Optical Measurement of Cycle-Dependent Cell Growth
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Introduction to the Cell Cell History Cell Structures and Functions
Introduction to the cell cell history cell structures and functions CK-12 Foundation December 16, 2009 CK-12 Foundation is a non-profit organization with a mission to reduce the cost of textbook materials for the K-12 market both in the U.S. and worldwide. Using an open-content, web-based collaborative model termed the “FlexBook,” CK-12 intends to pioneer the generation and distribution of high quality educational content that will serve both as core text as well as provide an adaptive environment for learning. Copyright ©2009 CK-12 Foundation This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. Contents 1 Cell structure and function dec 16 5 1.1 Lesson 3.1: Introduction to Cells .................................. 5 3 www.ck12.org www.ck12.org 4 Chapter 1 Cell structure and function dec 16 1.1 Lesson 3.1: Introduction to Cells Lesson Objectives • Identify the scientists that first observed cells. • Outline the importance of microscopes in the discovery of cells. • Summarize what the cell theory proposes. • Identify the limitations on cell size. • Identify the four parts common to all cells. • Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Introduction Knowing the make up of cells and how cells work is necessary to all of the biological sciences. Learning about the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important to the fields of cell biology and molecular biology. -
Cell Growth-Regulated Expression of Mammalian MCM5 and MCM6 Genes Mediated by the Transcription Factor E2F
Oncogene (1999) 18, 2299 ± 2309 ã 1999 Stockton Press All rights reserved 0950 ± 9232/99 $12.00 http://www.stockton-press.co.uk/onc Cell growth-regulated expression of mammalian MCM5 and MCM6 genes mediated by the transcription factor E2F Kiyoshi Ohtani1, Ritsuko Iwanaga1, Masataka Nakamura*,1, Masa-aki Ikeda2, Norikazu Yabuta3, Hiromichi Tsuruga3 and Hiroshi Nojima3 1Human Gene Sciences Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8510, Japan 2Department of Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Dentistry, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan; 3Department of Molecular Genetics, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan Initiation of DNA replication requires the function of family (MCM2-7) that have been identi®ed in yeast, MCM gene products, which participate in ensuring that Xenopus, and human. Mcm proteins seem to regulate DNA replication occurs only once in the cell cycle. the initiation at the replication origin where the loading Expression of all mammalian genes of the MCM family of the proteins onto the origin recognition complex is induced by growth stimulation, unlike yeast, and the (ORC) is regulated by Cdc6 and cyclin-dependent mRNA levels peak at G1/S boundary. In this study, we kinases (Donovan et al., 1997; Tanaka et al., 1997). examined the transcriptional activities of isolated human However, the mechanism(s) by which Mcm proteins MCM gene promoters. Human MCM5 and MCM6 control the initiation of DNA replication remains promoters with mutation in the E2F sites failed in unclear. promoter regulation following serum stimulation and Xenopus Mcm proteins seem to be able to access exogenous E2F expression. -
Cell Life Cycle and Reproduction the Cell Cycle (Cell-Division Cycle), Is a Series of Events That Take Place in a Cell Leading to Its Division and Duplication
Cell Life Cycle and Reproduction The cell cycle (cell-division cycle), is a series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication. The main phases of the cell cycle are interphase, nuclear division, and cytokinesis. Cell division produces two daughter cells. In cells without a nucleus (prokaryotic), the cell cycle occurs via binary fission. Interphase Gap1(G1)- Cells increase in size. The G1checkpointcontrol mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis. Synthesis(S)- DNA replication occurs during this phase. DNA Replication The process in which DNA makes a duplicate copy of itself. Semiconservative Replication The process in which the DNA molecule uncoils and separates into two strands. Each original strand becomes a template on which a new strand is constructed, resulting in two DNA molecules identical to the original DNA molecule. Gap 2(G2)- The cell continues to grow. The G2checkpointcontrol mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide. Mitotic(M) refers to the division of the nucleus. Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into daughter cells. A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (Metaphase Checkpoint) ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division. The final event is cytokinesis, in which the cytoplasm divides and the single parent cell splits into two daughter cells. Reproduction Cellular reproduction is a process by which cells duplicate their contents and then divide to yield multiple cells with similar, if not duplicate, contents. Mitosis Mitosis- nuclear division resulting in the production of two somatic cells having the same genetic complement (genetically identical) as the original cell. -
Deciphering Genetic Determinants of Cell Growth by Single-Cell RNA Sequencing Deregulated Growth Is a Hallmark of Human Diseases
Deciphering genetic determinants of cell growth by single-cell RNA sequencing Deregulated growth is a hallmark of human diseases such as cancer. A wide range of therapeutic approaches target proliferating cells effectively through inhibition of pathways related to growth and division. However, cells can often escape arrest due to the genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity present in cancer cell populations leading to relapse of the disease. Likewise, heterogeneity in gene expression makes treatment of persistent microbial infections an important challenge for human health. Identifying genetic and non-genetic features that can drive individual cells to overcome growth inhibition is therefore required to understand disease progression and resistance. Recent experimental protocols made it possible to characterise the transcriptomes and genotypes of single cells simultaneously. These opened the door to investigate the dynamics and heterogeneity of gene expression in population of cells with variable genotypes. These methods are technically challenging, generate large amounts of complex data, and require the development of state-of-the-art computational methods for their analysis. Yet, when coupled with mathematical modelling of cell physiology, these single cells approaches have an unprecedented potential to unravel complex genetic and gene expression programmes that underlie growth dynamics of cell populations. This project aims at: i) understanding the genetic basis of cell growth under conditions were gene expression or proliferation are compromised by associating high fitness genotypes to transcriptome signatures in single cells, ii) develop computational tools to integrate single-cell and population level genotyping and gene expression data, iii) improve selected aspect of the laboratory single-cell RNA-seq protocol to improve data quality. -
How Genes Work
Help Me Understand Genetics How Genes Work Reprinted from MedlinePlus Genetics U.S. National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health Department of Health & Human Services Table of Contents 1 What are proteins and what do they do? 1 2 How do genes direct the production of proteins? 5 3 Can genes be turned on and off in cells? 7 4 What is epigenetics? 8 5 How do cells divide? 10 6 How do genes control the growth and division of cells? 12 7 How do geneticists indicate the location of a gene? 16 Reprinted from MedlinePlus Genetics (https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/) i How Genes Work 1 What are proteins and what do they do? Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of thebody’s tissues and organs. Proteins are made up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units called amino acids, which are attached to one another in long chains. There are 20 different types of amino acids that can be combined to make a protein. The sequence of amino acids determineseach protein’s unique 3-dimensional structure and its specific function. Aminoacids are coded by combinations of three DNA building blocks (nucleotides), determined by the sequence of genes. Proteins can be described according to their large range of functions in the body, listed inalphabetical order: Antibody. Antibodies bind to specific foreign particles, such as viruses and bacteria, to help protect the body. Example: Immunoglobulin G (IgG) (Figure 1) Enzyme. -
Anatomy and Physiology Cell Cycle and Cancer Study Guide
Anatomy and Physiology Cell Cycle and Cancer Study Guide Use this guide to direct your attention toward the information to be covered by the test. 1. Which phase of mitosis has the chromosomes being pulled apart toward opposite ends? 16. What stage is when the nucleus divides? 2. Which stage of cell division involves the forming 17. What stage is when the cytoplasm divides? of two new daughter cells? 18. What is a chromatid? 3. The basic unit of structure and function in the human body is the: 19. What is a centromere? a. cell b. organ c. atom d. tissue e. system 4. Mitosis occurs after what stage of the cell cycle? 20. What are stem cells? How many phases does it have? 21. The process that ensures duplication of DNA molecules during cell reproduction is 5. List in order the phases of mitosis and tell the ___________________________. main events that occur in each phase. 22. Match these events in cell reproduction with the correct description: a. Prophase b. Metaphase 6. What is the centriole and the spindle and what is c. Anaphase their role in cellular reproduction? d. Telophase i. Microtubules shorten and pull chromosomes toward centrioles 7. Draw a diagram for: ii. Chromatin forms chromosomes; a. Prophase nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear iii. Chromosomes elongate, and b. Metaphase nuclear membranes form around each chromosome set iv. Chromosomes become arranged c. Anaphase midway between centrioles; duplicate parts of chromosomes become separated d. Telophase 23. What is a tumor? Explain what causes it to form. 8. What is the smallest living unit? 24. -
The Cell Cycle: Myths and Realities Renato Baserga1
[CANCER RESEARCH 50, 6769-6771, November 1, 1990] Perspectives in Cancer Research The Cell Cycle: Myths and Realities Renato Baserga1 Department of Pathology and the Fels Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Biology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140 A number of startling discoveries in the past few years have simply overexpression, the regulation of cell growth is affected. given us a picture of the cell cycle that is solidly based on Indeed, even now, despite antioncogenes and yeast genes, one molecular biology and genetics. Growth factors (both stimula cannot disregard protooncogenes in any rational scheme of tory and inhibitory), oncogenes and antioncogenes, the bio animal cell proliferation. The extent of their role may be chemistry of DNA replication, the animal homologues of yeast debatable, but they do have a role. However, their putative cell cycle genes, cyclins, the use of antisense strategies, and growth-regulatory role is based on their relationship to viral many others have opened new vistas to our understanding of transforming genes and not on the fact that they are growth cell cycle controls (1). This perspective, however, is not dedi regulated. cated to a eulogy of these seminal findings; they speak for In the meantime, scores of laboratories (including mine, I themselves. I will, in fact, be the devil's advocate and do the admit) have been picking out, through differential screening of opposite, i.e., have a critical look, not at the findings (they are complementary DNA libraries, an embarrassing number of unarguable), but at some of the conclusions that have been growth-regulated genes. -
Modeling Cytostatic and Cytotoxic Responses to New Treatment Regimens for Ovarian Cancer
Author Manuscript Published OnlineFirst on September 26, 2017; DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-17-1099 Author manuscripts have been peer reviewed and accepted for publication but have not yet been edited. Modeling cytostatic and cytotoxic responses to new treatment regimens for ovarian cancer Francesca Falcetta1, Francesca Bizzaro2, Elisa D’Agostini2, Maria Rosa Bani2, Raffaella Giavazzi2* and Paolo Ubezio1* 1 Biophysics Unit, Laboratory of Anticancer Pharmacology and 2 Laboratory of Biology and Treatment of Metastasis, Department of Oncology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy. * These authors share last authorship Running title: Decoding tumor growth with different treatment schemes Keywords: cell proliferation, paclitaxel, cisplatin, bevacizumab, drug scheduling, mathematical modeling Financial support: This study was supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC IG2016 n. 18853) and by Nerina and Mario Mattioli Foundation Correspondence to: Dr. Paolo Ubezio Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy Phone:+39-02-39014438; Fax:+39-02-3546277 E-mail: [email protected] 1 Downloaded from cancerres.aacrjournals.org on September 25, 2021. © 2017 American Association for Cancer Research. Author Manuscript Published OnlineFirst on September 26, 2017; DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-17-1099 Author manuscripts have been peer reviewed and accepted for publication but have not yet been edited. ABSTRACT The margin for optimizing polychemotherapy is wide, but a quantitative comparison of current and new protocols is rare even in preclinical settings. In silico reconstruction of the proliferation process and the main perturbations induced by treatment provides insight into the complexity of drug response and grounds for a more objective rationale to treatment schemes. -
GCSE Biology Key Words
GCSE Biology Key Words Definitions and Concepts for AQA Biology GCSE Definitions in bold are for higher tier only Topic 1- Cell Biology Topic 2 - Organisation Topic 3 – Infection and Response Topic 4 – Bioenergetics Topic 5 - Homeostasis Topic 6 – Inheritance and Variation Topic 7 – Ecology Topic 1: Cell Biology Definitions in bold are for higher tier only Active transport: The movement of substances from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution (against a concentration gradient) with the use of energy from respiration. Adult stem cell: A type of stem cell that can form many types of cells. Agar jelly: A substance placed in petri dishes which is used to culture microorganisms on. Cell differentiation: The process where a cell becomes specialised to its function. Cell membrane: A partially permeable barrier that surrounds the cell. Cell wall: An outer layer made of cellulose that strengthens plant cells. Chloroplast: An organelle which is the site of photosynthesis. Chromosomes: DNA structures that are found in the nucleus which are made up of genes. Concentration gradient: The difference in concentration between two areas. Diffusion: The spreading out of the particles of any substance in solution, or particles of a gas, resulting in a net movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.✢ Embryonic stem cell: A type of stem cell that can differentiate into most types of human cells. Eukaryotic cell: A type of cell found in plants and animals that contains a nucleus. Magnification: How much bigger an image appears compared to the original object. Meristematic cells: A type of stem cell that can differentiate into any type of plant cell. -
Glossary of Biotechnology Terms
GLOSSARY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY TERMS Until recently, command of technical terms among lawyers was largely limited to patent counsel. Now, with the dramatic increase in the interaction between technology and law, there is a generalized need among lawyers for greater agility and familiarity with scientific jargon. This glossary has been compiled as a checklist of common biotechnology terms to aid the scientifically uninitiated practitioner. Special attention has been paid to terms which appear in the accompanying articles by Bertram I. Rowland1 and Adrienne B. Naumann. 2 No attempt, however, has been made to provide a comprehensive biotechnology dictionary. For further technical guidance, please see the accompanying Research 3 Pathfinder. Amino acid - Any Organic com- vaccines, blood, blood components pound containing both an amino and derivatives, or allergenic pro- group and a carboxylic group, bound ducts. as essential components of a protein Biotechnology - Commercial tech- molecule. niques that use living organisms, or Antenatal diagnosis - Diagnosis of substances from these organisms, to a condition before birth. make or modify a product, and Antibody - A protein produced by including techniques used for the the body's immune defense system improvement of the characteristics of that can bind to foreign molecules economically important plants and and eliminate them. animals and for the development of Bacterium - Single-celled organism microorganisms to act on the lacking a nucleus and other struc- environment. tures; useful for cloning genes Cell - The fundamental unit of liv- because of fast growth. Bacteria may ing organisms. The cell is character- exist as free living organisms in soil, ized by an outer wall or membrane water, organic matter, or as parasites which is selectively permeable to in the live bodies of plants, animals nutrients, water, and other com- and other microorganisms. -
Content Outline for Biological Science Section of the MCAT
Content Outline for Biological Science Section of the MCAT Content Outline for Biological Science Section of the MCAT BIOLOGY MOLECULAR BIOLOGY: ENZYMES AND METABOLISM A. Enzyme Structure and Function 1. Function of enzymes in catalyzing biological reactions 2. Reduction of activation energy 3. Substrates and enzyme specificity B. Control of Enzyme Activity 1. Feedback inhibition 2. Competitive inhibition 3. Noncompetitive inhibition C. Basic Metabolism 1. Glycolysis (anaerobic and aerobic, substrates and products) 2. Krebs cycle (substrates and products, general features of the pathway) 3. Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation (substrates and products, general features of the pathway) 4. Metabolism of fats and proteins MOLECULAR BIOLOGY: DNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS DNA Structure and Function A. DNA Structure and Function 1. Double-helix structure 2. DNA composition (purine and pyrimidine bases, deoxyribose, phosphate) 3. Base-pairing specificity, concept of complementarity 4. Function in transmission of genetic information B. DNA Replication 1. Mechanism of replication (separation of strands, specific coupling of free nucleic acids, DNA polymerase, primer required) 2. Semiconservative nature of replication C. Repair of DNA 1. Repair during replication 2. Repair of mutations D. Recombinant DNA Techniques 1. Restriction enzymes 2. Hybridization © 2009 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 1 Content Outline for Biological Science Section of the MCAT 3. Gene cloning 4. PCR Protein Synthesis A. Genetic Code 1. Typical information flow (DNA → RNA → protein) 2. Codon–anticodon relationship, degenerate code 3. Missense and nonsense codons 4. Initiation and termination codons (function, codon sequences) B. Transcription 1. mRNA composition and structure (RNA nucleotides, 5′ cap, poly-A tail) 2. -
Bacterial Growth
Bacterial Growth RAKESH SHARDA Department of Veterinary Microbiology NDVSU College of Veterinary Science & A.H., MHOW MECHANISMS OF BACTERIAL GROWTH Binary fission Budding Fragmentation Formation of sporangiospores & condiospores BINARY FISSION Binary fission The normal reproductive method of bacteria is transverse binary fission in which a single cell divides into two identical cells after developing a cross wall (transverse) septum. It is an asexual reproductive process. Thus, bacteria increase their numbers by geometric progression or exponential growth, i.e. doubling of bacterial population every generation as : 1, 2, 4, 8, etc. or 20, 21, 22, 23.........2n (where n = the number of generations). Bacteria Replicate by Transverse Binary Fission and so on…. First the chromosomal DNA makes a copy Then DNA replicates NEXT THE CYTOPLASM AND CELL DIVIDES BY FORMATION OF TRANSVERSE WALL SEPTUM The two resulting cells are exactly the same Binary fission In the center of bacterium, a group of proteins called Fts proteins form a ring at the cell division plane called as divisome. During DNA replication, each strand of the replicating bacterial DNA attaches to divisome. The bacterial cell membrane coordinates the process. The two daughter DNA molecules remain attached at divisome, side-by-side, while new membrane and cell wall is synthesized as a transverse septum in between the two newly formed chromosomes When septum formation is complete the cell splits into two progeny cells. Binary fission REPLICATION OF D.N.A. DNA replication in bacteria DNA is replicated by uncoiling of the helix, strand separation by breaking of the hydrogen bonds between the complementary strands, and synthesis of two new daughter strands by complementary base pairing.