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Home , Biotechnology, Cell fusion, Cell growth, Transduction (genetics)

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Until recently, command of technical terms among lawyers was largely limited to counsel. Now, with the dramatic increase in the interaction between and law, there is a generalized need among lawyers for greater agility and familiarity with scientific jargon. This glossary has been compiled as a checklist of common biotechnology terms to aid the scientifically uninitiated practitioner. Special attention has been paid to terms which appear in the accompanying articles by Bertram I. Rowland1 and Adrienne B. Naumann. 2 No attempt, however, has been made to provide a comprehensive biotechnology dictionary. For further technical guidance, please see the accompanying 3 Pathfinder. - Any Organic com- , , blood components pound containing both an amino and derivatives, or allergenic pro- group and a carboxylic group, bound ducts. as essential components of a Biotechnology - Commercial tech- molecule. niques that use living , or Antenatal diagnosis - Diagnosis of substances from these organisms, to a condition before birth. make or modify a , and - A protein produced by including techniques used for the the body's immune defense system improvement of the characteristics of that can bind to foreign molecules economically important and and eliminate them. and for the development of Bacterium - Single-celled to act on the lacking a nucleus and other struc- environment. tures; useful for - The fundamental unit of liv- because of fast growth. may ing organisms. The cell is character- exist as free living organisms in soil, ized by an outer wall or membrane water, organic matter, or as parasites which is selectively permeable to in the live bodies of plants, animals nutrients, water, and other com- and other microorganisms. pounds, an inner fluid called cyto- Biological material - Any chemical plasm, and various for the compound or structural component and of the unique to a living organism, such as cell. , serums, toxins, antitoxins,

© 1986 High Technology Law Journal 1. Rowland, Legal Implications of Letter Licenses for Biotechnology, 1 HIGH TECH. L.J. 99 (1986). 2. Naumann, Federal Regulation of Recombinant DNA Technology: Time for Change, 1 HIGH TECH. L.J. 61 (1986). 3. Research Pathfinder: Biotechnology and Law, 1 HIGH TECH. L.J. 233 (1986). 254 HIGH TECHNOLOGY LAW JOURNAL Vol. 1:253

Cell fusion - Formation of a single molecule itself is a linear chain of cell with nuclei and cyto- repeating deoxynucleotide units. plasm from different cells. DNA hybridization - The pairing Cell line - A family of cells, grown of one DNA strand with another, from a single parent, and generally usually from different strains, e.g., having identical characteristics. recombinant DNA, or containing one - Any of several DNA strand and one copied RNA threadlike bodies found in a cell strand. which carry genes in a linear order. DNA vector - A for Cloning - The process of producing transferring DNA from one cell to many copies of a biological material, another. usually a certain sequence of DNA or Dominant - A gene whose type of cell. Because reproduction is characteristic expression prevails over asexual, the progeny are genetically alternative genes for a given trait. identical to the original ancestor. ("E. coli") - A bac- Culture - The propagation of terium that commonly inhabits the microorganisms or of living human intestine. It is the preferred cells in media conducive to their organism for many microbiological growth; the product of such propaga- experiments. tion; also . Endotoxins - Complex molecules Cytogenetic disorders - Disorders (lipopolysaccharides) that compose involving the cellular constituents an integral part of the , and concerned in heredity, i.e., chromo- are released only when the integrity some abnormalities. of the cell is disturbed. - A branch of biology - A functional protein that that deals with the study of heredity catalyzes a chemical reaction but is and variation by the methods of both itself neither consumed nor altered. cytology (the study of cells) and control the rate of meta- . bolic processes in an organism; they - The fluid in a cell, are, for instance, the active agents in external to the cell's nuclear mem- the process. brane. - A higher, compartmen- Diploid - A cell with two copies of talized cell characterized by its exten- each chromosome. sive internal and the pres- Dissemination - The action or pro- ence of a nucleus containing the cess of spreading or sending out DNA. All multicellular organisms freely or widely as though sowing or are eukaryotic. The simpler cells, the strewing seed; the state of being , have much less com- dispersed throughout in small parti- partmentalization and internal struc- cles. ture and have no nucleus; bacteria DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - The are prokaryotes. biological molecule that is the genetic Exotoxins - produced by basis of heredity in every living cell. bacteria that are able to diffuse out Each inherited characteristic is deter- of the cells; generally more potent mined precisely by the information and specific in their action than found in the DNA code. The endotoxins. 1986 BIOTECHNOLOGY GLOSSARY

Fermentation - A biochemical pro- different chemicals, or perform com- cess which generates energy by con- pletely new functions. verting a raw material such as glu- - The basic chromosome cose into simpler products such as set of an organism - the sum total . No oxygen is required. of its genes. Used in the production of products - The genetic constitution such as alcohols, acids, and cheese of an individual or group of cells, by the action of , molds, and plants or animals. bacteria. Germline - A primary source of Fibroblast - A cell that gives rise to genes, such as a or cell line, connective tissues. from which growth and development Gene - The basic unit of heredity; a of other genes is expected. segment of DNA coding for a specific Germplasm - The total genetic vari- protein. ability available to an organism, - of represented by the pool of germ cells the information contained in a gene or seed. into protein. Glycopeptides - Chains of amino Gene mapping - Determining the acids with attached . relative location of different genes on Glycoprotein - A protein attached a given chromosome. to a (sugar). - The insertion of a Growth - A substance gene into a patient in a way that that stimulates growth, especially a corrects a genetic defect. of the anterior pituitary, Gene transfer - The use of genetic that directly influences protein, car- or physical manipulation to introduce bohydrate, and metabolism and foreign genes into host cells to controls the rate of skeletal and vis- achieve desired characteristics in pro- ceral growth. geny. Haploid - A cell with only one set Genetic code - The biochemical (half of the usual number) of chro- basis of heredity consisting of codons mosomes, or half the number of (base triplets along the DNA found in diploid cells. sequence) that determine the specific Hematology - The dealing amino acid sequence in proteins. with the morphology [form and Under normal conditions, the code is structure] of blood and blood- not ambiguous-each codon always forming tissues, and with their phy- designates the same amino acid. siology and . Genetic drift - Changes of gene fre- Heterozygous - When the two quency in small populations due to copies of a gene controlling a partic- chance preservation or extinction of ular trait are different, the organism particular genes. is heterogeneous for that trait. Genetic - A technol- Homozygous - When the two ogy used to alter the hereditary copies of a gene controlling a partic- material of a living cell. Genetic ular trait are identical for a pair of engineering can be used to make chromosomes, the organism is said to cells that can produce more or be homozygous for that trait. 256 HIGH TECHNOLOGY LAW JOURNAL Vol. 1:253

Hormones - The "messenger" - Within the living organ- molecules for the body that help ism. Literally, "in ." coordinate the actions of various tis- - A hormone that stimulates sues; they produce a specific effect via uptake by on the activity of cells remote from cells. Many companies are now pro- their point of origin. ducing human insulin using genetic Host-Vector Systems - Host - The technology. recipient of genetic information Leukocytes - The white cells of derived from another organism by blood. means of a vector, which allows the - A class of water insoluble development of the transmitted , including cellular fats information and carries it into the and oils. host cells. Lipopolysaccharides - Complex Host-Vector Systems - Vectors - substances composed of lipids and and phages which transmit polysaccharides. man-made and natural genetic infor- Lymphoblastoid - Referring to mation. A host cell develops, malignant white blood cells. expresses and multiplies the Lymphokines - The biologically transmitted information. active soluble factor produced by Hybrid - The offspring of geneti- white blood cells. cally dissimilar parents. Hybrids can Maleic anhydride - An important be made within a species (crossing organic chemical used in the two types of peach trees) or across manufacture of synthetic resins, in species (fusing two different cell fungicides, in the dyeing of cotton types ). textiles, and to prevent the oxidation Hybridoma - The product of fusion of fats and oils during storage and between a myeloma cell and a lym- rancidity. phocyte. Myeloma cells divide con- Messenger RNA - Ribonucleic acid tinuously in culture and lymphocytes molecules that transmit the genetic produce , so the hybri- information encoded in DNA to the doma cell grows continuously in cul- cell's protein system. ture, being "immortal", and produces Metabolism - The sum of the phy- antibodies. sical and chemical processes involved Hydrocarbon - All organic com- in the maintenance of life and by pounds that are composed only of which energy is made available. carbon and hydrogen. - An organism that Interferon - A protein which helps is a , , or the human body resist and defeat . infections. Mitochondria - Structures in higher Immunoproteins - All the proteins cells that serve as the "powerhouse" that are part of the for the cell, producing chemical (including antibodies, interferon, and energy. cytokines). Monoclonal antibodies - Antibo- In vitro - Outside the living organ- dies derived from a single source or ism and in an artificial environment. clone of cells which recognize only Literally, "in glass." one kind of antigen. Useful in many 1986 BIOTECHNOLOGY GLOSSARY 257

industrial and medical capacities (acidic) to 14 (basic): for example, because of the very high specificity lemon juice has a pH of 2.2 (acidic), of the antibodies. water has a pH of 7.0 (neutral), and Mutant - An organism whose visi- a solution of baking soda has a pH ble properties with respect to some of 8.5 (basic). trait differ from the norm of the Phage - A submicroscopic organism population due to mutations in its that destroys bacteria. Phages (also DNA. known as ) are often Mutation - Any change that alters viruses lacking cellular mechanisms the sequence of bases along the of their own, and so must infect a DNA, changing the genetic material. host cell to grow and reproduce. Myeloma - A malignant in Pharmaceuticals - Products inten- which tumor cells of the antibody ded for use in humans, as well as in producing system synthesize exces- vitro applications to humans. Phar- sive amounts of specific proteins. maceuticals include drugs, vaccines, - A linear polymer of diagnostics, and biological response nucleotides; a generic term for either modifiers. DNA or RNA. Phenotype - The visible properties Nucleotides - The fundamental of an organism that are produced by units of nucleic acids. They consist the interaction of the genotype and of one of the five bases -adenine, the environment. guanine, cytosine, thymine (found - Hereditary material that only in DNA) and uracil (found only is not part of a chromosome. in RNA)-and its attached sugar- Plasmids are circular and self- phosphate group. replicating. Because they are gen- Oncology - The study of tumors. erally small and relatively simple to Organic compounds - Chemical manipulate, they are used in recom- compounds based on carbon chains binant DNA experiments to carry or rings, which contain hydrogen, foreign DNA. and also may contain oxygen, nitro- Plastid - Any specialized organ of gen, and various other elements. All the other than the nucleus, biomolecules are organic, e.g. DNA, such as the chloroplast. RNA, cell wall constituents, lipids Polymer - A long-chain molecule and enzymes. formed from smaller repeating struc- Organism - Any biological entity, tural units, e.g. DNA, peptides and cellular or non-cellular, with capacity proteins. for self-perpetuation and response to Prokaryotic - Pertaining to a one evolutionary forces. celled organism lacking a true Pathogen - Any disease-producing nucleus and nuclear membrane and agent or microorganism. having genetic material composed of Peptide - Short, linear chain of a single circular piece of DNA. amino acids. A longer chain of pep- Prokaryotes, with the exception of tides is sometimes called a polypep- spiroplasmas and mycoplasmas, have tide. a rigid cell wall. Bacteria and blue- pH - A measure of the acidity or green are prokaryotes. basicity of a solution; on a scale of 0 258 HIGH TECHNOLOGY LAW JOURNAL Vol. 1:253

Protein - A linear polymer of amino from a messenger RNA, the reverse acids, the products of gene expres- of the normal direction of processing sion. Proteins usually as genetic information within the cell. catalysts, facilitating chemical reac- RNA (ribonucleic acid) - A nucleic tions without being altered them- acid that assists in translating the selves. genetic message of DNA into the Protoplast - A cell without a cell finished protein. It has three basic wall. forms- messenger RNA, transfer Recessive gene - Any gene whose RNA, and ribosomal RNA. characteristic expression is dependent cell - One of the cells com- on the absence of a dominant gene. posing parts of the body (e.g., tis- Recombinant DNA - DNA that has sues, organs) other than a germ cell been artificially manipulated to form (sperm or egg). a novel arrangement of genes. When Toxin - A poisonous substance, introduced into a cell this DNA can often a protein, which can harm be replicated along with the natural cells. DNA and can alter the genotype and Transduction - The process by phenotype of the cell. which foreign DNA becomes incor- Restriction enzyme - An enzyme porated into the genetic complement which recognizes and cuts specific of the host cell. sequences in the DNA code. Restric- Transformation - The transfer of tion enzymes allow certain parts of a genetic information by DNA DNA molecule to be specifically cut, separated for the cell. taken out, and recombined with Vector - An agent used to transmit other pieces of DNA. Probably the genetic information from one host to 's most important tool for another. A DNA vector should be studying and manipulating recom- self-replicating and contain cloning binant DNA. sites for the introduction of foreign Retrovirus - An virus that DNA. can insert its DNA into the DNA of Virus - An infectious agent that the animal cell, thus being repro- requires a host cell in order for it to duced as if it were a normal part of replicate. It is composed of either the cell's genome. RNA or DNA wrapped in a protein Reverse transcriptase - An enzyme, coat. often found in retroviruses, that can - A cell formed by the union synthesize a single strand of DNA of two mature reproductive cells.