nesting sea- ity has resulted in major impacts on reefs and lagoon bird populations and coral reefs. Periodic storms environments, which to date have only partially re- have shaped the geomorphology of the atoll con- covered. siderably and the lagoon is very shallow, having a maximum depth of 15 feet. The green sea turtle and the hawksbill turtle occasionally may visit Wake to feed but there is no documented nesting activity, Johnston is an open atoll in the north central Pa- Lepidium wahiense, a rare plant species found on cific Ocean approximately 800 miles southwest of Wake, has been proposed for listing as an endan- Honolulu. The atoll platform and lagoon measure gered species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv- about 15 miles east-west and 7 miles north-south. ice. The nesting seabird populations are protected The atoll’s islands and most shallow reefs are found under the Air Force base regulations, in its northwestern quadrant. Until the 1940s there 376 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

were only 2 islands (Johnston and Sand), but by 1964 atmospheric nuclear test ban Treaty was signed, it massive dredge and fill operations had expanded retained the basic capability to resume key atmos- Johnston Island to over 600 acres, doubled the size pheric testing on the atoll. This Safeguard “C” sta- of Sand Island, and created two rectangular fill is- tus was further relaxed, and Johnston has been re- lands, Akau and Hikina, of approximately 20 acres duced to a caretaker status. It now serves as a each. refueling stop for air traffic between Hawaii and Johnston Atoll was formed in the late Mesozoic Micronesia. era, and aside from Wake is the only shallow-water Johnston has served as a temporary repository atoll along the Marcus Necker submarine ridge. A for chemical defoliants and chemical munitions barrier reef is located along the northwestern quad- since the 1970s. Some of the storage drums have rant rim which in addition to the islands and shoals leaked, possibly contaminating both the ground and to the south partially protect Johnston lagoon from groundwater with dioxins. The extent of contami- heavy wave action. Elsewhere the lagoon is semi- nation has been analyzed and remedial actions have or heavily exposed, and subject to open seas. begun.2 The Army is constructing an explosive- Johnston was discovered in 1796 and claimed by proof facility on Johnston and upon completion, Hawaii and the United States in 1858. When Ha- plans to incinerate the stored chemical munitions. waii became a U.S. territory in 1898, authority over Johnston was designated as a bird refuge in 1926 Johnston clearly belonged to the United States. Early and later upgraded to a National Wildlife Refuge scientific expeditions indicated that only two spe- administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv- cies of plants originally grew on the islands and that ice. Johnston’s principle protected resources are the atoll had never been inhabited. Guano deposits nesting seabirds and coral reefs, and the green sea found on the island were exploited for a short period turtle, Johnston’s extreme geographic isolation and in the 19th century. An Executive Order (No. 6935) age make it of scientific interest. Recent expeditions in 1934 transferred jurisdiction over Johnston Atoll have yielded a greater understanding of the ecol- to the Department of the Navy, where it remains ogy, geology, and marine environment of Johnston. today. Johnston played a central role in the U.S. atmos- 2Ramsey, C., U.S. Department of Defense, personal communication, pheric nuclear testing program. In 1963, when the September 1986. Appendix C U.S. Military Presence in U.S.-AffiIiated Islands1

The U.S.-affiliated islands are of considerable im- neuvers on Tinian, where DOD has nonexclusive portance to national security, and the United States use of some 18,000 acres—about two-thirds of the is committed to their defense and to maintaining island. Marine Engineer and other tactical units lines of communication to and through them. Indi- periodically exercise there and conduct certain vidual islands vary in strategic importance. civic action projects. These have included repair and renovation of local buildings, assistance in the Military Installations and Activities installation of water lines, and installation of power in the U.S.-Affiliated Islands distribution to the Marpo farming area. Finally, Farallon de Medinilla, an uninhabited, small vol- Pacific canic island north of Saipan, is used sporadically as a bombing and gunnery target by U.S. naval Military installations occupy about one-third of forces in the Pacific and by the U.S. Air Force tac- Guam. Military personnel and their families com- tical air squadron on Guam. prise about 20 percent of Guam’s population. An- dersen Air Force Base (AFB) is a major Strategic Caribbean Air Command (SAC) transport hub between Hawaii and the Philippines and a base for weather surveil- The U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands are of spe- lance units and satellite communications. Guam cial significance because of their close proximity also houses naval facilities such as a naval air sta- to the United States and the importance of achiev- tion and a submarine tender (to be phased out when ing a stable security situation in the Caribbean. Most the Trident submarines are deployed). of the major Air Force and naval units operating Currently, about 200 active duty military person- or available for operations in the Caribbean are nel are employed in the former Trust Territory, most based in Florida, Virginia, Panama, or at Guan- at the 3,500-acre Kwajelein Missile Range (KMR) tanamo, Cuba. Puerto Rico, which is situated on ma- and making up five Civic Action Teams (CATS) jor routes of communication, also has a major na- operating in the Federated States of Micronesia val installation at Roosevelt Roads with permanent (FSM) and Palau. The CATS are modeled after the air and surface forces. Roosevelt Roads supports Navy Seabees of World War II, and began operat- the bombing gunnery range of Vieques Island and ing in Micronesia at the request of the Secretary provides the principal backup for the U.S. base at of the Interior in 1969, to help in the construction Guantanamo. There are no permanent military in- of public infrastructure, mainly schools and roads. stallations in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI), and CATS have been a tremendous success in Micro- only sporadic naval or air surveillance or training nesia, both politically and economically. Although activities in nearby waters or airspace, these teams probably cannot make a significant difference in the pace or ultimate progress of economic Projected or Planned New development on the islands, they do provide excel- Installations or Activities lent training for local apprentices and are a strong symbol of continued U.S. interest in the welfare of All of the above described bases and activities are the Micronesians. Under the Compact of Free Asso- scheduled to continue through the foreseeable fu- ciation and subsidiary agreements, the Department ture, Military patrols in the Caribbean may inten- of Defense (DOD) will continue to make CAT serv- sify if DOD gets more deeply involved in anti-drug ices available to the FSM and Palau at shared costs. operations. Otherwise, there are no known plans Navy, Marine, and some Army and Air Force to expand or radically change the U.S. military pres- units also are active in the Commonwealth of the ence there, Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), Units totaling Three potentially significant changes may affect less than a brigade in strength conduct periodic ma- the western Pacific: IThis section was summarized from S. Loftus, ‘‘Impacts of U.S. Mili- 1. Approval of the Compact of Free Association tary Presence on U.S.-Affiliated Islands, ” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. between the United States and Palau may give

377 378 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

the United States rights to convert certain well- standard housing, medical facilities, schools, and defined areas in Palau into bases or training related amenities have resulted. areas. Implementation of such plans presuma- Most of the residents of Ebeye migrated there bly depends on the evolving situation in the from the “outer” Marshall islands, drawn by well- Philippines and/or the pace and level of Soviet paying jobs at KMR or because relatives work there. military activities in the area. Most are denied access to base facilities, although 2. A major air base for dispersed operations may these restrictions have been relaxed over the past be constructed on Tinian as a backup to An- several years, Ebeye has been the recipient of a num- dersen AFB on Guam. However, there are no ber of U.S. programs and funds, most of which have indications of any serious moves by DOD to do been funneled into infrastructure such as a desalini- this over the next several years. zation plant and a sewage treatment facility. 3. KMR might be expanded or an alternative range developed to allow testing of the MX missile. preliminary surveys during the late 1970s identified the CNMI as a possible site for a Naval forces in Puerto Rico have been extremely “mini-KMR.” As yet there is no evidence that helpful to local authorities during and after major DOD plans either action. storms and flooding by providing transport, medical assistance, and earth-moving equipment. Naval forces at Roosevelt Roads also conduct a number Ecological and Economic Effects of of civic action projects locally. DOD also increased the Military Presence defense contracting in Puerto Rico from $187 million in fiscal year 1983 to $417 million for the first Views regarding the effects of the U.S. military 11 months of 1985. on the islands are mixed. Many islanders welcome Under a memorandum of understanding between the economic and job benefits derived from the the U.S. Navy (USN) and the Government of Puerto presence of military bases. Others cite the loss of Rico, DOD has undertaken a number of measures valuable lands, negative cultural impacts (e. g., under- to improve the welfare of the people of Vieques, mining of traditional values), attraction of undesira- through the provision of medical equipment, sup- ble elements, inflation, overcrowding of schools, plies for local hospitals, assistance in public works degradation of water quality, and restrictions on construction, and a concerted effort to attract Amer- economic growth, ican industries to the island resulting thus far in 366 new jobs. In addition, it contracted with the Pacific Smithsonian Institution to provide a major study of the mariculture potential of that island. This has Guam’s local government concedes the critical led to the creation of some 400 jobs. importance of bases thereto U.S. security interests, Most environmental problems resulting from U.S. but contends that much of the land presently oc- military activities on U.S.-affiliated islands appear cupied is redundant to principal missions. U.S. mil- to have resulted from the lack of understanding or itary authorities strongly disagree, citing the need awareness of procedures, or from insensitivity on to be prepared for several major contingencies, in- the part of individual military officers, rather than cluding the phasing down or replacement of key from the absence of relevant policies or directives. facilities in the Philippines, DOD currently is reas- Military officers generally lack the time, staff, and sessing its land requirements on Guam, but is un- training to handle resource protection responsibil- likely to recommend a reduction of these require- ities, and the military has been slow to comply with ments, However, some lands held for military some local environmental regulations. purposes contain large areas of natural habitat, for which DOD ownership has provided de facto protection to wildlife populations. Procedures To Consider Environmental The operations at KMR have a profound effect and Land-Use Issues in Extant MiIitary on local inhabitants and ecology. Water availabil- Installations and Activities ity, quality, and wastewater disposal all pose problems, The concentration of 8,000 Micronesians on The U.S. military has a variety of procedures to the 66-acre island of Ebeye is an extreme example consider environmental and land-use issues in its of the U.S. military’s impact. Ebeye is severely over- island operations, including the National Environ- crowded; acute socioeconomic problems and sub- mental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) and three DOD App. C—U.S. Military Presence in U.S.-Affiliated Islands . 379 directives. In general, the same directives, regula- statements or contract necessary studies.2 The EFD tions, and instructions that apply to current mili- on Tinian is now reviewing the island’s flora and tary activities and extant installations also apply to fauna. A companion study covering Guam is sched- any plan to expand land use, initiate new and ex- uled for 1987. panded activities, or acquire new sites. Likewise, Department of Army regulation AR200- 1. Directive 6050.1, “Environmental Effects in the 2 covers Army policy, procedures, and responsi- U.S. of DOD Actions,” covers all U.S.-affiliated bilities for the conservation, management and res- islands, and is based on NEPA, Council on toration of land and renewable resources consist- Environmental Quality implementing regula- ent with military mission and national policies. tions, and several pertinent Executive Orders, Chapter 2 of this regulation calls on local com- It specifies several goals related to the protec- manders to actively cooperate with local, State, and tion, restoration, and enhancement of island Federal organizations to carry out national land-use environments; resource recycling; and preser- and conservation policies for all management oper- vation of important historical, cultural, and nat- ations. Each major command and installation with ural aspects of the island’s national heritage. jurisdiction over substantial acreage must provide It requires assessment of the environmental technically qualified personnel to oversee all natu- consequences of proposed DOD actions that ral resource management activities, Land manage- could affect the quality of the environment; the ment plans must be reviewed every 5 years. USAF use of ecological and sociological information instructions are virtually identical to the Army’s and in planning and decisionmaking where there Navy’s, but also address such problems as noise may be an impact on the environment; and con- abatement and the protection of birds from aircraft. sideration of presently unmeasured environmental amenities in decisionmaking, as well as Potential Mechanisms To Increase of reasonable alternatives to recommended actions that would involve conflicts concerning the Role of the Military in Sustainable, resource use. Environmentally Sound Island 2. Directive 4700.1 covers natural resource con- Economic Development servation and management, prescribes DOD policies and establishes a program for multi- The U.S. military could do more to promote envi- ple use management of renewable natural re- ronmentally sound economic development on the sources on DOD lands, consistent with military islands, including greater information sharing with missions. local authorities, procurement of local foods and 3. Directive 4710.1 calls for integrating the legal other resource-related products, and support of the requirements regarding archeological and his- local tourism industry (military transients can be toric preservation with the planning and man- considered long-term “visitors”). agement of DOD activities. It requires each DOD installation to scientifically evaluate the The U.S. Military as a Market for LocaI likelihood that significant archeological or his- Food and Other Renewable Resource- toric properties are present. If so, these must Related Products be inventoried and evaluated. All three military departments (Army, Navy, and DOD is reassessing its overseas food procurement Air Force) have issued their own directives or in- policy and recently sent a team to Guam to evalu- structions reflecting the contents of these directives. ate prospects for greater reliance on local markets. The USN, for example, has issued a detailed instruc- The USN now relies primarily on the Defense Pro- tion to its components which provides for a navy- curement Supply Center in Philadelphia, a guaran- wide program of compatible management, protec- teed source of warranted products with instant tion, and nondamaging recreational use of renew- credit and refunds for substandard products. Only able land and water resources. Engineering Field if this center does not carry a particular item, or Divisions (EFDs) administer the program in the fails to meet minimum standards, are local com- U.S.-affiliated islands and, with staff biologists, soil manders encouraged to procure locally. The base scientists, and agronomists, review plans that might 2Recently a proposal from the Utah National Guard to hold maneuvers have an impact on local renewable resources, They on Tinian was rejected because the Guard has failed to produce an accept- may direct the preparation of environmental impact able preliminary environmental impact statement. 380 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas commander at Andersen AFB is permitted to pro- ural beauty of Vieques Island, although this is not cure some fresh, indigenous produce, but there is a major tourist attraction. Navy Seabees from Roose- no consistent or substantial reliance on local food, velt Roads engage in various civic action projects, in part because local sources are not completely mainly at the request of local village leaders, and reliable. distribute brochures from Puerto Rico’s Tourism Without cogent incentives, greater reliance on lo- Company to its personnel. The naval command cal markets by the U.S. military is unlikely. Factors there is considering a request to transport spent that could increase local procurement include im- rockets from the mainland to the city park of Baya- proved relations between the military and local gov- mon, and has already transported cannons from the ernments and citizens groups, more competitive lo- El Morro fortress for needed repairs and restora- cal prices, and more reliable local sources. None tion at no cost. are likely to materialize substantially soon. However, the military is committed to its primary military missions, and few tactical units are U.S. Military Contributions to equipped and inclined to assist civilian authorities the Tourist Industry with development programs. Exceptions include CATS and various construction and engineering The USN of Guam puts much time and effort into units in the islands. DOD might be persuaded to “beautification” work in and near the Naval Air Sta- press Congress for the authority and measures to tion at Agana, as part of the “COMNAVMARIANAS” increase these units’ current levels of effort on be- civic action program, and conducts a “sister village” half of island populations. Military commanders on program with some local communities involving the islands could be directed to provide more assis- small public works and beautification projects. The tance to local authorities and/or give higher priority Navy also conducts civic action work on Tinian to the improvement of on-base ecological systems. and, less frequently, at the Memorial Park area of Military groups would be unlikely to comply, how- Tanapeg Harbor, Saipan. In the Caribbean it has ever, without being given more resources for such reportedly done a superb job in maintaining the nat- a purpose. Appendix Integration of Traditional and Modern Law1

As emerging Pacific nations enter the world or- permitted to evolve in relation to contemporary der as independent sovereigns, they turn increas- privileges in a way that ensured their continued vi- ingly to the Anglo-American concept of the role of tality, nor was the genuine value of these rights ever law to maintain social order, resolve disputes, and demonstrated or insisted upon. No comprehensive distribute resources. There is, however, a danger scheme emerged to satisfy a long-term vision of how that western law will undermine traditional prac- the culture was to evolve. tices and culture, as occurred in Hawaii. A genu- Custom is a valued asset of U.S.-affiliated island ine attempt was made during westernization of the communities. Anglo-American law can, but need Hawaiian Islands in the mid-19th century to recog- not, follow the Hawaiian example and be destruc- nize and preserve important cultural prerogatives tive of that asset. Movement toward self-govern- and customary privileges associated with the na- ment in Micronesia presents an opportunity to tive way of life. These attempts failed. merge the best of traditional practices with the After the division of the King’s lands in the 1850s, democratic system of law. less than 1 percent of land remained in the hands of commoners. Many did not understand the foreign concept of private ownership, or were never Advantages From Adoption of aware of the law giving them the right to own land the Rule of Law that they had cultivated. Even those who did exercise their rights, through claims and exercise of re- The traditional practices of a community (i.e., cus- source access, found that the rapid evolution of the tom) are often so engrained in belief and behavior, islands’ social and economic structure left lifestyles and so well-known to the populace that they require associated with the land almost without viability. no legislative decree, no police, no judge, and no The ground rules for the interpretation of claims law library to exist and to shape social life. This of native rights were established the first time the raises the question of why anyone would want to newly formulated western-style courts of Hawaii import western law to displace or supplement an were confronted with the issue. In 1959, when a existing regime of customary law. Historically there tenant claimed the traditional right to pasturage on are several reasons why human beings move to law. the undeveloped lands of the landlord, the claim For emerging nations, the primary impetus for of custom was rejected as unreasonable, uncertain, adoption of western legal systems is to establish and repugnant to the spirit of the present laws (Oni sovereignty and achieve legitimacy in the West- v. Meek, 2 Hawaii 87, 90 (1898)). It was made clear dominated world order. The emerging Micronesia that in the absence of explicit instructions to the nations have adopted wholesale various compre- contrary, the system of private ownership would hensive American codes, such as the Federal Rules be treated as preeminent. Traditional prerogatives of Evidence and the Federal Rules of Civil Proce- simply ceased to exist except to the degree they were dure, The appropriateness of these codes for use explicitly preserved, and rights became applicable in Micronesia may not be as important as their only when they did not effectively interfere with legitimizing function. A nation with American rules western concepts of law and property. of procedure “looks” more like a democracy whose Today, despite recent efforts to give new vitality sovereignty deserves respect. The use of codifica- to native rights and custom, the law of Hawaii is tion and adoption of western law to achieve sover- virtually devoid of meaningful retention of native eignty is familiar to Pacific legal historians. Hawaiian culture, and Hawaii’s native people oc- Law also serves to promote economic develop- cupy nearly the lowest rung of the socioeconomic ment, The rise of legalism throughout history is cor- ladder. Their rights and privileges have not been related with economic growth, industrialization, and the emergence of a class-differentiated society. 1 U.S. legal historians, for example, study the use of This section is summarized from W. Chang, “The Integration of Cus- tomary and Traditional Renewable Resource Practices in a Modern Le- legal doctrine and legal systems to promote railroads gal Framework,” OTA commissioned paper, 1986. and other large industries. While critics charge that

381 382 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas the rule of law can be a tool to increase production Integration of Custom and while concentrating wealth in a few hands, the in- the Rule of Law strumental value of law as a promoter is obvious to government leaders, particularly where eco- Pacific island lawmakers have been careful to nomic self-sufficiency is seen as a key to political state explicitly their intent to preserve custom within autonomy. the context of the rule of law (e.g., see Constitution The rule of law provides a stable, predictable envi- of the Federated States of Micronesia). This will re- ronment for economic growth. The adoption of the quire explicit recognition of the value and fragility uniform commercial code in Guam, for example, of custom, coupled with a formalized system for in- assures business investors that familiar rules apply corporation of custom into a new system of law to transactions there. Law can actively promote cer- appropriate for use in societies rich with custom. tain business activities by subsidy, tax advantages, Explicit recognition in constitutions, statutes, and and limited grants of privilege. If a Pacific island case law of the value and primacy of custom can decides, for example, to promote development of result in the preservation of custom and traditional ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), it can of- values, Custom can be recognized and acknowl- fer these advantages to OTEC developers. edged whenever a new law is adopted, providing A corollary to the power to promote is the power a legislative reminder to courts interpreting statutes. to deter through the power of criminal law to pun- Given the constitutional and legislative mandate for ish, or regulatory law to prohibit and of eminent preservation of custom, the role of the courts would domain to take. Obvious uses of coercive legal rules be to develop rules of interpretation that follow the in the realm of natural resource use include zoning mandate. Judges would look first at the system of laws, endangered species laws, pollution control customary rules and derive underlying values and laws, and building code laws. All are used by gov- principles of custom, then use those principles to ernments to shape development. create legal rules within the system of the rule of law, For example, there may be a rule on one island Advantages of Rule of Custom that strangers approaching a village at night must carry a lighted torch. The underlying principles rep- As the Hawaiian example reveals, however, law resented here is that strangers must respect the has a tremendous power to dislocate and eventu- peace of the village and make their presence known. ally destroy culture. This is particularly true when The judge may have to decide whether a flashlight western systems of law are imported into a com- can be used in lieu of a torch; whether an unfamiliar munity in which citizens are unfamiliar with legal light is potentially disruptive of community peace; rules and unaware of the need to assert their rights. or whether the light from the flashlight was con- Given this danger, it is important to recall the rea- formable with the underlying principle of the cus- sons for preserving custom. Custom is typically the tomary rule. The point here is that the judge, using ordering mechanism used in communal cultures his knowledge of the village and taking testimony such as those found in the islands of the Pacific. from traditional leaders and community members, Custom has maintained order, provided for the gen- strives to find and preserve the essence of custom. eral welfare, created unity, and preserved a way of The reason for this process of the distillation of life. Custom also is the ordering mode of choice: the underlying principles behind customary rules citizens are proud of their culture and traditions is that, while custom is fluid and adaptable to chang- and express genuine sorrow at the passing of cus- ing circumstances, certain underlying values re- tom and dismay at the incursions of westernization. main unchanged, Values such as respect for tradi- A sudden displacement of custom by law is likely tional leaders, consensus-based dispute resolution, to cause anxiety, cultural dislocation, and disorder. and significance of clan membership have survived Customary rules of resource management often the impact of colonialism and modernization, and have an ecological basis. Fishing taboos help pre- form a significant part of the identity of island serve fish populations, use restrictions preserve peoples. delicate reef systems, and clan rights allocate scarce To the western-trained lawyer, such a judicial sys- water resources. These restraints are accepted and tem seems to invite imprecision into a system of observed while restraints by law are often ignored. law that values precision. The western insistence As one islander commented on an endangered spe- on precision, however, tends to denigrate custom cies law: “How does some man in Washington which, by definition, is unrecorded, internalized, know how many turtles there are in Yap?” and integrated with culture. If precision is valued, App. D—Integration of Traditional and Modern Law ● 383 the written statute or case will always defeat cus- hood of the people, complex systems of ownership tom. If preservation of custom is the goal, judges and use have evolved that are very different from must reach beyond the demand for precision, and western concepts of ownership, In resolving dis- experience the cultural milieu of custom. putes over resource use, access, and ownership, the The search for analogies between island customs courts may wish to delay intervention until tradi- and Anglo-American experience may prove fruit- tional leaders are consulted and customary meth- less. As one judge noted in a Marshallese property ods of dispute resolution are exhausted. In west- dispute: ern law, this idea is incorporated in the doctrines ... there is no analogy between the common Amer- of abstention and exhaustion. Encouraging citizens ican idea of an absolute owner and the Marshallese to rush to court with disputes will be destructive idea of the holder of any one of the levels of rights of consensus-based systems that have effectively in the Marshalls. maintained peace and allocated resources in the The concept of property and natural resource past. ownership is dramatically different in emerging Pa- Appellate courts could defer to findings of cus- cific nations. Ownership is frequently communal, tom made by trial judges who are familiar with a and characterized by layers of use rights rather than community and not lightly overturn a local judge’s fee-simple ownership. Access to reefs, landing finding of custom unless it is clearly erroneous. If areas, surface waters, and fishing grounds may each courts use custom as a guiding principle, they may follow different sets of customary rules, be able to avoid the destruction of traditional values. Judges must recognize that in island communities where access to resources is a part of the liveli- Appendix E Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.- Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands

A growing number of organizations are concerned with the development and management of renewable resources and with environmental quality in the U.S.-affiliated islands. These organizations represent a multiplicity of efforts to maintain, restore, and enhance the resources both to their benefit and to the benefit of the populations that depend on them. Organizations cover a spectrum from private voluntary organizations to Federal regulatory agencies to international development assistance institutions. Tables listing the organizations, their area of operation, field of interest, and type of activity are divided between the two regions: Table E-1: Selected U.S. Government Agencies in the U, S.-Affiliated Caribbean Table E-2: Selected U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Island Government Agencies Table E-3: Selected Academic Institutions in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Table E-4: Selected Non-Governmental Organizations in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Table E-5: Selected International and Regional Organizations Operating in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Table E-6: Selected U.S. Government Agencies in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Table E-7: Selected U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Island Government Agencies Table E-8: Selected Academic Institutions in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Table E-9: Selected Local Non-Governmental Organizations in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Table E-10: Selected International and Regional Organizations Operating in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands This list of organizations (derived from a commissioned paper), reviewers additions, and a survey conducted by OTA, is by no means all-inclusive, but only suggestive of the types and variety of organizations dealing with renewable resources in the U.S.-affiliated islands.

384 App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands . 385

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Name Address Region Covered Field of Interest Type of Activity/Service ...... ------.--.... ------ACT1(M

Micronesia Desk 806 Connecticut Ave., N.W. Micronesia Commumity development Volunteer technical assistance, Washington, DC 20525 demonstration grants and programs

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Agricultural Research Service (ARS)

District Office 800 Buchanan Street CA, Hawaii Agricultural research Management of research Albany CA 94710 programs

Tropical Fruit and Vegetable PO BOX 2280 Tropics Fruit and vegetable Research, cooperative programs Research Laboratory Honolulu, HI 96804 research

Forest Service

Institute of Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Pacific region Forestry research International forestry, Islands Forestry Eperiment Station collaborative projects 1151 Punchbowl St., ROOM 323 Honolulu, HI 96813

Soil Conservation Service

District Office 4316 Kuhio Federal Building Hawaii and Guam Resource conservation and Management of regional Honolulu, HI 96850 development, environmental programs education

Guam Office UOG Station Guam and CNMI Soil and water conservation, Technical assistance, soil survey Mangilao, Guam 96913 resource management consultation, support soil and water conservation districts

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Economic Development Admin. 1700 Westlake Avenue North American Samoa, Guam, Growth of economically Public works, planning and community -- Regional Office Seattle, WA 98109 and Western States distressed areas grants; Loan guarantees, feasibility studies, technical assistance National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

National Marine Fisheries Service -- Western Pacific Fisheries PO BOX 3830 Western Pacific Manage regional fisheries; Research, grants, technical habitat conservation assistance Management Council Honolulu., HI 96812 Table E-6 (continued): Selected U.S. Government Agencies in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific

Name Address Region Covered Field of Interest Type of Activity/Service ------...... ------...... ------...... National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (continued)

Office of Ocean and Coastal 2001 Wisconsin Ave., N.W. Pacific islands Coastal resource Research, grants, Resources Management Washington, DC 20235 management technical assistance -- Pacific Region

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

Army Corps of Engineers -- Building T-1 U.S. Pacific islands Civil works related Agency operations, permits, Pacific Ocean Division Fort Shafter, HI 96855-5440 to water resources advice, marine surveys

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service -- PO 60X 50167 Hawaii and Pacific Protect endangered species Research, surveys, grants, Pacific Area Office 300 Ala Moana Boulevard islands habitat management in-kind services Honolulu, HI 96850

Office of Territorial and 18th and C Streets, NW All U.S. territories Promote economic, social, Representation to Federal Gov- International Affairs Washington, DC 20240 and political development ernment, grants, technical assistance

Technical Assistance Program c/o Office of the Governor American Samoa Economic development Technical assistance -- American Samoa Office Territory of American Samoa Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799

Technical Assistance Program PDN Building Guam Economic development Technical assistance -- Guam Office Agana, Guam 96910

U.S. Geological Survey -- Pacific District Office PO Box 50166 Hawaii and Pacific Water resource and minerals Research, mapping, technical 300 Ala Moans Boulevard islands management, cartography, assistance, information Honolulu, HI 96850 planning systems dissemination

DEPARTMENT OF STATE

Man and the Biosphere Program OES/ENR/MAB, SA-9, Suite 506 Pacific region Resource management and Inactive -- Pacific Directorate U.S. Department of State development; habitat and Washington, DC 20520 species conservation

Office of Pacific Island 2201 C St., NW, Room 5210 Pacific basin Foreign policy development Guide diplomatic establish- Affairs Washington, DC 20520 and management ments; direct, coordinate and supervise interagency matters in the region App. E—Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean and Pacific Islands ● 397

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L1 Appendix F Summary of Regional Workshops

Introduction but systems for delivering technical and marketing information to practitioners and planners need im- Three regional workshops were conducted to col- provement. Effective mechanisms and systems for lect information from local island resource man- sharing data/information among international, re- agers, planners, and educators. A total of 55 per- gional, inter- and intra-island agencies and practi- sons representing various aspects of terrestrial and tioners are needed in most of the U.S.-affiliated marine resources participated in the workshops and islands, are listed at the end of this summary. Interests in Factors that hinder development of organized sustainable resource use ranged from scientific re- data/information systems in the U.S.-affiliated Pa- search, to food and fiber production for enhance- cific islands include: 1) inadequate island infrastruc- ment of self-reliance, to developing and sustaining ture to support a computerized storage/retrieval sys- tourism based economies, tem; 2) inability to fund and maintain such a system, Within each workshop participants were divided 3) a scarcity of on-island experts to interpret tech- into three working groups covering agriculture, ma- nical data, and 4) lack of or inadequate systems for rine resources, and education and planning. The easy access of available baseline data. individual workgroups addressed a list of issues Substantial improvement is needed in some in- identified by the Assessment Advisory Panel at its formation areas (e.g., timely updating of marketing initial meeting. Work group participants were information, increased computerization of informa- charged with identifying the applicability of these tion for easy access and manipulation). Increased issues to the various islands, the extent of resulting technology transfer may be accomplished through problems, efforts attempted to ameliorate problems, improving extension services, public education and the potential transferability of these efforts to programs, and providing demonstration and pilot other islands. Participants also identified Federal projects. programs extended to the islands that mitigate or Except for some Freely Associated States (FAS) aggravate the situation. Options suggested by work- archives, essentially all baseline resource data for shop participants were not restricted to those per- FAS islands are furnished by U.S. Federal agencies, taining to Congress or U.S. Federal agencies; but off-island educational institutions, or private orga- include some suitable for local governments, re- nizations. The University of Guam’s Micronesia gional or international institutions. Area Research Center Information System and the Despite varying degrees of development among Micronesia Area Tropical Agriculture Database island areas, many problems, issues, and opportu- Center have effective information storage and re- nities are shared. The workshops provided an op- trieval systems, however, development of com- portunity for participants to discuss local issues and plementary centers is needed. share possible solutions. The following is a sum- suggested Options: mary of the major points discussed at the three Establish regional information clearinghouse(s) workshops, for acquisition, storage and dissemination of information, Agriculture and Forestry Increase federal funding and/or technical assistance in data interpretation, dissemination and Information Availability and Sharing technology extension. Strengthen and broaden the scope and services An effective and readily accessible baseline of the existing local and regional research cen- data/information system is integral to planning, ters’ information systems. management, and development of island resources. Develop or improve on-island expertise for data However, baseline data on island resources, and in- interpretation. formation on potentially suitable agricultural technologies are inadequate or unavailable to many Current Agriculture Technology island governments, Baseline data on island resources and information on technologies are well- Traditional agricultural technologies remain suit- developed in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands, able for certain FAS polities, however, these tech-

406 App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops . 407 nologies generally are undervalued or ignored by areas of agricultural lands are left idle, or are used decisionmakers, developers, planners, and donor for non-agricultural purposes. A number of farmers agencies. Few government agencies are involved in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) in the planning and marketing of traditional crops now are practicing semi-commercial family farming. or in extension of traditional agriculture practices. High wages, compared to regional averages, and Hence, little effort is directed toward assessment low productivity are the major constraints to agri- or improvement of traditional agriculture technol- culture development in US. Caribbean islands. Pro- ogies. Increased consideration of low input, small- ductivity might be increased by selecting improved scale technology development and implementation technologies and high yield crops. Currently, mech- is needed. Extension, public education, and dem- anization and/or intensification of agricultural prac- onstration projects may increase public awareness tices is a preferred method to increase agricultural of available alternative technologies. productivity while low-input technologies com- Semi-commercial, small-scale agriculture is widely monly are ignored. Although this approach might practiced in the U.S. Pacific Flag territories, except increase productivity, it may not solve unemploy- in American Samoa where subsistence farming ment problems in rural areas. predominates. The strong traditional agricultural Viable commercial agriculture is restricted to practices in American Samoa hinder successful in- small-scale operation in the USVI because of the troduction and application of commercial agricul- small land area and limited freshwater resources. ture production technologies. Small-scale farming Some small-scale farming of selected crops (e.g., requires sophisticated management and marketing sun-coffee, herbs and spices, passionfruit, ornamen- techniques to be competitive. tal plants) is profitable in the U.S.-affiliated Carib- A strategy of improving traditional agriculture bean islands. Precise identification of high value technologies and encouraging transformation of tra- markets may improve the profitability of this type ditional agricultural practices to semi-commercial of farming. practices and (ultimately) into commercial farming Selected large-scale commercial agriculture using may hold promise. Reliable markets must be cre- suitable technologies and management may be eco- ated concurrently to absorb farm produce. nomically viable in Puerto Rico under certain con- Most introduced commercial agriculture technol- ditions. A large-scale drip irrigation farming sys- ogies have proven unsuccessful due to various fac- tem designed by Israelis and developed on the tors. Major constraints to successful application of semiarid lands of southern Puerto Rico seems po- commercial agriculture technologies include socio- tentially economically viable, despite a large initial cultural (e.g., techniques incompatible with local capital investment and management problems. custom/culture), ecological (e.g., technology unsuita- However, some intensive large-scale farming tech- ble for island ecology or size), and economic fac- nologies are not profitable, as evidenced by the fail- tors (e.g., small intra-island and inter-island mar- ure of the rice project on the northern Puerto Rico kets, fluctuating world markets). Factors such as coast. efficient technology, good management, minimal Post-harvest technologies (processing, storage, adverse environmental impacts, and selection of and transportation) of agriculture products are poorly high-value crops are important considerations in developed in many of the Pacific islands. Although agriculture development. Suitable agricultural pro- a number of post-harvest technologies could be ap- duction technologies that overcome the various eco- plied, they are generally not cost effective. Island logical, social, and economic constraints of small institutional capacity to develop and implement islands are needed. suitable technologies is limited. Full-time commercial farming employing cur- Application of available processing technologies rently available technologies is considered a high is constrained by a variety of factors, including the risk activity and uneconomical due to high agricul- high cost of processing; irregular availability and tural production costs. Many enterprises have failed relatively small quantity of local raw materials; despite government subsidies and support. In the small-sized local markets; distance between proc- U.S. Caribbean islands, some farmers have either essing centers and potential export markets; and stopped farming or now engage in part-time family poor island infrastructure that make transportation farming because of low returns. Consequently, large and storage costs prohibitive. Although simple post-harvest technologies such 1U.S. Pacific Flag territories include Guam, the Commonwealth as sun-drying are practiced, local markets for such of the Northern Mariana islands and American Samoa. products are limited, These products could not com- 408 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas pete with lower priced items in export markets, and strengthen and broaden the scope and service commonly do not meet stringent Federal quality or of the existing Marketing Information Center labeling standards. in Hawaii, In Puerto Rico, post-harvest processing technol- ● Federal agencies could make appropriate mar- ogies are available and many have been researched keting information available to island institu- and tested. However, as yet, few have been applied tions or to a regional depository, and assist in commercially. This is due primarily to high labor information interpretation. costs, small markets, and the limited quantity and ● Develop on-island expertise in data interpre- irregular supply of local raw materials. These fac- tation. tors increase production costs, hence products of the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands are not competitive with those produced in countries having Education, Training, and Skills either cheap labor costs or more efficient production technologies. In Puerto Rico, products using Education, research, training, and extension pro- simple processing technologies, such as plantain grams related to island resource bases generally are chips, supply local markets and have entered some inadequate and not well coordinated on many is- export markets. lands. Curricula on island resource development Success of commercial export crop development and environmental impacts need strengthening at depends not only on appropriate production and all educational levels on many of the U.S.-affiliated post-harvest technologies, but also on accurate mar- Pacific islands. Consequently, labor skilled in renew- ket identification and forecasting. Organized mar- able resource management is scarce on many U. S.- keting information generally is inadequate in the affiliated Pacific islands. A lack of public aware- U, S.-affiliated Pacific islands and this problem is ness of the importance of resource development is- exacerbated by lack of island experts to interpret sues and concomitant lack of government support available information. Although marketing informa- for education and training on resource related sub- tion is available from Federal agencies and through jects hinder the development of a cadre of skilled the Hawaiian Marketing Information Center, high resource managers. Although current programs in cost and lack of on-island experts to interpret the the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands generally are information effectively prohibit its use. Further, is- adequate, further improvement and emphasis is land government institutions largely are unable to needed to enhance education in environmental identify and create off-island markets, Mechanisms issues. for effectively obtaining, interpreting, and transfer- Research on island resource development in the ring marketing information to planners are needed. U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands is inadequate and Suggested Options: needs coordination. Few research and training op- Local governments should formally recognize portunities are available and many island govern- the merits of those traditional agricultural tech- ments only can afford to finance research on par- nologies which sustain island renewable re- ticular development needs, Research activities are sources. further hindered by lack of experts, funds, and base- Assess current and potential roles of traditional line information, Moreover, many research activi- agriculture in overall economic development, ties are beyond the capacity of some island polities. and support research for improving suitable Results of research projects conducted by island traditional island agriculture technologies. organizations commonly are presented in a format Assess small-scale commercial agriculture de- unusable by planners or practitioners, velopment for applicability to the U.S.-affiliated Suggested Options: islands considering the technological, manage- ● Provide practical training opportunities in col- ment, economic, environmental, and social laboration with other institutions in the Pacific factors, region or with established institutions in Identify island commodities with good market Hawaii, value that can be profitably produced, proc- ● Support focused and coordinated research essed, and transported. projects designed to fulfill island development Market economists should participate in island goals, Encourage and make available experts agricultural development planning. from Federal agencies and other institutions Establish a new regional marketing informa- to assist in research project formulation and tion clearinghouse for U.S. Pacific islands or execution. App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops “ 409

Develop and provide curricula and educational Even though large-scale farming may be attrac- materials that emphasize island resource re- tive to those off-island investors who are willing to lated topics at all educational levels. bear higher risks, constraints for such undertakings Strengthen and improve existing educational are severe on small islands. Smallholder farming programs on the environmental consequences systems, on the other hand, may be more likely to of resource development. succeed, thus yielding increased socio-cultural, ecological, and economic benefits. Resource Development Planning Although financial incentives for private sector involvement in commercial resource base develop- Island institutions have limited capacity to de- ment exist in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific Flag terri- velop integrated resource-use plans. Planners tories, many island social and cultural practices, knowledgeable on island developmental issues and and decisions driven solely by political considera- resource capability and qualified to develop in- tions can negate the effectiveness of these incentives. tegrated development plans or to forecast the likely Government agencies in the U.S. Caribbean is- impacts of development are needed in the U.S. Pa- lands have the capacity to formulate integrated cific islands. Planning processes are hindered fur- resource-use plans. However, political goals com- ther by fragmentation of governmental jurisdiction monly overshadow island resource-use manage- over island resources, political interference in plan- ment and development plans. Politically motivated ning and implementation of resource use and man- decisionmaking results in uncoordinated resource agement, inadequate baseline information, lack of planning and development and, consequently, in mechanisms to coordinate resource management resource-use conflicts and mismanagement. Propo- on islands, and lack of mechanisms to identify nents of resource development plans generally have appropriate sustainable resource development tech- little influence or political clout in the decisionmak- nologies. ing process. Socio-cultural and political aspects of islands While incentive schemes may have beneficial ef- rarely are considered by decisionmakers and off- fects, indiscrimate cash subsidies may lead to un- island planners in resource planning and develop- even local development. Incentive schemes that ment, Commercial resource use practices may con- have immediate cash benefits are attractive for pri- flict with customary lifestyles particularly in areas vate investors, yet certain management programs where traditional exchange and sharing obligations that have no immediate and visible cash benefits and tenure systems are strong. Agriculture devel- (e.g. erosion control) may have long term benefits opment planning for U.S. Caribbean islands simi- which may not be readily appreciated by practi- larly is hindered by social, technological and eco- tioners or decisionmakers. Complex formulae and nomic characteristics unique to these islands. application procedures for obtaining subsidies may Much research undertaken on the islands is not constrain the average farmer from applying. designed to fulfill the information needs of local Tax incentives or land leases for overseas inves- planners or practitioners, and commonly is not pre- tors may be an effective way to stimulate develop- sented in a format suitable for local needs. Devel- ment of the private sector. Development financed opment is complicated by Federal regulatory com- by foreign investors also may transmit considerable pliance requirements, and by the inability of most indirect benefits to the island economies. U, S.-educated planners and decisionmakers to adapt their skills to local conditions. Suggested Options: Private sector involvement in commercial devel- ● Local governments should hire qualified con- opment of island resources is rare. An increased sultants to assist in resource development plan- number of private entrepreneurs (on or off-island) ning, and increase coordination of agencies are needed in the commercial agriculture sector. now overseeing island resource management Private (especially off-island) participation in com- and development. mercial agriculture development on these islands ● Coordinate integrated development planning is constrained by factors such as complex land- and improve island resource information man- tenure systems, inability to acquire ownership of agement capabilities. lands, islanders’ attitudes toward commercializa- ● Develop on-island expertise in integrated de- tion, relatively high wages compared with labor pro- velopment planning. ductivity, limited markets, and great distances be- ● Provide regular training and education to de- tween islands and large markets. velopment planners, resource managers, and 410 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

practitioners on island resource use and man- tion is difficult to obtain. Information from regional agement technologies. organizations is useful but takes months to receive. ● Develop public awareness programs and sup- Outside consultants commonly do not share their ply training programs on integrated resource findings with local resource users. management for decisionmakers. Considerable resource information exists in the ● Include social scientists in development plan- Pacific Flag territories, but it is not readily accessi- ning and decisionmaking processes to assure ble and is not presented in a way useful to local gov- that views of traditional island leaders are in- ernments or resource managers. Data commonly corporated. are collected only on selected aspects of marine re- ● Encourage the U.S. private sector to develop sources and resource uses (e.g., data from Hawaii and implement technologies that not only sus- is collected primarily to determine maximum sustain island renewable resources, but also are tainable yields and U.S. National Marine Fisheries compatible with the islanders’ social setting. Service information is primarily focused on off- ● Institute incentives that are conducive to offshore fisheries), and data collection is not designed island investors. for management purposes. Catch data (species, ● Encourage private sector involvement in com- sizes, and numbers) and nearshore ecosystem car- mercial development of resources through at- rying capacity information are particularly inade- tractive incentives. quate for sustainable resource management. ● Institute a flexible and simple incentive scheme National fishery databases exist in the Pacific Flag designed to meet the needs of local practi- Territories, but no system integrates the informa- tioners and incorporate tight control and man- tion into a regional database. National and interna- agement of these programs. tional fisheries management is hindered by lack of ● Simplify assistance program application pro- a regional information system. Examples include cedures and provide assistance to farmers in the WESTPACFIN database developed by the West- form completion. ern Pacific Fishery Management Council at the University of Hawaii and the database Resource Assessment Marianas Archipelago database, which contains primarily maximum sustained yield infor- Information Availability and Sharing mation. Overall, information on the nearshore marine re- Knowledge of tropical marine ecosystems and sources of the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands is current baseline information on marine species is adequate, but knowledge of pelagic fisheries is in- inadequate for sustainable island marine resource sufficient for sustainable management. Manage- development and management in the FAS polities; ment plans often are based on short-term goals and biological inventories, evaluation, and monitoring in some instances rely on data from temperate re- of marine resources are needed. Absence of base- gions. (e.g., maximum sustained yield estimates for line data makes identification of suitable resource pelagic fishery management plans are based on tem- management technologies difficult. Local univer- perate fisheries data). Current government efforts sities address mostly basic biological questions and focus on developing artisanal fisheries, but local in- local marine divisions conduct little applied re- terest exists in developing pelagic fisheries, search on production-oriented issues. Immediate Data on weights and size are available, but life demands on limited personnel and funds hinder in- history data on economically-important species is vestigation of new and/or more appropriate tech- needed for development of appropriate resource nologies for specific island areas and resources. management plans. Puerto Rico’s Corporation for Competition and isolation hinder access to infor- the Development of Marine Resources (CODREMAR) mation in the FAS, Local fishermen are hesitant to collects fisheries statistics but they are not used in share catch data, sites, and methods with expatri- management plans and programs. Fisheries man- ates and local island resource managers for fear of agement research, although primarily focused on increased fishing competition at preferred fishing groupers, has initiated new mesh-size standards sites. Many also have a general distrust of govern- which have been applied to all species and islands. ments, Local markets could serve as information Although local information systems exist (Sea collecting points but owners also are uncoopera- Grant, CODREMAR, Caribbean Fisheries Manage- tive, Much U.S. government information is inap- ment Council, and the USVI Fish and Wildlife Serv- propriate for tropical islands, and existing informa- ice), lack of inter- and intra-agency coordination App. F —Summary or Regional Workshops ● 411

inhibits dissemination and thus affects local deci- ● Develop a network of information sources to sion-making capabilities. Commonly, data are re- include universities, government agencies, and search oriented instead of application oriented. private organizations. Local governments in all of the U.S.-affiliated is- • Develop an information management system lands need improved methods for identifying and dis- accessible to both islanders and outside experts seminating information to practitioners. CODREMAR incorporating both written and computer- currently is developing programs to extend infor- oriented information. mation directly to the fishermen but implementa- • Standardize existing databases to facilitate ex- tion is hindered by lack of funds. change of information and allow regional fish- Suggested Options: eries management. ● Increase funding and personnel for fish-tagging • Develop a centralized regional database and and statistics-gathering programs to include lo- disseminate information and analyses to con- cal fish markets, boats and docks, and island tributors. governments as well as commercial United States and Japanese sources. Current Marine Resource Development ● Collect catch information from American Sa- and Management Technologies moan tuna canneries to improve monitoring of pelagic fish harvest. Legislation or incentives Current fishery technologies in the FAS are de- may be needed to overcome their reluctance signed for short-term harvesting goals and not as to share such information, sustainable systems. Fish aggregating devices are ● Study effects of closed seasons on fish popu- being instituted widely to increase fish catch per lations. unit of effort and island organizations are testing ● Create incentives for village representatives to different designs through pilot projects. Concerns monitor marine species. have increased, however, over potential adverse im- ● Increased research on life history data and rec- pacts of increased fishing activity. ommendations on appropriate mesh size re- Exploitation of pelagic and of reef fishes require strictions specific to Caribbean fisheries could different technologies. Significant differences in be carried out by such agencies as the Carib- scale and in fishing ability exist among certain is- bean Fisheries Management Council, land groups. For example, small boats may be suit- ● Increase the monitoring components of the able in Truk because most fishing is within a large, environmental impact assessment process, protected lagoon. Pohnpei, Kosrae and Yap, how- ● Local resource organizations could organize in- ever, are isolated high islands without large lagoonal formal interviews and workshops for resource fishing areas, and the Marshalls are dispersed managers and local practitioners to promote widely and require fishing boats that are suitable communication and to collect and disseminate for long-distance travel. information on local resources and resource In the U.S. Caribbean islands, there is concern uses. that nearshore fish populations are declining be- ● Designate a person or create a program within cause currently available exploitation technologies marine divisions to screen potential fisheries restrict harvesting to the continental shelf, Current technologies developed or used in other island technologies have promoted harvesting at or above areas. maximum yield within the narrow continental shelf ● Develop computerized information manage- where potentials are limited. ment systems to facilitate data collection, mon- Management schemes have been employed in St. itoring and information dissemination. Johns Park, VI which demonstrate the positive ef- ● Create information exchanges mechanisms fects of protected nearshore areas on fish popula- among the Pacific Fisheries Development Foun- tions, Similarly, fish populations increased with the dation, the Pacific Islands Development Pro- closing of Vieques, Puerto Rico waters to fishermen, gram, the Pacific Basin Development Council, Suggested Options: and the Aquiculture Development Program, all ● Develop new projects and technology based on of which are based in Hawaii. the comparative advantages of different island ● Develop inter- and intra-agency information environments. Expand feasibility analysis of systems coordination with greater emphasis on potential projects (e.g., vertical mariculture in dissemination of information and exchange Truk Lagoon, giant clam culture in Kosrae). with the public sector. ● Increase training and technology transfer from

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mariculture institutions such as the Micro- ● Investigate on-board freezing technologies suit- nesia Mariculture Demonstration Center in able for container ships for islands able to un- Palau and the International Center for Living dertake large-scale fishing. Aquatic Resources Management in the Philip- ● Investigate joint-venture opportunities to facili- pines. tate development of post-harvest facilities. ● Devote more land grant funding to develop- ● Develop storage facilities and increase fre- ment of aquiculture programs. quency of pick-up from outer islands, ● Redirect fishermen to exploitation of pelagic ● Investigate the potential for reducing cargo stocks to relieve pressure on nearshore stocks. charges for marine products on local airlines. • Zone areas for fishing, recreation, and pro- ● Encourage development of small frozen- tected areas. product processing enterprises. Storage, processing, and transport systems are in- ● Increase processing technology transfer from adequate in the FAS, largely restricting resource Hawaii, development to subsistence and small commercial ● Increase storage capacity on outer islands to scales. Poor storage and transport facilities and vari- allow larger harvests. able catches currently inhibit full-time fishing efforts and, thus, the development of local and out- Education, Labor and Skills side markets. Expansion of the fisheries industry into new markets cannot be considered until exten- Traditional resource use methods may be the most sion programs develop local expertise in marine appropriate for fostering development of certain re- product processing, storage facilities are made sources in the FAS polities. A need exists to iden- available, and transportation is assured. tify special local knowledge and to incorporate this Similarly, storage and transport technologies are with further development of local technical skills, poorly developed in the Pacific Flag territories. Local knowledge also plays a role in maintaining Export of marine products between islands and to island traditions and cultural identity. Sea Grant off-island markets is constrained by high airline and the Historic Preservation Program, for exam- cargo costs and shipping times. Lack of funds ple, are Federal programs which have been active hinders development of processing and storage fa- in recognizing traditional skills. cilities, although some progress has been made. In- Assistance to the islands should be redirected creased frequency and improved reliability of cargo from increasing island government bureaucracies transportation services could significantly expand to developing technical expertise for island practi- markets. tioners. Sea Grant can be an effective education In the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands, lack of organization, but it commonly focuses on recrea- infrastructure creates storage and transfer prob- tional and environmental education and not on de- lems; refrigeration, processing, and transport tech- velopment of exploitation or management skills, nologies need improvement. Because the whole fish Outside assistance is needed to develop island man- is demanded in local markets,2 processing does not agement skills. pose a problem, however, what is not sold com- Little traditional knowledge remains in some of monly cannot be stored or refrigerated. Facilities the Pacific Flag territories, but it should be consid- are not available for processing or storing excess ered in conservation technology implementation catch which constrains development of pelagic fish- activities. Local technical training is needed for all eries. Potential mechanisms to overcome these con- aspects of marine resources development includ- straints are being considered by CODREMAR, in- ing: project planning, start-up, operation, and main- cluding establishment of a fishmeal processing plant tenance. Business management skills need further to make use of fish by-products, and a public edu- development. Development and implementation of cation program on fish processing, home storage, new technologies is hindered by lack of education and use. in needed fields. Suggested Options: In the U.S. Caribbean islands, traditional knowl- ● Encourage training and technology transfer edge and cultural characteristics need to be given from private sector entrepreneurs operating en- higher priority in recruiting resource managers and terprises in the island areas to those interested practitioners. Little credit is given to local people people lacking such skills. possessing traditional knowledge of resource exploitation and management technologies. In St. 2Fear of ciguatera poisoning has initiated a trust between cus- Thomas, for example, resource skills are disappear- tomers and individual fishermen. ing as most employment is found in tourism. This App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops “ 413

is due, in part, to an economic development em- Samoa. The Pacific Fisheries Development Foun- phasis on capital-intensive technologies in all sec- dation is fostering the development of fishery coop- tors. The importance of personalities and cultural eratives in part to increase transfer of information differences between groups are underestimated in and technology to practitioners. However, cooper- project feasibility considerations. ative management systems in the U.S. Pacific have A better understanding of island ecology by the historically failed due to mismanagement and ir- public, and improved exchange of knowledge be- regular cash flows. tween groups is needed in the U.S.-affiliated Carib- Extension programs in the U.S. Caribbean islands bean islands. The major goals of public education are helping planners to identify resource opportu- should be to expand and influence consumer mar- nities through increasing contact between fisher- kets and to develop an appreciation of local ecol- men and representatives of government agencies. ogy and resources. Emphasis should be placed on However, these programs need to consider both for- informal education techniques, such as is provided mal and informal information channels, and varia- by the park naturalist/guides that are being trained bility of technologies needed for different ecosys- in the USVI. tems, as well as increase their emphasis on the Pressure to meet U.S. mainland standards in for- technological aspects of small-scale fisheries. mal education programs hinders creativity and dis- Organizational structures for development of courages activities focusing on island ecosystems small-scale fisheries exist, but they are underused. and cultures, Text books currently in use are devel- Only one of the 17 government-subsidized fishing oped for mainland classes. Some teachers are initi- cooperatives in Puerto Rico is self-managing, and ating field activities but they are receiving little sup- it alone is considered successful. Key people in port. The Sea Grant program has programs to train managerial roles are important. Formal organiza- teachers in the field, but these have suffered under tions may interfere with marketing links between recent budget cuts. fishermen and customers. Suggested Options: There are informal marine extension agents and ● Recognize value of traditional methods of re- training programs for island managers, but more source use and management. technical assistance is needed to extend fisheries ● Develop island ecology curricula and materi- and aquiculture technologies. The U.S. Soil Con- als for primary and secondary schools. servation Service (USSCS) gives advice on pond ir- ● Encourage school systems to support innova- rigation technologies, yet this does not incorporate tive island-oriented economic development and opportunities for aquiculture in irrigation ponds. ecology education activities. CODREMAR is trying to create Fisheries Centers ● Use community college programs to enhance with facilities to store gear and clean and sell fish. local skills. It also is providing grants for equipment and giv- ● Offer classes in higher learning institutions that ing seminars on small-scale fisheries management. are directed to management of resource-related enterprises. Suggested Options: ● Develop education programs in local schools Develop legislation authorizing the use of lo- that encourage information exchange with gov- cal foods in federally funded programs (e.g., ernment resource managers and incorporate school lunch and aid for the aging), to increase traditional values and practices with new tech- markets and to develop local capability to sup- nology development. ply nutritional needs in the event of a decline ● Use volunteers and students for short-term in income subsidies and free food programs. assistance rather than consultants. Analyze successes and failures of existing joint ● Sponsor “fish festivals” oriented towards cre- venture projects to guide development of fu- ating markets for resources and teaching un- ture agreements, and develop legislation to en- derstanding of local ecology. sure that an appropriate part of the profits remains within the island areas. Extension, Marketing, and Incentives Expand and improve community college capabilities to teach technical skills. Changing social values and island economic Increase media outreach efforts by Sea Grant structures make extension difficult in the U. S.- extension services. affiliated Pacific islands. Conflicts between com- Encourage appropriate nonprofit organizations munal and individual interests hinder extension to contribute to extension of information and services effectiveness, especially in American transfer of technologies. 414 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

● Increase cooperation between U.S. mainland • Investigate reduction or subsidization of cargo universities researching warm water aquiculture fees for transport of fish products on local (e.g., the University of Mississippi) and U.S. airlines. Caribbean academic institutions, CODREMAR and Sea Grant services. Incentives ● CODREMAR could undertake demonstration aquiculture projects. Development of cash economies in the FAS has ● Establish community foundation funds for pi- altered perceptions of acceptable employment and lot aquiculture projects and direct extension expectations of goods and services. Subsidies and activities at coastal farmers. remittances from off-island relatives have created a false sense of security and further disincentive for local conservation. Increased market demand Marketing Information for fresh fish has encouraged small-scale fishing and local marketing efforts, yet full-time fishing is not Current marketing information does not effec- considered economical or secure compared to gov- tively address fisheries catch and consumer de- ernment jobs. mands in the U.S. Pacific Flag territories where de- Local governments have increased efforts to demand for fishery products exceeds supply. Because velop joint venture arrangements. Such projects so few fishermen supply local markets, they easily provide a profit motive and a guaranteed market. can influence retail prices; surplus catch flooding Most tuna processing and on-board fish-freezing are local markets causes significant price fluctuations. examples of joint Micronesian/Japanese ventures. Alternative markets are needed to absorb surplus Politics, limited profits, and government subsi- fresh catch and to stabilize prices, The large mili- dies are major disincentives to fisheries and aqua- tary populations on some islands may provide un- culture development in the Pacific Flag territories. tapped markets for local fresh catch, but they have There are no economic incentives to devise or em- not been developed because of variability in the ploy sustainable resource development technol- quality and quantity of local catch. Market poten- ogies. Interest in reef fishing is declining because tial also could increase with better air transport of low and uncertain returns and availability of services. alternative employment or income (e.g., U.S. social Marketing overall needs improvement in the U.S. support programs). Minimum wage standards in the Caribbean islands. Marketing information is ori- Pacific Flag territories translate into high product ented toward commercial and trade associations prices that are not competitive in export markets. rather than the fishermen or public. Government Disincentives for expansion of local fishing op- marketing strategies need to incorporate new re- portunities in the U.S. Caribbean islands include: sources and consider both fishermen and consumers limited funds, monopolistic families, former project as clientele. Government marketing assistance is failure, and government politics. Individual fam- provided mainly for the manufacturing and serv- ilies have acquired dominance over some fishing ice sectors—aimed at promotion of island products areas by virtue of owning larger equipment and disin the U.S. market—and little assistance is given to couraging other individuals from expanding their small-scale fishermen in marketing their products enterprises. Local incentive programs are non- locally. Local government agencies are looking for existent. The U.S. Department of Agriculture new resources and markets. Tourism development (USDA) provides production and conservation in- provides a significant opportunity for creation of centives for farmers; there is no similar agency for new markets. Hotel markets currently purchase fishermen. only certain species of fish; creating tourist demand Outside entrepreneurs have eliminated local infor native fish could be part of tourism promotion. centives for aquiculture development. Project via- Suggested Options: bility must be proven before any local entrepreneur Continue to investigate development of cooper- will attempt aquiculture. Currently, the perceived atives to coordinate and regulate fish catch to risks outweigh economic incentives. Further, most stabilize local markets. outside investments have been extremely capital- Develop hotel and military markets to absorb and skill-intensive and, thus, have not demonstrated excess products and, thus, to prevent price fluc- technologies suitable for local enterprises. tuations in local markets. This may require spe- Suggested Options: cial programs and support from upper levels ● Provide financial help for initial investments, of the military hierarchy. perhaps through Community Development App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops . 415

Block Grants from the Department on Hous- tence fisheries are ignored in overall plans. Fish- ing and Urban Development (HUD). eries managers have little input in the planning ● Inland sport fisheries could be developed on process, although plans are becoming more com- St. Croix. prehensive (e.g. the plans for Guam included local, ● Encourage hotels to promote local resources Federal, academic, and private interests). There is through “catch of the day” offerings on menus a need to reconcile short-term activities with long- or weekly local food festivals. term goals. ● Provide incentive programs for small-scale Economic development planning is fragmented fishermen similar to those of USDA directed among economic sectors, and resource agency at farmers. plans rarely consider impacts on or from other ● Provide low interest loans for aquiculture pond agency activities. Tourism, in particular, is consid- construction (corresponding to the USSCS ered to be overemphasized in planning. Coastal funds for irrigation ponds). Zone Management programs are trying to to integrate tourism and fishery development. The West- Planning and Enforcement ern Pacific Fisheries Management Council has developed integrated planning methods. A new data Integrated ecosystem management and marine re- base has been developed to aid in fisheries plan- source development generally are given insufficient ning (Western Pacific Fisheries Information priority in island planning and are ignored in long- Network—WESTPACFIN), but it has not yet been term management plans in the FAS. Currently, few used in the U.S.-affiliated islands. island people fish full-time. Governments are in- Politics and limited funds inhibit planning and creasing efforts to change this because of a recog- enforcement capabilities in the Pacific Flag terri- ized need to reduce imports and increase employ- tories. Regulations are rarely appropriate management. Priority ranking in planning and project ment mechanisms for island areas. Despite regula- funding is given to marine resources only during tions to the contrary, many nearshore areas are identified crises (e. g., the recent Acanthaster plan- overfished and subjected to bleaching and dynamit- cii “Crown of Thorns” outbreak). Marine resources ing (primarily by Tongans), The few well-accepted receive less attention in planning than other devel- regulations include the laws on harvest of sea tur- opment sectors such as tourism or agriculture. No tles and black corals: occasional harvest is accept- mechanisms to facilitate integrated management ex- able for traditional purposes but not for commer- ist in the Freely Associated States. cial sale. However, enforcement of these regulations Incompatibility of local tenure systems in the FAS is weak, and both turtles and black corals are being with western development principles and technol- harvested commercially. ogies hinders identification of potential resource Recognizing marine resource ownership as a man- management techniques. Local marine resource agement mechanism is extremely difficult when tenure systems are incompatible with western ideas traditional boundaries are no longer recognized, and technology based on free access to marine re- and marine resource tenure is often incompatible sources. Leasing does not seem to be an effective with western style development. Permitting and alternative to ownership. zoning programs can help to sustain resources in Mechanisms to increase local participation and the long run. flexibility are needed in the planning process in the Marine enforcement capability is increasing in FAS, Appropriate planning can help direct effec- the flag territories; some areas are now able to con- tive information acquisition and appropriate use of fiscate boats. However, local enforcement author- outside assistance, Individual projects must be ities generally cannot handle unlicensed fleets. Be- specified in development plans in order for them cause of reduction in Coast Guard presence in the to gain support in budgetary determinations. Fed- islands, there is no enforcement capability over Ko- eral programs commonly are not flexible enough rean boats poaching along island shorelines and no for application to the islands, therefore, funding for longer any monitoring of the 20()-mile zone. Village marine resource development will be limited if sources level conservation pressure exists, but commonly beyond the United States are not considered, enforcement of resource conservation laws is hin- The importance of marine resources to economic dered because of extended family relationships be- development needs wider recognition in planning tween judicial agents and resource users. in the Pacific Flag territories. The potential of ma- Marine resources similarly receive low priority rine resource development to create employment in development planning in the U.S. Caribbean is- and generate income is not recognized and subsis- lands due to politics, lack of planning funds, and

63-222 0 - 87-15 QL. 3 416 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas planning focused solely on generating maximum Develop formal mechanisms for inter-agency income. Existing fisheries are considered to be de- coordination. veloped to capacity in the Virgin Islands. However, Collect employment, income, and revenue data Puerto Rico probably could meet the domestic fish- generated by fishery and tourism sectors on a ery market from their marine resource base. There comparative basis to illustrate the importance is a need for more long-term planning which com- of fisheries management and development. monly conflicts with short-term goals. Evaluate and compare the potentials of marine Enforcement of fisheries regulations generally is resources development and agricultural oppor- weak in the U.S. Caribbean islands. One positive tunities, by island groups, in order to improve example is enforcement of laws prohibiting setting planning and implementation of both marine of unmarked (and therefore unlicensed) fishing pots. and agricultural programs. Informal tenure—perceptions of territories—already Increase communication between resource exists and makes government enforcement of re- managers and resource users. stricted access difficult. Informal tenure also com- Establish links between conservation services plicates coastal planning. Formal recognition of ma- and enforcement agencies. rine area ownership would be virtually impossible Initiate monitoring and ecosystem recovery to implement and might not improve the sustaina- programs that are buffered from political bility of resource exploitation. changes and are consistent with enforcement Politics and lack of funds hinder effective re- capacities. source planning and enforcement. Limited funding Educate local judicial agents in renewable re- has further effects on the development of a cadre source problems and conservation. of skilled resource planners in resource agencies or planning offices. Political changes make implementation of long-term planning difficult: each ad- Planning, Education, and Commerce mininstration has to be re-educated and lobbied for program support. Fishermen provide virtually no Information Availability and Sharing input for planning. Although food self-sufficiency must be derived Some information is available on biophysical re- from a combination of terrestrial and aquatic resources in each of the FAS island areas, however, sources, planning in Puerto Rico is primarily con- more is required in order to manage and develop cerned with terrestrial development. Adverse impacts resources sustainably. Collection of baseline bi- on marine ecosystems from terrestrial sources, ex- ophysical information is extremely costly on the is- cept those affecting mangrove areas, often are not lands. Although U.S. agencies have provided use- considered. Consequently, terrestrial influences on ful biophysical information, it commonly is not marine resources are underestimated. timely and, often may not be presented in a format The primary interest of Virgin Island developers useful for local implementation. and planners is generating income and employ- Few people within either resource or planning ment, and tourism is given high priority. The USVI agencies know how to interpret or use biophysical Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs information. Although training opportunities are gives equal treatment to terrestrial and aquatic in- available from outside organizations (U.S. agencies, terests. Coastal zone management appears to be in- regional organizations, etc.), some changes are effective in St. Thomas. Federal coastal zoning laws needed to increase participation. and management plans are poorly accepted by lo- The information that is now available to the local cal inhabitants. Local input is needed at all levels FAS governments commonly is not centralized. A of planning to increase local understanding and system to identify what type of information exists acceptance. within resource agencies and to increase sharing Suggested Options: within and among sectoral areas in governments Develop a local coastal resource management is needed. Further, little of this information is avail- program (perhaps based on the U.S. Coastal able to planning offices. Zone Management model) or initiate more Information sharing among governments could coordination between regional and Federal be increased. A major hindrance to information programs. sharing among governments is the possibility of cre- Managers of Federal assistance programs should ating competitors and of freely sharing information deal directly with the agencies. which may have been purchased by just a few orga- App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops ● 417 nizations, Regional cooperation depends on the per- in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI). The University ception that each government wins by sharing. of Puerto Rico (UPR), Puerto Rico Department of Despite the efforts of the U.S. Department of In- Natural Resources and Puerto Rico Department of terior’s Technical Assistance Program in the Office Agriculture maintain major resource-related data- of Territorial and International Affairs (OTIA), there bases. Information produced by these organizations is considerable difficulty locating and acquiring is used in development planning and other de- appropriate technical expertise in the FAS. Further, cisions. governments may not know what outside assistance Government data collection is directed towards (financial, technical assistance, etc.) programs are special goals and tends to be aggregated and pre- available to them, or specific eligibility criteria for sented for the entire territory and not by specific those of which they are aware. island or island subregion, which may hinder ef- While resource data and information are avail- fective use of information. able to the Pacific Flag territories, commonly it is Limited funding hinders the USVI planning of- not centralized, organized, or readily accessible. fice in data collection and analyses, and makes it Baseline resource information in Guam and the difficult to maintain a cadre of skilled people. A fa- Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands cility is needed in the USVI where data could be is good; American Samoa needs a basic lands sur- centralized, aggregated, made accessible, and anal- vey. However, in general, inadequate or discontinu- yses could be provided that extend beyond line ous funding hinders resource census and monitor- agency immediate needs. Such a facility could ing activities by local resource agencies. Further, house a mechanism to screen outside information in American Samoa, information traditionally is for applicability to the island. considered proprietary and sharing can be difficult. Some mechanisms to identify technologies that Each government has access to regional informa- have the potential to sustain island resources are tion-sharing mechanisms such as Pacific Basin available in the U.S. Caribbean islands, but these Coastal Zone Management Conferences and South probably do not screen the full extent of informa- Pacific Commission conferences. Government oper- tion available outside the islands. In part, this is due ations on the Flag islands are beginning to be com- to problems in identifying appropriate people in puterized; this needs to be extended to resource in- Federal agencies with whom to maintain contact. formation. Assistance is needed with archive “Shared” employees, such as USDA Agricultural management and mechanisms to integrate and ana- Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension lyze information. Service staff bridge this gap to a considerable ex- Information relevant to island resource manage- tent in some areas. There is some sharing with non- ment developed by international and bilateral assis- U.S. Caribbean organizations (e.g., Puerto Rico with tance agencies is not directly available to the Pa- the Caribbean Development Bank; USVI with the cific Flag territories and can be difficult to acquire. Economic Commission on Latin America), but this Local government agencies in the Pacific Flag ter- probably should be increased. ritories have little capability for data interpretation Suggested Options: and impact monitoring or integration of informa- ● U.S. agencies could give high priority to estab- tion which hinder planning. Some areas may have lishing baseline information for island use by experts to interpret data but few who can translate providing assistance (financial, personnel, it to the public. equipment, etc.) in data collection and train- Impact monitoring is performed when mandated ing in data interpretation, manipulation and by Federal regulations, although both Federal and management. Local governments could con- local environmental impact statements are espe- tract out for information needed to supplement cially obtuse. Data interpretation provided by Fed- this information and local education institu- eral agencies commonly is too technical for local tions could encourage students to collect such use or fails to consider local development concerns information in the course of their education. or issues. Guam is developing a monitoring capa- • Each government should develop an archival bility, but it is hindered by unstable funding. The system to centralize, manage, and control hard- CNMI Coastal Zone Management program also copy information on resources and resource monitors projects. systems. This system should have copy distri- Data collection, integration and presentation to bution capacity, storage and retrieval capacity, decisionmakers pose no apparent problem in Puerto and mapping and statistical systems. Rico, however, basic data are not readily available • A computerized system needs to be developed 418 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

to assist with data management and to assist Deficiencies exist in the capacity of island insti- in data manipulation for planning. This system tutions in the Pacific Flag territories to develop and should be centralized for each government. implement needed technologies and programs. This Federal data of relevance to resource manage- largely is due to a lack of skilled employees. Some ment in the islands should be made available efforts are underway to ameliorate this. The CNMI both to the hard-copy archival systems and to is opening a 2-year agricultural program in their the statistical computerized systems. new land-grant college. Guam and American Samoa A curriculum could be added to the College of have had Land Grant programs for some years. the Virgin Islands directed towards producing However, Guam reports a need to develop exper- graduates skilled in data collection, data ma- tise outside of the biological sciences in areas such nipulation and analysis and resource develop- as physical sciences, engineering, business admin- ment planning. istration, marketing, finance, and accounting. The United States could duplicate international While small-scale fisheries may be reported as im- assistance programs applied in neighboring portant in development plans, this does not trans- areas to equalize the benefits; or it could pro- late into importance in terms of budget. Govern- vide a mechanism to channel internationally- ment officials may think that fishing requires little derived information to the islands. This could support; or they may not wish to encourage fishing be done through domestic programs or through as a commercial enterprise. Small-scale fisheries a special fund to the U.N. to provide such tend to be overwhelmed by large, outside fisheries services. issues. Competition among U.S.-affiliated islands The United States could permit direct repre- hinders commercial development of small-scale sentation of islanders to U.N. conferences so fisheries. Development of small-scale deep-sea fish- that information can be collected first-hand. ing enterprises would support tourism and thus may Provide local people the opportunity to work be a type of small-scale fishing on which to focus. with Federal data collectors to provide some American Samoa’s economy and food consumption on-the-job training and better understanding of largely are based on its marine resources; CNMI's data for eventual interpretation. Most Federal falls somewhere in the middle, and Guam’s are least agencies touch base with local experts. based on marine resources. The University of Guam could provide train- In the U.S. Caribbean islands, local interest exists ing in critique and performance of environ- in ethnobotany and other areas related to developmental impact statements, and other data inter- ment of “new” renewable resources with potential pretation and planning methods. commercial applications, but present activities are One or more “Regional Clearinghouses” could small. These activities depend strongly on univer- be maintained to share relevant information be- sity staff and programs, and have been hindered tween governments. These clearinghouses by Federal budget cuts. The CVI Agriculture Ex- could scan literature produced outside the lo- periment Station and Cooperative Extension Serv- cal governments (U.S. agencies and interna- ice, along with the Island Resources Foundation, tional) and share relevant information with the are studying local versions of commercial crops and governments, and could maintain a “Directory ethnobotany. The Puerto Rico Medical School is re- of International Programs” that contains infor- searching ethnopharmacology. mation on assistance programs, contact peo- Suggested Options: ple, regulations, and procedures. ● Regional Information Clearinghouse(s) might collect and provide information on potentially suitable technologies to the islands in addition Current Planning Technologies to such services provided by OTIA and the South Pacific Commission (SPC). The FAS largely are unable to develop technol- ● Federal agency “loaners” through the Inter- ogies for resource management. Island organiza- governmental Personnel Act from the Environ- tions can provide basic research to determine which mental Protection Agency and other agencies technologies are potentially suitable, and conduct would help with immediate problems. Military applied research to adapt technologies developed liaisons with local agencies and access to Na- outside of the areas and to upgrade those tradition- val Ocean Command Center expertise would ally used in the islands. An organization or organi- also provide needed skills and information. zations are needed to identify potentially suitable ● Perform economic impact statements of small- technologies from the “outside pool” of tech- scale fisheries to provide good estimates of their nologies. current importance to local economies. App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops . 419

● Research small-scale fisheries technologies to Primary and secondary school level programs and determine which may be appropriate for local materials designed to show the links between de- enterprises. velopment and its ecological consequences need • Marine resource conservation laws would as- substantial improvement for applicability to the Pa- sist with managing inshore areas to support cific Flag territories. The Government of Guam, in pelagic fisheries. Also, definition of traditional association with the U.S. Department of Education fishing areas would prevent pelagic fishermen is developing a curriculum and textbook on envi- from hindering local catches, ronment and development, and the American Samoa Coastal Zone Management program is providing environmental education materials and training in Education, Labor, and Skills field research techniques. However, these programs are seen as piecemeal efforts. FAS need curricula development on resources Immigration is causing stress on existing infra- and development for primary, secondary, and structure, distorting labor markets and adversely college-level programs. Efforts are being undertaken affecting some resources in the Pacific Flag terri- by a variety of organizations to provide needed ma- tories. Foreign nationals may displace local labor terials. The public should be made aware of the and their paychecks are often remitted to families value of education, and programs should be devel- at home. (For example, 70 percent of the labor in oped to promote early student interest in fields most American Samoa tuna canneries are foreign na- integral to the islands. tionals.) However, reducing the availability of for- All island areas need to develop a cadre of skilled eign labor would result in economic dislocations. resource managers and planners. Students educated Related to resources, foreign nationals may take off-island in resource-related fields frequently re- resources beyond acceptable or legislated amounts turn to jobs which do not allow them to use their (e.g, land crabs in the CNMI) and may use inap- skills. In fact, some students decide not to return propriate methods of resource capture. Foreign at all. The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands fleets are a significant cause of harbor pollution, (TTPI) Manpower Council identified island devel- largely by crashing on reefs and discharging bilges opment skills priorities and gave scholarships based in harbors. on those analyses. Similar attempts have been made Colleges in the U.S. Caribbean have resource- by local governments by contracting with students related programs, however, primary and secondary to pursue certain fields in return for financial sup- school level programs and materials (e. g., text- port, There is no enforcement of “contracts” with books), designed to show the links between devel- students because it is too difficult and costly to mon- opment and its ecological consequences need sub- itor their course choices and undesirable to with- stantial improvement. Some materials are being draw support for education altogether for non-com- developed by the Coastal Zone Commission on St. pliance (changing course plans) when educated Thomas and at the CVI as well as at the Puerto Rico people are needed in so many fields. Department of Education. In addition, there is a dis- Mechanisms to identify suitable technologies will tinct lack of vocational education curricula to pro- require development of skilled islanders, which in vide basic agriculture and fisheries (and small busi- turn will depend on development of educational in- ness management) skills. Puerto Rico has ample stitutions. The University of Guam priorities cur- 2-year vocational education programs, but the pro- rently are determined not by island needs but by posed Hess Oil program focusing on mechanics and the availability of U.S. matching funds. Students agriculture has not materialized in the USVI. seeking skills from U.S. mainland universities fre- Both island areas have difficulty attracting and quently do not return to the islands. Further, main- retaining skilled personnel. In the USVI, the prob- land expatriates have greater freedom to operate lem lies primarily in locating and attracting skilled as professionals within the political/cultural island staff for government agencies. Mid-level managers systems, are scarce and local businesses do not train them, Development of educational programs, particu- In addition, outside companies investing in the is- larly in science, is problematic, Much locally rele- lands rarely hire local islanders. Local talent prob- vant, resource-related information may be tradi- ably already is captured by the government because tional proprietary knowledge and, therefore, may extra-government jobs generally are not higher be largely inaccessible to formal educational pro- paying. grams. There also is a distinct lack of continuity In Puerto Rico, the problem is not in keeping peo- in school programs. ple in the government specifically, but in keeping 420 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas people on-island. Skilled personnel commonly are to deliver marketing information are available, the attracted to higher-paying jobs in the mainland, al- delivery of such information is inadequate. though they frequently return. Despite UPR’s poor Incentives systems and programs are a problem salary system, its retirement system encourages in the FAS. Payment incentives are seen as disin- long tenure. Managerial training opportunities— centives to manage and follow-through on projects. both on-island and off-island—are considered more Participants felt that independent initiative was the than adequate for island resource managers. In the best incentive to manage and follow-through on any USVI, however, methods to upgrade skills are project. Wage disparities are perceived as the ma- strongly needed to replace costly outside experts. jor disincentive in investment in resource manage- Suggested Options: ment and development. Favorable government sal- A Human Resource Development study is aries affect education choices, increasing selection needed to help island governments identify of fields such as political science and law, and leav- skills needed in the future; this information ing fields such as agriculture and fisheries, lacking. should be used to direct current educational Lack of needed marketing information hinders and curricula development programs. planning and resource development in the Pacific Local governments should ensure continuity Flag territories. Although some marketing studies of local government personnel in order to pro- are being performed, these are not as yet adequate mote environmental education, and continuity to take advantage of expected appropriate markets. of educational programs despite changes in The local tourist market, in particular, needs to be personnel. assessed and developed to support local production. A program encouraging the elderly to teach Cooperatives as a mechanism to guarantee required young people in formal school systems to trans- quality and quantity to fit into modern markets have fer resource-related information and skills not been very successful. should be instituted on each island. Marketing information is not perceived as a prob- Village “monitoring” of resource status should lem in American Samoa, but educated marketers be instituted to supplement college/university are needed to work in the government and to mon- monitoring of resources in their research itor market trends. Needs exist to reduce competi- programs. tion in exported products among neighboring is- Local governments could invest in scholarship lands. And surplus goods must be marketed to fulfill funds to encourage college education in target plant capacity and achieve economies of scale. areas. American Samoa hopes to develop as a major trans- The University of Guam could provide in- shipment port with some on-island processing. creased substantive courses for secondary Few incentives exist in the islands for resource school teachers, mostly in the areas of math and conservation. All governments have resource man- science. To do this, they need to develop appro- agement incentive systems but these tend to be ori- priate curriculum materials. ented to development. These also focus on manage- Support and assistance should be provided to ment of government-owned, leased land much more include planning curricula in university-level heavily than for management of private lands. education in the islands. Technology identification and transfer mecha- Provide increased training opportunities in the nisms are needed at all levels: international/bilateral/ USVI and provide incentives to increase lon- Federal to local organizations, and local organiza- gevity of tenure in the government agencies tions to practitioners. (probably security incentives rather than finan- While technical information is available in the cial incentives). U.S. Caribbean islands, marketing is a major prob- Directories of local resource management ex- lem to development. In the USVI, four Small Busi- pertise might be a first step to identify which ness Administration (SBA)-type organizations help skills are available, which can be shared, and practitioners with marketing, but this is not avail- which are needed. able to planners. In Puerto Rico, the current focus Coast Guard surveillance of navigable water- is on selling Puerto Rico to big business; these ef- ways should be returned to former levels or in- forts probably have not been extended to small pro- creased. ducers. Although traditional fisheries and landholding systems are aggregations of small-scale activities, Extension, Marketing, and Incentives the small entrepreneur often is overlooked in favor of large, mainland subsidiaries. Scale is perceived Lack of marketing information is a serious prob- as the major source of divergence between tradi- lem in each of the FAS island areas. While systems tional systems and contemporary systems. App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops . 421

Several organizations provide information and implementation of land use guidelines or restric- assistance to the small entrepreneur, The Coopera- tions will be the task of local governments. How- tive Extension Services is one source of informa- ever, U.S. government agencies could assist with tion applicable to varying scales of enterprise. In information collection, landowner education, and addition, the SBA has programs designed to help transfer of information on suitable development entrepreneurs/innovators/inventors go to market projects. with new products, Other, similar groups exist to Local governments have not had enough experi- help small businesses. However, little of the train- ence with the impacts of development to reliably ing is directed towards small agricultural and fish- forecast the likely impacts of future projects. Guide- eries businesses. lines for analysis and training of people to perform Resource management incentive programs at a analyses are required. Some suggested analyses are: local government level are weak in both island (1) benefit/cost analysis or other appropriate deci- areas. In Puerto Rico, priorities vary among depart- sionmaking aids; (2) tourism impact assessment or ments and fluctuate widely over time. In the USVI, carrying capacity analyses. economic development is given almost consistent Currently, resource management and develop- priority over resource management, which is re- ment (and other) programs are not directly chosen flected in low budgets for resource programs. by local islanders in the FAS. The U.S. Department Suggested Options: of the Interior (USDOI), OTIA sends a list of pro- ● The Regional Information Clearinghouse could grams “chosen“ in Washington, DC and asks gov- provide marketing information collection and ernments if they wish to sign up for any of them. dissemination services. Although some of these programs have been very ● Old TTPI “2-pagers” on research projects rele- good, this system is perceived as inappropriate: vant to potential island development projects, 1. Federal agencies rarely respond to further is- including marketing information, should be lo- land communications about programs, cated, updated, and redistributed, 2. island governments may never hear again • Governments could swap developable lands about programs in which they have interest, (determined by land suitability analysis) for and “resource-valued” land as a means of preserv- 3. island governments are given no more choice ing certain resources or resource uses (e.g., pro- by the USDOI than “yes” or “no.”3 tection of critical habitat or creating agricul- Long-term planning of resource development is tural districts), rarely accomplished in the Pacific Flag territories. ● Land Grant and Sea Grant organizations may Although the information base is strong, it is rarely provide some of these services, and should reused in long-term planning of land uses. Further, ceive continued support. contemporary use and management principles some- ● Under Internal Revenue Code 936, large banks times are not compatible with existing island land- in Puerto Rico are holding up to $6.5 billion and sea-tenure systems. for investment in development of private firms The Pacific Flag territories do not have the his- in Puerto Rico. Although this has been used for tory of experience with the development impacts renewable resource-related development in the to adequately consider them in development studies past, it has been used conservatively. Creation and planning. Planners commonly focus on imme- of a “Caribbean Research Institute” could sup- diate economic concerns, sometimes to the detri- port renewable resource development as well ment of the sustainability of resource uses. A major as other technology development making use problem is presented by the nature of development of these 936 funds. and its impacts; economic development occurs in tangible indivisibilities while resource impacts tend Planning for Resource Management to be gradual and diffuse, making it less easy to iden- and Development tify the causes. Historically, resource management and develop- Resource development and land use planning in ment planning in the U.S. Caribbean has not ade- the FAS is extremely problematic largely due to land quately considered maintenance of natural resources tenure systems and local perceptions of land as a that underlie economic development activities, but family heritage rather than a commercial resource. Land tenure is fragmented, hindering development 3[Statement potentially made obsolete by the Compact of Free of economies of scale in most undertakings. The Association] 422 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas this has changed during the past decade. The regu- Further assistance with planning through the latory power of the governments is capable of deal- HUD A-76 Comprehensive planning program ing with adverse impacts under leasing, zoning, would be beneficial to all planning efforts. permitting, and other systems. Still, monitoring ca- Encourage students with planning expertise to pabilities need strengthening. take employment with government agencies. While fragmentation of jurisdiction over island To promote this, government agencies could resource management and development is irrele- provide such perquisites as guaranteed jobs, vant to Puerto Rico, where agencies are well-coor- homes, and program continuity. dinated, it is a major problem in the USVI. This is Environmental impact studies and monitoring particularly acute due to the division in jurisdic- should be regularly performed and systemati- tion between the Coastal Zone Commission (which cally conducted to determine which develop- regulates only the 200 foot contour) and the rest of ment projects may be reducing future produc- the islands covered by the planning office and other tivity in immediate or nearby ecosystems. agencies. Permitting and other activities need to be Encourage all Federal and local studies to in- centralized. corporate social impact analysis, as well as Coastal Zone Management (CZM) and other Fed- environmental impact analysis. eral programs supporting local government activi- CZM programs provide the basis for integra- ties require consideration of environmental, social, tion of resource management and development and political consequences of activities. However, information, and their development should be private undertakings may not consider these or even encouraged. However, there is an occasional respond to mandates that they consider the conse- need to redirect funds going into local CZM quences of their proposed actions. Environmental programs to respond to local needs; a mecha- Impact Statements (EISs) and economic develop- nism to do this should be determined. ment impact analyses are common and well-under- The Federal government should assist with eco- stood, but social impact analyses are not. De- system simulation models for the islands to al- velopers commonly are “outsiders” investing in the low greater certainty in review of environmental islands and so do not have a feeling for public hear- impact statements, and to provide planners ing issues. with a simple mechanism to educate the pub- Despite considerable public scrutiny of both public and decisionmakers, lic and private developers in the islands, there is no format or standardized measures for social im- Enforcement pact analysis available to either public or private groups. One participant suggested that the Oak Federal programs, designed for mainland ecolo- Ridge National Laboratory has a methodology/model gies and communities, sometimes are not appropri- for conducting a social impact analysis. This meth- ate for the islands and may not be adaptable to is- odology is reported to be simple, requiring some land needs. Local regulations in the U.S. Caribbean adaptation to the islands but otherwise readily appli- tend to be more flexible than Federal programs; pol- cable. Still, the model does not include cultural con- icies are becoming stricter, but methods to waive siderations. It was suggested that formal mecha- them are available if it is clearly beneficial. How- nisms had not been applied because they were not ever, waivers from Federal regulations are much perceived as necessary to derive adequate analyses. more difficult to achieve. Carrying capacity is theoretically understood, but A dilemma exists: stricter regulations are needed, there is not enough experience or political clout to but this tends to increase regulatory rigidity, A pub- oppose private developers on this basis. Skilled peo- lic resource constituency is needed to force issues ple hired by the local government are commonly to political attention to help determine when “captured” by the private sector. Further, political waivers are appropriate. criteria overshadows the use of scientific informa- Although aid to the islands already is evaluated tion in decisionmaking. for its impacts to some extent, review panels of Suggested Options: Federally-funded programs rarely include a local . Planning offices need to review proposals from islander, perhaps reducing their adequacy in point- corporations interested in investing in island ing out applicability to the islands. activities to ensure that local environmental, The Pacific Flag territories lack a strong conser- social, economic, and political considerations vation ethic and enforcement of conservation laws are incorporated in island development. is hindered by extended family structures. A con- App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops ● 423 servation ethic was not really needed until recently, Tourism is not seen as a distorting force in the however, the development of a conservation ethic U.S. Caribbean islands, but certainly as the driving may be hindered by a long-running perception of force behind many activities and issues. Tourism “plenty.” In some cases, police will overlook infrac- is seen as a primary method of deriving gross do- tions of environmental regulations and focus arrests mestic product and employment, although jobs or fines on criminal laws. often are filled by mainlanders and there is a pub- Regulation is perceived as useful only until edu- lic drive in St. Thomas (USVI) to restrict tourism cation catches up. Thus, environmental education development such that land remains privately should be a high priority for local educational in- owned/used. In addition, tourism is perceived as stitutions. a mechanism to spread stress on resources from Suggested Options: more developed areas (e.g., St, Thomas) to less de- ● Local representation could be required for re- veloped areas (e.g., St. Croix). view of federally funded projects in the islands, Because of the determination to derive income perhaps by law. Local governments could also from tourism, participants suggested that the real create project proposal evaluation teams with need of the islands was not to increase their self- which Federal agencies must cooperate. sufficiency in terms of increased local food produc- • Because environmental education priorities are tion, but to reduce the high cost of food. Methods designated by Federal agencies, a program of achieving this are to: should be developed to fund and assist local 1. increase local processing of imported raw ma- environmental education. terials (taking advantage of the historical use ● Guam courts directed a public awareness proof the islands as Caribbean-mainland transship- gram of the potential prison sentences and fines ment points), and given to law-breakers. This might be useful in 2. restore barriers to importation of lower-cost other islands. down-island products reduced by the Carib- ● Having circuit court judges (judges not part of bean Basin Initiative, local extended family structures) impose sen- Suggested Options: tences may reduce the perceived need to ignore ● First, governments need to rank the possibil- laws in order to “maintain good feelings.” ities for economic development in order to: 1) rank research priorities, 2) direct Economic De- Resource Development Focii velopment Administration-type promotion strategies, and 3) direct planning focii. In all three Pacific Flag territories, “new” re- ● Second, a study (or studies) should be per- sources are the resource-related planning focus. formed for each area to uncover already known Guam is looking into eucheuma and rabbitfish cul- information about local resources; requiring a ture; CNMI is studying tangan-tangan charcoal; and major literature search (including the Microne- American Samoa is researching traditional pest sian Area Research Council and PBDC). Then, control methods such as coleus intercropping, governments should fund cooperative scien- Medicinal plants are an area overlooked in this tific/resident surveys of local practices to de- thrust. Although “new” resources are important to termine which resources may have potential future development, they are not as important as for commercial development (e.g., raw materi- keeping up with major current developments such als for industrial use) and which resource man- as tourism. agement practices may be transferable to For example, tourism is perceived as creating a larger-scale use. mixture of beneficial and adverse resource impacts, ● Third, regional herbaria or germplasm storage It can be beneficial insofar as it increases public centers need to be created to save opportuni- awareness of resource values. On the other hand, ties offered by local plants. (The Waimea Bo- foreign labor commonly is brought in to fill higher tanical Gardens have a collection of Pacific is- positions due to a lack of local skilled labor; local land plants, but this may not cover the entire labor commonly fills lower-wage positions, reduc- range of local species available,) ing potential local economic gains, Unfortunately, ● Fourth, for those resources which appear to tourism development in Guam and the CNMI oc- have the potential for commercialization, there curred too rapidly for effective control. A better sys- needs to be university/college faculty research tem would have been to have locals trained to sup- and publications to tap into international port development, thus slowing the “brain drain. ” knowledge (e.g., the South Pacific Commission 424 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

may collect such information). Perhaps a re- Jones Act exacerbate this problem. For example, the gional information center could perform the ar- aircraft noise restraint is applied equally to the is- chival search and extend into an international land as to major airports in the continental United literature search. States, resulting in infrequent air schedules to the Finally, governments need to give continuing island. “Noise reducers” can curb engine noise to attention-to the most promising products so that comply with the regulation, however, aircraft power the “boom-and-bust” syndrome does not occur. also is reduced which prevents certain types of air- Grassroots scrutiny of and participation in local craft from using the short island runways. Cur- government activities is growing, but remains rare rently, aircraft noise is not considered a problem in the Pacific Flag territories. Guam holds public in Palau compared to the economic benefits ex- hearings on zoning variances and on specific de- panded air service would provide. velopment projects, and provides a weekly “Land- Foreign carriers that do service Palau are not per- Use” column for the local newspaper. Private orga- mitted to carry local traffic between Palau and other nizations such as the Marianas Parks and Recrea- U.S. ports (e.g., Guam, Hawaii). Clauses related to tion Council, Guam Science Teachers Council and shipping contained in the Jones Act defines a local chapter of Audubon may respond to pro- Micronesia as a “foreign” territory, thus, hinder- posed government activities, but these groups have ing the islands’ export potential. little continuity. In the CNMI, the public land plan- Suggested Option: ner presents projects to the public but there is com- . Congress could grant an exemption or waiver monly little response. American Samoa has not de- of certain clauses (i.e., aircraft noise restraint, veloped much in the way of public participation. definition of Micronesia as “foreign”) of the Hearings are held in Pago Pago and they are often Jones Act for the islands. felt unnecessary. No environmental groups have Interest exists in encouraging foreign investments chapters in American Samoa. in agriculture. Currently, Palau imports approxi- Suggested Option: mately 75 percent of their agricultural products. An . The media probably is the best form of intro- increase in the island’s capacity for food produc- ducing the public to the planning process, to tion in conjunction with providing essential trans- methods of public participation and to the po- portation would sustain tourism, The Palauans have tential impacts of proposed projects. made investigations into possible markets in Japan for island products. Discussions are planned be- Summary of Meeting With tween the President of Palau and the President of Representatives of Paku4 Japan regarding potential Palauan exports to Japan. Suggested Option: Palau’s development plans are directed toward: ● Congress could influence Japan to be receptive 1) development of a tourism industry, and 2) increas- to island exports. ing export of island products. However, tourism im- No foreign vessels are permitted to fish in ter- pact or carrying capacity studies have not yet been ritorial waters without a permit, however, Palau performed. Although it is estimated that current lacks the capacity to enforce this law over their 12- fishery production can provide for approximately mile zone. Coast Guard vessels could provide the 16,000 tourists annually, current agricultural pro- needed protection although it was recognized that duction is insufficient to support the additional enforcement of harvest limits would be difficult. demand. Some local enforcement exists on a limited basis A major constraint to development is the lack of in some marine areas, although several marine spe- essential air/surface transportation to the islands. cies are virtually unprotected (i.e., lobster, red snap- Infrequent air carrier schedules inhibit tourism per, mangrove crab). Poaching remains a serious travel and the current airline service structure re- problem from both the local population and foreign sults in higher fares for the consumer. Lack of regu- poachers. Restocking species in reef areas is futile lar air cargo services inhibit the island’s ability to unless these areas can be adequately protected and become an effective exporter. Certain clauses of the poaching laws can be enforced. The Japanese In- ternational Cooperative Agency has funded re-

4 search and protection of the hawksbill turtle. Due to logistical problems, representatives of Palau were not able to attend the workshop sessions on September 26 and 27, Conservation regulations are a recognized need as planned. OTA staff subsequently met with them on Septem- not only for nearshore resources but also for spe- ber 28. cies considered “highly migratory. ” It was noticed App. F—Summary of Regional Workshops “ 425 that nearshore tuna population declined when the Suggested Option: Japanese began fishing Palauan waters. A local tuna • Integration of this type of information and pro- canning plant owned by Van Camp went out of busi- vision of baseline data on other resources ness due to the decline of available tuna, However, would allow local planners to identify tech- approximately two years after the cessation of the niques to minimize environmental damage Japanese harvest, the tuna reappeared in nearshore from development projects. waters indicating that regulation of pelagic harvest Analyses of marine resources are particularly could help assure a sustainable yield. deficient, although the SPC supports good fishery projects. Necessary baseline information on marine The local government needs the flexibility to allo- resources (e.g., red snapper, grouper) could be cate funds for conservation programs which agencies gathered by a U.S. ocean research vessel and assis- have the resources to enact. Strong and numerous tance for a mariculture assessment has been re- family ties between local offenders, enforcement quested. The International Union for the Conser- forces and the judiciary make enforcement of con- vation of Nature and Natural Resources could servation regulations difficult. provide assistance in developing management plans for protected areas. Suggested Option: No mining legislation exists for Micronesia is- ● Circuit rider judges could conduct trials and lands and waters. Legislation is needed on Palau impose fines and sentences for convictions in to control seabed mining, extraction of manganese cases where there are family ties between the and gold, and their associated impacts on eco- judiciary and the defendent. systems. Methods to integrate the resource development Suggested Options: analyses provided to Palau by various multi-lateral ● Make technical assistance grants available to and U.S. governmental agencies are needed. Re- the islands to integrate available information source analyses are necessary to allow local plan- in resource management plans. Five years was ners to make wise decisions on local development the suggested length of the grant which would projects and maintain a sustainable resource base. allow time for development of the on-island ex- A number of resource assessments have been made pertise. by various US. agencies and regional organizations. • Lack of recognition for local science experts However, many of these analyses were not designed results in a disincentive for local people to be- for the needs of the local resource management come educated in science fields. Outside stud- agencies and some of the information collected has ies should incorporate the expertise of local sci- not become available to the local government. entists and give credit for their contributions. —.

Appendix Commissioned Papers1

Assessment of Energy-Integrated Farming Tech- Wm. S. Richardson School of Law nologies for U.S. Insular Areas (NTIS PB87 University of Hawaii 142691/AS) Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Tech- Alex G. Alexander nologies to Sustain Renewable Resources in U. S.- Energy Cane, Inc. Affiliated Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS) Everett, WA Arthur L. Dahl Cultural Dimensions of Resource Definition and Ecological Advisor Use in Micronesia (NTIS PB87 142675/AS) Plomodiern, France William H. Alkire (formerly with South Pacific Commission] Department of Anthropology Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource University of Victoria, B.C. Development and Management in Puerto Rico and Tourism Development and Sustainable Renewa- the U.S. Virgin Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS) ble Resource Management for U.S.-Affiliated Pa- Hilda Diaz-Soltero cific Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS) Nature Conservancy, Washington DC Janice Auyong (formerly Secretary, Puerto Rico Department Raymond Tabata of Natural Resources) Sea Grant Extension Service Boris Oxman University of Hawaii Special Adviser, Coastal Zone The Development and Management of Nearshore Management Program Fisheries in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources (NTIS PB87 142691/AS) Forestry in Puerto Rico: A Case Study in Success- Paul Callaghan ful Organizational Change (NTIS PB87 142700/AS) University of Guam Hilda Diaz-Soltero Assessment of Livestock Production Technologies Nature Conservancy, Washington DC in U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands (NTIS 1%87 (formerly Secretary, Puerto Rico Department 142691/AS] of Natural Resources) Ruben Caro-Costas Ralph Schmidt USDA Agricultural Research Service United Nations Food and Agriculture Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico Organization, Rome Assessment of Agricultural Crop Production (formerly Chief, Puerto Rico Forest Service Technologies in Puerto Rico (NTIS PB87 Agriculture Development Needs and Opportuni- 142691/AS) ties in the U.S. Virgin Islands (NTIS PB87 Fernando Castillo-Barahona 142691/AS) Plantas Tropicales de Puerto Rico Eric Dillingham The Integration of Customary and Traditional Farmer, U.S. Virgin Islands Renewable Resource Practices in a Modern Legal Case Studies of the Impacts of Introduced Animal Framework (NTIS PB87 142725/AS) Species on Renewable Resources in the U. S.- Williamson B.C. Chang Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS) Mari J, Matsuda Lucius Eldredge Brian K. Nakamura University of Guam Marine Laboratory Traditional Agriculture and Resource Manage- ‘Microfiche or paper copies of collections of commissioned papers may ment Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia be purchased from the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Techni- cal Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA 22161. The NTIS order (NTIS PB87 142683/AS) number following each title indicates in which part of Volume 11: Com- Marjorie V.C. Falanruw missioned Papers the paper appears: Yap Institute of Natural Science Part A: The Setting for Resource Development NTIS PB87 142675/AS Part B: Agriculture - Pacific NTIS PB87 142683/AS An Analysis of Black Pepper Production in Part C: Agriculture - Caribbean NTIS PB87 142691/AS Ponape (NTIS PB87 142683/AS] Part D: Agroforestry and Forestry NTIS PB87 142700/AS Part E: Aquatic Resources NTIS PB87 142717/AS Meredith Glenn Part F: Development Planning Considerations NTIS PB87 142725/AS Consultant, New York

426 App. G—Commissioned Papers “ 427

(formerly with Pohnpei State Department of lands (NTIS PB87 142691/AS) Resources & Development) Gregory L. Morris Aquiculture Development in the U.S.-Affiliated Consulting Hydrologist, Puerto Rico Islands (NTIS PB87 142717/AS) Douglas J. Pool John Glude Tropical Research and Development, Inc. Glude Aquiculture Consultants, Inc., Seattle, WA Puerto Rico Aquiculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto The Suitability of Cooperative Enterprises for the Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (NTIS PB87 Production of Food on the Territorial Islands of 142717/AS) the United States (NTIS PB87 142725/AS) Melvin Goodwin Neal Nathanson Paul D. Sandifer National Rural Development and Environmental Research Projects, Rhode Island Finance Corporation Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Devel- Washington, DC opmental Potentials in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Aquiculture and Mariculture Development in the Islands (NTIS PB87 142700/AS) U.S. Pacific Insular Areas (NTIS PB87 142717/AS) Craig C. Halbower Steven Nelson Consultant, Colorado University of Guam Marine Laboratory (formerly with Yap State Department of The Marshall Islands Coconut Industry: Prospects Resources & Development) for Expansion and Development (NTIS PB87 The Role of Marine Resource Tenure Systems 142700/AS) (TURFS) in Sustainable Nearshore Marine Re- Skip Poison source Development and Management in U. S.- University of Hawaii Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142717/AS) Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Devel- Robert Johannes opment Potentials in U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Is- CSIRO Marine Laboratories, Division of Fisheries lands (NTIS PB87 142700/AS) Tasmania, Australia Douglas J, Pool Implications of History and Culture for Sustain- Tropical Research and Development, Inc. ing Development of Renewable Resources on U. S.- Puerto Rico Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS) Effects of U.S. Macroeconomic Policy on Puerto Robert C. Kiste Rico and U.S. Territories (NTIS PB87 142725/AS) Pacific Island Studies Program Ben Posner University of Hawaii College of the Virgin Islands Impacts of U.S. Military Presence on U. S.- Commercial Crop Production Technologies and Affiliated Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS) Development Potentials for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Stephen A. Loftus, Jr. Islands (NTIS PB87 142683/AS) Consultant, McLean, VA Bill Raynor An Overview of Selected Natural Systems Plan- Department of Agriculture ning and Management Techniques for U. S.- Ponape Agriculture and Trade School Affiliated Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS) Assessment of Food Processing Technologies for G. Kern Lowry U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands (NTIS PB87 Department of Urban and Regional Planning 142691/AS) University of Hawaii Ferdinand Sanchez-Nieva Assessment of Commercial Agriculture Technol- Chemical Engineer, Puerto Rico ogies for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands (NTIS The Critical Role of the U.S. Congress in Foster- PB87 142683/AS) ing Self-Reliance in the Freely Associated States Robert Lucas of Micronesia (NTIS PB87 142675/AS) Robert L. Lucas and Associates Henry M. Schwalbenberg, S. J. Honolulu, HI West Side Jesuit Community, New York Coastal Resource Development and Management Traditional Crafts in the U.S.-Affiliated Carib- in the U.S. Pacific Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS) bean Islands: An Addendum (NTIS PB87 James E. Maragos 142725/AS) Pacific Ocean Division Daniel Sheehy U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Folk Arts Program, National Endowment Honolulu, HI for the Arts Assessment of Semiarid Agricultural Production Washington, DC Technologies for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Is- Non-Food Marine Resources Development and 428 “ Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands Boris Oxman (NTIS PB87 142717/AS) Special Adviser, Coastal Zone Barry Smith Managment Program University of Guam Marine Laboratory Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources Food and Feed Processing Technologies in the Economic Pests and Pest Management Technol- United States Insular Areas of the Pacific (NTIS ogies Suitable for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands PB87 142683/AS) (NTIS PB87 142683/AS) Philip G. Stiles Agnes Vargo Division of Agriculture Agricultural Experiment Station Arizona State University American Samoa Community College Assessment of Livestock Production Technologies Assessment of Agricultural Production Technol- in Micronesia and Feasibility Study for Locally ogies for U.S. Caribbean Islands (NTIS PB87 Produced Pig Feed on Ponape (NTIS PB87 142691/AS) 142683/AS) Jose Vincente-Chandler Miklos Szentkiralyi USDA Agricultural Research Service Animal Husbandry Department Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico Ponape Agriculture and Trade School Handicrafts Industry Development and Renewa- Applicability of Zeolite Refrigeration Systems to ble Resource Management for U.S.-Affiliated Pa- Small Tropical Islands (NTIS PB87 142717/AS) cific Islands (NTIS PB87 142725/AS) Dimiter Tchernev Margo Vitarelli The Zeopower Company Consortium of Pacific Arts and Cultures Natick, MA Honolulu, HI Fiscal Incentive Social Support Programs, the Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Caribbean Basin Initiative and the Development Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Is- of Renewable Resources in Puerto Rico and the lands (NTIS PB87 142717/AS) U.S. Virgin Islands (NTIS PB87 142675/AS) Charles Wahle Alan T. Udall Stone Harbor Marine Laboratory Technical Resources of Puerto Rico, Inc. Lehigh University, NJ Appendix H Glossary of Acronyms and Terms

Acronyms

ACIAR —Australian Centre for FAS –Freely Associated States (FSM, International Agriculture RMI, and the Republic of Research Palau) ADP —Aquaculture Development FEDA —Federation Para El Desarrollo Program Agricola de Puerto Rico AID —U.S. Agency for International FIP —Forestry Incentive Program Development (USDA) AMS —Agricultural Marketing Service FLSA —Fair Labor Standards Act (USDA) FSM —Federated States of Micronesia ARS —Agriculture Research Service GAO —U.S. Government Accounting (USDA) Office CARDI —Caribbean Agriculture Research GDP —Gross domestic product and Development Institute 1PM —Integrated pest management CATS –Civic Action Teams (U.S. ITC —Island Trading Company Army) ITCZ —Intertropical Convergence Zone CCDC —Consumer Cooperative ITF —Institute of Tropical Forestry Development Corporation IUCN —International Union for the CFMC —Caribbean Fishery Management Conservation of Nature and Council Natural Resources CNMI —Commonwealth of the Northern KMR —Kwajelein Missile Range Mariana Islands MARC —Micronesian Area Research CODREMAR —Puerto Rico Corporation for the Center—University of Guam Development of Marine MATADC —Micronesian Area Tropical Resources Agriculture Data Center— COE —Army Corps of Engineers University of Guam CRIS —Current Research Information MMDC —Micronesian Mariculture System (USDA) Demonstration Center CRM —Coastal Resource Management MSL —Marine Systems Laboratory CVI —College of the Virgin Islands (Smithsonian Institution) CZMA –Coastal Zone Management Act MSY –Maximum sustainable yield CZMP —Coastal Zone Management NEA —National Endowment for the Program Arts DAWR –Guam Division of Aquatic and NELH —Natural Energy Laboratory of Wildlife Resources Hawaii DHHS –U.S. Department of Health and NEPA —National Environmental Policy Human Services Act DOD —U.S. Department of Defense NOAA —National Oceanic and DWI —Danish West Indies Atmospheric Administration DWIC —Danish West India Company (USDOC) EFD —Engineering Field Divisions NPS –National Park Service (USDOI) (U.S. Army) OTEC —Ocean thermal energy EIS —Environmental Impact conversion Statement OTIA —Office of Territorial and EPA —Environmental Protection International Affairs (USDOI) Agency PBDC —Pacific Basin Development ERS —Economic Research Service Council (USDA) PFDF —Pacific Fisheries Development FAD —Fish aggregation device Foundation FAO —Food and Agriculture PIDP —Pacific Islands Development Organization (United Nations) Program 429 430 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas

RAMA —Resource Assessment Marianas Agroforestry: Collective term for a number of agri- Archipelago database cultural production systems that incorporate a RMI –Republic of the Marshall mixture of annual, perennial, and woody peren- Islands nial species, sometimes including animals, on the SAC –Strategic Air Command same land management unit. SCS —U.S. Soil Conservation Service Aiga: A social landholding unit in American Samoa. (USDA) Algal ridge: An algae-covered ridge that forms on SFCA —Saipan Farmer’s Cooperative the shallow surface of coral reefs. Association (CNMI) Algal turf: A flatbed of densely growing algae; also SPC —South Pacific Commission used to describe macroalgae-covered screens SPREP —South Pacific Regional used as part of crab mariculture in the Caribbean. Environmental Programme Alley cropping: A form of agroforestry involving (SPC) planting tree species in rows, with annual crops TURF —Traditional use rights in planted in the alleys or avenues. Also called Ave- fisheries nue cropping. TTPI —Trust Territory of the Pacific Alluvium/ Alluvial soil: Clay, silt, sand, gravel, or Islands similar detrital material deposited by running UGML —University of Guam Marine water. Laboratory Aquifer: A water-bearing stratum of permeable USAF —U.S. Air Force rock, sand, or gravel; often used to refer to the USCC —United States Commercial Ghyben-Herzberg lens common to islands. Company Artificial reef: An artificial structure placed in USDA —U.S. Department of Agriculture nearshore waters to encourage the settlement and USDOC —U.S. Department of Commerce growth of reef community species such as hard USDOI —U.S. Department of the Interior corals, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms (e.g., USFS –U.S. Forest Service (USDOI) sea urchins), fish, and marine plants. USFWS —U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Avenue cropping: A form of agroforestry involv- (USDOI) ing planting tree species in rows, with annual USGS –U.S. Geological Survey (USDOI) crops planted in the avenues or alleys. Also called US-MAB —U.S. Man and the Biosphere Alley cropping. Program Back-reef: The nearshore side of the reef. USN –U.S. Navy Bauxite: An impure soil mixture of aluminum com- USNMFS —U.S. National Marine Fisheries pounds largely devoid of common plant nutrients. Service (USDOC) Bedding planes: Flat surfaces in sedimentary rocks USVI –U.S. Virgin Islands along which adjacent beds tend to separate VIBR —Virgin Islands Biosphere Benthic: Of, referring to, or related to, the bottom Reserve of a body of water, such as the ocean. VICORP —Virgin Islands Corporation Biophysical: The natural (biological and physical) VIRMC —Virgin Islands Resource attributes of a site and their interrelationships; Management Cooperative a biophysical assessment involves assessing these WESTPACFIN—Western Pacific Fisheries attributes for their suitability for various uses. Information Network Biosphere reserve: A form of protected area de- YINS —Yap Institute of Natural signed to integrate conservation efforts with re- Science search, monitoring, and education activities, traditional landuse and local socioeconomic Terms needs. The typical reserve is comprised of a highly protected core area, an experimental re- Agouti: A rabbit-sized rodent indigenous to the search area, a rehabilitation area, a traditional use U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands; believed to have area, and a cooperative development area. been extirpated during the colonial period. Boom-and-bust syndrome: A cyclic process in Agredados: Puerto Rican sharecroppers on ha- which: 1) a new resource or market for a resource cienda land. is discovered offering opportunities for profit, 2) Agroecosystem: An ecosystem manipulated for numerous entrepreneurs begin to produce the agricultural purposes. desired product eventually flooding the market App. H—Glossary of Acronyms and Terms . 431

and driving down the price, and 3) the subsequent Externalities: A direct, commonly adverse, effect loss of profit-making opportunities results in en- of an action (e.g., pollution) that affects another’s trepreneurial flight and collapse of the industry. welfare but that is not reflected in market prices Bund: An embankment used to control the flow of or is not taken into account by the individual, water. firm, or group causing the externality in decid- Bycatch: Miscellaneous marine species caught in ing to undertake the action. addition to the desired species at which primary Extinct: No longer existing. fishing efforts are directed. Extirpate: To remove completely from a particu- Caique: Caribbean Indian chieftain. larly area or region, but not completely removed Capillary forces: Surface tension force that acts to from the Earth. draw water upward in small openings. Fa’a Samoa: Traditional lifestyle and social struc- Ciguatoxins: Toxin found in nearshore tropical mature of American Samoa (“the Samoan Way”). rine fish, currently believed to be linked to sedi- Fiafia: Traditional Samoan Sunday feast. ment discharge from nearby terrestrial areas. Fissures: A narrow opening or crack in rocks. Copra: Dried coconut meat yielding coconut oil. Fono: Governing council of American Samoan Conuco: Traditional Caribbean cultivation system village, involving interplanting of root crops in mounds Fore-reef: The seaward side of the coral reef. of soil. Free association: A form of legal association be- Convective precipitation: Precipitation generated tween the United States, the Republic of the Mar- from condensation of moisture laden air that has shall Islands, the Federated States of Microne- risen due to surface heating, sia, and expected in the near future between the Corm: A common name referring to the tuber of U.S. and the Republic of Palau, in which the a number of root crops including yam (Dioscorea Freely Associated States have full control over spp.) and taro (Colocasia spp.). their internal and external affairs and will receive Cruzan: Inhabitant of the island of St. Croix, U.S. U.S. funding over a specified period while the Virgin Islands. United States retains security and defense respon- Curio: Something considered novel, rare, or bizarre. sibilities. Cyclones/ cyclonic storms: A system of winds or Fumaroles: A small opening in rock associated with storm that circles around a center of low atmos- recent volcanic activity from which hot gases and pheric pressure clockwise in the southern hemi- vapors issue. sphere and counterclockwise in the northern Ghyben-Herzberg lens: The lens-shaped fresh- hemisphere, advances at a speed of 20 or more water-saturated zone formed as freshwater per- miles per hour, and often brings abundant rain; colates down through island soils. This fresh- also called a hurricane, water zone is confined in a general lens shape Desacomodados: Squatters on Crown land in 18th by the surrounding denser seawater. century Puerto Rico. Green manure: Green plant material that is incor- District Center: Administrative centers established porated into the soil as a means to enhance soil for the government of the Trust Territory of the fertility. Pacific Islands, which now comprise the major Groundwater: Water that occurs in pores and urban centers of the Commonwealth of the North- cracks of rocks and sediments in the wholly satu- ern Mariana Islands, the Republic of the Marshall rated zone below the Earth’s surface. Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Guano: A phosphate-rich substance composed the Republic of Palau. chiefly of the excrement of bats or seafowl and Diurnal: Of, relating to, or occurring in the day- used as a fertilizer. time; having a daily cycle. Hacienda: A large estate, often devoted to such agri- Ecosystem: The sum of biotic and abiotic compo- cultural pursuits as cattle ranching. nents of a specific environment. Hermatypic coral: Reef-building corals able to grow Endemic: Having evolved in or restricted to a lo- to a maximum depth of approximately 150 feet cality or region. below sea level. Epiphyte: A plant that derives its moisture and nu- Humus: A complex soil resulting from partial trients from the air and rain and usually grows decomposition of plant or animal matter and on another plant. forming the organic portion of soil. Evapotranspiration: Removal of water from the soil Hydrophyte: A plant growing in water or in soil through the combined processes of evaporation too waterlogged for most plants to survive. and transpiration. Hydroponics: Culture of plants in nutrient solutions 432 . Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

with or without an inert medium to provide me- Pelagic: Of, related, to or living in the open sea; chanical support. oceanic. Intercropping: The planting of two or more crops Pneumatophores: A root often functioning as a res- together at the same time by row, strip, or in a piratory organ in marsh or swamp plants such seemingly random mixture. as mangroves. Interplant: To plant a crop between plants of Polyculture: Agricultural production system incor- another kind. porating a diversity of plant species and varieties Intertidal: Of, relating to, or being part of the litto- concurrently on a unit of land. ral zone between the high- and low-tide marks. Reef flat: The shallow reef area between the coral Jibaros: Puerto Rican peasants in late 18th century reef and shoreline. colonial agricultural economy. Relay cropping: Planting a second crop prior to the Lancho: A rural, generally wooded, farm that ur- harvest of the initial crop on a unit of land. ban dwellers in the Mariana islands traditionally Savanna: A tropical or subtropical grassland con- used to cultivate a number of food crops and taining scattered trees and drought-resistant un- maintain livestock such as chickens and pigs. dergrowth. Lithology: The study of rocks, or the character of Sawei: A historical socioeconomic exchange sys- a rock formation. tem between Yap and nearby outer islands. Littoral: Of, relating to, or situated in or near a Scuba [self-contained underwater breathing appa- shore, especially the shore zone between low and ratus]: Apparatus used for breathing while swim- high water marks. ming under water. Macroalgae: Large, chiefly aquatic, nonvascular Sedimentation: The process of deposition of usually plants, especially seaweeds. fine-grained sediment; settling. Excessive sedi- Matai: Titled chiefs in American Samoa. mentation in nearshore waters can smother near- Meristematic tissue: Plant tissue capable of form- shore marine bottom communities and kill corals. ing a replicate of the original plant given appro- Slumps: Small landslides in sloping areas of highly priate growth conditions. weathered soils, common to degraded insular Microhabitat: The environment immediately sur- lands. rounding the organism of interest. Snorkeling: To swim partly submerged and breath- Midden: A refuse heap; commonly analyzed in ar- ing through a tube. chaeology to provide information on prehistoric Solution cavities: Various sized openings in rock lifestyles. formed through the dissolving action of water. Mongoose: Predator introduced to the U.S. Virgin Subsistence farming: A system of farming that pro- Islands in the early colonial period and presumed vides all or almost all the goods required by the responsible for extermination of local fauna, par- farm family usually without any significant sur- ticularly the agouti. plus for sale. Monoculture: The cultivation of a single product Swidden: A form of land clearing involving slash- to the exclusion of other uses of a unit of land. ing standing vegetation and, commonly, burning Muck: Highly organic, wet soils; typical of taro pits it onsite to provide soil nutrients (also called slash- and mangrove swamps. and-burn clearing). Mwarmwar: Head ornaments similar to leis and Terrane: The area or surface over which a particu- typically made of fragrant flowers and leaves, lar rock or group of rocks is prevalent. such as ylang-ylang, worn in the Caroline islands. Thalli: The fleshy portions of a plant, especially ma- Naborias: Caribbean Indian lower class, generally rine macroalgae. laborers, Theca: The solid structure formed by reef-building Neo-tradition: An elaboration or adjustment of a coral polyps. traditional practice. Traditional: Relating to indigenous, pre-western Nitainos: Caribbean Indian higher class. contact systems. Ordnance: Military supplies, including weapons, Trusteeship: Supervisory control by one or more ammunition, combat vehicles, and maintenance countries over a trust territory. tools and equipment. Tsunami: Seismic sea wave; a great sea wave Orographic precipitation: Rainfall generated as produced by submarine earth movement or vol- moisture laden air is forced to rise over a topo- canic eruption. graphic feature, most commonly mountains. TURF [traditional use rights in fisheries]: Systems Overexploitation: Exploitation of a resource at of limited access to marine resources practiced greater than sustainable levels. traditionally in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. App. H—Glossary of Acronyms and Terms ● 433

Underutilized/underused: To utilize less than fully ticular watercourse or body of water; a fundamen- or below the sustainable maximum yield. tal ecological unit for resource development Water table: The top surface of the groundwater planning, zone. Weir: A fence or enclosure set in a waterway for Watershed: A region or area draining into a par- taking fish,

Index

Agriculture livestock agroforestry and tree gardens animals, 6, 150, 152, 154, 172-173, 174-176, ecological advantages of, 12, 16, 174 187-188 potential for future, 12, 16, 174 feed, 155, 222, 284-285 shade coffee and, 174 markets (See Markets and Market Development) tradition of, 11-12, 13, 146, 163, 174 mechanization (See Agriculture, technologies) aquiculture, integration with, 27, 163, 296, 299, 300 monoculture, 13, 98, 162-163, 188 attitudes toward farming, 14, 116, 154, 157 opportunities for agricultural development, 11, 12, commercial 76, 77, 159-211 development, history (See Agriculture, history) pest and disease control large-scale commercial, 15-16, 17, 143, 152-153, post-harvest (See Food Preservation and 165, 176-179, 187-189, 407 Processing) potential for commercial agriculture, 12, 16, 17, preharvest, 21-22, 163, 188, 203-207 160, 173 plantation agriculture semi-commercial, 15, 16, 143, 158, 165, 168, 170, history of (See Agriculture, history) 407 modern, 164 small-scale commercial, 13, 15, 165, 179-184, 407, polyculture, 21, 22, 161-162, 163, 203-204 (See also 408 Agriculture, subsistence, characteristics of) constraints to development, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, production (See Agriculture, commercial; Agricul- 17, 41-42, 44, 45, 115, 120, 121, 155-159, ture, subsistence) 292-294, 176, 179, 187, 207, 407, 409 research, 18, 33-35, 209-210, 359-360 container agriculture (See Agriculture, technologies) small farmer profiles, 33, 354-355 conventional field farming (See Agriculture, tech- soil nologies) amendments, 23, 200-203, 310 cooperatives (See Cooperatives) conservation, 23, 156, 193, 194-198, 365 crops degradation and erosion, role in, 42, 111, 150, cash, 12, 13, 14, 18, 149-150, 151, 159, 160, 162, 188, 192-193 171-172, 173, 179-181, 184-188 (See also Markets drainage, 178 and Market Development, export) fallow periods and, 193-195 import substitution (See Markets and Market De- subsistence 432 (defined) velopment, local) agroforestry (See Agriculture, agroforestry) new, introduction of, 16, 170, 171, 173 backyard gardens, 13, 16, 149, 151, 168 subsistence, 13, 86, 145-149, 150, 171 characteristics of, 13, 15-16, 21, 86, 144-145, 163, underutilized, 172-173 164, 165, 166-167, 168-169, 174, 203 deforestation, role in, 143, 151, 154 conservation value of, 13, 15-16, 167 decline (See Agriculture, farm acreage, decline in; crops (See Agriculture, crops, subsistence) subsistence, decline of) decline of, 16, 143, 167, 168 disease control (See Agriculture, pest and disease enhancement of, 160, 170, 171, 173-174, 407 control) need to protect, 16, 168 energy development, integration with (See Energy, production, 166, 167-168 integration with agriculture) social value of, 16 extension agents and services (See Extension) technologies, 13, 145-149 farm acreage, decline in, 152, 154 sustainable, characteristics of, 161-166 farm sizes, 165-166, 179 technologies fertilizers, 13, 23, 42, 150, 164, 182, 188, 200-202 agroforestry (See Agriculture, agroforestry) (See also Agriculture, soil amendments) container agriculture, 17, 18, 169, 179, 181-184 history of agricultural development conventional (intensive) field farming, 179-181, Caribbean, 84, 95-97, 98-100, 101, 151-154 187-189 Pacific, 83-84, 88, 89, 149-150 energy-integrated farming (See Energy, integra- incentives, 36, 152, 409 (See also Renewable tion with agriculture) Resource Development and Management, in- improved pasture, 17, 179, 187, 188 centives) interplanting (See Agriculture, polyculture) irrigation (See Agriculture, technologies) irrigation, 13, 17, 107, 177-178, 182, 188-189 labor, 114, 115, 117, 120-121, 123, 151, 152, 154, mechanization, 13, 17, 176-177 157, 162, 171 subsistence (See Agriculture, subsistence)

437 438 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

tourism and (See Tourism, market potential of) Education vertical integration of, 22, 23, 288, 291-292 availability of college and graduate education in the wastewater treatment and, 28, 310 U.S. islands Aquiculture Caribbean, 34, 359, 419 agriculture, integration with, 163, 296, 299, 300 Pacific, 34, 357, 359, 401-402 constraints to development, 10, 11, 21, 232-235, ecology and resource issues, need for in school cur- 292-294 ricula, 35, 357-358, 408-409, 413, 419-420 energy, integration with (See Energy, integration liberal arts emphasis of higher education, 11, 116, with aquiculture) 157 extension agents and services (See Extension) off-island pursuit of college and graduate educa- interest in, 7, 20-21, 77, 249 tion, 11, 35, 116, 419 juveniles for (See Aquiculture, constraints) public environmental education programs, need for, opportunities for development, 11, 21, 76-77, 211, 408, 413, 422-423 249-258, 236-258 training for careers in agriculture and fisheries, research, 21, 33, 34-35, 233, 236, 250, 253, 257-258, need for, 117, 210-211, 347, 408-409, 412-413, 260-263, 360-362 419-420 site selection, 233, 250, 254 El Nine, 56 species Employment (See also Agriculture, labor) algae, 236, 250, 252, 253 alien, 118, 157, 121-122, 419, 423 aquarium fish, 21, 236, 257 government, preference for, 114, 119-120, 157 baitfish, 21, 236, 257 in resource-related careers, 114 food fish, 20, 236, 250, 254, 255-257 part-time, 113, 115, 120, 152, 227, 228 giant clams, 242-244, 250, 253 unemployment, 114, 117-118, 120 pearl oysters, 226, 236, 242, 250, 252-253 wages, 114, 117-118, 414 prawns, freshwater, 236, 250, 255 Energy shrimp, marine, 233, 236, 250, 255 biomass, 302 technologies (See also Energy, integration with integration with agriculture, 26, 27, 163, 296-300 aquiculture) integration with aquaculture, 27, 28, 296, 300-302 bottom culture, 20, 252-253 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, 28, 300, 382 extensive, 251-253, 258 solar (hypersaline) ponds, 28, 302 intensive, 258 wave energy systems, 28, 301-302 marine enclosures, 20, 253-254 Environmental Protection Agency, 204, 350, 386, 397, pond culture, 20, 21, 254-257 418 sea ranching, 20, 251 Extension Services semi-intensive, 258 agriculture, 209-210 (See also USDA, research and wastewater treatment and, 28, 310 extension) aquiculture and fisheries, 263-264 Buffer systems need for additional, 35-36, 206, 209-210, 263-264, freshwater/flood buffer, 9, 71, 132, 134-136 351, 363, 413 saltwater/storm surge buffer 9, 71, 72, 132, 136-137 Fisheries Coastal Resource Management, 7, 76, 337-339, 356, artisanal fishery profiles, 33, 356 415, 416, 417, 422 catch data, need for, 355, 410, 411 Coastal Zone Management (See Coastal Resource commercial (See also Renewable Resource Develop- Management) ment Planning, neglect of fisheries in) Colonial Era (See History) large-scale, 229, 237, 240 Compact of Free Association, 4, 40, 63, 90-91, 120, small-scale, 20, 227, 236, 237, 238-240, 413, 418, 338, 339, 358 419, 420 Cooperatives, 22, 248, 259, 282, 288-291, 413, 414 conservation Cyclonic storms 52, 54-55, 102 practices, traditional, 24, 25, 76, 246, 247-248 technologies, modern (See Fisheries, technologies) Deforestation (See Forests and Forestry) constraints to development of, 10, 11, 19, 20, 230-232, 233-235, 412 East West Center, 32, 34, 341, 352, 361, 403 economically important species, 221-222, 226-227 Eastern Caribbean Center, 34, 361 (See also Reefs, ecological and economic impor- Economic self-sufficiency tance of) defined, 6, 45, 122 fish aggregation devices (See Fisheries, tech- role of renewable resources in achieving, 6, 13, 30, nologies) 45-46, 102, 113, 161 fishery cooperatives (See Cooperatives) Index ● 439

history Island characteristics Caribbean, 18, 96, 100-101, 229 climate, 7, 8, 52-55, 156 Pacific, 18, 89, 221-222, 225-227 geography, 3, 4, 43, 369-376 (maps) importance of, 18, 19, 20, 23, 86-87, 221-222, 225, hydrology, 7, 55-58 228-229, 415 political status, 39-41 markets (See Markets and Market Development) renewable resource ecosystems, 9, 10, 19, 43, 63-74, opportunities for development of, 20, 76, 235-249 131-140, 222-225, 231-232, 320-321 overexploitation of, 6, 7, 20, 26, 109, 110, 226, 227, socioeconomic, 43-45, 113-123 229-230, 235, 237, 239, 245, 259, 411 soils, 8, 60-63, 156, 192 pelagic, 20, 235, 237, 239, 240, 248, 411, 412, 419 types reef (See Reefs) atolls, 7, 8, 49, 50, 59, 84, 136-137 research, 20, 33-34, 231, 260-263, 360-362, 411 continental islands, 7, 51, 59-60 restocking (See Fisheries, technologies) defined, 7, 49 subsistence, 20, 237, 238-240 high volcanic islands, 7, 49, 58-59, 84, 225 technologies raised limestone islands, 7, 51, 59, 136-137 artificial reefs (See Reefs, artificial) conservation, 24, 110, 228, 237, 240, 244-248, 411, Markets and Market Development (See also USDA, 416, 424-425 (See also Protected Areas; Reefs, Agriculture Marketing Service) protection of) export markets, 22, 160, 185-187, 235, 236, 237, fish aggregation devices, 26, 237, 240-241, 411 288, 364, 408, 420, 424 restocking, 26, 235, 237, 240, 241-244, 249, 258, local markets, 17, 22, 155, 158, 159-160, 170, 259, 424 284, 285-287, 291, 364, 379-380, 413, 414, 420 traditional, 87, 100 (See also Tourism, market potential of; School tourism and (See Tourism, market potential of) Lunch Program, island products, potential use TURFS and (See Tenure systems) in) underutilized resources, 7, 228, 235, 238-240 regional markets, 22, 287-288, 408 Food preservation and processing, 21, 22, 187, 238, Micronesia Area Tropical Agriculture Data Center, 276-282, 283, 284, 407-408, 412 33, 356 Forests and Forestry cloud forests, 67 commercial development of, 18, 70, 154, 189-192 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (See Energy, deforestation, 6, 69, 70, 72, 94, 98, 100, 103, 143, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion) 151, 191-192, 333-334 Out-Migration 7, 113, 118, 122 lowland forests, 68 mangrove forests, 42, 72-73, 135, 138, 223-224, Pacific Basin Development Council, 32, 33, 352, 355, 229-230, 241-242, 246 411 montane forests, 67, 135, 136 Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation, 33, 355, protection of, 75, 334 404, 411, 413 reforestation, 7, 18, 26, 70, 71, 73, 76, 96, 192, 193, Pollution and Contamination, 6, 7, 103, 106, 108, 198-200, 309, 365 112-113, 181, 204224, 228, 232, 373, 376 secondary forests, management, 103, 191 Population Growth and Distribution submontane forests, 67 Caribbean, 6, 43-44, 113 watershed value of forests, 26, 67, 68, 70, 77, 133, Pacific, 6, 43-44, 113 134, 199 Protected areas, 24, 332-337 (See also Fisheries, tech- urban, 310-311 nologies, conservation; Forests and Forestry, protection of; Reefs, protection of) General Accounting Office, 31, 349 Ghyben-Herzberg lens, 58 Reefs artificial, 7, 26, 77, 235, 240, 241 Handicrafts (See Traditional Island Cultures and Cus- buffer capacity of (See Buffer Systems, salt- toms, handicrafts] water/storm surge buffer) History (See also Agriculture, history; Fisheries, damage and destruction of, 7, 74, 102, 109-110, 111, history) 112, 192, 222, 233, 235, 246, 320, 375 Caribbean, 6, 18, 83, 92-102 defined, 49, 222 Pacific, 6, 18, 83-92 ecological and economic importance of, 43, 74, 223 productivity of, 11, 43, 74, 222-223, 225 Intertropical Convergence Zone 52, 53, 55 protection of, 75, 226, 246-247 Introduced Species, problems of, 103, 106, 251, 173, traditional use rights of in the Pacific (See Tenure 206 systems, sea) 440 ● Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas

Renewable Resource Development and Management extended family systems, 67, 91, 92, 156, 158, 237, (See also Agriculture; Aquiculture; Fisheries) 415, 422 existing programs, basic characteristics of, 330-331 handicrafts, 235, 305-309, 357 goals, 13, 45-46 research on, need for 33, 247, 262-263, 361 incentives, 36, 364-366, 414-415, 420-421 resource knowledge and skills, 10, 75, 87, 225-226, intersectoral integration, potential for, 26, 27, 28, 331, 336, 357, 412-413 163, 275, 296-311, 415 retention of under new legal systems 25, 30, local participation in, 29, 30, 237, 248, 331-332, 247-248, 381-383 336-337 subsistence economies, nature of, 84, 86, 87,118, planning (See Renewable Resource Development 225 Planning) westernization, effects on, 87-89, 92, 115, 157 226, Renewable Resource Development Planning 227-228, 414 analytical techniques, 326-330, 340, 421, 422 Transportation Systems, 292-296 (See also Agricul- approaches to 28, 29, 30, 321, 330-331 ture, constraints to development; Aquiculture, Coastal Resource Management (See Coastal constraints to development; Fisheries, con- Resource Management) straints to development) components of, 319-320 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), 4, 30, Environmental Impact Statements, role in, 29, 90, 338 326-327, 340, 422 information and data availability and needs, 28, 29, 30, 32-33, 261, 320, 322-323, 324-326, 340-341, UNESCO Man and The Biosphere Program, 31, 75, 347, 351-356, 406, 410-411, 416-418, 425 334, 341, 350, 351, 386, 396 interrelatedness of island resource systems and, U.S. Agency for International Development, 34, 131-132, 139-140, 320-321, 347, 415 358-359 local participation in, 29, 30, 237, 248, 331-332, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 33, 338, 356, 373, 395 336-337, 410, 415, 416, 424 U.S. Department of Agriculture needs and constraints, 28, 321-323, 409, 415-416, Agricultural Cooperative Service, 291 420, 421-422 Agricultural Experiment Station, 417 neglect of fisheries in, 415, 418 Agricultural Information Service, 283, 385, 395 organization of, on U.S.-affiliated islands, 28, Agricultural Marketing Service, 36, 283, 364 321-322 Agricultural Research Service, 283, 385, 395 regional coordination of 264, 295 Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service tourism, planning for (see Tourism, planning for) (APHIS), 206, 385 Renewable resource ecosystems (See heading under Beltsville Aerated Rapid Comporting (BARC) Sys- Island characteristics) tem, 201-202 Current Research Information System, 34, 360 School Lunch Program Economic Research Service, 283 impacts, evaluation of, 36, 157, 158, 365-366 Farmer Cooperative Service, 290 island products, potential use in 36, 287, 413 food programs, 157, 158 (See also School Lunch Small Business Administration, 350, 397 Program) Forest Service, 34, 105, 350, 385, 395 Tenure systems Minor Economic Crop Computer Database, 354 communal, 44-45, 383 National Agriculture Library, 33, 356 land, 14, 44, 88, 155, 176, 207, 334, 421 Office of International Cooperation and Develop- sea, 25-26, 226, 234, 246, 247-248, 262, 334, 383, ment, 34, 358 415 pest control, and, 205, 207 Tourism programs related to island renewable resources, Caribbean, 101, 115, 304-305, 380 evaluating, 31, 36, 348, 349, 365-366 impacts of, 12, 110, 246, 302-303, 423 research and extension, increased support for U. S. market potential of, 12, 235, 239, 258, 259, 286, affiliated islands, 33, 34, 35, 362, 363, 417 287, 302-309 Soil Conservation Service, 350, 395, 413 Pacific, 303-304, 380 U.S. Department of Commerce planning for, 12, 75, 415 Economic Development Administration, 386 role in island economies, 115, 304-305 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Traditional Island Cultures and Customs (See also Te- 31, 33, 35, 36, 337, 338, 348, 349, 350, 356, nure systems) 360-361, 362, 363, 364, 386, 395 authority structure of, 83, 84, 91-92, 94, 156, 226 U.S. Department of Defense, 41, 287 (See also U.S. conservation value of 75, 83, 333, 382 (See also Army Corps of Engineers; U.S. Military) Agriculture, subsistence; Fisheries, conser- U.S. Department of Education, 35, 357-358 vation) U.S. Department of Energy, 348, 350 Index ● 441

U.S. Department of the Interior wildlife extension, 33 diversity, 7, 64 Fish and wildlife Service, 35, 76, 104, 338, 350, endangered, 67, 75, 104, 105, 110, 170, 179, 243, 362, 373, 375, 376, 386, 396 244, 374, 375 Office of Territorial and International Affairs, 31, endemism, 7, 63-64, 66 32, 35, 347, 349, 350, 351, 386, 396 game species, 16, 169-170 programs related to island renewable resources, habitat on islands, 6, 66, 71, 76 evaluating, 31, 32, 349, 352, 417, 418, 421 protection of, 66-67, 75, 104-106, 132, 373, 374, 375, U.S. Geological Survey, 350, 386 376, 421, 424-425 (See also Protected areas) U.S. Department of State, 34, 348, 362, 386, 396 value to science, 64 U.S. military, 7, 41, 108, 109, 157, 287, 337, 373, 374, vulnerability of, 8, 64, 66, 103, 375 375, 376, 377-380, 418

Waste Treatment and Management, 28, 112, 164, 275, 309-310