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Glossary of Biotechnology Terms

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GLOSSARY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY TERMS Until recently, command of technical terms among lawyers was largely limited to patent counsel. Now, with the dramatic increase in the interaction between technology and law, there is a generalized need among lawyers for greater agility and familiarity with scientific jargon. This glossary has been compiled as a checklist of common biotechnology terms to aid the scientifically uninitiated practitioner. Special attention has been paid to terms which appear in the accompanying articles by Bertram I. Rowland1 and Adrienne B. Naumann. 2 No attempt, however, has been made to provide a comprehensive biotechnology dictionary. For further technical guidance, please see the accompanying Research 3 Pathfinder. Amino acid - Any Organic com- vaccines, blood, blood components pound containing both an amino and derivatives, or allergenic pro- group and a carboxylic group, bound ducts. as essential components of a protein Biotechnology - Commercial tech- molecule. niques that use living organisms, or Antenatal diagnosis - Diagnosis of substances from these organisms, to a condition before birth. make or modify a product, and Antibody - A protein produced by including techniques used for the the body's immune defense system improvement of the characteristics of that can bind to foreign molecules economically important plants and and eliminate them. animals and for the development of Bacterium - Single-celled organism microorganisms to act on the lacking a nucleus and other struc- environment. tures; useful for cloning genes Cell - The fundamental unit of liv- because of fast growth. Bacteria may ing organisms. The cell is character- exist as free living organisms in soil, ized by an outer wall or membrane water, organic matter, or as parasites which is selectively permeable to in the live bodies of plants, animals nutrients, water, and other com- and other microorganisms. pounds, an inner fluid called cyto- Biological material - Any chemical plasm, and various structures for the compound or structural component metabolism and reproduction of the unique to a living organism, such as cell. viruses, serums, toxins, antitoxins, © 1986 High Technology Law Journal 1. Rowland, Legal Implications of Letter Licenses for Biotechnology, 1 HIGH TECH. L.J. 99 (1986). 2. Naumann, Federal Regulation of Recombinant DNA Technology: Time for Change, 1 HIGH TECH. L.J. 61 (1986). 3. Research Pathfinder: Biotechnology and Law, 1 HIGH TECH. L.J. 233 (1986). 254 HIGH TECHNOLOGY LAW JOURNAL Vol. 1:253 Cell fusion - Formation of a single molecule itself is a linear chain of hybrid cell with nuclei and cyto- repeating deoxynucleotide units. plasm from different cells. DNA hybridization - The pairing Cell line - A family of cells, grown of one DNA strand with another, from a single parent, and generally usually from different strains, e.g., having identical characteristics. recombinant DNA, or containing one Chromosome - Any of several DNA strand and one copied RNA threadlike bodies found in a cell strand. which carry genes in a linear order. DNA vector - A vehicle for Cloning - The process of producing transferring DNA from one cell to many copies of a biological material, another. usually a certain sequence of DNA or Dominant gene - A gene whose type of cell. Because reproduction is characteristic expression prevails over asexual, the progeny are genetically alternative genes for a given trait. identical to the original ancestor. Escherichia coli ("E. coli") - A bac- Culture - The propagation of terium that commonly inhabits the microorganisms or of living tissue human intestine. It is the preferred cells in media conducive to their organism for many microbiological growth; the product of such propaga- experiments. tion; also tissue culture. Endotoxins - Complex molecules Cytogenetic disorders - Disorders (lipopolysaccharides) that compose involving the cellular constituents an integral part of the cell wall, and concerned in heredity, i.e., chromo- are released only when the integrity some abnormalities. of the cell is disturbed. Cytogenetics - A branch of biology Enzyme - A functional protein that that deals with the study of heredity catalyzes a chemical reaction but is and variation by the methods of both itself neither consumed nor altered. cytology (the study of cells) and Enzymes control the rate of meta- genetics. bolic processes in an organism; they Cytoplasm - The fluid in a cell, are, for instance, the active agents in external to the cell's nuclear mem- the fermentation process. brane. Eukaryote - A higher, compartmen- Diploid - A cell with two copies of talized cell characterized by its exten- each chromosome. sive internal structure and the pres- Dissemination - The action or pro- ence of a nucleus containing the cess of spreading or sending out DNA. All multicellular organisms freely or widely as though sowing or are eukaryotic. The simpler cells, the strewing seed; the state of being prokaryotes, have much less com- dispersed throughout in small parti- partmentalization and internal struc- cles. ture and have no nucleus; bacteria DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - The are prokaryotes. biological molecule that is the genetic Exotoxins - Proteins produced by basis of heredity in every living cell. bacteria that are able to diffuse out Each inherited characteristic is deter- of the cells; generally more potent mined precisely by the information and specific in their action than found in the DNA code. The endotoxins. 1986 BIOTECHNOLOGY GLOSSARY Fermentation - A biochemical pro- different chemicals, or perform com- cess which generates energy by con- pletely new functions. verting a raw material such as glu- Genome - The basic chromosome cose into simpler products such as set of an organism - the sum total ethanol. No oxygen is required. of its genes. Used in the production of products Genotype - The genetic constitution such as alcohols, acids, and cheese of an individual or group of cells, by the action of yeasts, molds, and plants or animals. bacteria. Germline - A primary source of Fibroblast - A cell that gives rise to genes, such as a plant or cell line, connective tissues. from which growth and development Gene - The basic unit of heredity; a of other genes is expected. segment of DNA coding for a specific Germplasm - The total genetic vari- protein. ability available to an organism, Gene expression - Translation of represented by the pool of germ cells the information contained in a gene or seed. into protein. Glycopeptides - Chains of amino Gene mapping - Determining the acids with attached carbohydrates. relative location of different genes on Glycoprotein - A protein attached a given chromosome. to a carbohydrate (sugar). Gene therapy - The insertion of a Growth hormone - A substance gene into a patient in a way that that stimulates growth, especially a corrects a genetic defect. secretion of the anterior pituitary, Gene transfer - The use of genetic that directly influences protein, car- or physical manipulation to introduce bohydrate, and lipid metabolism and foreign genes into host cells to controls the rate of skeletal and vis- achieve desired characteristics in pro- ceral growth. geny. Haploid - A cell with only one set Genetic code - The biochemical (half of the usual number) of chro- basis of heredity consisting of codons mosomes, or half the number of (base triplets along the DNA chromosomes found in diploid cells. sequence) that determine the specific Hematology - The science dealing amino acid sequence in proteins. with the morphology [form and Under normal conditions, the code is structure] of blood and blood- not ambiguous-each codon always forming tissues, and with their phy- designates the same amino acid. siology and pathology. Genetic drift - Changes of gene fre- Heterozygous - When the two quency in small populations due to copies of a gene controlling a partic- chance preservation or extinction of ular trait are different, the organism particular genes. is heterogeneous for that trait. Genetic engineering - A technol- Homozygous - When the two ogy used to alter the hereditary copies of a gene controlling a partic- material of a living cell. Genetic ular trait are identical for a pair of engineering can be used to make chromosomes, the organism is said to cells that can produce more or be homozygous for that trait. 256 HIGH TECHNOLOGY LAW JOURNAL Vol. 1:253 Hormones - The "messenger" In vivo - Within the living organ- molecules for the body that help ism. Literally, "in life." coordinate the actions of various tis- Insulin - A hormone that stimulates sues; they produce a specific effect cell growth via glucose uptake by on the activity of cells remote from cells. Many companies are now pro- their point of origin. ducing human insulin using genetic Host-Vector Systems - Host - The technology. recipient of genetic information Leukocytes - The white cells of derived from another organism by blood. means of a vector, which allows the Lipids - A class of water insoluble development of the transmitted biomolecules, including cellular fats information and carries it into the and oils. host cells. Lipopolysaccharides - Complex Host-Vector Systems - Vectors - substances composed of lipids and Plasmids and phages which transmit polysaccharides. man-made and natural genetic infor- Lymphoblastoid - Referring to mation. A host cell develops, malignant white blood cells. expresses and multiplies the Lymphokines - The biologically transmitted information. active soluble factor produced by Hybrid - The offspring
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