Final Report on the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program Conducted on a Portion of a Middle Period Ohlone Indian Cemetery, Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263, Stanford University, California (Volume I)
Report Prepared for Stanford University
Prepared by: Alan Leventhal, Diane DiGiuseppe, Melynda Atwood, David Grant, Susan Morley, Rosemary Cambra, Dr. Les Field, Charlene Nijmeh, Monica V. Arellano, Susanne Rodriguez, Sheila Guzman-Schmidt, Gloria E. Gomez, and Norma Sanchez
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area Ohlone Families Consulting Services
With Contributions by Dr. Brian Kemp and Cara Monroe, Department of Anthropology, WSU, Pullman Dr. Eric Bartelink, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico Jean Geary, Department of Biology, San Jose State University
January 2010 Table of Contents Chapter Page No.
Table of Contents ...... i
List of Figures ...... iii
List of Maps ...... xiv
List of Tables ...... xv
Acknowledgments ...... xvii
Dedication of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Site Report to Muwekma Tribal Member and Council Member Susanne Rodriguez March 14, 1957 - May 15, 2009 ...... xx
Dedication of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Site Report to the Ancestral Ohlones of the West Bay and to the Memory of Pedro Evencio and his Family...... xxiv
Chapter 1: Project Overview ...... 1-1 (Alan Leventhal, Rosemary Cambra, Norma Sanchez, and Diane DiGiuseppe)
Chapter 2: Overview of Field Work and the Burial Recovery Program ...... 2-1 (Alan Leventhal, Diane DiGiuseppe and Rosemary Cambra)
Chapter 3: Burial Descriptions and Skeletal Biology: Inventory and Analysis ...... 3-1 (Diane DiGiuseppe, David Grant, Melynda Atwood, Susan Morley, and Alan Leventhal)
Chapter 4: Preliminary Report on the Extraction of Ancient DNA from CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 ...... 4-1 (Cara Monroe, School of Biological Science, Washington State University, Pullman and Dr. Brian Kemp, Department of Anthropology Washington State University, Pullman)
Chapter 5: Paleodietary Analysis of Human Remains from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 ...... 5-1 (Dr. Eric J. Bartelink, Department of Anthropology, Cal State University, Chico)
i Table of Contents (continued) Chapter Page No.
Chapter 6: Analysis of the Faunal Remains Associated with the Burials from Sites: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-267 ...... 6-1 (Jean Geary, Department of Biology, San Jose State University and Alan Leventhal)
Chapter 7: Analysis of the Stone, Bone and Shell Artifacts from Yuki Kutsuimi w Šaatoš Inūx [Sand Hill Road] Site (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263) ...... 7-1 (Alan Leventhal and Diane DiGiuseppe)
Chapter 8: Dating and Chronological Placement of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Site ...... 8-1 (Alan Leventhal and Rosemary Cambra)
Chapter 9: An Ethnohistory of Santa Clara Valley and Adjacent Regions; Historic Ties of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area and Tribal Oversight of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw Site ...... 9-1 (Rosemary Cambra, Alan Leventhal Monica V. Arellano, Susanne Rodriguez, Sheila Guzman Schmidt and Gloria Arellano Gomez)
Chapter 10: "What Must It Have Been Like!" Critical Considerations of Pre-Contact Ohlone Cosmology as Interpreted Through Central California Ethnohistory...... 10-1 (Les Field, Alan Leventhal, with Dolores Galvan Lameira, Rosemary Cambra, Hank Alvarez, and Sheila Guzman Schmidt)
Chapter 11: Reburial of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe’s Ancestral Remains from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Site ...... 11-1 (R. Cambra, A. Leventhal, C. Nijmeh, N. Sanchez, and D. DiGiuseppe)
References Cited...... R-1
Appendix A: Skeletal Inventory Sheets ...... A-1
Appendix B: Distribution of Aves and Fauna by Recovery Context ...... B-1
Appendix C: Artifact Record Catalog ...... C-1
Appendix D: Result from the AMS Dating University of Arizona Laboratory ...... D-1
Appendix E: Reburial Forms ...... E-1
ii List of Figures
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 1-1: Project Location Map: Site CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 ...... 1-5
Figure 2-1: Example of Tenting to Prevent Further Impacts to the Burials ...... 2-4
Figure 2-2: Illustration of Burial 00-1 ...... 2-5
Figure 2-3: Illustration of Burial 00-3 ...... 2-7
Figure 2-4: Photograph of Burial 01-1 in-situ ...... 2-8
Figure 2-5: Field Illustration of Burial 01-2 ...... 2-10
Figure 2-6: Photograph of Burial 01-3 ...... 2-12
Figure 2-7: Burial 01-3 Haliotis rufescens (Pendant Fragment?) ...... 2-13
Figure 2-8: Burial 01-3, Bone Awl Tip ...... 2-13
Figure 2-9: Field Illustration of Burial 01-4 ...... 2-14
Figure 2-10: Tiny Franciscan Chert Bladelet Associated with Burial 01-4 ...... 2-15
Figure 2-11: Close up of Right Metatarsals Reveals Charcoal, Baked Clay and a Fragment of Bird Bone on the Third and Fourth Metatarsals of Burial 01-4 ...... 2-15
Figure 2-12: Burial 04-5 ...... 2-16
Figure 2-13: Burial 04-6 ...... 2-17
Figure 2-14: Bone Tool Recovered from Burial 04-6 ...... 2-18
Figure 2-15: Olivella Type F3a Beads from Burial 04-6 ...... 2-18
Figure 2-16: Part of Cranium from Burial 04-7 Inside Boulder Mortar...... 2-19
Figure 2-17: Burial 04-8 Impacted by Tree Root ...... 2-20
Figure 2-18: Photograph of Burial 04-9 ...... 2-21
Figure 2-19: Burial 04-10 Impacted by Tree Roots ...... 2-22
iii List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 2-20: Burial 04-11 ...... 2-23
Figure 2-21: Burial 04-12 ...... 2-23
Figure 2-22: Sidewall Containing Burial 04-13 and Tree Roots...... 2-24
Figure 2-23: Burial 04-14 Impacted by Tree Roots ...... 2-25
Figure 2-24: Burial 04-15 ...... 2-26
Figure 2-25: C3 Split Oval Olivella Bead from Burial 04-15 ...... 2-26
Figure 2-26: Photograph of Burial 04-17/18 ...... 2-27
Figure 2-27: Burial 04-19 Showing Disturbances to Skeleton ...... 2-28
Figure 2-28: Burial 04-20 Showing Disturbances to Skeleton ...... 2-29
Figure 2-29: Burial 04-21 Impacts to the Skeleton by Tree Roots ...... 2-30
Figure 2-30: Burial 04-22A ...... 2-31
Figure 2-31: Burial 04-22B ...... 2-32
Figure 2-32: Photograph of Burial 04-23 ...... 2-33
Figure 3-1: Air Photo Project Location Identifying Three Excavation Loci ...... 3-1
Figure 3-2: Historical Disturbances to Burial 04-20 from Electrical Conduit ...... 3-6
Figure 3-3: Disturbances to Burial 04-13 from Root Intrusion ...... 3-6
Figure 3-4: Burial 00-1 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-8
Figure 3-5: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 00-1 ...... 3-9
Figure 3-6: Burial 00-2 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-12
Figure 3-7: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 00-2 ...... 3-13
Figure 3-8: Burial 00-3 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-15
iv List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 3-9: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 00-3 ...... 3-16
Figure 3-10: Maxilla with 15 in-situ Teeth, Right Zygomatic, Orbital Bur. 00-3A .....3-17
Figure 3-11: Burial 01-1 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-18
Figure 3-12: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 01-1 ...... 3-19
Figure 3-13: Unknown Etiology of Indention Left Apophyseal Facet of T9 ...... 3-21
Figure 3-14: Burial 01-2 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-22
Figure 3-15: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 01-2 ...... 3-23
Figure 3-16: Burial 01-3 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-25
Figure 3-17: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 01-3 ...... 3-26
Figure 3-18: Burial 01-4 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-28
Figure 3-19: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 01-4 ...... 3-29
Figure 3-20: Burial 04-5 Tibia Fragment ...... 3-30
Figure 3-21: Burial 04-6 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-32
Figure 3-22: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-6 ...... 3-33
Figure 3-23: Burial 04-7 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-35
Figure 3-24: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-7 ...... 3-36
Figure 3-25: Possible Porotic Hyperostosis of the Left Supraorbital Ridge, Burial 04-8 ...... 3-38
Figure 3-26: Burial 04-8 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-39
Figure 3-27: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-8 ...... 3-40
Figure 3-28: Burial 04-8A Skeletal Elements ...... 3-41
Figure 3-29: Rodent Gnawing on Anterior Surface of Tibia, Burial 04-8A ...... 3-41
v List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 3-30: Burial 04-9 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-44
Figure 3-31: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-9 ...... 3-45
Figure 3-32: Indications of Pre-Interment Pit Fire Burial 04-10 ...... 3-47
Figure 3-33: Burial 04-10 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-48
Figure 3-34: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-10 ...... 3-49
Figure 3-35: Burial 04-11 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-51
Figure 3-36: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-11 ...... 3-52
Figure 3-37: Burial 04-12 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-54
Figure 3-38: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-12 ...... 3-55
Figure 3-39: Burial 04-13 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-57
Figure 3-40: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-13 ...... 3-58
Figure 3-41: Burial 04-14 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-60
Figure 3-42: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-14 ...... 3-61
Figure 3-43: Burial 04-14A Skeletal Elements of Subadult ...... 3-62
Figure 3-44: Burial 04-15 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-64
Figure 3-45: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-15 ...... 3-65
Figure 3-46: Burial 04-16 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-67
Figure 3-47: Cranial Depression between Parietals & Occipital B. 04-17/18 ...... 3-69
Figure 3-48: Burial 04-17/18 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-70
Figure 3-49: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-17/18 ...... 3-71
Figure 3-50: Burial 04-19 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-73
vi List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 3-51: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-19 ...... 3-74
Figure 3-52: Burial 04-20 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-76
Figure 3-53: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-20 ...... 3-77
Figure 3-54: Healed Fracture of the Left Clavicle; Burial 04-21 ...... 3-79
Figure 3-55: Burial 04-21 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-80
Figure 3-56: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-21 ...... 3-81
Figure 3-57: Small Sternal Foramen; Burial 04-22A ...... 3-83
Figure 3-58: Burial 04-22A Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-84
Figure 3-59: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-22A ...... 3-85
Figure 3-60: Burial 04-22B Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements ...... 3-87
Figure 3-61: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-22B ...... 3-88
Figure 3-62: Burial 04-23 Calvarium - Temporals, Parietals, and Occipital ...... 3-89
Figure 3-63: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-23 ...... 3-90
Figure 3-64: Burial 04-24 Bone Fragments ...... 3-91
Figure 3-65: Burial 00-2 Mandible (A, B, C) ...... 3-95
Figure 3-66: Burial 00-3 Mandible (A, B) and Maxilla (C)...... 3-95
Figure 3-67: Burial 01-2 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B, C)...... 3-96
Figure 3-68: Burial 00-3A Maxilla (A, B, C) ...... 3-96
Figure 3-69: Burial 04-7 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B, C)...... 3-96
Figure 3-70: Burial 04-8 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B, C)...... 3-97
Figure 3-71: Burial 04-9 Mandible (A, B, C) and Maxilla (D, E, F)...... 3-97
vii List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 3-72: Burial 04-10 Mandible (A, B, C) ...... 3-98
Figure 3-73: Burial 04-12 Mandible (one tooth) (A, B) ...... 3-98
Figure 3-74: Burial 04-13 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B) ...... 3-98
Figure 3-75: Burial 04-17 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B, C)...... 3-99
Figure 3-76: Sixth Lumbar Vertebra (Burial 01-2) ...... 3-103
Figure 3-77: Hypertrophic Bone Growth Auricular Surfaces (B. 04-22B) ...... 3-105
Figure 3-78: Macroscopic and Radiographic Image of Distal Ulna and Cloaca Fracture (Burial 01-2) ...... 3-106
Figure 3-79: Left Ulna Fracture in Distal Third of Element (Burial 04-22B) ...... 3-107
Figure 3-80: Possible Fracture Right Distal Humerus, Remodeling (B. 00-2) ...... 3-108
Figure 3-81: Fracture of the Distal Left Clavicle (Burial 04-21) ...... 3-108
Figure 3-82: Possible Penetration Wound from Projectile Point Trauma (B. 01-2) ...... 3-109
Figure 3-83: Hypertrophic Bone Growth Found on Anterior of Left Pubis (Burial 04-17/18)...... 3-110
Figure 3-84: Traumatic Episode to the Pectoral Girdle (Burial 04-21) ...... 3-111
Figure 3-85: Porotic Hyperostosis of the Cranium (Burial 04-6) ...... 3-112
Figure 3-86: Pacchionian Depressions found on the Parietal (Burial 04-22A) ...... 3-112
Figure 3-87: Sternal Foramen (Burial 04-22A) ...... 3-113
Figure 4-1: Haplogroup Frequencies Exhibited by the Archaeological Populations Studied Here (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA263) and Other Previously Studied Extant and Prehistoric Populations from California, the Great Basin, and Plateau ...... 4-7
Figure 4-2: Principal Coordinate Plot Based on Haplogroup Frequencies ...... 4-8
viii List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 5-1: Reconstructed Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Values for Dietary Resources in Central California ...... 5-7
Figure 5-2: Bone Collagen Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Data for Burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 ...... 5-7
Figure 5-3: Sex Comparisons of Bone Collagen Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Data for Burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 ...... 5-8
Figure 5-4: AMS Dates (5.01 Calib Corrected) and Bone Collagen Stable Carbon Isotope Values for Ten Human Burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263...... 5-9
Figure 5-5: AMS Dates (5.01 Calib Corrected) and Bone Collagen Stable Nitrogen Isotope Values for Ten Human Burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 ...... 5-9
Figure 5-6: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Data for CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 Burials Compared with Other Late Holocene Humans from Central California ...... 5-11
Figure 5-7: Plot of the Apatite-Collagen Spacing and Stable Nitrogen Isotope Data for CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 Burials ...... 5-12
Figure 5-8: Plot of the Collagen and Apatite δ13C Values for the CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 Burials with the Three Regression Lines ...... 5-13
Figure 6-1: Red-Shouldered Hawk...... 6-7
Figure 6-2: Red-Tailed Hawk ...... 6-7
Figure 6-3: Golden Eagle...... 6-8
Figure 6-4: Lesser Snow Goose ...... 6-8
Figure 6-5: California Sea Lion ...... 6-9
Figure 6-6: Sea Otter ...... 6-10
Figure 6-7: Wolf ...... 6-10
Figure 6-8: Coyote...... 6-10
ix
List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 6-9: Mule Deer/California Black-Tailed Deer...... 6-11
Figure 6-10: Tule Elk ...... 6-12
Figure 6-11: North American/Roosevelt Elk ...... 6-13
Figure 7-1: Burial 24 - Ref# 24-5 Cobble Core Red Jasper ...... 7-9
Figure 7-2: Pebble Cores – Ref. #s 12-7 and 20-8 ...... 7-9
Figure 7-3: Exhausted Cores - Ref. #s 15-6 and 15-7...... 7-10
Figure 7-4: Core Fragments - Ref. #s 8-12, 20-9 and 21-7 ...... 7-11
Figure 7-5: Ref. # 10-6 Base of Obsidian Dart Point/Biface ...... 7-12
Figure 7-6: Ref. # 17/18-7 Biface/Dart Point Tip ...... 7-13
Figure 7-7: Ref. # 8-24 Three Obsidian Thinning Flakes from Burial 04-8 ...... 7-18
Figure 7-8: Ref. # 8-17 Three Monterey Chert Primary Flakes from Burial 04-8 ....7-19
Figure 7-9: Ref. # 7-6 Boulder Mortar from Burial 04-7 ...... 7-20
Figure 7-10: Ref. # 8-19 Associated with Burial # 04-8 ...... 7-21
Figure 7-11: Ref. # 8-21 Associated with Burial # 04-8 ...... 7-22
Figure 7-12: Ref. # 12-6 Hopper Mortar Associated with Burial #04-12 ...... 7-23
Figure 7-13: Ref. # 13-3 Cobble Mortar Associated with Burial 04-13 ...... 7-24
Figure 7-14: Ref. # 14-11 Hopper Mortar Fragment Associated with Burial 04-14 ...... 7-25
Figure 7-15: Ref. # 20-6 Reworked Boulder Mortar in Association with Burial 04-20 ...... 7-26
Figure 7-16: Ref. # 24-1 Boulder Mortar Fragment in Association with Burial 04-24 ...... 7-27
x List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 7-17: Ref # 8-20 Unshaped Pestle Fragment Associated with Burial 04-8 ...... 7-28
Figure 7-18: Ref. # 8-23 Unshaped Pestle Fragment Associated with Burial 04-8 ...... 7-28
Figure 7-19: Ref. # 24-3 Pecked Cobble Associated with Burial 04-24 ...... 7-29
Figure 7-20: Ref. # 10-5 Chopper-Like Tool Associated with Burial 04-10 ...... 7-30
Figure 7-21: Ref. # 21-8 Bone Awl Fragment from Burial 04-21 ...... 7-32
Figure 7-22: Ref. #s 6-8 and 6-9 Associated with Burial 04-6 ...... 7-34
Figure 7-23: Ohlone Indians at Mission Dolores (1816) ...... 7-34
Figure 7-24: Work/Polished Bone Possible Pendant Fragment (Isolate) ...... 7-35
Figure 7-25: Ref. # 6-6 Olivella Type F3a Shell Beads from Burial 04-6 ...... 7-37
Figure 7-26: Ref. # 15-12 Type C3 Split Oval Bead –Dorsal View (Burial 04-15) ...... 7-38
Figure 7-27: Ref. # 11-5 Type A1b Medium Spire-Lopped (Burial 04-6) ...... 7-39
Figure 8-1: Temporal Dating Schemes Based on Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) Scheme B1; Hughes and Milliken (2007) Scheme D ...... 8-11
Figure 9-1: Indians at Mission Dolores in 1816 Drawn by Louis Choris ...... 9-14
Figure 9-2: Pedro Evencio ...... 9-28
Figure 9-3: Joseph Evencio “Indian Joe” at Coyote Point circa. 1920s ...... 9-29
Figure 9-4: Governor Peter Burnett ...... 9-35
Figure 9-5: Eighteen Unratified Treaties of California ...... 9-36
Figure 9-6: Muwekma Indians at the Niles and Pleasanton Rancherias ...... 9-44
Figure 9-7: 1900 Indian Population Census, Niles, Washington Township ...... 9-46
xi List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 9-8: Indian Agent Kelsey’s Map of Indian Rancherias, Verona Band ...... 9-49
Figure 9-9: Grave Sites, Joseph Aleas, Fred Guzman and Toney J. Guzman ...... 9-56
Figure 9-10: Lucas Marine BIA Application # 10298...... 9-58
Figure 9-11: Lucas Marine BIA Application Identifying His Tribe “Ohlones” ...... 9-59
Figure 9-12: Francisca Guzman and Family BIA Application # 10293 ...... 9-60
Figure 9-13: Phoebe Alaniz BIA Application # 10301 ...... 9-61
Figure 9-14: Magdalena Thompson BIA Application # 10296 ...... 9-62
Figure 9-15: J. P. Harrington, Muwekma Elders Jose Guzman and Angela Colos ...... 9-64
Figure 9-16: Some of the Muwekma Men Who Served During WW II ...... 9-75
Figure 9-17: Muwekma Men Who Served During World War II ...... 9-76
Figure 9-18: Lillian Massiatt, Ramona and Michael Galvan at Ohlone Cemetery ...... 9-78
Figure 9-19: Muwekma Elders Maggie Juarez and Erolinda Santos Juarez Corral ...... 9-79
Figure 9-20: Rosemary Cambra & Colin Hampson at Muwekma-Tah-Ruk ...... 9-89
Figure 9-21: Stanford University Repatriates 550 Burials to Muwekma Tribe ...... 9-90
Figure 9-22: Reburial of Ancestral Ohlone Human Remains at Coyote Hills ...... 9-91
Figure 9-23: Letter to H. Reckord from Condoleezza Rice Stanford Provost ...... 9-92
Figure 9-24: Muwekma-Tah-Ruk Anniversary Celebration 2009 ...... 9-93
Figure 9-25: Faculty, Staff, Students & Muwekma Anniversary Celebration ...... 9-93
Figure 9-26: Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Campout and Big Feast 2001 ...... 9-95
Figure 9-27: Muwekma Christmas Choir in Front of Mission San Jose ...... 9-96
xii
List of Figures (continued)
Figure No. Page No.
Figure 9-28: Muwekma Christmas Gathering at Stanford University 2005 ...... 9-97
Figure 9-29: Muwekma Ohlone Tribe ...... 9-98
Figure 10-1: José Guzman with Granddaughter Marjory Guzman, August 1934...... 10-10
xiii List of Maps
Map No. Page No.
Map 1-1 Project Location Map: Site CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 ...... 1-5
Map 2-1: Field Designated Burial Locations for 2000 and 2001 ...... 2-2
Map 2-2: Field Designated Burial Locations for 2004 ...... 2-3
Map 8-1: Location of Obsidian Sources in Central California ...... 8-9
Map 9-1: Distribution of Ohlone Tribal Groups and Tribal Districts in the Santa Clara Valley ...... 9-11
Map 9-2: Distribution of Ohlone Tribal Groups Surrounding the Tamien Region...... 9-12
Map 9-3: Distribution of Tribal Groups in the East Bay ...... 9-13
xiv List of Tables
Table No. Page No.
Table 3-1: Stature of Individuals ...... 3-4
Table 3-2: Distribution of Burials by Age Category ...... 3-5
Table 3-3: Comparisons of Mean Molar Scores ...... 3-93
Table 3-4: CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 Dental Conditions ...... 3-94
Table 3-5: CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 Attrition Scores ...... 3-100
Table 3-6: Paleopathologies Found at CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 ...... 3-114
Table 4-1: Primers Used in this Study, with Annealing Temperatures ...... 4-4
Table 4-2: Mitochondrial Haplogroup Assignment of Samples from CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA263 ...... 4-6
Table 4-3: Fisher’s Exact Test Based on Haplogroup Frequencies ...... 4-9
Table 4-4: Comparison of the CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 Burial “Stan 4-12” Hypervariable Region I Sequence to Published Sequences ...... 4-11
Table 5-1: Stable Isotope Values and AMS Dates ...... 5-5
Table 5-2: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Descriptive Statistics ...... 5-5
Table 5-3: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Summary Statistics by Sex ...... 5-8
Table 6-1: Taxonomic List of Faunal Species: CA-SCL 287/CA-SMA-263 ...... 6-6
Table 6-2: Comparative Faunal Assemblage from Non-Burial Features from CA-SCL-287 ...... 6-14
Table 6-3: Comparative Shellfish Assemblage from Non-Burial Features from CA-SCL-287 ...... 6-17
Table 7-1: Distribution of Core Types ...... 7-8
Table 7-2: Number of Obsidian Debitage/Flakes Recovered from Burials from 2000-2001 ...... 7-16
Table 7-3: Grave Associated Ground, Pecked and Polished Tools ...... 7-31
xv List of Tables (continued)
Table No. Page No.
Table 7-4: Attribute Measurements for Selected Type F3a Beads from Burial 04-6 ...... 7-36
Table 8-1: AMS C14 Dates from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 (Scheme B1, after Bennyhofff and Hughes 1987) ...... 8-2
Table 8-2: Radiocarbon Dates fro Sites in the Porject Area and Immediate Vicinity ...... 8-3
Table 8-3: Comparative Dates from San Francisco Bay Area Sites ...... 8-4
Table 8-4: Obsidian Hydration Values and Visual Sourcing Results CA-SCL-287 ...... 8-5
Table 8-5: Number of Obsidian Debitage/Flakes Recovered from Burials From 2000-2001 ...... 8-6
Table 8-6: Calendar Conversion Formulae for Selected Obsidian Sources ...... 8-7
Table 8-7: Conversion Dates on the Mean Hydration Values from CA-SCL-287 ...... 8-7
Table 8-8: AMS Dates for Four Burials with Olivella Cut Beads ...... 8-10
Table 10-1: Miwok Moiety Alignments and Symbols ...... 10-25
Table 10-2: Dialectical Stems Based Upon the Root “Cacnu” ...... 10-27
xvi Acknowledgments
The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area and its cultural resource management firm Ohlone Families Consulting Services would like to thank the following people from Stanford University and the participating Muwekma Tribal members and OFCS staff and the contributing scholars who helped to facilitate all of phases of burial and archaeological data recovery field work and the ensuing lab analyses that contributed to the completion of this Final Report.
We wish to thank the management staff from Stanford University specifically Dr. Laura Jones, Project Task Coordinator, Campus Archaeologist, and Mr. Bill Plate, Project Manager, Stanford Management Company for their assistance in providing funding for the burial and archaeological data recovery program and analysis conducted on the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites.
We also would like to thank Elena Reese from Pacific Legacy, Inc. for providing field maps showing the distribution of the burial features and for providing data on the obsidian and other grave associated materials from the 2000 and 2001 field seasons.
OFCS staff archaeologist Susan Morley and Muwekma Tribal Councilwoman Susanne Rodriguez worked on the burial recovery program during the 2000 and 2001 field seasons. Additional field crew members working with Susan Morley and Susanne Rodriquez were Arnold Sanchez (Muwekma Tribal member), Norma Sanchez (Muwekma Tribal Administrator), Rosemary Cambra, (Muwekma Tribal Chairwoman), Alan Leventhal (OFCS Senior Staff Archaeologist), Yoshi Sejima (OFCS Field and Lab Crew), Jennifer Irwin (OFCS Field and Lab Crew), and Esther Foley (OFCS Field and Lab Crew). Also, Marvin Lee Marine (Maidu/Muwekma), worked as a field technician for Pacific Legacy.
From the 2004 field season OFCS field crew members consisted of Chairwoman Rosemary Cambra, Muwekma Tribal Administrator Norma Sanchez, Muwekma Tribal Councilwoman Susanne Rodriquez, Muwekma Tribal members Charlene Nijmeh, Ken Nijmeh, Anthony Acosta, OFCS Senior Staff Archaeologist Alan Leventhal, Staff Archaeologists/Osteologists Melynda Atwood, Diane DiGiuseppe, Dave Grant, and Susan Morley.
OFCS staff osteologists, Susan Morley, Melynda Atwood, Diane DiGiuseppe, and Dave Grant labored many hours in both the field and in the lab in order to maximize on the recovery of the primary burials and in the lab they carefully cleaned the bones and teeth and separated the soil matrix from the bones for maximum preservation. This team analyzed the human remains and wrote the Skeletal Analysis report in conjunction with Alan Leventhal (Chapter 3 and Appendix A)
The preliminary results from the mitochondrial DNA derived from the Burials for CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 was reported upon by Cara Monroe, School of Biological Science, Washington State University, Pullman and Dr. Brian Kemp, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman (Chapter 4).
xvii Dr. Eric Bartelink (Anthropology Department, California State University at Chico) analyzed the Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope results and summarized these data in his interpretative report (Chapter 5). The faunal remains were analyzed by Jean Geary, Department of Biology, San Jose State University and Alan Leventhal (Chapter 6 and Appendix B).
Diane DiGiuseppe and Alan Leventhal catalogued all of the recovered grave associations and conducted the analyses on the Stone, Bone and Shell artifacts (Chapter 7 and Appendix C).
The Accelerator Mass Spectrometry dating was conducted at NAS AMS Laboratory, Physics Department, University of Arizona, Tucson and provided the results from the radiometric assays and stable isotope (Chapter 8).
Chapter 9 the “Ethnohistory” section addresses the aboriginal tribal groups of the Stanford University region and Santa Clara Valley at the time of Spanish expansion into Alta California. This chapter also presents information on the history and heritage of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area, providing vital linkages between the Muwekma’s pre-Contact past, its Contact history with the expanding Hispanic Empire, and the resultant devastation to the Muwekma and neighboring tribal peoples. This section speaks to the survival strategies deployed by the Muwekmas during the 19th and early 20th centuries, encompassing the American Conquest Period, the Gold Rush, the disenfranchisement of the Tribe and other California tribal groups and communities, up to the “discovery” of the 18 unratified California Treaties of 1851- 1852. We trace the Muwekma’s through historic documents (e.g., the Federal Indian Population Censuses and action by the Bureau of Indian Affairs) and through the anthropological and linguistic studies conducted by scholars and other people during the 20th century. We present information in great detail about the service in the United States Armed forces by Muwekma men and women who served overseas in WW I, WW II, Korea, Viet Nam, Desert Storm to the present-day conflict in Iraq. The Muwekma is particularly proud of this record. This chapter also presents the most current information about the Tribe’s efforts to regain its Federally Acknowledged statue which it first obtained through the Acts of Congress beginning in 1906, 1908 and later years. Particularly troubling is the fact that after submitted six linear feet of documentation the BIA hinted that it would take approximately 24 years before it could review the Tribe’s documents, this even more compounded when the Muwekma’s were accorded a formal determination of Previous Unambiguous Federal Recognition by the BIA on May 24, 1996 and furthermore, the BIA agreeing that the Tribe was never “terminated” by Act of the US Congress, Executive action or Court Order.
This Ethnohistoric section was co-authored by Tribal Chairwoman Rosemary Cambra, Tribal Ethnohistorian Alan Leventhal, Monica V. Arellano Vice-Chairwoman and Co-Chair of the Muwekma Language Committee, Susanne Rodriguez Ex-Councilwoman and Tribal member, Shelia Guzman Schmidt Councilwoman and Co-Chair of the Muwekma Language Committee, and Gloria Arellano Gomez Councilwoman and Muwekma Language Committee member (Chapter 9)
xviii Chapter 10 entitled "What Must It Have Been Like!" Critical Considerations of Pre- Contact Ohlone Cosmology as Interpreted Through Central California Ethnohistory is an updated revision of a chapter written for the Three Wolves Site - Kaphan Húunikma (CA-SCL- 732) address symbolic implication of animal burials and animal body parts that were interred within ancestral Ohlone Indian cemetery sites. This chapter was by written by Dr. Les Field, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque and Alan Leventhal with translations and cultural interpretations by Muwekma Elders Dolores Galvan Lameira, Rosemary Cambra, Hank Alvarez, and Muwekma Tribal Councilwoman and Muwekma Chocheño Language Committee Co-Chair Sheila Guzman Schmidt.
Over the course of the 2000, 2001 and 2004 burial recovery field seasons, Muwekma Tribal Chairwoman Rosemary Cambra served as the State of California Native American Heritage Commission’s (NAHC) designated Most Likely Descendant (MLD) for this project. Muwekma Tribal Administrator Norma Sanchez and Rosemary Cambra maintained administrative over sight over the various stages of the project. Alan Leventhal and Diane DiGiuseppe edited the various sections and formatted the Final Report.
We also want to thank the Dean’s Office, College of Social Sciences, Department of Anthropology, and Department of Biology, Bird and Mammal Museum at San Jose State University for the use of their comparative collections and support.
xix Dedication of this Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Site Report to Muwekma Tribal Member and Council Member Susanne Rodriguez March 14, 1957 - May 15, 2009
This Final Report is dedicated to Muwekma Tribal member and previous Tribal Council woman Susanne Rodriguez who spent the past 25 years working and representing the Tribe on many archaeological projects. Susie was the Tribal archaeological liaison with Stanford University, and she also had contributed to many of the ethnographic sections about the Muwekma Tribe’s history and heritage as a co-author, including Chapter 13 contained within this volume.
May 15 was both a very sad day and also a day to look up at the sky and breath deep and celebrate life as Muwekma Tribal Member Susanne “Susie” Rodriguez did.
Over the years Susie has worked with her fellow Tribal council members in educating the general public and politicians about the history and heritage of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe. She had also worked tirelessly as an advocate for meaningful scientific research on her Tribe’s ancestral heritage. Susie also worked for many years along with her mother Concha Rodriguez and the Tribal leadership on their reaffirmation as a Federally Recognized Tribe. On May 15th, Susie suffering from the advanced stages of diabetes and succumbed to the adverse effects from this disease. Although her body was weakened, her heart, mind and soul were still strong. She will always live and breath “Muwekma” in this world and in the spirit world.
Susie was one of those remarkable people that everyone just loved. She was the embodiment of all of nature’s elements. Susie was a flame, a person of immense warmth and love, and she was a guiding light as a Muwekma Tribal Council woman, Tribal member and Tribal archaeologist. Susie was a rock, she was strong and steadfast, and she understood the earth and all the goodness that it brings. Susie was air the enjoyment of being in Susie’s company was like breathing in a fresh breath of air after a warm Spring rain. Susie was the sky she dreamed that great things would eventually come to her tribe. Susie was the incarnation of love, beauty and nurturing. She was the embodiment of what people hope their children strive to be … a genuinely good and loving person.
Born into this world on March 14, 1957 in Tranquility, California, Susie was the eldest daughter of Concepcion “Concha” Martinez and Jose Rodriguez.
On May 15, 2009, Muwekma Tribal Council woman Susie Rodriguez, passed away at the age of 52. Susie was a loving daughter, sister, aunt, cousin and Muwekma Tribal member.
Susie became an active member and Tribal Council women during the formative years of her Tribe, the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area. She was actively involved in the protection of the Tribe’s ancestral village and cemetery sites and when necessary was on of the leading tribal members who served as a steward of the Tribe’s ancestral heritage.
Susie worked for many years as the Tribe’s archaeological liaison to Stanford University. She worked alongside with her family and fellow tribal members at the Three Wolves Site (Kaphan
xx Húunikma) CA-SCL-732 in south San Jose, at the Yukisma Site (CA-SCL-38) in Milpitas, as well as other ancestral Muwekma heritage sites.
Susie was a star in the film “Back From Extinction: The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area” in 1995 which featured major issues that the Tribe was confronted with ranging from regaining back its Federally Acknowledged status to addressing the difficult decision to remove the Tribe’s ancestral remains during a highway construction project.
Susie also co-authored various ethnohistoric studies on her Tribe which were published in Final Archaeological reports that the Tribe had over sight over. The last study was completed this past April 2009 which was entitled “An Ethnohistory of Santa Clara Valley and Adjacent Regions; Historic Ties of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area and Tribal Oversight of the Katwáš Ketneyma Waréeptak (Four Matriarchs) Site, CA-SCL- 869,” a Muwekma heritage site located in South San Jose during the construction of Fire Station #12. This study was co-authored with Susie’s aunt, cousins, fellow Tribal members Rosemary Cambra, Monica V. Arellano, Susanne Rodriguez, Shelia Guzman Schmidt, and Gloria Arellano Gomez and her buddy, Tribal Ethnohistorian, Alan Leventhal.
Susie was also a mainstay along with her mother, Concha, when it came to feeding the Tribe, the archaeological crews and students, especially those attending Stanford University. Susie and her mom were two of the prime preparers and cooks for the many Muwekma sponsored feasts, especially dinners held at Stanford University’s Native American theme house/dormitory Muwekma-Tah-Ruk (House of the People).
Recently Susie’s Aunt Rosemary Cambra had her mitochondrial DNA sequenced and analyzed at Washington State University. The mitochondrial DNA traces the X chromosome through the maternal side of the family, meaning through the mother’s, mother’s, mother’s, mother’s (and on) DNA. Susie’s mother Concha was the older sister of Rosemary and therefore, Susie’s mitochondrial DNA is the same as Rosemary’s. What was reported back to Rosemary and the Marine-Sanchez-Martinez family and the Tribe, was that Susie’s and Rosemary’s DNA was matched to one of the founding Native American Haplogroups in North America. On June 22, 2008 Dr. Brian Kemp from the Department of Anthropology at Washington State University at Pullman wrote to Rosemary with the following results:
“I just got your mitochondrial DNA sequence completed. From your sequence I have determined that you belong to Native American mitochondrial haplogroup “B2”… This pattern of mutations is very common in Native American populations because it is a very old type. … You carry one the types of mitochondrial DNA that we believe was carried over from Asia approximately 15,000 years ago. In other words, in the region of the genome that I sequenced, no mutations have occurred on your direct maternal line.”
Susie was ecstatic when she learned that her mother’s and her grandmother’s DNA reached back so far in time.
In following the footsteps of her maternal ancestors Susie represented the seventh generation of a continuous line of Ohlone Indian women whose lives were ultimately disrupted by the expanding
xxi Hispanic Empire and the ensuing American Conquest of California. All of Susie’s mother’s maternal Ohlone ancestors were baptized at the Mission San Jose.
Susie’s maternal lineage is descended from Efrena Quennatole who was born in 1797 and was of the Napian Patwin-speaking/Karkin Ohlone-speaking Tribal groups of the North Bay and her husband Liberato Culpecse who was born in 1787 of the Jalquin Ohlone-speaking/Saclan Bay Miwok-speaking Tribal groups of the East Bay and who was baptized at Mission Dolores in 1801.
Efrena and Liberato’s only daughter, was Maria Efrena Yakilamne. She born in 1832 and was baptized at Mission San Jose and she was buried at the Ohlone Indian Cemetery. Maria Efrena and her husband Panfilio Yakilamne’s daughter was Avelina Cornates Marine who was born in 1863 and she too was baptized at Mission San Jose and was also buried at the Ohlone Indian Cemetery in 1904.
Avelina had married Raphael Marine and one of their middle daughters was Ramona Marine Sanchez who was born in 1893 on the Pleasanton Alisal Rancheria and was baptized at Mission San Jose and she too was buried at the Ohlone Indian Cemetery in 1921.
Ramona marine had married Porfirio Sanchez and their eldest daughter was Muwekma Tribal Elder Dolores Sanchez Martinez who was born in 1911 at the Sunol Rancheria and she too was baptized at Mission San Jose and she passed away in San Jose in 1996.
Dolores Sanchez had married Manuel Martinez and their eldest daughter was Muwekma Tribal Council woman and Tribal Elder Concha Martinez Rodriguez who was born in 1930 and she passed away in San Jose in 2002. Following in the footsteps of her mother, grandmother, great- grandmother and her Ohlone Indian ancestors, Susie carried herself with a great deal of love, dignity and strength and foremost, she carried her Muwekma Ohlone Indian identity.
Susie was loved by everyone. Her passing leaves a major gulf in the lives of many both within the Muwekma Tribe and the larger community. Susie Rodriguez is survived by her loving family, her father Joe Rodriguez; her sister Carol Veikune, her two beautiful nieces Nicole and Jessica Veikune, and her brother Lawrence Rodriguez. She is also survived by all of her relations of the Marine-related families and lineage and by her fellow Tribal members from the other lineages enrolled in the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe.
Go walk on the pathway that bridges the earth to the heavens and that which bridges your Ohlone Indian ancestors to the present-day generations of the Muwekma Tribe. You have been and always will be a Star in the Sky.
Aho!.
xxii
Susie Working on Measuring Artifacts
xxiii Dedication of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Site Report to the Ancestral Ohlones of the West Bay and to the Memory of Pedro Evencio and his Family
This report is also dedicated to the ancestral Ohlone Indian people of the West Bay and to Pedro Evencio and his family whom were the last of the Puichon Ohlone Indians residing in San Mateo County until the early part of the 20th century. The Muwekma Ohlone Tribal leadership requested that the 1894 photo of Pedro Evencio grace the cover of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Site Report in order to honor him, his family, the Puichon Ohlones and the other West Bay Ohlonean Tribal groups who suffered and perished under the colonial Hispanic Empire and American expansion into Alta California.
Aho!.
xxiv Final Report on the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program Conducted on a Portion of a Middle Period Ohlone Indian Cemetery, Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263, Stanford University, California
Chapter 1 Project Overview
Alan Leventhal, Rosemary Cambra, Norma Sanchez, Diane DiGiuseppe, and Susan Morley
INTRODUCTION
The following archaeological report was prepared for Stanford University by Ohlone Family Consulting Services. The principal contact person and coordinator for Stanford University was Dr. Laura Jones, Director, Heritage Services and Special Projects, University Archaeologist, Land, Buildings, and Real Estate, 3145 Porter Drive, Los Trancos Building F, Palo Alto, CA 94304-8442
This report summarizes the results of the burial recovery program conducted on a portion of a pre-contact Ohlone Indian cemetery discovered at sites CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 renamed collectively by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe as the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites in their aboriginal Chocheño Ohlone language. The Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites are located on the boundary of Santa Clara and San Mateo Counties on the south side of Sand Hill Road on the Stanford University campus. The remains of 27+ ancestral Ohlone Indian burials along with associated grave regalia, tools and faunal remains were discovered within this area during a period spanning from 1987 to 2004. When the skeletal remains were discovered during earthmoving excavations, all work was immediately halted at the construction site and the Santa Clara Coroner’s office was immediately notified.
In consultation with Stanford Management Company (SMC) regarding the Sand Hill Road Project, the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe’s cultural resource management firm Ohlone Family Consulting (OFCS) was chosen to monitor the project. OFCS employs enrolled members of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe as Native American monitors and archaeological field crew.
On October 9, 1998, fragmentary human remains were found at the Children’s Hospital demolition site. The find was reported to the Native American Heritage Commission in Sacramento and on October 14, 1998, Rosemary Cambra of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe was appointed Most Likely Descendant (MLD) for the project. Subsequently SMC and Muwekma Ohlone Indian signed a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) regarding the treatment and disposition of human remains. This was executed in December of 1998. Under the terms of the MOA, articulated burials were recorded and removed by members of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe/OFCS.
The Santa Clara County Coroner’s office made the determination that the remains were Native American and the Native American Heritage Commission (NAHC) was contacted by both the Coroner’s office and Stanford University about the discovery. The NAHC contacted Rosemary
1-1 Cambra, Chairwoman of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area, and informed her that the NAHC had identified her as the “Most Likely Descendant” (MLD) for this project.
After the NAHC contacted Rosemary Cambra as the project’s MLD, she along with Tribal Administrator Norma Sanchez met with Dr. Laura Jones and other representatives from Stanford Management Company at the construction site in order to assess the circumstances of the discovery of the burial and made recommendations regarding the treatment and disposition of the human remains as prescribed under Public Resources Code 5097.98 (The Native American Historic Resource Protection Act, California).
After meeting it was determined that when Burial #1 was initially discovered by the construction crewmen all excavation work had stopped as prescribed by law. It was also determined that not all of the remains had been recovered from the area where the burial was dislocated. Those remains that were collected were placed in safe keeping by Dr. Lorna Pierce from the Coroner’s Office until recommendations could ultimately be made by the MLD.
Based upon a long working relationship with Stanford University, a decision was made by Stanford officials to hire the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe’s cultural resource management firm Ohlone Family Consulting Services (OFCS) to prepare a burial/archaeological data recovery and monitoring mitigation program in case there were additional burials encountered during construction work in conformance with the CEQA Regulatory Guidelines and Compliance (see below).
Phase 1 of the mitigation program entailed the recovery of the rest of Burial #1 during the 1987 construction activities. The ensuing mitigation phases of field work were to be predicated upon the discovery of any additional human burials.
Phase 2 of the burial recovery program was conducted in June 2000 under the guidance of Stanford Management Company that retained the cultural resources management firm Pacific Legacy, Inc. to monitor, test and document the site’s features. When burials were exposed during construction, the Stanford Management Company contracted Ohlone Families Consulting Services to oversee the removal of their ancestral remains. Under the direction of OFCS staff archaeologist Susan Morley, M.A., monitored the widening of San Hill Road to create a bike path on the west side of the road. Specifically, this phase of construction entailed the widening of Sand Hill Road which required that the southern portion of site CA-SCL-287 be graded down to the present level of the road. During Phase 2, the archaeological monitoring and recovery program identified and recovered three pre-contact Ohlone human burials designated in the field as Burials 00-1 through 00-3.
Phase 3 commenced during April 2001 and was a continuation of the previous fieldwork conducted during June 2000. During this phase of monitoring, four additional pre-contact Ohlone burials were recovered and designated as Burials 01-1 through 01-4.
Phase 4 of the mitigation work was implemented during July 2004. A joint project between Stanford Management Company, Pacific Legacy, Inc. and Ohlone Families Consulting Services
1-2 began as a result of the widening of Sand Hill Road that made landscape architectural renovations to the Stanford Golf Course necessary. Specifically, two new golf tees needed to be repositioned on the golf course due to the widening road project. Heavy equipment was used to grade the new areas where the golf tees were to be repositioned. Initial monitoring was conducted by Pacific Legacy, Inc. and the burial recovery was implemented by Ohlone Families Consulting Services. After several burials were uncovered during the monitoring process a change of design was reevaluated and implemented so that fewer burials would be impacted. During Phase 4 a total of nineteen (19) burials were recovered and these were issued the field designations of Burials 04-5 through 04-24. For more information regarding the overall scope of the various Stanford University cultural resources management projects and specifically the results from the analyses from the non-burial features and test excavation units see the Final Archaeological Report by Reese et al. (2006).
At the completion of the OFCS monitoring field work and burial recovery program, the skeletal inventory analysis (which is presented in Chapter 3), produced evidence there are a minimum of twenty-nine individuals recovered from burial contexts. Additionally several isolated human skeletal elements collected from disturbed surface contexts within the site represent at least two additional adult individuals.
This final report presents the following studies and chapters: - Chapter 2 provides an Overview of Field Work and the Burial Recovery Program; - Chapter 3 presents the Burial Descriptions and Skeletal Biology: Inventory and Analysis of these twenty-nine individuals comprising the mortuary population recovered from both sites CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263; - Chapter 4 presents the results of the Ancient DNA Analysis conducted by Dr. Brian Kemp Department of Anthropology, Washington State University at Pullman and Cara Monroe, School of Biological Science, Washington State University, Pullman - Chapter 5 presents information on the Paleo-Dietary Reconstruction at CA-SCL-287: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Analysis of the Human Burials conducted by Dr. Eric Bartelink (Department of Anthropology, California State University at Chico); - The results of the burial associated faunal remains is presented in Chapter 6 which was conducted by Jean Geary (Department of Biological Sciences, San Jose State University) and Alan Leventhal; - Chapter 7 presents the Analysis of the Flaked Stone and Ground and Battered Stone Assemblages and other Artifacts by Alan Leventhal and Diane DiGiuseppe; - Chapter 8 discusses the Dating and Chronological Placement of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites by Alan Leventhal and Rosemary Cambra; - Chapter 9 presents An Ethnohistory of Santa Clara Valley and Adjacent Regions; Historic Ties of The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area and Tribal Involvement with the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites Burial Recovery Program; - Chapter 10 presents a revisitation of a previous study entitled “What Must It Have Been Like!”: Critical Considerations of Pre-Contact Ohlone Cosmology as Interpreted Through Central California Ethnohistory; and - Chapter 11 will present information on the Reburial of the Tribe’s Ancestral Remains.
1-3 Funding from Stanford University for this project was directed to address the four mitigation phases of field work, which included the burial recovery and the monitoring programs within the cemetery areas. The revised laboratory analysis budget provided for the following studies: 1) the ten (10) Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dates, 2) the skeletal analysis and inventory, 3) description of cultural materials recovered in association with the burials, 4) Ancient DNA analysis, 5) Stable Isotope analysis, and 6) for the writing of this final report.
The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe has over the past 30 years been extremely interested in learning as much as possible about their ancestral heritage and fully supported the various studies presented in Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10. The Tribe has advocated for advanced bio-archaeological studies and requested Dr. Brian Kemp from Washington State University at Pullman and Dr. Eric Bartelink from California State University at Chico to take samples from the primary burials in order to conduct studies on the ancient DNA and dietary implications from their ancestral remains recovered from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites.
CEQA REGULATORY GUIDELINES AND COMPLIANCE
This archaeological and burial recovery program conforms to the cultural resources requirements of the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) and City of San Jose procedures and regulations. Under the cultural resources guidelines presented in Appendices G and K of CEQA, the permit granting lead agency is responsible for determining whether or not a particular project would have an adverse impact on significant cultural resources. When the first burial was encountered Stanford University retained the services of Ohlone Families Consulting Services in order to implement the CEQA compliance process through a controlled archaeological testing and burial recovery mitigation treatment plan.
CEQA (Appendix G) lists "significant effects" criteria that are also applicable to the proposed project. A significant effect on cultural resources was defined if the project would:
A. Disrupt or adversely affect a prehistoric or historic archaeological site or a property of historic or cultural significance to a community or ethnic or social group, or a paleontological site except as part of a scientific study; or
B. Conflict with established recreational, educational, religious, or scientific uses of the area.
Native Americans are considered an ethnic and social group under Criterion A. Contemporary Native Americans (specifically in this case the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area) consider that disturbances to prehistoric archaeological sites adversely impact their traditional cultural and heritage values. Although all sites are important, villages and cemetery sites are generally considered the most sensitive heritage resources to Native peoples.
PROJECT LOCATION
The specific location of these two sites is located adjacent to and along Sand Hill Road that boarders on Stanford University lands.
1-4 CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 are located within unsectioned lands within the central section of the Palo Alto, California 7.5’ Quadrangle (Photo Revised 1968), T6S, R3W, UTM Zone 10, 571800mE / 4142625mN [located North/northeast from Bench Mark (BM) 147] (See Map 1-1).
Map 1-1: Project Location Map: Site CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1-5 The nearest fresh water drainage is the present-day San Francisquito Creek drainage which cuts through the sites. Less than a mile to the southeast of the sites was the remnant of a fresh water pond identified as “Lagunita” that possibly served as a major aquatic marsh resource in the past. The elevation of these sites is approximately 100 feet above mean sea level.
The sites are situated on the flood plain of San Francisquito Creek in an area that most likely contained fresh water marshes. Willow groves were part of the plant community which grew within this riparian/marsh wetland.
Prehistorically this habitat provided fresh water, food resources and sheltered areas for village settlements and for adjacent cemeteries. Some of the early Spanish expeditions left a rich record describing their first-hand encounters during their explorations through the south and west Bay areas which describe such conditions (see the Ethnohistory in Chapter 9).
Given the limitations placed upon the burial recovery program due to significant impacts to both sites by the past and recent construction activities prior to the discovery these ancestral Ohlone remains, only a limited range of research questions can be raised. The following represents five research questions and the types of analyzes needed to answer such questions.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Given the fact that there were two independent archaeological recovery programs implemented on the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites which involved: 1) Pacific Legacy, Inc. reporting on the results of the test excavations of non-burial-related features, test units, trenches, and monitored areas impacted by heavy construction equipment, and 2) the burial/archaeological data recovery program conducted by Ohlone Families Consulting Services (OFCS) allowed for only a narrow-scoped interpretation of those data derived from these two sites through the implemented burial recovery program. Therefore, only a limited set of bio- archaeological and subsistence research questions and resultant interpretations can be considered and presented.
Given the limitations of this scope of work, four research questions were initially formulated and specialized analyses were proposed in order to address aspects about these questions. The following research questions and analyses were postulated and pursued and supported by the funding of this mitigation work.
Research Question # 1: What are the ages and sexes of the individuals represented in this mortuary population?
Analysis: - The proposed analysis needed to address this question included: 1) conducting a complete skeletal inventory of each individual, 2) taking osteometric measurements on selected suitable skeletal elements, 3) scoring the detention, and 4) using other criteria (e.g., pubis, articular surface, rib ends and etc.). [see Chapter 3]
1-6 Research Question # 2: What time period(s) (temporal components) do these burials date to?
Analysis: - The proposed analysis needed to address this question included: 1) AMS dating (Beta Labs) of a small quantity of human bone from a selection of the primary inhumations; and 2) measurement and typology of the cut Olivella beads associated with Burials 6 and 15 (based on Bennyhoff and Hughes 1987 –Scheme B1, and the proposed dating Scheme D by Groza 2002 and refined by Hughes and Milliken 2007). [See Chapter 8 for Site Chronology]
Research Question # 3: Based upon the materials and faunal remains what types of economic- related activities and symbolic meanings can be inferred from these mortuary contexts?
Analysis: 1) detailed description of cultural and ecofactual materials recovered from the Burial Features; 2) paleo-dietary implications discussed in Chapter 5 - Paleodietary Analysis of Human Remain; 3) Chapter 6 - Report on the Analysis of the Faunal Remains Associated with the Burials from Sites: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-267; and 4) Chapter 7 Analysis of the Stone, Bone and Shell Artifacts from Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263); and, Chapter 10 “What It Must Have Been Like!”.
Research Question # 4: Based upon the burial recovery program what ceremonial-related activities can be inferred that were carried on by the ancestral Ohlone Indians at this site?
Analysis: 1) Analysis of the burial features and grave associations; 2) review of ethnographic and ethnohistoric sources on California Indian belief systems and rules for treatment of the dead (see Chapter 7 Analysis of the Stone, Bone and Shell Artifacts from Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263); Chapter 9 An Ethnohistory of Santa Clara Valley and Adjacent Regions; Historic Ties of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area and Tribal Oversight of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw Site); and, Chapter 10 “What It Must Have Been Like!”.
1-7 Chapter 2 Overview of Field Work and the Burial Recovery Program
As discussed in Chapter 1 there were four phases of field work conducted by OFCS for the burial recovery and monitoring program on the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263). Phase 1 of the burial recovery program commenced at CA- SCL-287 in 1987 and the analysis of these remains is not presented in this report. Phase 2 commenced in 2000 with the recovery of three burials (designated as Burials 00-1, 00-2, and 00- 3). Phase 3 was implemented in 2001 with the recovery of four additional burials from CA- SCL-287 designated as (Burials 01-1, 01-2, 01-3 and 01-4) [see Map-2-1]. Phase 4 was conducted on both sites and the nineteen recovered field designated burials were assigned the following numbers (Burials 04-5 through 04-24) [see Map-2-2]. Note that Burials 17 and 18 were considered two separated burials in the field however after conducting the skeletal analysis the skeletal elements were considered to be one individual and therefore, redesignated as Burial 17/18. Burial 22 constituted a double burial and they were issued burial numbers 22A and 22B.
The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe/OFCS field crew comprised the following people: Rosemary Cambra, Chairwoman, Muwekma Ohlone Tribe, Norma Sanchez, Tribal Administrator, Susanne Rodriguez, Tribal Councilwoman, Marisol Sanchez, Tribal Member, Alan Leventhal, Senior Staff Archaeologist, Susan Morley, Melynda Atwood, Diane DiGiuseppe, David Grant (Staff Archaeologists/Osteologists), Lorraine Escobar (then Tribal Councilwoman Esselen Nation), Jay R (OFCS Field and Lab Crew), Arnold Sanchez (Muwekma Tribal member), Yoshi Sejima (OFCS Field and Lab Crew), Jennifer Irwin (OFCS Field and Lab Crew), Esther Foley (OFCS Field and Lab Crew). Physical Anthropologist, Dr. Elizabeth Weiss from, the Department of Anthropology, San Jose State University excavated with the field crew as a guest excavator. Also, Marvin Lee Marine (Maidu/Muwekma), worked as a field technician for Pacific Legacy.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL MONITORING PROGRAM
Each phase of the fieldwork at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites CA- SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 was conducted along the San Hill Road Corridor and on Stanford University property. Phases 2 and 3 focused on the construction of a bike lane adjacent to the Stanford property and Phase 4 were implemented during the widening of Sand Hill Road (Maps 2-1 and 2-2). As part of the mitigation plan during construction, grading operations were conducted utilizing a motor grader due to the potential of impacting burials. As the motor grader passed over the site’s surface cutting in controlled and shallow increments, archaeologist Elena Reese, Project Field Director for Pacific Legacy, Inc., and OFCS Senior Staff Archaeologist, Susan Morley co-jointly monitored all earth-moving activities as they occurred during Phases 2 and 3. Other employees from Pacific Legacy, under the direction of Elena Reese, monitored the site during Phase 4. When human remains were encountered, Ms. Reese was responsible for notifying both the Santa Clara County Coroner’s Office and the project’s MLD, Rosemary Cambra, in a timely manner.
When human remains were discovered, the Pacific Legacy and OFCS field crews would stake and flag the area(s) so that no additional impacts would further disturb the skeletal remains. After careful inspection, a tented tarp was placed over the grave locus in order to prevent the soil
2-1
Map 2-1: Field Designated Burial Locations for 2000 and 2001
2-2
Map 2-2: Field Designated Burial Locations for 2004
2-3 from drying out and thus adversely affecting the preservation of the human remains (Figure 2- 1). Afterwards the burial locus was pedestalled and the archaeological field crew carefully removed the surrounding soil with trowels, paint brushes, dustpans, dental picks and wooden skewers. Depending on state of preservation, most of the key skeletal elements were identified and drawn onto a standardized field excavation form, and later photographed. The remains were then removed and placed into standard labeled brown paper bags and plastic baggies and placed in labeled archival boxes.
During lab analysis the human remains were carefully washed and laid out in anatomical position and all identifiable skeletal elements were listed on the Ohlone Families Consulting Services’ standard skeletal inventory form (Appendix A). Osteometric observations were taken when elements were considered intact enough to make such measurements. OFCS Staff Archaeologist/Osteologist Susan Morley had oversight in the initial processing of the skeletal remains recovered during Phases 2 and 3 along with Muwekma tribal Councilwoman Susanne Rodriguez, and OFCS field/lab crewmembers Esther Foley, Jennifer Irwin, Yoshi Sejima. Phase 4 was processed by OFCS Staff Osteologists Diane DiGiuseppe, David Grant and Melynda Atwood. Alan Leventhal reviewed the lithics and groundstone materials. Rosemary Cambra and Norma Sanchez maintained complete oversight and management of the field and lab work.
Figure 2-1: Example of Tenting to Prevent Further Impacts to the Burials
2-4 FIELD BURIAL DESCRIPTIONS
Analysis of the grave associated ecofacts, tools, beads, regalia, and other artifacts that were recovered with the seven burials (Burials 00-1 – 00-3 and 01-1 – 01-4) from the 2000 and 2001 field seasons, were not available for analysis for inclusion in this final report. Information about the grave associated artifacts and ecofacts described below is derived from three sources: 1) field notes; 2) an informal catalog of materials provided by Pacific Legacy personnel; and 3) a preliminary analysis conducted in 2003 by Susan Morley and Alan Leventhal on the lithics and ground stone.
2000 Field Season
Burial 00-1 was recovered on July 1, 2000 (Figure 2-2). The grave locus was located 157 cm. to 193 cm. from Datum A in the southwest corner of Rapid Recovery Trench 2, Unit1-2N. The remains of Burial 00-1 were encountered at a depth ranging from 70 cm. to 110 cm. below surface (BS); this measurement was taken from the top of the calvarium to the base of the grave pit. The dimensions of the grave pit were 53 cm x 57 cm and these measurements are not considered reflective of the actual original grave dimensions. The base of the grave was essentially the base of the site as the grave pit transitioned into sterile soils. A large root was encountered during exposure and it ran east to west across the base of the grave pit. At 58 cm. below grade, the excavators encountered a 20 cm x 30 cm cobble that was situated directly over the burial. The soils matrix of the Burial 00-1 grave pit contained chert flakes, charcoal, ash, roots, California Horn Snail (Cerithidea californica), mussel shells (Mytilus edulis and Mytilus californicus), and Bay oyster (Ostrea lurida).
Figure 2-2: Illustration of Burial 00-1
2-5 Burial 00-1 was in a tightly flexed position with the top of the calvarium oriented south and the pelvis to the north. This individual though to be female was placed in the grave lying on her right side with her knees drawn up to within 10 cm of her chin. The arms were folded so that the hands were placed under the chin at the time of interment. It can be reasonably determined that this individual was interred facing west (Figure 2-2). The presence of ash and charcoal in the grave pit soils indicates the presence of fire at the time of interment and therefore suggestive of possible pre-internment fire which is found in West Bay sites. A large tree root mentioned above undermined the burial, contributing to the generally poor condition of preservation.
Burial 00-2 was recovered on July 2 and July 3, 2000. The grave was impacted in Rapid Recovery Trench 3 in Unit 5-6N. The grave pit was encountered at a depth of 65 cm (top of the cranium) to 97 cm below grade, with a 78 cm maximum depth on the south side and 97 cm maximum depth on the north side of the unit. The grave pit was ovoid in shape measuring 1.4 m. x 80 cm, which most likely does not reflect the original dimensions. The burial was located near the base of the site’s transition from deposit to lighter colored sterile soil approximately one meter below the surface. The elements first discovered were located in the northwest corner of Unit 5N and continued northward out of the trench area; thus, the grave was oriented roughly north/south.
The consistency of the soil when dry was loose and non-coherent with friable grains. Wet consistency was slightly sticky. The burial matrix contained chert flakes, charcoal, ash, roots, California Horn Snail (Cerithidea), Bay mussel (Mytilus edulis), and Bay oyster (Ostrea lurida).
Evidence of pre-interment pit burning is supported by the presence of ash and charcoal; however, none of the skeletal remains appear to be charred. Gerow observed a similar pattern of pre- interment pit fires during his excavation of the nearby University Village Complex Site, CA- SMA-77. Based upon his findings, Gerow suggested that such pre-interment pit fires were perhaps associated with individuals of high status and offered the following explanation with regards to this process:
Apparently, a shallow grave pit was first dug, and a fire built on the bottom. The body along with the grave offerings or possessions of the deceased was then placed on the hot coals. Finally, the consuming action of the fire was halted by throwing dirt over the body. Since evidence of pre-interment burnings was most noticeable in the case of the richest graves, it is possible that this practice was reserved for more important individuals (Gerow with Force 1968:37-38).
Burial 00-2 thought to be a male was interred in a semi-flexed position. The body (direction of the head in relation to a line between the center of the cranium and the pelvis) was oriented north 160° south. The individual was lying on his back with the legs together and tilted to the individual’s left. The lower limbs were drawn up under the pelvis as in a sitting position. The torso was flat on its back with the arms placed along each side and the hands toward the lap (in the pelvic region). The face was oriented skyward and the mouth was wide open. Cortical bones of the osteological elements were encrusted with caliche absorbed from the soil matrix preventing visual inspection. No rock features were associated with this inhumation.
2-6 Artifacts ecofacts associated with Burial 00-2 are as follows: One complete Odocoileus h. phalanx; < 1 g of charcoal, two fragments of wood (< 1 g.). Lithics include: two cortical flakes, 1 utilized primary flake, 3 primary flakes, 1 fragment of shatter, 1 soft-hammer percussion flake, and one pressure flake all Red Franciscan chert; 2 cortical flakes, 1 utilized cortical flake, 3 primary flakes, and 2 flake fragments of Green Franciscan chert; 1 primary flake, 1 fragment of shatter of Monterey Banded chert; and 1 utilized cortical flake of chalcedony.
Burial 00-3 was recovered on July 30, 2000 (Figure 2-3). The grave was discovered in the west wall of Control Unit P (CUP-13) and extended westward from the 1x 2 meter unit, which ran north south. The base of the burial was 135 cm Below Datum (BD) and measured approximately 55 cm x 60 cm. Over the leg bones in the west wall there was a semi-circle of thermally affected rocks, on edge and clearly placed in an arc-like fashion, within a diameter of 40 cm. The top of this rock feature ranged from 106.5 cm to 118 cm BD and the base of the rock feature was at the same level as the skeletal elements (at 126 cm). Ash was present on the underside of the rocks. A soil sample was collected from this area.
Feature 21 consisted of a lens of Ostrea lurida, 15 cm directly above Feature 23, which was a rock feature and possibly related to mortuary activities. At 70-95 cm BD, a green metal paint bucket was recovered indicating disturbance to this burial at an earlier time. Muwekma Tribal Councilwoman and Native American monitor, Susanne Rodriguez, noted that the mandible of Burial 00-3 appeared to have been disturbed and perhaps replaced backwards at some time ago in the distant past.
Figure 2-3: Illustration of Burial 00-3
This individual was placed in the grave in a tightly flexed position. The top of the calvarium was oriented north. The cranium was positioned so as to be lying on the left side with the head tilted downward onto the chest. The right lower limbs were on the right side and the left lower limbs were on the left side so that even though the individual was leaning to the left, the lower limbs were above with the knees apart and tightly flexed (Figure 2-3). The osteological elements were
2-7 encrusted with caliche derived from the soil matrix. The soil matrix is of yellow, friable silty clay at the surface transitioning into sterile yellow loamy clay at the base of the grave/excavation unit. It may be suggested that this burial was either highly disturbed or considered a secondary inhumation as there were no vertebrae or ribs present and the mandible was disassociated from the cranium.
Lithics associated with this burial include: one fragment of Red Franciscan chert shatter, 1 Green Franciscan chert cortical flake, 3 primary flakes and 1 fragment of shatter of chalcedony, and 1 cortical flake and 3 fragments of Monterey Banded chert.
A metapodial of Cervus nannodes (Tule Elk) that also exhibited some burning was recovered, as were other Tule Elk long bone fragments. One crab claw was also recovered. Shell fragments from the matrix surrounding the burial included Cerithidea and Ostrea lurida. Possible shell ornaments include 2 small fragments of Haliotis rufescens.
2001 Field Season
Burial 01-1 was encountered on April 23, 2001 when the motor grader impacted the pelvis and left tibia (Figure 2-4) in a location about 200 feet north of San Francisquito Creek, five feet southwest of Feature 62, and 20 feet east of Burial 01-2. On April 17, (2001) one human cranial fragment had been recovered during monitoring and again on the April 18 another cranial fragment was recovered. These two cranial fragments were both within 2 meters of the exposed Burial 01-1.
Figure 2-4: Photograph of Burial 01-1 in-situ
Burial 01-1 was exposed on April 26, 2001 at a depth of 85 cm BD. The base of the grave after full exposure was 108 cm. BD. This burial was articulated in a semi-flexed position with the knees bent approximately 31 cm from the face. The posterior portion of the calvarium was
2-8 oriented to the north. The face was looking to the south. Many of the skeletal elements were absent. The dimension of the grave pit measured 80 cm x 80 cm.
The soils matrix of Burial 01-1 is described as 10 YR 4/2 (wet) and 10 YR 4/3 (dry), dark brown to dark grayish brown on the Munsell Color System scale. There was no mottling; the structure was massive and weak. Dry consistency was slightly hard. This smooth, plastic clay loam was violently effervescent (using HCl solution) and was weakly cemented. Burial soils contained Ostrea lurida, Mytilus, Cerithidea. and charcoal fragments. Minute fragments of a red ocher- like material were recovered at a depth of 10 cm below the cranium. A haystack (nest) was noted in a rodent run that entered the grave pit at the northwest corner near the cranium.
At least six mortar fragments, as well as saddle and spire-lopped Olivella biplicata shell beads were recovered in the immediate vicinity that may have been directly associated with this burial (Ellie Reese, personal communication at the time of discovery). Being retained by Pacific Legacy, Inc. these beads were not included in this study
Historic materials associated with Burial 01-1 included: 2 grams of ocher. From the surrounding burial soil matrix Cerithidea shells were recovered as well as some Ostrea.
Lithic materials associated with Burial 01-1 included: a small quartz crystal fragment (< 1g.), 3 Red Franciscan chert cortical flakes, 4 Green Franciscan chert cortical flakes and 1 chalcedony cortical flake; 3 utilized Green Franciscan chert primary flakes, 7 Red Franciscan, 11 Green, and 2 chalcedony primary flakes; 1 Red Franciscan assayed pebble; 4 g. of Red Franciscan shatter and 3 g. of Green Franciscan shatter and 3 g. of Monterey Banded chert shatter; 2 Monterey Banded pressure flakes, 6 Monterey Banded chert percussion flakes; 6 Monterey Banded thinning flakes; 2 Monterey Banded thermally-flaked spalls; 2 Red and 1 Green Franciscan chert modified flakes; and 1 Green Franciscan exhausted core (18 g.). A fragment of Red Franciscan chert was recovered from below the burial that was partially covered with a residue of red ocher.
A considerable assemblage of fragmented faunal bones includes: fish vertebrae; bird bone; and large, medium and small mammal in direct association with Burial 01-1. Faunal elements include rodent fragments (probably Thomomys sp.), and crab claws and a bone tool that is a fragment of a pointed and polished large mammal long bone.
Ten samples of small obsidian flakes were associated with Burial 01-1. They were sourced by Glen Wilson (SJSU Obsidian Hydration laboratory): six specimens were identified as Napa, four specimens were sourced as coming from the eastern Sierra as either Bodie Hills or Casa Diablo.
Burial 01-2 was encountered on April 23, 2001 at 1:20 PM (Figure 2-5). The motor grader blade hit the pelvis of Burial 01-2 located on the eastern terminus of the grading which was being cut at a 45° angle to the surface. Recovery of Burials 01-1 was completed on April 25, 2001 and Burial 01-2 recovery continued through April 26, 2001.
Burial 01-2 was an articulated burial located 20 feet to the east of Burial 01-1. The cranium was the highest point of elevation of the body at 75 cm BD, at a comparable elevation of 120.58 feet.
2-9 The top of the pelvis was 85 cm BG. The base of the grave was 100 cm BD. The dimensions of the grave pit were 93 cm by 60 cm.
Munsell Color for damp soil is 10 YR 3/1 (wet) and 10 YR 3/2 (dry), very dark gray to very dark grayish brown. There is no mottling. The structure of the soil is massive and weak; dry consistency is loose. The soil is plastic clay loam that is violently effervescent when tested with a 10% solution of hydrochloric acid. Various roots, ranging from 8.0 cm. to thread-like hairs, were encountered through out the soil matrix.
Burial 01-2 was oriented so that the top of the calvarium oriented due east. The face was to the south, tilted down, on to the chest. The individual was lying on her left side with the left arm placed under the drawn-up lower left knee. The right arm was folded up so that the right hand would have been near the chin; the only element recovered of the right hand was a phalange. Fragments of charcoal were located under the pelvis and in the vicinity of the lumbar vertebrae (L4 and L5).
Figure 2-5: Field Illustration of Burial 01-2
2-10 Burnt Cerithidea shells as well as the charcoal were discovered just below the feet, which were tightly flexed to the ischium. Whole Cerithidea were scattered around the perimeter of the burial, as well as behind the scapula and beneath the pelvis. Charcoal and burnt shell was recovered, therefore, at the base of the body, behind and below the hips and feet. A fragment of mammal bone was located above (on top of) where the ankle (tarsals) would have been located anatomically. No tarsals or metatarsals were recovered. As both fibulae had been displaced, it is not possible to explain the absence of pedal elements.
A Type F1b Olivella bead fragment (Bennyhoff and Hughes 1987), a bone awl tip, and a polished graphite fragment were recovered associated with Burial 01-2 (Figure 2-5). Other fragments of faunal bone were recovered; a fragment of cut bird bone was located where the ribs would once have been, behind and inside the left elbow. In front of the folded lower limbs, a burned elk (Cervus elaphus nannodes) tarsal was recovered. Another fragment of mammal bone was recovered behind the lower thoracic vertebrae (T11 and T12). Chert flakes were recovered from screened soils directly associated with this burial. The left clavicle was later recovered from within the calvarium. The calvarium had been filled with soil. A fragment of right frontal bone from a subadult individual was also recovered associated with this burial. From this evidence, it is certain that the burial had been previously disturbed; however, it is still well articulated. Burial 01-2 did not exhibit the caliche formation on the cortical bone, as did Burials 00-1, 00-3 and 01-4.
Burial 01-3 was encountered by the motor grader at 2:45 PM on April 25, 2001 (Figure 2-6). Recovery of Burial 01-3 commenced on April 30 and May 1. The location of the burial was 20 feet east of present south edge of pavement of (before grading began) Sand Hill Road. Burial 01-1 was located approximately nine feet to the east of Burial 01-3.
The top of the calvarium was 85 cm BD, at a comparable elevation of 119.92 feet. The base of the burial was 92 cm BD. The soils from the grave of Burial 01-3 contained various roots, from 8 cm in diameter to thread-like in size, distributed with moderate regularity through out the soils matrix of the grave. Munsell Color for damp soil was 10 YR 3/1 (wet) and 10 YR 3/2 (dry), very dark gray to very dark grayish brown. There was no mottling of the soil, the structure was massive and weakly coherent as well as slightly sticky. The soil was a plastic clay loam that is violently effervescent when tested with a 10% solution of hydrochloric acid.
Determined to be a subadult, Burial 01-3 was in poor condition although cortical bone that was present was in good condition. From close inspection it appeared that this child was interred on its ventral (stomach) side with the face turned upward; however, no facial elements were recovered. The top of the calvarium was placed so that it was headed due south with the pelvis to the north. The occiput was at the greatest depth and exhibited blackening or scorching; charcoal also recovered adjacent to the calvarium suggests a burning event under the occiput. The spinous processes of the vertebral column were in situ above the bodies (centrae) of the vertebrae and pointing upward. The left femur, tibia, and fibula (all fragmentary) may have been flexed. The right ulna is horizontal across the body at the waist and below the vertebral column as was the right radius (Figure 2-6). The occiput exhibits a blackened or scorched area. Four right metacarpals were recovered also exhibiting a speckling of darkened areas suggesting burning. The four right metacarpals were exposed on a head-sized river cobble approximately
2-11 10 cm. west, or to the left side of the downward-facing cranium. Burial 01-3 may be a secondary burial as the position of the elements appears somewhat haphazard, or not what are expected for an anatomically correct articulation (Figure 2-6).
Figure 2-6: Photograph of Burial 01-3
A small fragment (1 cm. x 1 cm.) of Haliotis rufescens (Figure 2-7) was associated with this burial and also a polished tip from a bone awl (Figure 2-8). Also recovered were three Olivella type B3j spire ground beads (Olivella biplicata barrel), 5 mm x 5 mm, and a Olivella type G2b saddle type cut Olivella biplicata bead, 4 mm x 3.5 mm (Figure 2-7). Tiny whole California Horn Snail (Cerithidea) shells were recovered throughout the surrounding soil matrix. Small fragments of baked clay, and chert flakes were recovered. A one-inch square fragment of ocher was recovered from where the superior left scapula may have been. River washed cobbles supported the cranium, pelvis, and vertebral column. Large cobbles were located on the western portion of the grave; one 30-cm cobble, 20 cm west of the cranium, exhibited traces of ash on the underside.
2-12
Figure 2-7: Burial 01-3 Haliotis rufescens (Pendant Fragment?)
Figure 2-8: Burial 01-3, Bone Awl Tip
Burial 01-4 was impacted by a motor grader on May 3, approximately 45 feet south of Burial 01-2, approximately 30 feet south of Burial 01-3 and 150 feet north of San Francisquito Creek on the eastern portion of the grading project, away from present day Sand Hill Road. Burial 01-3 is 30 feet north and Burial 00-2 is 10 feet due north. The top of the cranium was 80 cm BD, at a comparable elevation of 119.54 feet. The base of the grave was 105 cm BD. The soils matrix was a 10 YR 5/4 medium yellow brown sandy clay loam interspersed with fragments of charcoal, burnt clay, vitrified clay, and various shell species including Ostrea lurida and Cerithidea, and Mytilus. Mottles of darker midden soil occurred near the cranium was probably introduced via rodent burrowing activity.
2-13
Burial 01-4 was a tightly flexed inhumation. Both knees were drawn up under the chin, and the arms extended between the knees so that the hands were placed between the knees. The top of the calvarium was oriented south with the face oriented to the west. The body was oriented in a north south position (Figure 2-9).
A small Franciscan chert bladelet was recovered near the hand (Figure 2-10). A spire-lopped Olivella type B3j bead was noted above the arms, behind and below the cranium. A total of three Olivella beads were recovered. Red ocher fragments were located where the right hand would have been and in front of the face. A small fragment of burnt bone with residue of red ocher was recovered (possibly human bone). A bird bone fragment was collected from above the third right metatarsal. Charcoal, ash, ocher, and a thin Monterey Banded chert flake were recovered from behind the cranium. Evidence of pre interment pit burning (Figure 2-11) in the form of baked clay and charcoal was observed along with several bird bone fragments which surrounded the feet. Also recovered was a fragment of Haliotis rufescens and a polished bone awl.
Figure 2-9: Field Illustration of Burial 01-4
2-14
Figure 2-10: Tiny Franciscan Chert Bladelet Associated with Burial 01-4
Figure 2-11: Close up of Right Metatarsals Reveals Charcoal, Baked Clay and a Fragment of Bird Bone on the Third and Fourth Metatarsals of Burial 01-4
2-15 Field Season 2004
Due to the nature of the construction activities during Phase 4, depths taken were recorded as above mean sea level. Specifically, the datum was an old oak tree on the edge of the golf course that was not part of the present project and was several yards away from the actual burials when they were recorded by Pacific Legacy personnel. As the skip loader or backhoe graded down the surface of the soils based on the architectural design for the new golf holes and tees, burials were impacted. Thus, the depth of the burials was not possible to determine from a datum associated with each specific burial.
Burial 04-5 was encountered on May 29, 2003 and was removed August 2, 2004. It was located near the edge of and to the east of Hole #3 on site CA-SCL-287 at approximately 30 cm BS (Figure 2-12). This burial probably represents a secondary inhumation of an adult individual that was highly disturbed. No orientation information could be obtained due to the severe disturbance to the burial and there was no artifacts recovered with these burial remains.
Figure 2-12: Burial 04-5
Burial 04-6 was encountered on May 27, 2003 and recovered on July 29, 2004. It was located on the San Mateo County portion of the site at 112.28 above mean sea level (Figure 2-13). The burial was positioned on an east/west orientation with the head at the east end. Prior to the recovery of burial 04-6, it previously was impacted through the center of the skeleton with several elements missing. Due to the amount of burial disturbance, it is not possible to determine if the burial was in a tightly flexed position or semi-flexed. The cervical vertebrae provide the
2-16 only information on the possible position of this individual when placed in the burial. The cervical vertebral body is anterior with the neural arches inferior indicating that this individual appears to have been placed on their back with the face looking up. Olivella shell beads were found around the cervical vertebrae.
Figure 2-13: Burial 04-6
Lithic materials associated with Burial 04-6 include: one Red Franciscan cortical flake, 1 Green Franciscan primary flake and 1 Yellow Franciscan cortical flake and 1 primary flake of Green Franciscan. One unidentified burnt faunal bone was found in association with this burial. Two faunal bone tools that are most likely hair pins or possibly awls (Figure 2-14). Several varieties of dietary shells include Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, Mytilus edulis, freshwater clam and an unidentified clam species were also associated with this burial. 51+ Olivella beads were recovered from this burial and identified using Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) shell bead typology as type F3a series of square saddles [Figure 2-15] (also see Chapter 7).
2-17
Figure 2-14: Bone Tool Recovered from Burial 04-6
Figure 2-15: Olivella Type F3a Beads from Burial 04-6
2-18 Burial 04-7 was first encountered on August 3, 2004 and recovered on August 7, 2004. This burial was located south of Hole 3 on site CA-SCL-287 at approximately 119.6 feet above mean sea level.
Several lithic elements were found in association with this burial which includes: an assayed pebble of Monterey Banded chert, thermally shattered Red Franciscan chert, thermally affected cobble fragment of sandstone, and one large unmodified egg-shaped indurated greywacke sandstone boulder mortar found over the cranium of this individual. Note that the cranium was left intact inside the well of the mortar for later removal at the laboratory (Figure 2-16). Only one piece of Ostrea lurida shell fragment was found with this individual.
Figure 2-16: Part of Cranium from Burial 04-7 Inside Boulder Mortar
Burial 04-08 was encountered on August 4, 2004 and recovered from the burial August 6, 2004 (Figure 2-17). It was located east of Hole #3 on site CA-SCL-287 at 122.6 feet above mean sea level. This adult primary inhumation was very disturbed by large tree roots and bioturbation. This person was buried on their left side, facing east, tightly flexed and oriented to the north. This burial was uncovered as the grader was dropping a section down creating an artificial embankment when elements were identified protruding from the sidewall. Excavation of this individual was difficult due to the amount and size of tree roots intermixed with this individual.
2-19
Figure 2-17: Burial 04-8 Impacted by Tree Root
This burial is associated with several varieties of shell fragments that include Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, Mytilus edulis, Tivula (Pismo Clam), 4 freshwater clams, plus 19 cancer claws. Several faunal bones were also associated including 7 burnt and unburnt elements with one fragment calcined. There were many lithic elements associated with this individual: 1 unshaped shallow cobble mortar, 1 unshaped pestle, an intact shallow cobble mortar, a unifacially pecked cobble fragment, a unshaped short pestle fragment all of sandstone, 3 thinning flakes of Obsidian, 1 Obsidian resharpening flake, 1 red Franciscan chert core fragment, 1 modified flake of green Franciscan chert, 1 primary flake of gray Franciscan chert, 1 thinning flake of green Franciscan chert, 3 primary flakes of Monterey banded chert, 1 utilized flake of red Franciscan chert, 1 cortical flake of red Franciscan chert, 5 primary flakes of red Franciscan chert, and 2 primary flakes of green Franciscan chert.
Burial 04-9 was identified on August 4, 2004 and recovered on August 6, 2004 (Figure 2-18). It was also located east of Hole #3 on site CA-SCL-287 at 122.98 feet above mean sea level. This adult burial was highly disturbed by tree roots and bioturbation and is extremely fragmented. The elements appear to be spread out after burial by the above mentioned disturbances. The right femur and osa coxae are located at the top of the pedestal indicating that this person was lying on their left side on a slight east-west axis with the head at the eastern end. Also, the femur appears to be pulled up towards the chin indicating that this individual was in a tightly flexed position when buried.
2-20
Figure 2-18: Photograph of Burial 04-9
This burial is associated with several shell fragments that include Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, Mytilus edulis, freshwater clams, Balanus (barnacle), plus one cancer claw. There are also several lithic elements found with this burial that includes 1 Obsidian pressure flake, 2 Obsidian thinning flakes, 2 primary flakes of red Franciscan chert, 1 cortical flake of yellow Franciscan chert, and 7 primary flakes of Monterey banded chert. The faunal elements found in association with the other burial associations are two burnt artiodactyls fragments.
Burial 04-10 was encountered on August 10, 2004 and recovered from the burial August 11, 2004 (Figure 2-19). It was located to the south of burial 21 and to the north of burial 11 and east of Hole #3 at 123.7 feet above mean sea level. This adult burial appears to be disturbed by both natural phenomenon, tree roots, and unnatural phenomenon, construction, since several elements are impacted and missing, specifically the cranium. The orientation of the burial is along the northwest to southeast with the mandible at the north end. The burial position of the individual was very tightly flexed with the right knee drawn back towards the chest and the left knee overlying the right lower limbs. The individual appears to have been lying on their right side with the upper limbs positioned so that the hands are under the chin.
This burial is associated with several shell fragments that include Cerithidea and Ostrea lurida, plus three cancer claws. There are also several lithic elements found with this burial that includes 1 split and modified sandstone cobble with a sharp chopper like edge, 1 white chert primary flake fragment, an Obsidian biface fragment, 4 primary flakes of red Franciscan chert, and 1 primary flakes of green Franciscan chert.
2-21
Figure 2-19: Burial 04-10 Impacted by Tree Roots
Burial 04-11 was also encountered at CA-SCL-287 within the Stanford Golf Course on August 10, 2004 and excavated on August 12, 2004 (Figure 2-20). It was located to the south of Hole #3 and east of burial 10 at 122.15 feet above mean sea level. This primary inhumation consisted of several upper and lower limb fragments and a partial cranium of a subadult individual. The burial was probably flexed and oriented northeasterly with the head at the northeast end. It is apparent that this burial was highly disturbed prior to this excavation since two areas of disturbance exist between the head and lower limb elements, probably due to earlier construction of the site.
This burial is associated with several shell fragments that include Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, and Mytilus edulis, plus two cancer claws. There is only one lithic element found with this burial of a Monterey banded chert cortical flake. Additionally, this individual had one Olivella type A medium spire-lopped bead found in association.
2-22
Figure 2-20: Burial 04-11
Burial 04-12 was discovered on August 11, 2004 and excavated on August 14, 2004. It was located to the east of Hole #3 and north of burial 9 on site CA-SCL-287 (Figure 2-21). This adult primary inhumation was buried on their left side, facing northwest, in a tightly flexed position and oriented to the southwest at a depth of 123.32 feet above mean sea level. The upper limbs are tucked into the body with the hands pulled back up to the chin.
Figure 2-21: Burial 04-12
2-23 The cranium was impacted during construction of the site with the right temporal and parietal missing. Though recent construction caused damage to the cranial vault, previous disturbance appears to have occurred due to the absence of the lower limbs that include the tibia and foot elements.
A variety of associated artifacts were recovered with this individual. These include several shell fragments of Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, and Mytilus edulis, plus four cancer claws. There were several different lithic elements associated with this individual that includes: 1 possible mortar fragment of a hopper boulder mortar made from basalt, 1 multi-faced pebble core of Monterey banded chert, 2 primary flakes of green Franciscan chert, 1 utilized flake of Monterey banded chert, a bipolar primary flake of black Franciscan chert, and a cortical flake of gray Franciscan chert. Very little faunal bone was found in association except for one calcined faunal fragment of artiodactyls.
Burial 04-13 are the remains of a highly disturbed primary inhumation from CA-SCL-287 which was discovered on August 11, 2004 and recovered on August 13, 2004 at a depth of 122.98 feet above mean sea level (Figure 2-22). Only fragments of the cranium and the lower torso were recovered since this burial was highly impacted by roots from nearby trees. No orientation information could be obtained. The associated artifacts recovered with this individual includes: 1 primary flake of green Franciscan chert, 1 utilized flake of red Franciscan chert, a small hand held mortar fragment of sandstone, and a small sandstone flake.
Figure 2-22: Sidewall Containing Burial 04-13 and Tree Roots
Burial 04-14 was encountered on August 11, 2004 and recovered on August 15, 2004 (Figure 2- 23). It was located to the southeast of Hole #3 and east of burial 21 at 122.53 feet above mean sea level. The remains of this primary adult inhumation from CA-SCL-287 were highly disturbed with evidence of several roots crisscrossing through the burial.
The soil was hard packed indicating that other possible taphonomic pressures, (i.e. weathering and the type of soil matrix) caused damage to the skeletal remains. Although the burial was
2-24 highly fragmented, it was intact enough to determine general body orientation which was southeasterly.
Figure 2-23: Burial 04-14 Impacted by Tree Roots
A variety of associated artifacts were recovered with this individual. These include several shell fragments of Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, Penitella (Boring clam), an unknown species of clam, and one Balanus (barnacle), plus one Cancer claw. There were several different lithic elements associated with this individual that includes: 3 primary flakes of red Franciscan chert, 1 primary flakes of green Franciscan chert, and 1 unshaped hopper mortar fragment of sandstone. Very little faunal bone was found in association except for one calcined faunal fragment and one unburnt, both artiodactyl.
Burial 04-15 was identified during monitoring on August 11, 2004 at site CA-SCL-287 and recovered on August 15, 2004 (Figure 2-24). The burial was located to the east of the new Hole #3 on the Stanford Golf Course and to the north of burial 14 at a depth of 122.17 feet above mean sea level. This burial represents the remains of highly disturbed primary inhumation. The fragmented remains were found in a pattern to suggest that this individual was in a flexed position oriented toward the north with the elements scattered to either side of the burial. No obvious bioturbation is visible in the burial, though taphonomic pressures from soil matrix and weathering may have caused the fragmentation of this individual.
A variety of associated artifacts were recovered with this individual. These include several shell fragments of Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, and a scallop fragment, plus six Cancer claws. There were several different lithic elements associated with this individual that includes: 2 exhausted cores of 1 green Franciscan and 1 Monterey banded chert, 2 primary flakes of green Franciscan chert, 5 primary flakes of Monterey banded chert, 1 primary flaked of gray Franciscan chert, and 3 shattered lithics of red Franciscan chert. Very little faunal bone was found in association except for one faunal fragment from an artiodactyl. Additionally, an Olivella shell bead was found with this individual identified as Type C3 Split-Oval that is uniconically drilled from the dorsal side (Figure 2-25).
2-25
Figure 2-24: Burial 04-15
Figure 2-25: C3 Split Oval Olivella Bead from Burial 04-15
2-26 Burial 04-16 was discovered on August 11, 2004 and recovered at site CA-SCL-287 on August 15, 2004. The burial was located directly east of the new Hole #3 at the Stanford Golf Course and southeast of burial 8 at a depth of 122.59 feet above mean sea level. This burial highly fragmented and disturbed primary inhumation was found with elk vertebrae and a rib. Additionally one Penitella (Boring clam) shell was found in association with this burial. No other information could be discerned and no photographs were available.
Burial 04-17/18 was originally thought to represent two separate individuals however after the completion of exposure and closer examination this primary inhumation it turned out to be a single adult individual. The reasons for thinking that this burial could be two separate individuals were due to the fact that during grading of the surface, the heavy equipment grader spread the burial to two different locations. When the first elements were exposed during grading, it was thought to be burial 17. Burial 18 was considered since other elements had been dragged several meters from the original location. This burial was first encountered on August 12, 2004 at CA-SCL-287 and recovered on August 20, 2004 (Figure 2-26). The burial was located to the southeast of Hole #3 and directly south of burial 15 at a depth of 120.79 feet above mean sea level. The burial was oriented on a northeast by southwest position with the head at the northeast end. The individual was in a semi-flexed position lying on their left side with the face looking to the west. The lower limbs are approximately at a 75° angle from the body with the tibial and fibulae fragment tucked tightly under. The upper limbs are very fragmented but appear bent at the elbow with the forearms pulled back towards the body.
Figure 2-26: Photograph of Burial 04-17/18
Little evidence of intrusion to the burial is visible in-situ. Fragmentation of the skeleton is probably due to normal taphonomic pressures associated with weathering and the hard clay soil matrix.
2-27
This burial is associated with several shell fragments that include Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, Mytilus edulis, and freshwater clam fragments, plus five Cancer claws. There are also several lithic elements found with this burial that includes: 1 biface tip of red Franciscan chert, a bladelet of white chert, 2 primary flakes of Monterey banded chert, a thinning flake of Monterey banded chert, and one utilized bladelet flake of white chert. Additionally there are three faunal bone fragments with one burnt artodactyle element.
Burial 04-19 was a highly disturbed adult primary inhumation from CA-SCL-287 (Figure 2-27). A large plastic conduit went through the burial in the recent past as well as fiber optics directly through the remaining elements causing major impacts to this individual. During these excavations, this individual was uncovered on August 16, 2004 and recovered on August 17, 2004. Although the individual was highly impacted by modern disturbances, the general body orientation was southeasterly. Too few of the elements remain for a determination of body position to be identified. The location of the burial was to the east of Hole #3 and to the south of burials 16 and 20 at a depth of 122.39 feet below mean sea level.
Figure 2-27: Burial 04-19 Showing Disturbances to Skeleton
This burial is associated with several shell fragments that include Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, and Mytilus edulis, plus two cancer claws. Additionally, several faunal elements including a broken artiodactyl tooth was found in association. No lithics were found with this individual.
Burial 04-20 was previously impacted and damaged by the subsurface placement of electrical wiring that ran from the north to the south in a parallel line along the skeletal remains, causing the wiring to shear in half the trench (Figure 2-28). This burial was rediscovered during the
2-28 recent excavations on August 16, 2004 and recovered on August 18, 2004. The burial was located to the east of Hole #3 and to the north of burial 19 at a depth of 121.74 feet above mean sea level. This individual was place face down with the arms to either side of the body in a flexed position with the hands located under and near the osa coxae indicating that they were not in the normal position seen in several of the other individuals by being bent up to the chin. Additionally, the body was oriented to the northeast with the head to the north. Due to the impact of the electrical wiring through the burial, several elements for the left side are missing.
Figure 2-28: Burial 04-20 Showing Disturbances to Skeleton
Several artifacts were found in association with this individual, including a medium boulder mortar of indurated sandstone located 27 cm to the west of the cranium. Other lithics include one thinning flake of Monterey banded chert, a pebble core of red Franciscan chert, and one core fragment of red Franciscan chert. Faunal elements includes 3 small bone fragments with one calcined. Additionally, several shell fragments were included in the assemblage are Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, and Mytilus edulis.
Burial 04-21 was uncovered on August 16, 2004 and recovered on August 18, 2004 (Figure 2- 29). The burial was located southeast of Hole #3, west of burial 14, and north of burial 10 at a depth of 122.81 feet above mean sea level. This individual was oriented in an east-west direction with the head at the west end of the burial.
Unlike all of the other burials recovered so far, this individual was mostly articulated in an extended position. It appears to be lying on their right side, oriented to the west and looking south. A least three large tree roots impacted this burial with one going between the cranium and
2-29 the post-cranial elements. Several of the elements appeared to be moved out of normal articulation, most probably due to the intrusion of the roots.
Several artifacts were found in association with this individual, including shell fragments of Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, Mytilus edulis, and Haliotis cracherodii, plus two Cancer claws. There were also two primary flakes of red Franciscan chert and a core fragment of Monterey banded chert. One bone tool was found in association with this individual that was interpreted as either a bone awl or hair pin.
Figure 2-29: Burial 04-21 Impacts to the Skeleton by Tree Roots
Burial 04-22A was encountered on August 17, 2004 and recovered on August 19, 2004. It was located to the southeast of Hole #3 and east of burial 14 at a depth of 122.11 feet above mean sea level. This burial was the only one at the site that was of a multiple internment with both individuals in a flexed position. Burial 04-22A was an adult primary inhumation that was buried on their back with their body oriented to the west/northwest direction with the cranium located at the northwest. The upper limbs of the individual were to either side of the body with the hands of the right side lying in the mid-section of the individual. The lower limbs were missing, most probably from previous intrusion to the burial by construction [Figure 2-30]. To the east of this burial, evidence suggests that a trench at one time was dug going through this section of the site. Additionally, roots intruded on this individual and a large root actually separates the two burials from one another to the northwest.
Only a few associated artifacts were found with this individual. These include shell fragments of Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, Mytilus edulis, and two Penitella (Boring clam) shells. The only lithic element found with this individual was an unmodified cobble.
2-30
Figure 2-30: Burial 04-22A
Burial 04-22B was discovered on August 19, 2004 when it was determined that the forearm that was believed to have been associated with Burial 04-22A actually belonged to another individual. Specifically, it was thought that an ulna and radius found separated from the humerus was disturbed prior to this excavation. While pedestalling Burial 04-22A, we discovered that the ulna and radius was still articulated, though deeper than the humerus, thus indicating that the two elements found away from this individual must indicate a second inhumation. Excavation and recovery of burial 04-22B was accomplished on August 20, 2004 (Figure 2-31). This burial was located to the southeast of Hole #3 and east of burial 14 at a depth of 122.11 feet above mean sea level. This person’s left humerus, radius and ulna was found lying over the femur of Burial 22A. As mentioned above, historic trenching activities at the site appear to have impacted this burial to the west. The cranium and right lower limbs plus the left tibia and fibula for this individual was not found during excavation and is most likely the result of these previous construction activities at the site. Additionally, root intrusion is seen within the burial unit.
Burial 22B is a primary adult inhumation who was buried on their back in a loosely flexed position with the lower limbs positioned over the body to the right side. The body was oriented west/southwest direction with the location of the missing cranium at the northwest end where evidence of a trench exists. Historic materials such as tiles, cement, nails, red brick and redwood were found where the cranium should have been. Besides the historic materials found intermixed with this individual only a few shell fragments of Cerithidea and Ostrea lurida were recovered in association.
2-31
Figure 2-31: Burial 04-22B
Burial 04-23 was discovered at CA-SCL-287 on August 18, 2004 and recovered on august 21, 2004 (Figure 2-32). It was located to the west of Hole #3 across the San Francisquito Creek and to the northeast after crossing the bridge at a depth of 111.85 feet above mean sea level. It consists of an isolated cranium found under a rock scatter of sandstone cobbles. No other elements were recovered during excavation though the left temporal was displaced. Additionally, the facial and frontal portions of the cranium were previously impacted by construction activities and no longer present in the unit. Only a few artifacts were found in association with this individual. They include Cerithidea, Ostrea lurida, Penitella (Boring clam) shells, two bone fragments and 2 primary flakes of Monterey banded chert.
2-32
Figure 2-32: Photograph of Burial 04-23
Burial 04-24 was discovered and excavated on November 12, 2004. It was encountered within the CA-SMA-263 portion of the site across the street from the Stanford Golf Course at the corner of Sand Hill Road and Oak Street at a depth of 1.2 meters below surface. Very little of this burial was recovered due to previous impacts to the grave. The majority of the remains are fragments of cranial and long bone elements that are indeterminate with regard to specific portions of the skeleton. Several associated artifacts helped to identify this as a human burial including: 1 mortar of vesicular basalt that was broken prior to excavation, a rounded pecked cobble of indurated sandstone, a rectanguloid cobble of indurated sandstone with possible polish of flat surface, one core of red jasper that was thermally annealed, and a bipolar primary flake of red Franciscan chert. No burial photographs were taken of this burial.
SUMMARY
Based upon the field work conducted during the 2000, 2001 and 2004 field seasons, a total of twenty-seven (27) field designated burials were recovered and the skeletal biology of these individuals is presented in the next chapter (Chapter 3 - Burial Descriptions and Skeletal Biology: Inventory and Analysis).
2-33 Chapter 3 Burial Descriptions and Skeletal Biology: Inventory and Analysis
INTRODUCTION
The Sand Hill Road project is located on the border between two counties, Santa Clara and San Mateo, and divided by the San Francisquito Creek, that is rimmed by a row of trees (Figure 3-1). To the northeast, the site is recorded as CA-SMA-263 and to the southwest it is CA-SCL-287. There were three phases of excavation that are included in the scope of this project. Phases 1 and 2 was conducted on CA-SCL-287 during the 2000 and 2001 field seasons, respectively, and was supervised by Susan Morley from Ohlone Families Consulting Services (OFCS), the archaeological firm of the Muwekma/Ohlone Tribe. A total of three burials were recovered in 2000 and four in 2001 during trenching activities along Sand Hill Road. Phase 3 included excavations conducted on both sites CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 in 2004 as a joint project between Stanford University and Ohlone Families Consulting Services, when construction along Sand Hill Road included architectural changes to the Stanford Golf Course. Prior to the first phase of work on the current project, in 1987 Stanford University excavated four burials from the same area that is associated with Phase 3. The 1987 Burials 1, 2 and 4 were recovered from CA- SCL-287 and Burial 3 was recovered from CA-SMA-263.
A
C B
Photo courtesy of Google Maps
Figure 3-1: Air Photo of Project Location Identifying Three Excavation Loci
3-1 LABORATORY METHODOLOGY
Each of the recovered burials was cleaned by Stanford researchers prior to Ohlone Families Consulting Services receiving the remains for analyses at San Jose State University. Once the burials were transferred to San Jose State University, all the human skeletal elements were inventoried, aged, sexed, measured, and examined for pathological conditions. Bone content and the general state of preservation were also noted. Additionally, the pattern of dental attrition was detailed and scored using Molnar’s scale (1971) and an assessment of dental pathological changes was completed. Each individual skeleton was photographed, as well as elements that provided diagnostic information about the individual, specifically those elements related to the sex, age, and pathological conditions. Radiographs were also taken to aid in analyzing elements with pathological or traumatic conditions. These elements were x-rayed at the San Jose State University Health Center by Ms. Nadia Dhillon, CRT.
To compliment the scope of this project, bone samples were taken from the burials by researchers in an attempt to further our understanding of these individuals. From Washington State University, Dr. Brian Kemp conducted an Ancient DNA analysis, from Cal State University at Chico, Dr. Eric Bartelink conducted a stable isotope study, and the University of Arizona, NSF AMS Facility atomic mass spectrometry (AMS) for C-14 dating was conducted. The results from these studies are presented in Chapters 4, 5, and 8.
PALEODEMOGRAPHY
Number of Recovered Individuals
The maximum number of individuals is slightly more than the number of field designated burials. A total 27 burials were recovered from the 2000, 2001 and 2004 field excavations. It is reasonable to project the maximum number of individuals for this burial assemblage at approximately 29 individuals. Several of the graves are recorded as one individual contained additional elements that most likely represents a second individual. Only one multiple burial was recorded as two separate individuals when recovered during excavation (Burials 04-22A and 04-22B).
Sex and Age Determinations
Sex for these burials was based on the morphological characteristics of the pelvis, skull, and metric measurements of post-cranial skeletal elements. The pelvis (os coxae) was the first portion of skeletal remains examined for sexing of individuals, since the os coxae contains the most sexually dimorphic characteristics in the human skeleton. Of the three bones that fuse during maturation, the pubis is the most diagnostic for sexing skeletal remains, specifically, the morphological changes analyzed are the length and shape of the pubis, degree of subpubic concavity, and presence of a ventral arc and dorsal pits (female characteristic only) (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). From the ilium the width of the greater sciatic notch, the presence of the preauricular sulcus, and the elevated auricular (female characteristic) provide additional support for sexing skeletal remains from the os coxae.
3-2 The sexually dimorphic characteristics of the cranium were next examined for determination of sex. Characteristics examined included the nuchal crest, mastoid process, supra-orbital margin, supra-orbital ridge, and mental eminence (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Last, metric measurements for the femoral head diameter and bicondylar width and the humeral head vertical diameter were used to determine sex. An aggregate assessment was used when one or more morphological or metric measurement criteria for sexing were available. Sexing for subadults was not attempted in this study.
Age assessment for these burials was accomplished using several criteria. These were examination of changes to the pubic symphysis, auricular surface, sternal ribs, dental attrition and eruption, long bone fusion (for subadults), and degree of osteoarthritis (Griffin 2007; Iscan et al. 1984, 1985; Lovejoy et al. 1985; Suchey et al 1988; Ubelaker 1978). Aging of the pubic symphysis is based on predicted changes that occur due to the gradual ossification to cartilage to the face of the element. These can be seen in the reduction of billowing on the surface, to definition of the margins of the symphseal face, to a change in the texture of the surface from a grainy feel of fine sandpaper to more granularity of tiny projections and pits, to a denser rougher surface that all indicate specific age ranges (Griffin 2007, Suchey et al. 1988). The auricular surface of the os coxae also provides similar changes due to a systematic series of changes to the sacroiliac joint. Specifically, changes in topography, marginal lipping, porosity, billowing versus striae, all provide indications of the age range of the individual at death (Griffin 2007, Lovejoy et al., 1985). Sternal ribs also change shape in the depth of pit and development of boney spicules with the advancement of age that can be utilized in providing an age range for individuals (Iscan et al. 1984. 1985). Again, as in determination of sex, an aggregate assessment was conducted to provide the most accurate age for these individuals.
Measurements
Standard measurements of the crania and long bones were taken as recommended by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). These were taken using an osteometric board, coordinate calipers and spreading calipers, and a goinal meter. The measurements were hampered by the fragmentary nature of most of the elements. Measurements that were recorded were sometimes taken of reconstructed materials and an approximate sign was placed in front of this to indicate the possibility of error. The majority of measurements though are taken of complete elements.
Stature Estimations
Metric measurements of various long bones available for this population were utilized in determining stature based on research by Genoves (1967). A total of ten burials had elements that were complete enough to either run the calculations Genoves devised or use the tables provided in his research (1967). When possible, if more then one element was available, they were calculated for stature and an average was determined. The equations used for determining stature from Genoves’ research are:
Males: Femur: Stature = 2.26(Femur) + 66.379 ± 3.417 Tibia: Stature = 1.96(Tibia) + 93.752 ± 2.812
3-3
Females: Femur: Stature = 2.59(Femur) + 49.742 ± 3.816
Other equations that Genoves devised required multiple elements to determine stature, these were equations were not utilized in this research due to the fragmented nature of the burials. When elements where an equation was not available, then Tables 12 and 13 from the paper were used to determine stature (1967). These individual elements included: humerus, ulna, and radius for this population. Table 3-1 shows the results.
Table 3-1 Stature of Individuals
Burial No. Sex Age Elements Centimeters Feet 00-1 F 45+ Ulna (t) 153.5 5’0” 00-2 M 45+ Femur (e) 160.9 5’3” 01-2 F 30-39 Ulna & Radius (t) 155.0 5’1” 01-4 M 30-40 Radius (t) 164.0 5’5” 04-8 M 26-39 Tibia (e) 162.7 5’4” 04-12 F 40-49 Ulna & Radius (t) 157.3 5’2” 04-17/18 F 40-50 Ulna (t) 154.0 5’1” 04-20 M 20-30 Femur (e) 149.8 4’11” 04-22A F 30-40 Humerus, Ulna & Radius (t) 153.0 5’0” 04-22B F 50-60 Femur (e) 156.3 5’2” (t) – stature determined from tables; (e) – stature calculated from equations
Based on the above information, the average stature for males was between 4’11” to 5’5” and females 5’0” to 5’2”.
DISTRIBUTION OF BURIALS
The majority of burials recovered during this project were located in the CA-SCL-287 section with only three of the total 29 individuals recovered from the CA-SMA-263 section. As indicated on the map there were three loci where excavations occurred between 2000 and 2004. Locus A was excavated in 2000 and 2001 and included all burials recovered during Phases 1 and 2 from CA-SCL-287. Locus B includes burials recovered during Phase 3 from CA-SCL-287 and Locus C includes burials from CA-SMA-263.
During the excavations in 2000 and 2001, 5 adult skeletons and 2 subadults/children were recovered. These burials are identified as: 00-1, 00-2, 00-3, 01-1, 01-2, 01-3 and 01-4.
In 2004, 15 adults, 2 subadult and 5 indeterminate individuals were recovered from Locus B and 1 adult and 2 indeterminate individual’s from Locus C. The burials recovered from the 2004 field phase of work are designated as: 04-5, 04-6, 04-7, 04-8, 04-9, 04-10, 04-11, 04-12, 04-13, 04-14, 04-15, 04-16, 04-17/18, 04-19, 04-20, 04-21, 04-22A, 04-22B, 04-23, and 04-24.
3-4 Overall, a total of 26 burials were excavated during the 2000, 2001 and 2004 seasons for a total of 29 individuals. The distribution of burials by age and sex are provided in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2 Distribution of Burials by Age Category
0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 >50 Adult 01-1(I) 04-6(M) 00-3(M) 01-2(F) 00-1(F) 04-21(F) 04-5(I) 01-3(I) 04-7(M) 01-4(M) 00-2(M) 04-22B(F) 04-8A(I) 04-11(I) 04-20(M) 04-8(M) 04-12(F) 04-16(I) 04-14A(I) 04-9(F) 04-13(F) 04-19(I) 04-10(M) 0417/18(F) 04-23(M) 04-14(I) 04-24(I) 04-15(F) 04-22A(F)
Totals by Sex: I : 4 M : 1 M : 3 I : 1 F : 4 F : 2 I : 5 F : 4 M : 1 M : 1 M : 3
Totals: 4 1 3 8 5 2 6
Total Burials: 29 I = Indeterminate, F = Female, M = Male
Burials were found in several different flexions (flexed positions). One was in a semi-extended position, others were tightly flexed while others were uncovered in a semi-flexed position (e.g., sitting). It was not possible to determine the exact number of the different burial positions due to the problems associated with historic subsurface disturbances at the site. These disturbances were probably caused from several sources. One of the sources included placement of electrical conduit wiring and fiber optics that cut through several of the burials. In one burial you can trace the path of the conduit as it went directly through the individual (Burial 20) (Figure 3-2). Other burial disturbances included heavy construction from earth movers and motor graders, natural intrusions from roots and animal burrows (Figure 3-3). Specifically, six burials had evidence of rodent gnawing on several of their long bone elements.
3-5
Figure 3-2: Historical Disturbances to Burial 04-20 from Electrical Conduit
Figure 3-3: Disturbances to Burial 04-13 from Root Intrusion
3-6 BURIAL/SKELETAL INVENTORY
Burials Recovered in 2000
Burial 00-1: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Female Age: Adult, 45+
Metrics: Metric measurements were taken of elements following the criteria developed by Bass (1991) and Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and are summarized for all the burials. Maximum diameter of the left femoral head is 42.5 mm, height of the glenoid fossa is 35 mm, epicondylar width of right humerus is 55 mm, maximum length of the right ulna is ~236 mm, and the mastoid process length for right is 29.4 mm and left is 32.0 mm.
Sex: This burial was determined to be female based upon the metric analysis presented above and the width of the greater sciatic notch morphology (Bass 1987; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994).
Age: Age is assessed from a fragment of the auricular surface of the left ilium that falls between Phases 6 and 7 (45-59) (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The portion of the auricular that is preserved exhibits dense bone, active margins, and irregular topography. Though the auricular surface is an excellent method for aging skeletons, care is given when stating a specific age range for prehistoric individuals. Specifically, due to taphonomic considerations, erosion from surface abrasion can sometimes skew an accurate interpretation with skeletal remains. In this case, though this individual could be as old as 59, caution dictated a more conservative age determination of 45 plus. Additional criteria considered for aging was based on sagittal suture obliteration and osteoarthritis found on some elements. Again, recent research suggests that sagittal suture obliteration associated with older individuals may not be an accurate methodology for age assessment and should only be considered if no other elements are available for age estimations (Hershkovitz et al 1997).
Condition of Skeleton: The burial if fragmentary with poor volume and fair to poor condition to the cortical bone. Most cortical bone is encrusted with a light gray-brown caliche deposit that limits the visual inspection of the bone. Some of the caliche could probably be removed from the surface, though removal was not attempted since this would cause damage to the cortex. Additionally, the caliche has caused the foot phalange to be adhered together.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 36 fragments that include the left frontal, both parietals and temporals, and occipital fragments, though no mandible or maxilla elements are present.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by one rib fragment of the right 12th rib, one sacrum fragment, one ischium fragment, and several indeterminate ossa coxae fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton includes portions of both right and left scapulae, incomplete right clavicle, both humeri, radii, and ulnae, right lunate and triquetral, a fragment of the greater multangular and two hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeleton includes both femora and tibiae, the right fibula, the right calcaneus, right talus, right cuboid, right navicular, a fragment of the right 3rd cuneiform, both MT1, right MT3, both MT4 and MT5
3-7 and 14 foot phalange. Additionally, there are several indeterminate long bone fragments and one bag of fragments weighing 150.4 grams (see Figures 3-4 and 3-5).
Pathology: Pathology for this burial includes slight lipping on the calcaneus and talus. The one indeterminate mandibular molar has severe attrition (score 7/8) with heavy hypercementosis and severe calculus on the buccal.
Figure 3-4: Burial 00-1 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-8 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes No mandible or maxilla
No vertebrae
1 12th rib
Hands: rt. lunate rt. triquetral
Feet: mostly complete
Sex Female Age 45+
Figure 3-5: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 00-1
3-9 Burial 00-2: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Male Age: Adult, 45+
Metrics: Maximum length of the right femur is 418 mm with the femoral head 44.9 mm and the right tibia length 342 mm. Additional metric measures were taken of other long bone elements that do not provide diagnostic information about the sex of the individual (Appendix A).
Sex: This burial was determined to be male based upon metric measurements, prominent nuchal crest, robust mastoid process, thick rounded supra-orbital glabella, and prominent mental eminence of the cranium. Additionally, the greater sciatic notch of the os coxae is narrow (Bass 1987; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994).
Age: An aggregate assessment for the age is determined for this individual using several methods, specifically, the auricular surfaces from both ilia, both pubic symphysis, sternal ribs, and degree of wear on the teeth. The auricular surface is assessed as Phase 7 (50-59) due to the slight irregularity of the surface, dense bone with the apical area and other margins slightly irregular (Lovejoy et al. 1985). Retroauricular activity is also present. Similar treatment is considered here when using the auricular surface for aging an older adult that is described in burial 00-1. The pubic symphysis is assessed as Phase 6 (36-87) based on the erosion of the rim, the face appearing disfigured and pitted with erratic ossification (Suchey et al. 1988). The sternal ribs are assessed as Phase 5 (33-42) based on thinning walls, sharp edges, irregular rim, and signs of deterioration. Dental attrition displays scores of 6 to 8 on the mandible from the right second molar to the left second molar (45-55) (Appendix A). Cranial morphology additionally suggests that this individual is an older individual. One is the sagittal sutures that display significant closure and pacchionian depressions on the endocranial vault of the parietals (Hershkovitz et al 1997, Schwartz 2007). With advancing age, the number, depth, and width of granular pits begin to increase on the endocranial vault and in older individuals these pits are identified as pacchionian depressions (Schwartz 2007).
Condition of Skeleton: The burial is fragmentary with 75% present, but the bone quality and volume is in good condition. No caliche is present.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is complete, except for an absent right and left maxilla, and is very fragmentary. As a note, it is probable that these remains were mixed with others during excavation. There is an extra right zygomatic found in this burial (total = 2) and the maxilla found with burial 00-3, discussed below, matches the cranium from this burial, 00-2. The teeth in the mandible are all present, except for both the right and left third molars. The mandibular teeth were found in-situ and exhibit severe attrition with slight periodontal disease.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is complete and comprised of: 1) a complete, fragmented hyoid, 2) a fragmented manubrium, 3) all seven, complete cervical vertebrae, 4) ten fragmentary, incomplete, and complete thoracic vertebrae (T7 and T8 are absent), 5) all five lumbar vertebrae are in a fragmented condition, but complete, 6) ten complete right (4) and left (6) ribs and 29 rib fragments, 7) complete, but fragmented, right and left ossa coxae, and 8) a complete sacrum found in two pieces. As a note, there is a sixth lumbar vertebra associated with this burial. It may be from this individual (L5 is too fragmentary to allow accurate assessment) or it may be further evidence of co-mingling during excavation.
3-10 Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton includes the right clavicle, right scapula, both humeri, left radius, and left ulna that are complete, while the left scapula is incomplete and the right ulna is comprised of one fragment. The only hand bones present are the right second metacarpal, multiple metacarpal fragments, and five hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeleton includes all lower limbs (femora, tibiae, fibulae, tarsals, and metatarsals) that are complete and present, except for an absent left patella. There are 17 complete foot phalange present and two extra proximal foot phalange (more evidence of mixture between burials). Additionally, there is one bag of unidentified bone fragments weighing 2.5 oz. (Figures 3-6 and 3-7).
Pathology: There is severe arthritis in the cervical, lower thoracic, and lumbar spine, but only slight osteoarthritis in the upper thoracic vertebrae. Both the upper and lower joints evince slight or moderate osteoarthritis. Remodeling (hypertrophic/porous bone growth) is seen on the right distal humerus and the right proximal ulna. This reaction is probably due to trauma, caused by fracture etiology. The callus is well healed and located 75 mm above the distal end of the humerus. The right proximal ulna fragment shows remodeling with hypertrophic and porous bone along the radial notch. This is probably related to the fracture etiology associated with the right distal humerus. The left ilium shows rough robust bone on the retro-auricular surface. This may be from a muscle pull, myolitis ossificans, or age-related degenerative change. The superior right patella has osteophytic with spicules formed along the anterior/proximal margin, possibly due to ligament ossification. Additional trauma appears on the left os coxae in the form of two penetrating wounds on the dorsal surface in the inner crater that measures 5.5 mm x 2.3 mm and the outer is 7.5 mm x 6.5 mm. These penetrating wounds could possibly be the result of interpersonal aggression caused from projectile point trauma. No evidence of an embedded projectile point is present in the bone.
3-11
Figure 3-6: Burial 00-2 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-12 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Mandible complete with teeth in-situ
Ribs: 6 left 4 right 29 fragments
Hands: right MC2 5 phalange
Hyoid: 2 pieces – body and horn
Feet: mostly complete 17 phalange
Sex Male Age 45+
Figure 3-7: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 00-2
3-13 Burial 00-3: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Probable Male Age: Adult, 17-24
Metric: Only one metric measurement was taken to aid in determination of the sex of this individual, the epicondylar wide of the right humerus that was 55.0 mm. This measurement though was inconclusive for assessing the sex of this individual. Other elements that could have been utilized in assessing sex were not available due to post-mortem damage and missing elements (Bass 1987). Metric measures were taken of other long bone elements that do not provide diagnostic information about the sex of the individual (Appendix A).
Sex: This burial was determined to be male based upon robust nuchal crest, large mastoid process, thick rounded supra-orbital margin, and prominent mental eminence of the cranium. The ossa coxae is only present as a portion of the pubis that did not provide enough to indicate sex (Bass 1987; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994).
Age: An aggregate assessment for determining age was utilized for this individual using only a few methods, specifically, eruption of teeth, long bone fusion, pubis, and sternal ribs. The dental attrition displays scores of 1 to 6 on the maxilla and 2 to 6 on the mandible with the heaviest wear found on the first molars for both upper and lower teeth possibly indicating an individual over 25 years, though there are no abscesses or other pathology noted (see Appendix A). Fusion of the available elements is complete. The sternal ribs are assessed as between Phases 1 and 2 (17-23) based on the ends having slight billowing with the beginning of a V-shaped appearance in the center, and the edges appearing thick and smooth with slight scalloping or a wavy rim with rounded edges (Iscan 1993). The pubis fragment is assessed as Phase 1 (18-24) based on billowing that runs transversely across the face of the pubic symphysis and the lack of distinct borders or margins (Suchey et al. 1988).
Condition of Skeleton: The cortex and volume of the bone is good to fair. A quarter of the skeleton is present and very fragmented with caliche covering most of the elements. Only some phalange and the third metatarsal are not broken.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 21 pieces that includes part of the frontal, zygomatic arch, portion of the occipital, both parietals, right temporal, maxilla with in- situ teeth and the mandible with in-situ teeth.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by the manubrium, 17 rib fragments with two the sternal ends, one pubis fragment, and three indeterminate os coxae fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeletons upper limbs are represented by the right clavicle, both humeri, left radius, both ulnae, hand elements that include the left navicular, left lunate, left triquetral, one pisiform, both MT5 and 14 hand phalange. The lower limbs are represented by both femora, patellae, tibiae and fibulae; the feet elements including the left 3rd cuneiform, left MT3, left MT5 and 2 foot phalange (see Figures 3-8 and 3-9).
Associated remains and artifacts: Additionally, there are several indeterminate long bones, hand elements and one bag of fragments weighing 216.5 grams. Identified with this burial is an extra maxilla (burial 00-3A) with right zygomatic and partial orbital, as well as 15 in-situ teeth,
3-14 only the LM1 is missing possibly due to the abscess found between the LM1 and LM2. Association with this burial includes several shell fragments (Figure 3-10).
Pathology: There is slight periodontal disease on the RM2 and RI1 that also appear shovel- shaped. The extra maxilla (burial 00-3A) has calculus on several teeth, several abscesses and an open root canal on the LM2.
Figure 3-8: Burial 00-3 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-15 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes No Vertebrae
2 sternal ribs 15 fragments
Two ilium fragments long with right pubis
Sex Probably Male Age 17-23
Figure 3-9: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 00-3
3-16
Figure 3-10: Maxilla with 15 in-situ teeth, right Zygomatic and Orbital from Burial 00-3A
Burials Recovered in 2001
Burial 01-1: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Subadult 3-5 years
Metric: The maximum length of the right femur is 193 mm and the maximum length of the left tibia is 156 mm. Additional measurements were taken and are recorded in Appendix A.
Sex: The sex for this individual is indeterminate since skeletal morphology for determination of sex occurs during puberty where the ossa coxae undergo changes to allow for child birth.
Age: An aggregate assessment for determining age is utilized for this individual using eruption of teeth and length of long bones. Based on Ubelaker’s criteria for long bone length development, this individual’s femoral length indicates an age range of 2.5 to 3.5 years. Dental eruption though indicates a slightly older individual from 3-5 years (Ubelaker 1978).
Condition of Skeleton: Approximately 25% of the skeleton is present with good cortex and volume. The bones are mostly in fragments with few long bones over two-thirds present.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by a partial right temporal, two fragments of the occipital and six indeterminate cranial fragments. A fragment of the right mandible is present with two teeth in-situ, with the RM2 visible in the crypt.
3-17 Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by a fragment of the manubrium, a complete C1, several incomplete cervical neural arches, six indeterminate neural arches, three centrums, rib fragments, and a fragment of the ilium.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton is represented by both scapulae and clavicles. The lower limbs have both femora, tibiae and fibulae. Additionally, there are 34 indeterminate fragments (see Figures 3-11 and 3-12).
Figure 3-11: Burial 01-1 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-18 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Cranium – all fragments 2 incomplete occipital 1 right temporal 6 indeterminate
Vertebrae: C1 is complete and 3 neural arches of the cervical 9 indeterminate verts
Ribs: 6 left with the 1st rib 2 right with the 1st rib 9 fragments
Sex Indeterminate Age 3-5
Figure 3-12: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 01-1
3-19 Burial 01-2: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Probable Female Age: 30-39
Metric: Metric measurements of elements that are used in sexing skeletal remains were not present for this individual. Other measurements taken of this individual include length of the left radius (225 mm), length of the left ulna (241 mm), and the diameters at midshaft of the left humerus (19.1 mm), left radius (15.9 mm), left ulna (13.7 mm), plus several other elements presented in Appendix A.
Sex: Sex for this individual is difficult to assess. Morphological assessment of the os coxae indicates that this individual is female based on the preauricular sulcus and a widening of the greater sciatic notch from the portion that is present. The cranial morphology though seems to indicate a more male probability based on a robust nuchal crest, large mastoid process, and square mental eminence of the mandible. Though the supraorbital margin falls somewhere between the sharp edge expected with female morphology and the rounded edges associated with males and the mandible’s ascending ramus are more slanted again indicating female characteristics (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The aggregate of the morphological changes to the individual though indicates that this skeleton is most likely female. Additionally, the raised auricular surface is a reliable indicator of the sex of this individual. Elevation of the auricular surface is another dimorphic feature of the os coxae, and one that is used on subadult over age 10 (Mittler and Sheridan 1994). Females present a completely raised face at the sacroiliac articulation and the male auricular surfaces are not elevated around the articular margin. The presence of the preauricular sulcus is a female characteristic associated with the elevated auricular surface and in the past linked to parturition (Kelley 1979). Although these features may not be present in all females, when it is present it is considered a distinctively female trait.
Age: An aggregate assessment for age is determined for this individual using dental attrition and the auricular surface. The dental attrition displays scores of 5 to 7 on the maxilla and 4 to 6 on the mandible with the heaviest wear found on the first molars for both upper and lower teeth possibly indicating an individual between 30-45 years (see Appendix A) (Griffin 2007). The auricular surface indicates wear between Phases 3-4 (30-39) based on subdued transverse striae near the apex, the texture becoming coarser, minimal microporosity, and slight retroauricular activity (Lovejoy et al. 1985).
Condition of skeleton: This burial is in poor condition. It is approximately 40% present, but fragmentary.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is in four large fragments and is primarily complete with only a small portion of the right parietal, frontal, and orbital missing. The mandible is complete and in one piece after reconstruction with the ascending ramus on the left side missing. There are teeth in-situ in both the maxilla and mandible showing moderate to severe attrition with a few caries.
Axial skeleton: There is a sternal fragment present, as well as five cervical vertebrae and six thoracic vertebrae fragments, six complete thoracic vertebrae (T7 - T12) and six complete lumbar vertebrae (L1-L6) present (see Figure 3-13 relative to T9). Although a rare condition, it has been determined that this individual does have six lumbar vertebrae and that the extra lumbar
3-20 vertebra is not from another burial. Upon examination, all six vertebrae share the same bone color, condition, and texture and were articulated easily. The sacrum is fragmentary, as is the right os coxae. The left os coxae are incomplete with the ilium present. The ribs are represented by twelve left and ten right, both including the 1st ribs and 20 fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton is represented by a left clavicle that is complete, an incomplete left scapula, and a fragmentary right scapula. The left arm is complete (humerus, ulna and radius), while the right arm is represented by a humeral diaphysis, proximal third of the ulna, and the radial diaphysis. The hands are primarily absent, with only the left triquetral, hamate, and first metacarpal, and the right navicular, lunate, and hamate present. There are two hand phalanges present. The lower appendicular skeleton is completely absent, except for an incomplete left femur, fragmentary left tibia, and indeterminate fibula diaphysis (Figures 3-14 and 3-15).
Associated Remains and artifacts: A bag of indeterminate human bone fragments weighing 257 grams and a faunal phalanx were found with this individual.
Pathology: The sixth lumbar vertebra has severe arthritis, while the rest of the spine has none to slight arthritis. The ninth thoracic vertebra on the inferior left apophyseal facet has an indentation with no indication of same issue on the superior facet of the T10. Etiology of this is unknown (Figure 3-13). The posterior superior iliac spines (left and right) exhibit enlarged muscle attachments in the form of osteophytes so that it is lipped and porotic. The enlarged muscle attachments are where the iliopsoas muscles attach and results from extensive flexion, adduction, and lateral rotation of the hips. The posterior proximal left tibia exhibits a large osteophyte. Dense hypertrophic bone growth indicating the healing process of a callus has enlarged the diaphysis’ circumference of the left ulna indicating a fracture to the distal end (DiGiuseppe 2009). There is a well-healed cloaca located on the anterior surface associated with the fracture to the distal left ulna diaphysis caused by secondary trauma possibly caused by osteomyelitis.
Figure 3-13: Unknown Etiology of Indention on the Left Apophyseal Facet of T9
3-21
Figure 3-14: Burial 01-2 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-22
Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Cranium complete
Vertebrae: extra lumbar L6
Sex Probably Female Age 30-39
Figure 3-15: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 01-2
3-23
Burial 01-3: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Subadult, 0.5-1.5
Metric: The maximum length of the left femur after reconstruction is 111 mm and for the right ulna it is 79.5 mm. The left clavicle maximum length is 54.7 mm and the breadth and height of the right scapula is 35.1 x 42.9 mm.
Sex: The sex for this individual is indeterminate since skeletal morphology for determination of sex occurs during puberty where the ossa coxae undergo changes to allow for child birth.
Age: Age is determined for this individual using the length of long bones, specifically the left femur. Based on Ubelaker’s criteria for long bone length development, this individual’s femur length indicates an age range of 0.5-1.5 years (Ubelaker 1978). Additionally, the right ulna indicates and age range of newborn to 0.5 years (Ubelaker 1978).
Condition of skeleton: Skeleton is in fairly good condition with volume fair. The cortical bone is well-preserved with no caliche matrix adhered to the surfaces. Most elements are fairly complete, but difficult to side due to size and no landmarks visible on cortex.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 43 fragments that include both parietals, occipital, temporal fragments and several indeterminate pieces. In some places the separate elements of the cranium are separated along the sutures. There is also one loose incisor.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by 2 thoracic neural arches, seven indeterminate neural arches, and seven centrum, plus four rib fragments. The ossa coxae include a complete left pubis, complete ilium, complete right ischium, and two indeterminate ilium fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton includes both complete scapulae, complete left clavicle, indeterminate humeral fragment, complete right radius, and a right ulna. The lower appendicular skeleton is represented by a left femur and two tibia fragments. Additionally, there is one indeterminate long bone fragment, eight epiphyses and several other indeterminate elements, as well as, four complete hand or foot metacarpals or metatarsals, and two phalanges (Figures 3-16 and 3-17).
Associated remains and artifacts: There are twenty fragments of unknown elements associated with this skeleton. An adult right lunate was recovered from the soils during wet screening.
Pathology: Due to the young age of this subadult and the fragmentary elements, no pathology was noted on the skeleton.
3-24
Figure 3-16: Burial 01-3 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-25 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Cranium: indeterminate in 43 fragments, 1 incisor
Vertebrae: 2 complete thoracic neural arches 14 indete. neural arches & centrums
Ribs: 2 left 1 right 1 indeterminate
Sex Indeterminate Age 0.5-1.5
Figure 3-17: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 01-3
3-26 Burial: CA-SCL-287, 01-4 Sex: Probable Male Age: 30-40
Metric: The length of the right femur is 458 mm after reconstruction and the right femoral head diameter is 44.7 mm. The maximum length of the right radius is 246 mm after reconstruction. Several other metric measurements were taken and recorded (see Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examination of morphology for the cranium and metric measurements. For the cranium, the nuchal crest is robust and the supraorbital margin is rounded (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Metric measurements indicated that this individual is probably male based on Bass’s criteria (1991).
Age: Age assessment was determined by examination of a small portion of the auricular surface at the apex appears to be between Phases 3-4 (30-40). Under a magnifying lens, there are striations visible and slight apical changes, and the surface appears granular (Lovejoy et al. 1985). It is noted that caliche is present on most of the skeleton, so caution was taken when assessing an age range for this individual.
Condition of skeleton: The skeleton is in fair to poor condition with all the elements covered in caliche matrix. Most of the long bones are present and fragmented.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 15 pieces that includes part of the frontal, both parietals, part of the occipital, and several indeterminate cranial fragments.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by six os coxae fragments, with four small portions from the left side of the pubis and ilium that includes the auricular surface.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton includes the left humerus, both radii and ulnae, right triquetral, right MC4, and two hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeleton are more complete including both femora, right patella, both tibiae and fibulae, both calcanei, tali, and naviculars, both 2nd cuneiform, MT1, MT2, MT4, and MT5, plus the right cuboid, right 1st cuneiform, right 3rd cuneiform, right MT3 and 13 foot phalange. Additionally, there are several indeterminate hand and long bone fragments, plus a bag of fragments weighing 78 grams. Caliche covers most of the elements of this individual. One hand phalanx, left ulna diaphysis and left distal radius have dark staining on cortex most likely from weathering (Figures 3-18 and 3-19).
Pathology: Pathology for this burial includes slight to moderate lipping on the right calcaneus, right talus, proximal right ulna and radius, and distal right radius associated with osteoarthritis. No other pathology indicated on this individual.
3-27
Figure 3-18: Burial 01-4 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-28 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Cranium: in 15 pieces
No Vertebrae
No Ribs
Sex Probable Male Age 30-40
Figure 3-19: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 01-4
3-29 Burials Recovered in 2004
Burial 04-5: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Indeterminate
Metric: Metric measures were not taken for this individual since the skeletal remains are mostly fragments with no element complete.
Sex and Age: The sex and age is indeterminate, no elements available for assessment.
Condition of skeleton: This burial is represented by only a few identifiable fragments and indeterminate pieces of bone and is in very poor condition.
Appendicular skeleton: One tibia fragment of indeterminate side is present, as well as one identifiable fibula fragment (Figure 3-20).
Associated remains and artifacts: There is a bag of long bone fragments weighing 264 grams and a bag of soil with bone fragments weighing 284 grams also associated with this burial.
Figure 3-20: Burial 04-5 Tibia Fragment
3-30 Burial 04-6: CA-SMA-263 Sex: Male Age: Young Adult, 18+
Metric: The only metric measurements taken for this individual are from the mandible with the goinal angle at 96° for the right ascending ramus and 61 mm in height using the mandibulometer.
Sex: Sex is determined by the morphology of the cranium, specifically, the nuchal crest is robust and the mastoid process is large. Additionally, the goinal angle of the mandible also indicates that this individual is male. Females have a more slanted angle associated with the ascending ramus and in this case the angle is slightly more then vertical (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994).
Age: There are very few elements available for assessing the age of this individual. Only the eruption of three third molars and attrition scored at 1 to 5 indicate a young adult as over 18 (Scott 1978, Smith 1984). Griffin suggests that this wear scores indicate an age range of 15 to 35 (2007) though there is a slight differences between the wear patterns from right to left side involvement. Specifically, the first and second molars on the left side show heavier wear at scores of 4 to 5 (30-35), while the right side has lighter wear scores of 3 to 4 (25-30). Though not significantly different, the third molars score are 1 to 2 (15-20). If we use only the wear to age following Griffin’s criteria, then this individual is 15 to 35 years (2007).
Condition of skeleton: The post-cranial elements are extremely fragmented and in poor condition. The cranium and cervical vertebrae are in good condition.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 39 pieces that include both parietals and temporals, part of the frontal and occipital, and the maxilla. The mandible is present in several pieces with two in-situ teeth. Most of the teeth (18) representing both the maxilla and mandible are loose.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by five complete cervical and three fragments, three thoracic fragments, five lumbar fragments, five sacral fragments, 17 rib fragments, and several ossa coxae fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton includes scapulae fragments, left clavicle, humerus fragments, left radius, ulna pieces, left lunate, left triquetral, left capitate, left hamate, left MC1, right MC2, left MC3, left MC5, and eight complete phalange and many phalange fragments. The lower appendicular skeleton includes left femur fragments, fibula fragments, talus fragments, and seven foot phalange. The tibia fragments are in poor condition and were left in soil matrix to keep from complete destruction (Figures 3-21 and 3-22).
Associated remains and artifacts: Additionally, there are indeterminate long bone fragments, a bag of unwashed fragments weighing 141 grams, wet screened shell and bone fragments mixed weighing 101 grams, and a third bag of wet screened bone weighing 267 grams.
Pathology: Pathology for this burial includes porous hyperostosis activity on most of the cranium including parietals, temporals, frontal and occipital. The porotic hyperostosis activity is associated with possible anemia that can be caused by either nutritional, disease, or parasitical. Dental pathology included slight to heavy calculus on 13 teeth, plus one caries on the RM3.
3-31
Figure 3-21: Burial 04-6 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-32 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Vertebrae: five thoracic frags eight lumbar frags. five sacrum frags
Ribs: 17 fragments
Ossa coxae: nine fragments
Sex Male Age 18+
Figure 3-22: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-6
3-33 Burial 04-7: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Probable Male Age: Adult, 25+
Metric: Metric measurement for the right femoral head is 45.1 mm and the mastoid length is 36.9 mm.
Sex: Sex is determined by the morphology of the cranium, specifically, the nuchal crest is robust, the mastoid process is large, and the mental eminence is square (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Additionally metric measurement of the right femoral head indicates that this individual is male (Bass 1991).
Age: There are very few elements available for assessing the age of this individual as a young adult over 25. Only the eruption of the left maxillary third molar, attrition scores of 4 to 6 for the maxillary molars and 5 to 6 for the mandible, fusion of long bones, and minimal osteoarthritis on the two vertebral body fragments present. Griffin suggests that the wear scores indicate an age range of 30-40 (2007). If we use only attrition for aging following Griffin’s criteria, then this individual could be 30 to 40 years old (2007).
Condition of skeleton: This burial is very fragmented, though the cortex is fair and the bone volume is good. Approximately 50% of the skeleton was recovered during excavation.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 60 pieces that includes both parietals, temporals, occipital, frontal, zygomatic, zygomatic arch and maxilla with two in-situ teeth. The mandible is present with one in-situ tooth. There are several loose teeth for both the maxilla and mandible.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by a portion of the sternal body, many thoracic and lumbar fragments, several indeterminate vertebral pieces, rib fragments, one left and one right rib, and ossa coxae fragments that include portions of the acetabulum and ilium.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton includes two scapula fragments, both humeri, right radius, both ulnae with the left complete in four pieces, left MC2 and two hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeleton includes both complete femora, right patella, both incomplete tibiae, and fragments of both fibulae (Figures 3-23 and 3-24).
Associated remains and artifacts: Additionally, there are many indeterminate metacarpals, long bones and a bag of fragments weighing 269 grams. A mortar found with this burial had the calvarium still present on the inside hallow that was removed for analysis.
Pathology: Pathology for this burial includes dental caries, calculus and attrition. The vertebral fragments show moderate osteoarthritis on the bodies. Additionally, rodent gnawing is present on the anterior right tibia.
3-34
Figure 3-23: Burial 04-7 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-35 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Vertebrae: 9 thoracic fragments 6 lumbar fragments
Ribs: 28 fragments 1 left 1 right
Hands: broken left MC2
Ossa coxae: 11 fragments
Sex Male Age 25+
Figure 3-24: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-7
3-36 Burial 04-8: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Male Age: Adult, 26-39
Metric: The length of the left humerus is 298 mm and the humeral head vertical diameter is 44.0 mm with the transverse diameter 42.9 mm. The maximum right femoral head measurement is ~44.1 mm. Additionally, the mandibular angle is 123°. Several other metric measurements are taken of the left clavicle, left radius, left ulna, and left tibia and are recorded in Appendix A.
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examination of morphology of the cranium and os coxae and metric measurements. Most of the morphology of the cranium indicates this individual as male with the nuchal crest robust, the supraorbital margin rounded, the supraorbital ridge prominent, and the mental eminence square and massive. The ascending ramus though is short and slanted and generally more associated as a female characteristic (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). It is noted that the mandible is incomplete and that these assessments may be skewed due to post-mortem damage. The portion of the os coxae that is available for sexing is the greater sciatic notch and is clearly very narrow and close which characterizes the male trait. Lastly, metric measurements of the humeral head and femur indicate that this individual is male based on Bass’s criteria (1991).
Age: Age assessment was determined by several criteria, such as, the auricular surface, sternal ribs, and dental attrition. The auricular surface appears to be Phase 4 (35-39) based on the striae that is still evident, but diminishing, coarse grained surface, retroauricular activity, and slight apical and marginal changes (Lovejoy et al. 1985). It is noted that post-mortem damage may skew this assessment, though microporosity is apparent in the center of the auricular surface indicating Phase 4 development. The sternal rib appears to be Phase 4 (26-32) based on the pit depth that’s shape is narrow to moderately wide, the walls are thinning with the edges remaining rounded, and the rim is more irregular losing the uniform scallop appearance (Iscan et al. 1984). Dental attrition scores for this individual are 5 to 8 indicating an older adult (Scott 1978, Smith 1984). Griffin suggests that these wear scores indicate an age range of 35 to 50 with no real differences in attrition between the upper and lower teeth (2007). Osteoarthritis is present in both the upper and lower peripheral skeleton that is slight to moderate. In the lower spine, specifically the lumbar, more severe osteoarthritis is present. Both levels appear to indicate an individual in their middle years.
Condition of skeleton: This burial is in poor condition. It is fragmentary, with poor bone quality and volume. A second individual is associate with this burial and identified as 04-8A and is identified by four long bone diaphyseal fragments and a possible extra maxillary incisor.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is fragmentary and represented by mostly a complete frontal (see Figure 3-24), fragments of the right maxilla, right zygomatic, left temporal, occipital, and parietal bones. The right mandible is present and represented by two fragments. There is one loose tooth (a maxillary incisor), and the rest are in-situ (Appendix A).
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by the sternum that is fragmentary in four pieces, as are the left and right ossa coxae. The spine is represented by three complete cervical and two thoracic vertebrae, as well as many cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral bone fragments. For the ribs there are six left, one right, and 63 fragments.
3-37
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton is represented by complete or incomplete right and left humeri, radii, and ulnae. The right and left clavicles and scapulae are present, but complete, incomplete or fragmentary, respectively. The left triquetral, left greater multangular, and left hamate, as well as the right lunate, right hamate, right first, second, and fifth metacarpals are present and complete. There are 15 complete hand phalange and two hand phalange fragments also present. The lower appendicular skeleton is comprised of complete right and left femora and tibiae, and fragmentary fibulae. The left calcaneus, talus, and right fifth metatarsal, as well as three complete foot phalange, are also present (Figures 3-26 and 3-27).
Associated remains and artifacts: One bag of human bone fragments weighing 198 grams is associated with this individual.
Pathology: There is moderate to severe arthritis in the lower thoracic and lumbar spine, with slight arthritis in the knees and ankles. There is moderate to severe dental attrition and severe periodontal disease. There does appear to be slight porotic hyperostosis present on the supraorbital margin of the left orbital (Figure 3-25). It is possible that this is an indication of healed anemia, though there does not appear to be any evidence of Cribra Orbitalia associated with the same orbital.
Figure 3-25: Possible Porotic Hyperostosis of the Left Supraorbital Ridge Burial 04-8
3-38
Figure 3-26: Burial 04-8 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-39 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Cranium: 5 fragments of frontal 1 temporal fragment 9 parietal fragments
Ribs: 6 left 1 right 63 fragments
Vertebrae: 3 complete cervical 2 complete thoracic many fragments of cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacrum
Sex Male Age 26-39
Figure 3-27: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-8
3-40 Burial 04-8A: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Indeterminate
Metric: No elements available.
Sex and Age: No elements available.
Condition of Skeleton: There are three elements from long bones that are only fragments of diaphysis. The bone quality and volume is good.
Elements: This skeleton is represented by only four elements. Three long bones that are diaphysis of the femur, tibia, and fibula and there is 1 maxillary incisor of indeterminate position. The only trauma to these elements is from post-mortem rodent gnawing on the anterior surface of the tibia (Figures 3-28 and 3-29).
Figure 3-28: Burial 04-8A Skeletal Elements
Figure 3-29: Rodent Gnawing on Anterior Surface of Tibia Burial 04-8A
3-41 Burial 04-9: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Female Age: Adult, 30-42
Metric: The maximum diameter of the right femoral head measurement is 39.1 mm, the epicondylar breadth of the left humerus is ~48.7 mm and the mandibular angle is 116°. Other metric measurements are taken of the mandible, left ulna, sacrum and os coxae, tibia, and fibula (Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examining the morphology of the cranium and os coxae and metric measurements. Most of the morphology of the cranium indicates this individual as female with a small mastoid process and small mental eminence. The ascending ramus is short and slanted and is considered a female characteristic (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The portion of the os coxae that is available for sexing is the greater sciatic notch and is clearly very wide which characterizes a female trait. Additionally, the raised auricular surface is a reliable indicator of the sex of this individual. Elevation of the auricular surface is another dimorphic feature of the os coxae, and one that is used on subadults over age of ten (Mittler and Sheridan 1994). Females present a completely raised face at the sacroiliac articulation and the male auricular surfaces are not elevated around the articular margin. The presence of the preauricular sulcus is a female characteristic associated with the elevated auricular surface and in the past linked to parturition (Kelley 1979). Lastly, metric measurements of the femur and humerus indicate that this individual is female based on Bass’s criteria (1991).
Age: Age assessment was determined by several criteria, such as, the auricular surface, sternal ribs, and dental attrition. The auricular surface appears to be Phase 3-4 (30-39) based on the coarse granularity still evident in several locations, slight apical and marginal changes, and subdued transverse striae near the apex (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The sternal rib appears to be Phase 5 (33-42) based on the pit depth that’s shape is moderately wide, walls that are thinning with the edges becoming sharp, and the rim losing the uniform scallop appearance (Iscan et al. 1984). Dental attrition scores for this individual are 6 to 8 indicating an older adult (Scott 1978, Smith 1984). Griffin suggests that these wear scores indicate an age range of 40 to 50. There is no difference in attrition between the upper and lower teeth for this individual (2007). Osteoarthritis is present in both the upper and lower peripheral skeleton that is slight.
Condition of skeleton: This burial is highly fragmented and in poor condition. It is approximately 60% present and the bone quality and cortex have been adversely affected by extensive post-mortem fracturing. Reconstruction was completed on several of the long bones allowing for a clear assessment of the skeletal remains.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is complete, but very fragmented and was partially reconstructed, thus the cranial sutures are very clear and well defined. It is represented by the maxilla, zygomatic, frontal, temporal, sphenoid, occipital, and parietal bones. The mandible is also complete in two pieces. There are four loose teeth (one molar, one canine, and two incisors) and the rest are in-situ. There is evidence of severe dental attrition, even on the peg tooth, and severe periodontal disease present.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by one complete cervical and two fragments, eleven lumbar fragments, and four sacral vertebrae fragments. The left ossa coxa is incomplete
3-42 in six pieces, while the right ossa coxae is in eleven fragments. Both of the ossa coxae have been reconstructed providing additional information on the sex and age of this individual. There is one complete right rib and one rib fragment.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton is represented by a clavicle and both the right and left scapulae are each represented by one bone fragment. The left humerus and ulna are complete, but the right humerus, radius, and ulna are fragmentary. The bones of the wrists and hands are absent, except for three complete hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeleton is represented by a complete left femur in five pieces, left and right tibia, and right fibula, as well as fragments of the right femur and left fibula. The right calcaneus and right talus, as well as one foot phalanx, are also present (Figures 3-30 and 3-31).
Associated remains and artifacts: One bag of human bone fragments weighing 99.4 grams is associated with this individual.
Pathology: There is evidence of possible sinusitis in the maxilla and no other indications of trauma to the skeletal remains.
3-43
Figure 3-30: Burial 04-9 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-44 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Vertebrae: 2 cervical 11 lumbar fragments
Ribs: 1 right fragment 1 fragment
Sex Female Age 30-42
Figure 31: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-9
3-45 Burial 04-10: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Probable Male Age: Adult, 30+
Metric: Several metric measurements were taken of the mid-shafts of left humerus, right femur, right tibia, and right fibula. Additionally, measurements of the mandible were taken and recorded (see Appendix A).
Sex: The sex was difficult to determine since the standard elements utilized were not present for this individual. Sex was determined by large and robust muscle markers, straight ascending ramus, and robust mental eminence.
Age: Similar to the difficulty with assessment the sex of this individual, the standard elements used for aging were fractured post-mortem. Aging was based on long bone fusion, teeth eruption and attrition, and severity of osteoarthritis on the cervical vertebral bodies. The auricular surface for the left side and a small portion of the pubis was present, but the amount of post-mortem damage and erosion to the surface of the elements made determination of age difficult. For the auricular surface, only the small portion of the superior demiface was present along with the retroauricular. Based on visual examination, no transverse organization was present, the surface appeared granular, and the superior demiface had marked lipping on the margin creating a recessed area of the ilium. The auricular was assessed to be Phase 5 with an age range of 40-45. Though the amount of post-mortem damage makes this determination questionable, thus, an assessment for this individual of over 30 provides a more accurate estimation of age. The only teeth present were found for the mandible with eleven teeth in-situ of which the occlusal surface of three of these are fractured off post-mortem. Dental attrition scores for this individual are 6 to 7 indicating an older adult (Scott 1978, Smith 1984). Griffin suggests that these wear scores indicate an age range of 40 to 45 (2007). Osteoarthritis is present in the upper cervical vertebrae bodies that are moderate to severe.
Condition of skeleton: This burial is in very poor condition. The skeleton is approximately 30% present, but it is very fragmented (some long bones have been reconstructed). There is also evidence of burning on the right side of the skeleton that may be related to pre-internment pit fires. The incomplete right humerus and the head of the right femur are the most affect by the fire, but no calcification is present on the elements (Figure 3-32).
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is very fragmented (70+ fragments) with approximately 30% present. The mandible is complete in two pieces. All of the teeth present are found in-situ and has both severe dental attrition and severe periodontal disease evident.
Axial skeleton: The spine is represented by cervical and thoracic vertebrae fragments. The right os coxa is also fragmented, with another four indeterminate os coxae fragments present.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton is represented by the left scapula that is fragmentary and an incomplete left humerus. The right humerus is represented by one bone fragment that shows evidence of burning. Both the left radius and ulna are present as fragments of their diaphysis. Both wrists and hands are absent. The lower appendicular skeleton is represented by the complete left femur, left fibula fragment, incomplete left tibia, and incomplete
3-46 right femur, tibia, and fibula. The right femur shows signs of burning at the proximal end. The right fourth metatarsal is also present, complete, but in two pieces (Figures 3-33 and 3-34).
Associated remains and artifacts: One bag of human bone fragments weighing 168 g are associated with this individual.
Pathology: Besides osteoarthritis found in a few upper and lower peripheral elements and the cervical vertebrae, little pathology exists for this individual out side of severe attrition and periodontal disease in the mandible. Evidence of burning is previously described above.
Figure 3-32: Indications of Pre-Interment Pit Fire Burial 04-10
3-47
Figure 3-33: Burial 04-10 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-48 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Cranium: 73 fragments
Vertebrae: 3 cervical fragments 2 thoracic fragments
Os coxae: 4 ilium fragments 1 rt. pubis fragment
Sex Probably Male Age 30+
Figure 3-34: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-10
3-49 Burial 04-11: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Subadult, 3-7
Metric: There were no elements available for metric measurements
Sex: The sex for this individual is indeterminate since skeletal morphology for determination of sex occurs during puberty where the ossa coxae undergoes changes to allow for child birth.
Age: Assessment for age for this individual is determined from the size of the cranium with sutures still unfused and the shape and size of femur metaphysic. Additionally age is determined from the fusion between the centrum and neural arch of the thoracic vertebra (Bass 1991).
Condition of skeleton: Few elements are present for this individual at less than 25%. The cranium is in fair condition with relatively large fragments. The rest of the post-skeletal elements are extremely fragmented with only the upper body diagnostic.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 21 pieces that have been mostly reconstructed, including the complete left parietal, incomplete right parietal, and the complete occipital, plus several indeterminate cranial fragments. Only one loose tooth is found in association with this subadult.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by two thoracic, one sacral and three rib fragments with one a left.
Appendiuclar skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton is represented by few diagnostic elements that include an incomplete left scapula and three humerus fragments. The lower appendicular skeleton is represented by an incomplete right femur (Figures 3-35 and 3-36).
Associated remains and artifacts: Additionally there are 31 long bone fragments.
Pathology: Due to the incompleteness of this individual, no pathology was determined.
3-50
Figure 3-35: Burial 04-11 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-51 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Vertebrae: 2 thoracic
Sex Indeterminate Age 3-7
Figure 3-36: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-11
3-52 Burial 04-12: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Female Age: Adult, 40-49
Metric: The length of both forearms after reconstruction is the right radius at 230 mm and the right ulna at 249 mm. Several other metric measurements were taken of the right clavicle, right radius and ulna, left os coxae, and right femur at the midshaft (see Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examining the morphology of the os coxae. The greater sciatic notch is wide which characterizes a female trait and the raised auricular surface is a reliable indicator of the sex. Elevation of the auricular surface is another dimorphic feature of the os coxae that is used on subadults over age the age of ten (Mittler and Sheridan 1994). Females present a completely raised face at the sacroiliac articulation and the male auricular surfaces are not elevated around the articular margin. The presence of the preauricular sulcus is a female characteristic associated with the elevated auricular surface and in the past linked to parturition (Kelley 1979). Additionally, the ascending ramus is short and slanted which is a female trait.
Age: Age assessment was determined by several criteria, such as, the auricular surface and sternal ribs. The auricular surface appears to be Phase 6 (45-49) based on no transverse organization, dense bone on the superior surface and the apical region, and moderate retroauricular activity (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The sternal rib appears to be Phase 5 (33-46) based on the pit depth that’s shape is moderately wide, walls that are thinning with the edges becoming sharp, and the rim losing the uniform scallop appearance (Iscan et al. 1984).
Condition of skeleton: This burial is in poor condition. It is very fragmented, but has good bone quality though the volume is very light possibly from osteoporosis. Approximately 50% of the individual is present.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is incomplete represented by left temporal, left parietal, sphenoid, frontal, occipital, right and left zygomatic, and maxilla fragments. The mandible is in three fragments and there are four loose teeth (a canine, an incisor, a molar, and a fragment of a possible premolar).
Axial skeleton: The body of a hyoid and the complete sternum in three pieces are present. The spine is represented by one complete cervical, six complete thoracic, and 3 complete neural arches of the lumbar vertebrae, as well as multiple, indeterminate vertebral including twelve sacral bone fragments. A complete left ilium is also present, but in five pieces, and there are a total of ten complete left and five right ribs each including the 1st, and 21 rib fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeleton includes a complete right clavicle and an incomplete left clavicle. Both the left and right scapulae are fragmentary. The left and the right humeri, radii, and ulnae are present and complete. The left lunate, triquetral, and fourth metacarpal, as well as the right hamate, second, fourth, and fifth metacarpals are complete and present, with eleven complete hand phalanges present. The lower appendicular skeleton is very fragmentary and are represented by a complete left and fragmented right femur, right patella, fragmented right tibia, indeterminate fibula, left cuboid fragment, and left fifth metatarsal (Figures 3-37 and 3-38).
3-53 Associated remains and artifacts: One bag of human bone fragments weighing 199 grams is associated with this individual.
Pathology: An etiology for this individual indicates that due to the sex and older age that she may have had osteoporosis, since the bones are of a very light weight. There is slight to moderate arthritis in the left TMJ, left and right hands, and left hip and knee. There is also slight to moderate arthritis in the cervical and thoracic spine, with moderate to severe arthritis in the lumbar region.
Figure 3-37: Burial 04-12 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-54 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Cranium: 35 fragments
Vertebrae: 1 complete cervical 6 complete thoracic in fragments many fragments of the lumbar and sacrum
Hyoid body
Ribs: 10 left with 1st 5 right with 1st 21 fragments
Sex Female Age 45-49
Figure 3-38: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-12
3-55 Burial 04-13: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Female Age: Adult, 40-49
Metric: The diameter of the left femoral head is 37.3 mm. Several other metric measurements were taken of the left clavicle, left humerus, left femur, and left tibia at the midshaft (Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examining the morphology of the os coxae. The greater sciatic notch is wide which characterize a female trait with the raised auricular surface is a reliable indicator of the sex of this individual. The presence of the preauricular sulcus is a female characteristic associated with the elevated auricular surface and in the past linked to parturition (Kelley 1979). Metric measurements of the left femoral head also indicate this individual is female (Bass 1991).
Age: Age assessment was determined by examination of the auricular surface and dental attrition. The auricular surface appears to be Phase 5-6 (40-49) based on no transverse organization, dense bone beginning to appear on the superior surface, slight changes to the apical and marginal regions, and moderate retroauricular activity (Lovejoy et al. 1985). Dental attrition scores for this individual are 2 to 6 indicating a middle aged adult (Scott 1978, Smith 1984). Griffin suggests that these wear scores indicate an age range of 25 to 40. There is no difference in attrition between the upper and lower teeth for this individual (2007). Osteoarthritis is very slight in the upper and lower peripheral skeleton.
Condition of skeleton: The skeleton is 20% present in a fragmented condition with good cortex and fair bone volume.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by a fragmented maxilla, complete mandible, 12 in-situ teeth for both the mandible and maxilla and 16 loose teeth.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by five rib fragments and portions of the ilium, pubis and ischium.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton is represented by the left clavicle, left scapula, left humerus, and right ulna. The lower appendicular skeleton is represented by both femora and tibiae, and left fibula. No hands or feet elements are present (Figures 3-39 and 3- 40).
Associated remains and artifacts: Additionally, there are several indeterminate long bone fragments and a fragment bag weighing 59.2 grams.
Pathology: Pathology for this burial includes slight lipping around the edges of the left and right ilium, possibly the beginning of osteoarthritis. Rodent chew marks are located along the diaphysis of the right tibia, left tibia, left fibula, and left humerus. Dental pathology includes 21 teeth with calculus, moderate attrition, winging on the RI1 and LI2, and possible shovel-shaped RI1.
3-56
Figure 3-39: Burial 04-13 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-57 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes No vertebrae
Ribs: 5 fragments
No calvarium
Sex Female Age 40-49
Figure 3-40: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-13
3-58 Burial 04-14: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Adult, 30+
Metric: Few elements were available for metric measurements, only the left clavicle and the right humerus at the midshaft (see Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual is indeterminate since no elements are available.
Age: Most elements used for aging this skeleton are not present. Only dental attrition for two teeth in-situ in the mandible is available for assessing an age for this individual. The scores for this individual are 7 to 8 indicating an older aged adult (Scott 1978, Smith 1984). Griffin suggests that these wear scores indicate an age range of 45 to 50 years old (2007). Osteoarthritis is very slight in the upper peripheral skeleton.
Condition of skeleton: This burial is in poor condition, with poor bone volume due to post- mortem fracture. It is approximately 20% present and very fragmentary.
Cranium and mandible: Fragments of the frontal, sphenoid, right zygomatic, and temporal bones represent the cranium. The cranial vault is completely covered with caliche.
Axial skeleton: Four small fragments represent the cervical and thoracic vertebrae and one acetabulum fragment is present. A complete, left first rib, a complete right rib, and ten rib fragments are also present.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton is represented by an incomplete left clavicle and fragmentary left scapula are present. The arms are comprised of fragments from the left and right humeri, radii, and ulnae. The wrists and hands are absent, except for one indeterminate metacarpal fragment and five hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeletons are represented by fragments from the left femur and tibia (Figures 3-41 and 3-42).
Associated remains and artifacts: One bag of human bone fragments weighing 871.4 grams is associated with this individual.
Pathology: There is no pathology present on the few elements associated with this individual.
3-59
Figure 3-41: Burial 04-14 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-60 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Have fragments of femur and tibia, side undetermined, only diaphyses
Sex Indeterminate Age 30+
Figure 3-42: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-14
3-61 Burial 04-14A: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Subadult, 4-9
Metric: No elements available.
Sex: No elements available.
Age: There is only one subadult molar present. If this tooth is an M1 it would indicate that this subadult is 5 years ± 16 months. If it is an M2 then it would indicate a subadult 8 to 9 years ± 24 months.
Elements: There are two fragments of a subadult scapula that form one piece of the scapular body with no pathology or disease. There is one right subadult pubis that has no trauma or disease (Figure 3-43).
Figure 3-43: Burial 04-14A Skeletal Elements of Subadult
3-62 Burial 04-15: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Female Age: 33-46
Metric: The vertical diameter of the right humeral head is 37.4 mm and the breadth 34.5 mm.
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by metric measurements that indicate it is female (Bass 1991).
Age: Age assessment was determined by the auricular surface, sternal ribs, and dental attrition. The auricular surface appears to be Phase 4-5 (35-44) based on changes to the apical area with densification on the right os coxae (Lovejoy et al. 1985). For both of the ossa coxae auricular surfaces, erosion has damaged most of the area. Only a small portion of the apical area of the right os coxae and the inferior demiface of the left provide surfaces that are not damaged by taphonomy. The sternal rib appears to be Phase 5 (33-42) based on pit depth with a moderately U-shape and walls that are thinning with an irregularity of the rim. The normal scalloping edges associated with a younger individual is now missing on this rim and boney projections are beginning to appear. Dental attrition scores for this individual are 8 indicating an older adult (Scott 1978, Smith 1984). Griffin suggests that these wear scores indicate an age of approximately 50 years old, though both teeth examined were loose (2007). Osteoarthritis is slight to severe in the upper and lower peripheral skeleton and severe in the lower vertebral bodies. Cranial morphology additionally suggests that this individual is an older individual. One is the presence of pacchionian depressions on the endocranial vault near the occipital near the suture (Hershkovitz et al 1997, Schwartz 2007). With advancing age, the number, depth, and width of granular pits increase and in older individuals these pits are identified as pacchionian depressions (Schwartz 2007).
Condition of skeleton: The cortex of this skeleton is in poor condition with the volume also poor. Approximately 40% of the skeleton is present and extremely fragmented.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 34 pieces that include fragments of both parietals, occipital and many indeterminate fragments and two loose teeth.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by many fragments that include one sternal, several lumbar, sacrum, ribs, left os coxa, and several indeterminate ossa coxae.
Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeletons upper limbs include portions of both scapulae, the right clavicle, both humeri, radii, and ulnae, triquetral fragment, right greater multangular, both MC2, and four hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeleton includes both femora, left patella, left tibia and fragments, parts of both fibulae, both tali, cuboid fragments, both foot navicular, right 2nd cuneiform, both 3rd cuneiform and seven foot phalange (Figures 3- 44 and 3-45).
Associated remains and artifacts: There is one bag of bone fragments that weigh 247.9 grams that are indeterminate.
Pathology: Pathology for this burial includes moderate to severe lipping on the lumbar bodies and the sacrum. Severe hypertrophic bone growth is found on the distal left femur and left
3-63 proximal tibia. Also, hypertrophic bone growth is found in the phalange of the foot with eburnation on the outer margin of one. There is a pacchionian depression on the endocranial vault of the occipital next to the right side of the lambdoidal suture (Hershkovitz et al 1997, Schwartz 2007). With advancing age, the number, depth, and width of granular pits increase and in older individuals these pits are identified as pacchionian depressions (Schwartz 2007). On the outer cranial vault opposite the pacchionian depression is a small depression that is smooth and may be associated with trauma. Additionally, there is hypertrophic bone growth on the medial posterior margin of the proximal left femur of the greater trochanter and on the distal left femur of the lateral condyle possibly due to secondary osteoarthritis caused by a traumatic event. Foot phalange show degenerative joint disease possibly caused by trauma such as a fracture. There is slight periostitis on the right fibula in two locations where the bone looks vascular and rough. Rodent chew marks are present on the fibula diaphysis. The vertebrae, os coxae, femoral head and sacrum cortex show surfaces that are granular and porous.
Figure 3-44: Burial 04-15 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-64 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Cranium: 34 fragments of right and left parietal, occipital and indete. fragments
Vertebrae: no cervical and thoracic, only lumbar and sacrum fragments
Ribs: 27 fragments 5 left 2 right
Sex Indeterminate Age 30+
Figure 3-45: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-15
3-65 Burial 04-16: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Adult
Metric: No elements available.
Sex: No elements available.
Age: There are no standard elements available to age this skeleton, but due to the size, robusticity, and ante-mortem tooth loss the assessment is that this individual is an adult
Condition of skeleton: This burial is of poor quality, with only a few fragmentary elements present at less than five percent.
Cranium and mandible: A fragment of the right body of the mandible is present.
Axial skeleton: One lumbar fragment, one right ischium fragment and one complete left rib are present.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton has the only two elements present in this skeleton, they are fragments of radius and ulna diaphyses that are indeterminate for side (Figure 3-46).
Associated remains and artifacts: One bag of human bone fragments weighing 39 grams is associated with this burial. There is also an extra bag labeled “CA-SCL-287, Hole 3, Central- East side – Human isolate, 8/12/04, tooth – 8’ south of B16” found in this burial’s box. It contained two faunal elements in a bag and human remains (one upper molar with severe attrition, a fragment of the left acetabulum, and multiple unidentified fragments).
3-66
Figure 3-46: Burial 04-16 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-67 Burial 04-17/18: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Female Age: Adult, 40-50
Metric: The width of the distal humerus is 55.2 mm. The left femur epicondylar breadth is 76.6 mm. Several other metric measurements were taken of the right humerus, right ulna, right femur, right tibia, and left calcaneus (see Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examining the morphology of the os coxae and cranium. The greater sciatic notch is wide, the sub-pubic angle is U-shaped, and the pubis is rectangular with the ventral arch slightly elevated, and dorsal pits which characterize female traits. The raised auricular surface is a reliable indicator of the sex of this individual. The presence of the preauricular sulcus is a female characteristic associated with the elevated auricular surface and in the past linked to parturition (Kelley 1979). The cranium though has a larger nuchal crest while the mastoid process is small making these morphological changes less definitive.
Age: Age assessment was determined by the auricular surface, sternal rib, pubic symphysis, and dental attrition. The auricular surface appears to be Phase 5-6 (40-49) with dense bone beginning to appear on the superior surface of the apex with slight changes to the apical and marginal regions. Additionally dense bone is present on the inferior demiface with the beginning of microporosity (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The sternal rib surface is Phase 5 (33-46) based on the shape that is wide with an irregularity rim and scalloping pattern is gone from the rim (Iscan et al. 1984). The pubic symphysis is Phase 6 based on the disintegration of the rim and macroporosity of the surface (Suchey et al. 1988). Dental attrition scores for this individual range from 5 to 8 indicating an older adult (Scott 1978, Smith 1984). Griffin suggests that these wear scores indicate an age range of 35 to 50. There is no difference in attrition between the upper and lower teeth for this individual (2007). Osteoarthritis is slight to moderate in the upper and lower peripheral skeleton and lower vertebral.
Condition of skeleton: The cortex of the skeleton is in fair condition and the bone volume is fair to poor. The skeleton is 85% present and mostly fragmented with only hand and feet elements complete. The humeral trochlea has ulnar trochlear notch fused to it with soil matrix.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 54 pieces that include the frontal, both parietals (Figure 3-47), temporals, occipital and several indeterminate cranial fragments. The mandible has two condyle fragments. There are 17 loose teeth from both the mandible and maxilla and 4 in-situ teeth present.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by several cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral fragments, as well as, several indeterminate vertebral fragments. There are two left, four right, and 32 rib fragments. The os coxae on the left side are incomplete in eight pieces, while the right side is represented by two fragments, plus seven indeterminate fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeletons upper limbs include both scapulae, right clavicle, both humeri, and radii in fragments, with the left ulna in 2 fragments and the right ulna complete. The left hand navicular, left lunate, left lesser multangular, and both capitates are complete. The right MC3 is incomplete, while the right MC4, right MC5, and 15 hand phalanges
3-68 are complete. The lower appendicular skeleton includes both femora, right patella, right tibia, both fibulae, and the left tibia in six pieces. The tarsals are represented by both complete calcanei, tali, left cuboid, left foot navicular, right 1st cuneiform, both 2nd and 3rd cuneiform, all right and left metatarsals, and 11 foot phalange (Figures 3-48 and 3-49).
Associated remains and artifacts: Additionally, there is one bag of fragments weighing 297.5 grams.
Pathology: Pathology for this burial includes moderate osteoarthritis on the lumbar. There is slight to moderate lipping on both calcanei, tali, foot navicular and cuboid, proximal ulna and hand phalange. A cranial depression is found between the parietals and occipital possibly due to trauma that measures 64.4 mm x 45.6 mm (Figure 3-47). On the proximal foot phalanx there is hypertrophic bone growth on the dorsal and lateral edges with the etiology unknown. The left pubis has hypertrophic bone growth on the medial superior edge and medial inferior edge, possibly associated with trauma or muscle pull. The distal left femur on the posterior condyle on the superior margin has a circular impression that appears like articular surfaces. No diagnosis is suggested for this expect possibly due to age or osteoarthritis. The right ulna appears to have possible fracture as noted by the styloid process that appears twisted from the posterior to medial margin.
Figure 3-47: Cranial Depression found between Parietals and Occipital Burial 04-17/18
3-69
Figure 3-48: Burial 04-17/18 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-70 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Vertebrae: all elements are fragments
Ribs: 2 left 4 right 32 fragments
Sex Female Age 40-50
Figure 3-49: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-17/18
3-71 Burial 04-19: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Young Adult, 20-29
Metric: No elements available.
Sex: Sex indeterminate, no elements available.
Age: Age assessment was determined by the auricular surface and fusion of elements. The auricular surface appears to be Phase 2 (25-29) based on the youthful appearance, billowing, and little apical or marginal changes (Lovejoy et al. 1985). Fusion of the iliac crest occurs between 16-23 years and the iliac spine for this individual is not completely fused showing billowing on the ilium. The distal left ulna is completely fused with no fusion line apparent, which occur between 17-20 years.
Condition of skeleton: The condition of the cortex is fair with bone volume fair also. The skeleton is fragmented with no complete elements and less than 20% of the skeleton present. There are no cranial or mandible elements present, only post-cranial.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by many fragments that include two thoracic, three lumbar, one sacral and one indeterminate vertebral fragment, ten rib fragments, complete right ilium in three pieces and one indeterminate ilium fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeletons upper limbs include fragments of the right ulna, MT4 and MT5, and two complete hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeleton include both femora, tibiae, and fibulae, a fragment of a 3rd cuneiform, left MT1, right MT2, fragment of MT4 and two foot phalange (Figures 3-50 and 3-51).
Associated remains and artifacts: Additionally, there are several indeterminate lower limb fragments and a bag of fragments weighing 75.1 grams.
3-72
Figure 3-50: Burial 04-19 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-73 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Vertebrae: 2 articular facet fragments of a thoracic 3 lumbar articular facet fragments 1 sacral (5th) fragment
Sex Indeterminate Age 20-29
Figure 3-51: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-19
3-74 Burial 04-20: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Male Age: Adult, 20-30
Metric: The length of the right ulna is 242 mm. The right femur length is 369, the maximum head diameter is 41.5, and the epicondylar breadth is 75.4 mm. Several other metric measurements were taken of the right humerus, right radius, right ulna, right femur, right tibia, left fibula, and left calcaneus (see Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examining the morphology of the os coxae and cranium. The greater sciatic notch is narrow, the sub-pubic angle is V-shaped, and the pubis is triangular which characterizes male traits (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The cranium has a large mastoid process and prominent supraorbital ridge.
Age: Age assessment was determined by the auricular surface, sternal rib, pubic symphysis, and dental attrition. The auricular surface appears to be Phase 1 to 2 (20-29) based on billowing, finely grained texture, and margins that are sharp and firm (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The sternal rib surface is Phase 3 to 4 (24-32) based on the pit depth that is becoming moderately wide, wall that are thinning, and rim that is becoming irregular with no uniform scalloping (Iscan et al. 1984). A small portion of the pubic symphysis of the left side is possibly Phase 1 to 2 based on slight billowing at the inferior margin and undefined margins (Suchey et al. 1988).
Condition of skeleton: This burial is in good condition; it has good bone volume and good cortex and is approximately 70% present, but fragmentary.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is incomplete and in 32 fragments, comprised of the right temporal, right zygomatic, right and left parietals, frontal and occipital bones. The mandible is represented by the right mandibular ascending ramus, with the condyle fractured off postmortem. No teeth are present.
Axial skeleton: The sternum and cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae are present, but primarily in multiple fragments. The os coxae is incomplete and in twenty fragments. There are ten complete ribs and 40 fib fragments present.
Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeleton is represented by the left humerus and ulna that are fragmentary, and the right scapula, humerus, and radius are incomplete or fragmentary. The right ulna is complete in three fragments. The entire left wrist and hand are absent. The right wrist and hand are represented by the following, complete, elements: navicular, lunate, triquetral, pisiform, greater multangular, lesser multangular, capitate, hamate, sesamoid bone, and all metacarpals (MC1-MC5). There are 13 hand phalange present. The lower appendicular skeleton includes fragments of the femur, tibia, and fibula, as well as complete elements, including the left patella, left tarsals and left metatarsals. The right lower limb is represented by a complete femur, tibia, fibula, patella, calcaneus, talus, and foot navicular. There are nine foot phalanges present (Figures 3-52 and 3-53).
Associated remains and artifacts: There is one miscellaneous bag of human bone fragments weighing 113 grams.
3-75 Pathology: The endocrania (parietal and frontal) showed evidence of wear and cracking, but it was determined to have been due to environmental exposure rather than disease. There is hypertrophic bone growth on an intermediate hand phalanx. The bone growth is still porous and coarse and is located on the posterior aspect of the diaphysis. Trauma is the probable etiology.
Figure 3-52: Burial 04-20 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-76 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Vertebrae: 7 cervical fragments 14 thoracic fragments 3 complete thoracic 20 lumbar fragments 4 complete lumbar 18 sacral fragments
Ribs: 7 left complete 3 right complete 33 fragments
Sex Male Age 20-30
Figure 3-53: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-20
3-77 Burial 04-21: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Female Age: 45-59
Metric: The vertical diameter of the right humeral head is 37.5 mm and the breadth is 36.2 mm. The right distal humeral condyle is 53.1 mm, the distal left humeral breadth is 52.7 mm and the diameter of the right femoral head is 41.1 mm. Several other metric measurements were taken of the right humerus, right os coxae, right femur, and right tibia (see Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examining the morphology of the os coxae, cranium, and metric measurements. The greater sciatic notch is wide and the presence of the preauricular sulcus (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The cranial morphology has a gracile nuchal crest, small mastoid process and small mental eminence (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The above metric measurements indicate that this individual is female (Bass 1991).
Age: Age assessment was determined by the auricular surface, sternal rib, and dental attrition. The auricular surface appears to be Phases 6 to 7 (45-59) based on granular face, irregularity at the apical area, and macroporosity and microporosity of the surface (Lovejoy et al. 1985). It is noted though that this assessment may be skewed due to erosion of the surface from taphonomic forces and post-mortem damage and breaks. The sternal rib surface is Phase 6 (43-58) due to plaque-like deposits in the pit, irregular walls, a porosity (Iscan et al. 1984). Dental attrition scores for the three loose teeth associated with this individual are scored as 8 where the enamel has been completely worn away indicating an older adult (Scott 1978, Smith 1984). Griffin suggests that this wear score indicates an age of 50. Osteoarthritis is moderate to severe in the upper and lower peripheral skeleton and lower vertebral.
Condition of skeleton: The skeleton is fragmented with bone cortex in good condition with volume fair and is 50% present.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is represented by 44 pieces that includes both parietals and temporals, occipital, frontal, sphenoid, 3 indeterminate loose teeth and a bag of cranial fragments that weigh 29.8 grams. The mandible is present in seven fragments.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton includes many vertebral pieces that include the 1st and 2nd cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacrum, rib fragments, left and right ossa coxae, along with several indeterminate fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: The upper appendicular skeleton includes both scapulae, clavicles (see Figure 3-54), and humeri, radial fragment, both ulnae, left hand navicular, left lunate, left triquetral, left pisiform, left greater multangular, left capitate, left hamate, left MC2, left MC3, right MC4, and two hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeleton includes both femora, tibiae and fibulae, and one foot phalanx (Figures 3-55 and 3-56).
Associated remains and artifacts: Additionally, there are several indeterminate long bone fragments and a bag of fragments weighing 183 grams.
Pathology: Pathology for this burial includes slight to moderate lipping on the thoracic bodies and facets. On the lumbar indeterminate bodies the lipping measures from moderate to severe
3-78 and the cervical has slight to moderate lipping. The right clavicle has moderate to severe hypertrophic bone growth on the anterior medial margin of the sternal articular surface along with rodent chew marks on the posterior surface (Figure 3-54). The left clavicle is twisted and has bone thickening or healed callus near the distal end. The etiology for this element is healed fracture that is most likely associated with a fall (DiGiuseppe 2009; Jurmain 2009) (Fig). The right scapula also has slight lipping on the lateral margin of the acromium process and the right femur has light lipping around the greater trochanter. Additionally, rodent chew marks are found on the right and left fibulae.
Figure 3-54: Healed Fracture of the Left Clavicle; Burial 04-21
3-79
Figure 3-55: Burial 04-21 Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-80 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Vertebrae: 2 complete cervical 36 thoracic fragments 22 lumbar fragments 2 sacral fragments
Note that there appears to be a 13th rib
Sex Female Age 45-59
Figure 3-56: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-21
3-81 Burial 04-22A: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Female Age: Adult, 30-40
Metric: The vertical diameter of the left humeral head is 39.7 mm, the length of the right ulna is 241, and the left radial length is 218 mm. Several other metric measurements were taken of the left humerus, right radius, left and right os coxae, and right femur (Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examining the morphology of the os coxae, cranium, and metric measurements. The greater sciatic notch is wide, the sub-pubic angle is U- shaped, the acetabulum is small, and the presence of the preauricular sulcus indicate this individual is female (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Also the squarish shape of the pubis, ventral arch, and dorsal pits. The cranial morphology has sharp supraorbital margin and small supraorbital ridge (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Additionally, the above metric measurements indicate that this individual is female (Bass 1991).
Age: Age assessment was determined by the auricular surface, sternal rib, and pubic symphysis. The auricular surface appears to be Phases 3 to 4 (30-39) based on the presence of striae on the superior demiface, some retroauricular activity, and slight apical and marginal changes (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The sternal rib surface is Phases 4 to 5 (43-58) based on narrow U-shape, walls thinning, edges beginning to flare, and no regular scalloping (scalloping change may be due to erosion, since density is good) (Iscan et al. 1984). The pubic symphysis appears to be Phase 5 (25-83) based on no billowing, the margins are beginning to deteriorate on the dorsal inferior face and the face granularity is becoming dense in sections, while the center of the face is forming depressions (Suchey et al. 1988).
Condition of skeleton: This individual is in fair condition with 60% of the skeleton present. The bone quality, cortex, and volume are all good. Most of the upper skeleton is present and of the lower, only the proximal left femur and right patella were recovered during excavation. Most of the upper elements are fragmented, though have been reconstructed.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is incomplete and represented by the frontal, occipital, right temporal, and right and left parietal bones. The mandible is not present.
Axial skeleton: The sternum is incomplete in two pieces (see Figure 3-57) and the thoracic vertebrae are very fragmentary (30+). The lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5) and left os coxae are complete, while the right os coxae are incomplete in two pieces and the sacrum is fragmentary. There are 14 complete right and left ribs and 68 rib fragments.
Appendicular skeleton: Most of the appendicular bones of the upper limbs are complete, including: the left scapula, both humeri, radii, and ulnae, the left navicular, left lunate, right triquetral, right pisiform, both greater multangulars, the left lesser multangular, the left capitate, and the right hamate. The right scapula is incomplete. Most metacarpals are present, except both the right and left second and left fourth and fifth metacarpals. There are eleven hand phalanges present. The lower appendicular skeleton is presented by an incomplete left femur, complete right patella, and one proximal foot phalanx (Figures 3-58 and 3-59).
3-82 Associated remains and artifacts: One bag of human bone fragments weighing 35 grams is associated with this individual.
Pathology: There is moderate to severe arthritis in the lumbar spine and slight arthritis in the hands. There are also four small lesions on the inner table of the parietal bones, towards the coronal suture. It is possible that they are evidence of a reaction to infection or possible pacchionian depressions. There is a very small sternal foramen in the distal portion of the body. Position is quite unusual since documentation indicates that the foramen usually appears between the third and fourth sections of the body. The foramen appears to be between the fifth and sixth segments. It measures 3.52 height x 3.34 wide with smooth edges on the anterior (ventral) side with a depressed or pushed in appearance on the posterior (dorsal) side (Figure 3-57).
Figure 3-57: Small Sternal Foramen; Burial 04-22A
3-83
Figure 3-58: Burial 04-22A Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-84 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes
Sex Female Age 30-40
Figure 3-59: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-22A
3-85 Burial 04-22B: CA-SCL-287 Sex: Female Age: 50-60
Metric: The diameter of the left femoral head is 40.3 mm, with the bicondylar width at 71.1 mm. Several other metric measurements were taken of the left humerus, left radius, left and right ulna, left os coxae, and left femur (see Appendix A).
Sex: The sex of this individual was determined by examining the morphology of the os coxae and metric measurements. The greater sciatic notch is wide, the acetabulum is small, and the presence of the preauricular sulcus (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Metric measurements indicate that this individual is female (Bass 1991).
Age: Age assessment was determined by the auricular surface and sternal rib. The auricular surface appears to be Phases 8 (60+) based on the irregular surface, dense bone in sections with severe pitting and breakdown. There is moderate retroauricular activity and irregular margins to the apex and superior margins that have severe lipping present (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The sternal rib surface is Phase 6 (43-58) based on thinning wall with sharp edges and irregular rim that has sharp points projected from the rim. Additionally the bone is thin and brittle (Iscan et al. 1984). Osteoarthritis is slight to severe in the upper and lower peripheral skeleton and lower vertebral.
Condition of skeleton: The skeleton is approximately 40% present and in a fragmented condition. Bone cortex is fair with the volume poor. There is no cranial or mandible elements associated with this skeleton, as well as only three lower limb elements.
Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton is represented by a complete sternum in three pieces, two complete cervical, five complete thoracic, one complete lumbar, and many sacral fragments, plus several ribs with sternal or vertebral ends present, 64 rib fragments, and both the left and right os coxae.
Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeletons upper limbs include scapula fragments, both complete humeri, radii, ulnae, hand naviculars, and lunates. The complete left triquetral, left pisiform, right greater multangular, both lesser multangulars, left capitate, both hamates, right MC5 and four hand phalange. The lower appendicular skeleton includes only three elements, a complete left femur, left patella and left MT4 (Figures 3-60 and 3-61).
Associated remains and artifacts: There is one bag of human fragments weighing 68 grams.
Pathology: Pathology for this burial includes slight to moderate lipping on the right and left hand navicular, on bodies of the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar. A hypertrophic bone spur is found on the anterior superior margin of the left patella that is possibly caused by trauma and resulted in myolitis ossificans. Additionally, the left patella has moderate lipping on the posterior facets. The left ilium has severe osteoarthritis present on the retro-auricular surface. The left ulna has a healed fracture located in the distal third that the radiograph shows is transverse and is possibly caused by intentional trauma (DiGiuseppe 2009; Jurmain et al. 2009). The left os coxae have an unusual shape with reactivity apparent on the internal surface of the acetabulum.
3-86
Figure 3-60: Burial 04-22B Anatomical Position of Skeletal Elements
3-87 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Ribs: 8 left 6 right 64 fragments
Vertebrae: 2 complete cervical 5 complete thoracic 1 complete lumbar 18 fragments
Sex Female Age 50-60
Figure 3-61: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-22B
3-88 Burial 04-23: CA-SMA-263 Sex: Male Age: 16+
Metric: No elements available.
Sex: Sex is determined by the morphology of the cranium. Specifically, the nuchal crest is robust and the mastoid process is moderately large, though the zygomatic arch extents behind the process.
Age: Age for this individual is determined by suture closure, since the only element available for examination is the cranium. Fusion between the left lambdoidal suture that connects the left parietal to the occipital is not completely connected. A rough age estimate is that this individual is 16+ years old. This estimate is based on studies of fusion between other elements, such as the occipital and temporal bones that do not fuse until early adult life. A study of the Hamman-Todd collection indicated that fusion of this area can occur prior to 20 years and as late as 50 years in rare cases (Scheuer and Black 2004), thus indicating that the conservative age assessment for this individual is probable. Griffin further states that the basic suture closure occurs between the age ranges from 17 to 50 and are basically unreliable as an age indicator (Griffin 2007). From Krogman and Iscan (1986), the basic expected closure for the lambdoidal suture occurs between 30-31 years, white-black respectively.
Condition of Skeleton: Only the cranium was recovered during excavation of this burial. The bone quality is good, as well as the volume.
Cranium and mandible: The cranium is incomplete and comprised of occipital, parietal, and temporal bone fragments. There are also twelve indeterminate cranial fragments (Figures 3-62 and 3-63).
Associated remains and artifacts: There in one individual bag of bone fragments.
Figure 3-62: Burial 04-23 Calvarium that includes Temporals, Parietals, and Occipital
3-89 Skeletal Schematic Form
Notes Cranium: 24 fragments no frontal no pathology
Sex Male Age 16+
Figure 3-63: Skeletal Schematic of Bones Recovered from Burial 04-23
3-90 Burial 04-24: CA-SMA-263 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Indeterminate Adult
Metric: No elements available.
Sex: No elements available.
Age: No elements available.
Condition of burial: This burial is of poor quality and unidentified fragments.
Elements Present: This burial is comprised of a cranial fragment bag that weighs 68.5 grams, an unidentified long bone fragment bag that weighs 105 grams, and one unidentified bone fragment bag that weighs 333 grams (Figure 3-64). These remains are those of an indeterminate adult individual.
Figure 3-64: Burial 04-24 Bone Fragments
3-91 Summary of Isolated Human Remains Recovered in 2003/2004
In addition to the field designated/in-situ burial features several isolated human remains were encountered and collected from disturbed context. These isolated human remains and associated cultural materials are described below:
Isolates: 4th Fairway Sex: Indeterminate Age: Indeterminate Skeletal elements: One cranium frontal fragment and one humeral fragment were found near the 4th Fairway. Additionally, there is foil wrapped soil matrix with bone dust, several indeterminate fragments and a bag of fragments weighing 98 grams. Associations: Association with these isolates includes indeterminate faunal bones and one faunal bone awl.
Isolates: G1 and G2 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Indeterminate Skeletal elements: The isolate include several fragments that include four cranial, four loose teeth, radial, 3rd cuneiform and one bag weighing 24 grams. Associations: Association with these isolates includes shell and faunal bone.
Isolates: G3 and Tee 3 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Indeterminate Skeletal elements: One indeterminate cranial fragment was found on the northeast corner of Tee 3 and one hand phalanx was in association with G3.
Isolates: Hole 3 near B. 14 & 19 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Indeterminate Skeletal elements: There are 11 indeterminate cranial fragments near burials 14 and 19, one tarsal fragment near burial 19, Hole 3, and a bag of fragments weighing 21 grams from burial 14 and 19, Hole 3.
Isolates: Hole 3, Central East Side Sex: Indeterminate Age: Indeterminate Skeletal elements: There are three cranial, one ulnar, five femoral, seven indeterminate long bone, and one navicular (foot) fragments present. There is one bag of soil with human bone fragments (46g). Associations: Associated with these isolates includes one shell and one lithic fragment. Isolates: Hole 3 Sex: Indeterminate Age: Indeterminate Skeletal elements: This burial has good cortex and volume. There are only two femur and two fibula fragments present.
Isolates: Hole 3, East of B# 7 Sex: Probable Male Age: Indeterminate Skeletal elements: There are 19 cranial fragments present. There are also a total of 26 bone fragments present, all from the following elements: cervical vertebra, os coxae, femur, and metacarpal.
3-92 DISCUSSION OF THE PATHOLOGIES IDENTIFIED ON THE BURIALS
For purposes of discussion both sites combined will be referred to as CA-SCL-287. Each individual element was examined for pathologies that included dental disease and attrition, degenerative joint disease of both the spine and peripheral joints, evidence of trauma, and other characteristics that could be associated with old age and/or nutritional and developmental stresses. The majority of the pathologies are assessed as part of the normal aging process of modern man. Specifically, those individuals with severe dental attrition and degenerative disease are estimated to be over 40 years.
Dental Disease
Of the 29 individuals found at CA-SCL-287 (combined with those from CA-SMA-263), only 13 had dentitions that could be analyzed. Of the thirteen dentitions available, three of those are represented by only 1 or 2 teeth. A total of 173 teeth were scored, 84 maxillary and 89 mandibular, individual tooth counts ranged from 1 (maxillary left I1) to 10 (mandibular right M2). All teeth were scored using Molnar’s 8 point system (1971). In all cases the attrition levels were identified as “severe,” as is commonly the case in the San Francisco Bay Area archaeological populations. Typically the molars tend to be the most worn teeth. Comparisons between CA-SCL-287 and three sites (CA-SCL-732 located in South San Jose; CA-SCL-690 located near downtown San Jose: and CA-ALA-329 located across the Bay near the City of Newark) are presented in Table 3-3. Average molar attrition scores are well in line when compared to the three other sites and in all cases are deemed more severe but caution should be exercised in comparisons as the overall sample size is quite small. Individual molar tooth counts range from three to ten teeth (Table 3-3).
Table 3-3 Comparisons of Mean Molar Scores
Tooth CA-SCL-287 CA-SCL-732 CA-ALA-329 CA-SCL-690 Max RM2 6.25 4.87 5.54 5.43 Max RM1 7.25 5.92 6.52 6.50 Max LM1 7.00 6.00 6.39 6.19 Max LM2 6.16 4.98 5.57 5.26 Man RM2 5.90 5.09 5.77 5.15 Man RM1 6.55 5.54 6.26 5.73 Man LM1 6.50 5.87 6.31 5.82 Man LM2 6.43 5.02 5.66 5.25 Mean 6.51 5.41 6.00 5.67
Table 3-4 provides a list of dental conditions that are present on the teeth for both the maxilla at 22% of those present and the mandible at 10%. In the maxilla, caries and abscesses are present on the first and second molars on both sides. Calculus was found on only four teeth with three on the left side and one on the right. Caries were found in 7 of the 173 teeth examined Table 3- 4. Six were found in the maxilla and only one in the mandible. This is a 0.04 rate which is considerably higher than CA-SCL-732 (0.009), CA-ALA-329 (0.006) and CA-SCL-690 (0.023),
3-93 but the small sample size of CA-SCL-287 requires caution in interpretation. There were nine abscesses identified. Eight were in the maxilla and one in the mandible. This is a 0.052 rate, significantly higher then CA-SCL-732 (0.018) and CA-SCL-690 (0.03). Figures for CA-ALA- 329 abscesses were not available. Table 3-4 CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 Maxillary Dental Conditions
Tooth Number Caries AbscessesPulp Exposures AMTL Calculus Max RM3 4 ------Max RM2 9 1 1 -- -- 1 Max RM1 9 2 4 1 -- -- Max RPM2 8 ------Max RPM1 8 ------Max RC• 6 ------Max RI2 6 ------Max RI1 4 ------Max LI1 2 ------Max LI2 5 ------Max LC• 5 ------Max LPM1 5 ------Max LPM2 5 ------1 Max LM1 4 1 2 -- 1 -- Max LM2 6 2 1 -- -- 1 Max LM3 4 ------1 Totals 90 6 8 1 1 4
CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 Mandibular Dental Conditions
Tooth Number Caries AbscessesPulp Exposures AMTL Calculus Man RM3 4 ------1 Man RM2 11 ------4 Man RM1 10 -- 1 -- -- 2 Man RPM2 6 ------Man RPM1 7 ------Man RC• 5 ------Man RI2 3 ------Man RI1 4 ------Man LI1 5 ------Man LI2 6 ------Man LC• 4 ------Man LPM1 7 ------1 -- Man LPM2 9 1 ------Man LM1 7 ------Man LM2 7 ------Man LM3 5 ------Totals 100 1 1 0 1 7
3-94
Surprisingly there is only one tooth with pulp exposure and two clear examples of anti-mortem tooth loss (AMTL) with remodeling, one maxillary and one mandibular. There were eleven examples of calculus, four on maxillary and seven on mandibular teeth with all cases found on the molar teeth.
CA-SCL-287 Dental Analysis Notes
Below are notes and observations for each individual burial with photographs presenting the pertinent conditions that were identified.
Burial 00-2 Male 45+ (Figure 3-65): Mandible only plus one maxillary tooth. Age based only on tooth assessment is probably 45-50. Mandible has 14 out of 16 teeth present missing both thirds genetically, slants on molars, rounding on incisors and groove on left Canine mesial side.
A B C
Figure 3-65: Burial 00-2 Mandible (A, B, C)
Burial 00-3 Male 17-24 (Figure 3-66): Age probably older, wear is 5’s on molars and 4’s on incisors on the mandible. Maxilla M1’s are 6’s PM’s are 5’s. Palate is broken, palatine torus is indeterminate. Mandible has 11 out of 16 teeth present with five lost postmortem. Maxilla has 14 out of 16 teeth present. No anomalous wear present.
A B C
Figure 3-66: Burial 00-3 Mandible (A, B) and Maxilla (C)
3-95 Burial 01-2 Male 25-35 (Figure 3-67): Age probably older, molars are 7’s and PM’s are 6’s on the mandible. Maxilla is about the same. Mandible has 10 out of 16 teeth present, six anterior teeth lost postmortem. Maxilla has 10 out of 16 teeth present. Has medium palatine torus.
A B C
Figure 3-67: Burial 01-2 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B, C)
Burial 00-3A Indet. 35+ (Figure 3-68): Maxilla only, mandible missing. Age based on dentin exposure is probably 40-50. It has a slight palatine torus. The M1 wear score is an 8 and heavily worn, right premolar displaced behind other premolar. Possible working groove on right I2. Has 15 out of 16 teeth present missing left M1, large abscess, on each side at the M1’s.
A B C
Figure 3-68: Burial 00-3A Maxilla (A, B, C)
Burial 04-7 Male 25+ (Figure 3-69): Both mandible and maxilla fragmentary, with very few teeth present. Age at least 25 based on assessment of teeth, but too few present to be certain, wear is 6-7’s with little or no enamel present on any teeth. No palate.
A B C
Figure 3-69: Burial 04-7 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B, C)
3-96 Burial 04-8 Male 26-39 (Figure 3-70): Maxilla is quite worn indicating 40-45 or greater based on tooth assessment, mandible is relatively light with 3-4’s on anterior and 6-7 on M1 indicating an age of 35-45. Only right side of mandible and maxilla are present. Left side gone. Maxillary M1 is abscessed and broken. Mandible has seven out of 16 teeth present and the maxilla has eight out of 16 teeth present.
A B C
Figure 3-70: Burial 04-8 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B, C)
Burial 04-9 Female 30-42 (Figure 3-71): All molars are 7-8’s on anterior teeth, are also heavily worn. Has unique cluster of scoops, rounding and anomalous wear pattern on upper PM. Palate is broken and incomplete but looks like medium palatine torus. Missing both lower thirds agenesis. Mandible has 8 out of 14 present, one lost peri-mortem, and four lost postmortem. Maxilla has ten out of 16 teeth present, missing anterior teeth postmortem, missing right PM2 and M1 with huge abscess on right side.
A B C
D E F
Figure 3-71: Burial 04-9 Mandible (A, B, C) and Maxilla (D, E, F)
3-97 Burial 04-10 Male 30+ (Figure 3-72): Mandible only, no maxilla, no palate. Has 11 out of 16 teeth present. Scooped wear on M1’s and M2’s, possible anomalous wear on right canine and right PM1, buccal side possible work surface, needs recheck. Age probably 45-50ish based on tooth assessment (Smith).
A B C
Figure 3-72: Burial 04-10 Mandible (A, B, C)
Burial 04-12 Female 40+ (Figure 3-73): Only one tooth present, molar, probably mandibular M2 but hard to tell from pictures.
A B
Figure 3-73: Burial 04-12 Mandible (one tooth) (A, B)
Burial 04-13 Female 25+ (Figure 3-74): Wear is light to moderate age probably ten years older. Mandible has 10 out of 16 teeth present, another six lost postmortem. Maxilla has only loose teeth with ten out of 16 present. No anomalous wear present, maxilla has 5-6-7 wear scores.
A B
Figure 3-74: Burial 04-13 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B)
3-98 Burial 04-17 Female 40-50 (Figure 30-75): Very few sockets, mostly loose teeth. Wear is 6-s and mainly 7’s. Mandible has 11 out of 16 teeth present, all 6-7’s. Maxilla has eight out of 16 present, no palate.
A B C
Figure 3-75: Burial 04-17 Mandible (A) and Maxilla (B, C)
An overview of the raw data of the number of teeth with each burial that is noted above is presented in Table 3-5. Along with these is the total attrition and mean scores of the teeth per Molnar’s criteria (1971). Ten out of the 16 teeth examined between the upper and lower teeth have lower mean scores on the maxilla compared to the mandible. It is noted that the greater mean wear scores are located on the first and second right molars and the left canine to the left first molars.
3-99 Table 3-5 CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 Maxillary Attrition Scores
Tooth Number Total Score Mean Score Max RM3 4 11 2.75 Max RM2 8 50 6.25 Max RM1 8 58 7.25 Max RPM2 7 39 5.57 Max RPM1 7 39 5.57 Max RC• 6 30 5.00 Max RI2 5 23 4.60 Max RI1 4 17 4.25 Max LI1 1 6 6.00 Max LI2 5 23 4.60 Max LC• 5 24 4.80 Max LPM1 5 29 5.80 Max LPM2 5 28 5.60 Max LM1 4 28 7.00 Max LM2 6 37 6.16 Max LM3 4 12 3.00
CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 Mandible Attrition Scores
Tooth Number Total Score Mean Score Man RM3 4 13 3.25 Man RM2 10 59 5.90 Man RM1 9 59 6.55 Man RPM2 5 28 5.60 Man RPM1 6 38 6.33 Man RC• 5 26 5.12 Man RI2 3 15 5.00 Man RI1 3 19 6.33 Man LI1 4 28 6.50 Man LI2 5 26 5.20 Man LC• 3 10 3.33 Man LPM1 6 34 5.66 Man LPM2 8 44 5.50 Man LM1 6 39 6.50 Man LM2 7 45 6.43 Man LM3 5 21 4.20
3-100 Degenerative Joint Disease
Vertebral Osteophytosis
Lipping of vertebral bodies is a common occurrence in skeletal populations, including archaeological sites found in the Santa Clara Counties (Jurmain 1990, Hylkema 2007). CA- SCL-287/SCL-SMA-263 had 29 individuals recovered during excavation, of which, eleven had various levels of osteophytosis. For the purposes of this analysis, a five scale ordinal system was modified from Jurmain’s standard four published in the degenerative joint disease paper on CA- ALA-329 (1990):
0 - none 1 - slight; trace of small osteophyte 2 - moderate; lip extents sharply from natural surface 3 - severe; sharp lipping >50% of circumference or remodeling on concaved surface 4 - ankylosis of adjoining bodies
A total of 194 vertebral body surfaces were scored, superior and inferior on each vertebra, of which a possible maximum total of 46 surfaces from the inferior C2 through the superior S1 were possible, for each individual. The sample for each of the vertebral segments is:
Cervical = 39 Thoracic = 85 Lumbar = 66 Sacrum = 4 Total = 194
The majority of individuals for this population had only slight to moderate levels of osteophytosis found in all four segments of the vertebrae. Specifically, 32% (64) of the vertebral bodies had slight involvement and 23% (45) had moderate boney growth. Only 15% (30) of the vertebrae had severe osteophytosis. Those with severe boney growth were found spread out between nine individuals with either one or more bodies involved. The majority of the bodies with severe involvement were found in two individuals. Burial 00-2 had the greatest number of vertebral body surface (superior and inferior) involvement at 10 out of the 30 scored. This individual was male over 45 years with 50% of the involvement located in the cervical vertebrae. The second individual was from Burial 04-21, female between 45-59 years with all of the surface involvement located in the lumbar. Though both these individuals achieved an older age where it would expected to find indications of osteophytosis, it is interesting that the majority of involvement in the male was located in the upper neck, while the female’s involvement was in the lower spine. These different locations in the vertebral column could be a reflection of activity patterns associated with gender roles within their society. The frequent identification of cervical and lumbar vertebrae with severe osteophytes is supported by research in California by Jurmain (1990, 1993) and Pierce (1983, 1984, 1996, 2004), and in Canada by Merbs (1983). However, two individuals do not signify more then chance and should not be conclusive evidence that gender roles in this population play a part in determining activity patterns. Though
3-101 the only other individual with severe osteophytosis located in the cervical was male over 30 years that had only one cervical vertebra scored due to the fragmentary condition of the skeleton with only pieces of the vertebral column present. Jurmain suggested in a report that given the pattern of degenerative spinal disease that a biomechanical etiology is suggested caused by the population possibly carrying heavy burdens on their heads (2007).
Spinal Osteoarthritis
Similar to vertebral osteophytosis, spinal osteoarthritis is a condition where osteophytes or boney growth in the form of lipping forms on the small joints and apophyseal articulations of the vertebrae. These areas were scored using an ordinal scale:
0 - none 1 - slight; shallow pitting on the articular surfaces 2 - moderate; deep, erosive pitting of .25% of surface and/or marked lipping 3 - severe; deep pitting >50% of surface 4 - ankylosis
A total of 324 vertebral apophyseal articulations were scored, superior and inferior on each vertebra, of which a possible maximum total of 96 surfaces from the inferior C1 through the superior S1 were possible, for each individual. The sample for each of the vertebral segments is:
Cervical = 74 Thoracic = 165 Lumbar = 84 Sacrum = 1 Total = 324
The majority of individuals had none to slight levels of osteoarthritis found in all four segments of the vertebrae. Specifically, 42% (136) of the vertebral facets had no involvement and 48% (155) had slight osteoarthritis. Less then 1% (2) of the vertebrae had indications of severe osteoarthritis and both were found on the same element (1 superior and 1 inferior left). This one individual with severe osteoarthritis in the lumbar vertebra was female with an estimated age range of 50-60 years. The remaining vertebrae for this individual had slight to moderate osteoarthritis on the other lumbar and a similar range of involvement in the thoracic. The majority of cervical involvement though was slight.
Other Spinal Anomalies
Other spinal anomalies found in these burials are porotic lesions found between vertebral bodies or on the apophyseal facets. One individual where a porotic lesion appears is found in Burial 00- 2. The lesions appear in the cervical vertebrae between two elements with the both the right inferior and superior surface involved. The diagnosis is indeterminate at this time, though osteophytosis for the cervical show moderate to severe involvement. One individual, burial 01-2 of a male 30-39 years old, has an indentation on the T9 vertebra on the inferior left apophyseal facet with no corresponding involvement with the superior facet of the T10 (Figure 3-13).
3-102 Similar findings to this one is found in Burial 04-20 of a male 20-30 years old. This individual has three thoracic vertebrae (T9, T10, T11) with small depressions on the superior border of the left inferior apophyseal facets with no corresponding lesion on the left superior articulations. The etiology for these is indeterminate and further research into these types of lesions found in vertebral facets needs to be examined.
Another unusual occurrence found in two burials is the presence of a sixth lumbar (Figure 3-76). In today’s modern populations, 10% of individuals have been reported with this congenital anomaly which is generally termed lumbosacral transitional vertebrae (Verkuilen 2009). The first individual from the CA-SCL-287 population comes from Burial 00-2 for a male over 45 and the second was associated with Burial 01-2. For burial 01-2, the vertebrae were articulated and appear to fit well together (Figure 3-76). For burial 00-2, the vertebrae were more fragmented and articulation of the elements was not possible. Additionally, it is possible that intrusion of another individual may skew the assessment that this individual has an extra sixth lumbar. It is interesting that two individuals from this small population (29 individuals) have an extra sixth lumbar and may indicates that they were genetically related to each other.
T11 T12 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6
Figure 3-76: Sixth Lumbar Vertebra (Burial 01-2)
Peripheral Joint Osteoarthritis
Lipping of peripheral joints is a common occurrence in skeletal populations, CA-SCL-287/SCL- SMA-263 had 29 individuals recovered during excavation, of which, 18 had various levels of osteoarthritis. The osteoarthritic changes were scored on joint surfaces of several major peripheral joints on each side of the body: the temporomandibular joint (TMJ = glenoid fossa and mandibular condyle), shoulder (glenoid of scapula, proximal humerus), elbow (distal humerus, proximal ulna and radius), wrist (distal ulna and radius, carpals), hip (acetabulum, proximal femur); knee (distal femur, proximal tibia and fibula); and ankle (distal tibia and fibula
3-103 and tarsals). For the purposes of this analysis, a five scale ordinal system was modified from Jurmain’s standard four published in the degenerative joint disease paper on CA-ALA-329 (1990):
0 - none 1 - slight; trace of small osteophyte 2 - moderate; lip extents sharply from natural surface 3 - severe; sharp lipping >50% of circumference or remodeling on concaved surface 4 - eburnation
A total of 265 peripheral surfaces for both upper and lower limbs were scored for a possible maximum total of 36 joints for each individual. The sample size for each of the major peripheral joints for both sides is;
Upper Limbs Lower Limbs TMJ = 26 Hip = 38 Shoulder = 22 Knee = 41 Elbow = 55 Ankle = 36 Wrist = 47 Total = 150 Total = 115
The majority of individuals from this population had none to slight osteoarthritis found in the peripheral joint surfaces at 58% and 34%, respectively. No one major joint surface had more involvement then other areas of the skeleton. Only two percent of the peripheral joints had severe osteoarthritis and these were located in two individuals. The first individual with severe osteoarthritis was Burial 04-15 of a 33-46 year old female. The two joint surfaces involved were the left distal femur and the left proximal tibia (fibula joint surface missing) of the knee. The knee displays extreme hypertrophic bone growth on the lateral condyle on both margins of the femur while the tibia condyle, though fragmented, has severe lipping on the corresponding anterior-lateral margin. The second individual with severe joint osteoarthritis was Burial 04-21 of a 45-59 year old female. This individual has both left and right distal ulnae involvement. Specifically, the left distal ulna has enlarged styloid process with deep groove between the head and process and the right distal ulna has severe lipping around the margin of the head. In both cases, the location of the severe osteoarthritis may be an indication of activity patterns, though the small sample size of two individuals is not significant and no true interpretation of behavior can be considered.
The other individual with severe boney growth was found on an older female, 50-60 years old from Burial 04-22B. This was located on the auricular and retroauricular surface of the left os coxae and the auricular surface of the right side that is the connection between the pelvic girdle and the sacrum. Based on the location of this hypertrophic boney growth, it has been diagnosed as degenerative joint disease, or osteoarthritis (Figure 3-77). This is not an unusual diagnosis given the age of this individual. Additionally, other elements were affected by boney growth for this individual. Boney spicules were found on the anterior/superior margin of the left patella that were diagnosed as myolitis ossificans that was probably the result of trauma to the knee and as
3-104 mentioned above, several lumbar bodies and facets were assessed with severe degenerative disease.
Figure 3-77: Hypertrophic Bone Growth of the Auricular Surfaces (Burial 04-22B)
Indications of Trauma and Skeletal Anomalies
Evidence of trauma for this site was represented by several fractured elements that provided indications of intentional and unintentional causation. Overall there were seven elements that had either a depression, fracture, or possible projectile point evidence: one possible cranial depression, three ulnae, one humerus, one clavicle, and one ilium. The cranial depression is associated with Burial 04-17/18 of a female 40-50 years old. The depression is large with the central portion flattened with rounded edges that covers the right and left parietal and occipital with measurements of 64.4 mm x 45.6 mm (see Figure 3-47). It has been suggested by another researchers that this cranial depression might have been evidence of scalping, but examination of the edges around the depression show no signs of cutmarks that would be indicative of this type of trauma. The basis for considering scalping comes from two sites in Contra Costa County that have individuals with cutmarks on their crania indicating this type of trauma (Price et al. 2006). Additionally, examination of the endocranial vault does not appear to have a corresponding convexed bulge that would indicate that this depression was received during an altercation with another individual. Finally, consideration that this cranial depression was caused through deliberate measures seems dubious, due to the location near the top back of the cranial vault. Walker’s study of cranial depressions for the Channel Island populations shows the majority of the strikes to the cranium is located in the frontal and both parietals with none of them the size and shape of the one seen in our population (Walker 1989).
Three individuals from this population have indications of ulna fractures. The first individual from Burial 01-2 of a male 30-39 years old has an ulna fracture located just above the distal epiphysis. The fracture is well-healed with the callus showing moderate thickening of the bone and the fracture type on radiograph indicates that it is oblique (Figure 3-78). Judd (2008), Grauer and Roberts (1996), and DiGiuseppe (2009) have determined that fracture types can help determine causation when examining ulna fractures. Specifically, fracture types have been linked to direct or indirect impacts to the forearm (Galloway 1999, Judd 2008). For this individual, an oblique fracture is an indication of indirect impact caused by unintentional trauma,
3-105 such as a fall onto an outstretched hand. The indirect force of the impact radiates up the hand to the corresponding bones and causes an oblique fracture to occur. Along with the fracture, a cloaca is present for this individual that may indicate secondary infection or what is termed osteomyelitis.
Figure 3-78: Macroscopic and Radiographic Image of Distal Ulna and Cloaca Fracture (Burial 01-2)
The second individual with a possible right ulna fracture is found in Burial 04-17/18 of a female 40-50 years old. Additionally, this is the individual that had a possible cranial depression. A radiograph was taken of the ulna for this individual to determine if a fracture does exist. The distal end appears to be slightly twisted, which could mean that there is a well healed fracture, though no fracture line is present on radiograph. The contra-lateral element is missing, so no determination could be made with regard to normal variation between individuals. Thus, if the individual does have a fracture, it is of long-standing and well healed.
The third individual with a fractured ulna is found in Burial 04-22B of a 50-60 year old female. Examination of this ulna from radiograph determined that this break was caused by intentional means. Based solely on the fracture type, this individual’s fracture is transverse. Transverse fractures are caused by a direct force impact to the element. Specifically, when an individual raises their arm to deflect a blow from a club, the club comes into direct contact with the bone fracturing it at the point of impact. The bone then fractures perpendicular to the plane of the element causing a fracture line that moves directly across the element. Additionally, the location on the element is also indicative of an impact caused by intentional means. Judd (2008) provided several criteria for determining when a fracture should be considered caused by intentional means. One of those criteria, besides fracture type, was the location of the fracture in the mid- to distal third of the element (Judd 2008). In this case, the fracture does occur in the distal third (Figure 3-79).
3-106
Figure 3-79: Left Ulna Fracture in Distal Third of Element (Burial 04-22B)
Of the three fractured ulna two of the individuals are older females and one is middle-aged male. Though this small sample size cannot be run for statistical analyzes, there are some inferences that can be made with regard to the one female with the transverse fracture of the left ulna. In most cases, males would have been the recipients of indications of interpersonal aggression caused by warfare between tribal groups. For this population, the only ulna fracture that indicates an individual was involved with interpersonal aggression was the older female (50-60 years). Based on ethnohistoric research of the San Francisco Bay Area, while males were the main combatants in warfare, females could be involved in raids (Bancroft, 1874, DiGiuseppe 2009, James and Graziani 1975, Jurmain et al. 2009). This possibility could explain why the only individual with evidence of intentional trauma then is female.
Another fracture found in this population was of the right distal humerus. This was found in Burial 00-2 of a male over 45 years old. Remodeling is evident macroscopically on the anterio- lateral margin that shows porous and reactive bone development. The anterior surface appears depressed with remodeling beginning at 110 mm from the distal end. Hypertrophic boney spicules with porous spongy surface are found along the lateral margin at the metaphysis with lipping forming around the distal articular surface remaining after post-mortem damage. Radiographs were taken to determine the possible fracture etiology that lead to the amount of remodeling found on this element (Figure 3-80). Galloway (1999) describes humeral shaft fractures as the common result of an accident or direct violence occurring about the midshaft with falls and motor vehicle accidents the most common cause. Though in this case, the possible fracture has occurred in the distal third of the diaphysis, which may be more related to insertion points for muscles. These muscles, like the flexors and extensors that originate in the humeral epicondyles, can place force upon the distal humerus making this location a frequent site for fractures (Galloway 1999). Unfortunately, the radiograph was inconclusive and no fracture line was visible. Again, this may be an indication of a long standing fracture that has had time to remodel completely.
3-107
Figure 3-80: Possible Fracture of Right Distal Humerus with Remodeling (Burial 00-2)
The last element that shows evidence of a fracture is the distal left clavicle from Burial 04-21 of a female 45-59 years old (Figure 3-81). In many archaeological reports and articles, clavicle fractures are interpreted as indications of accidental causation. Specifically, research by Lovejoy and Heiple (1981) suggest that this was not a surprising interpretation, since it is one of the most frequently fractured bones in modern populations and was documented in their study of individuals from the Libben Site, Ottowa County, Ohio at 5.8%. In a study by Jurmain (1991) in California at CA-ALA-329, the incidence of clavicle fractures was only found in 1% of that population. Since only one individual in this population had a fractured clavicle, statistically it is not significant, but does suggest an interpretation that this fracture was caused by an accident.
Figure 3-81: Fracture of the Distal Left Clavicle (Burial 04-21)
One individual from this population has possible evidence of projectile point trauma. This individual from Burial 00-2 of a male over 45 has two puncture marks on the left ilium. The two openings are located on the left ilium superior the retroauricular surface. Only the opening on the right shows evidence of remodeling with measurements of 5.5 x 2.3 mm. The opening appears to be caused by a projectile point, though there is no supporting evidence to confirm this
3-108 diagnosis. Upon macroscopic and microscopic review, there are no remnants of an embedded point in the wound. The opening to the right (second hole) shows no evidence of healing, though the roughened edges could be evidence of on-going infection where puss pushed through the bone, similar to the cloaca seen from Burial 01-2 on the distal end of the ulna (Figure 3-82). Jurmain (2009) recommends caution when suggesting that wounds, like this one, are evidence of projectile point trauma. Instead these types of trauma need to be carefully expressed as possible evidence of interpersonal aggression between tribal groups.
Area of Remodeling
Figure 3-82: Possible Penetration Wound from Projectile Point Trauma (Burial 01-2)
Hypertrophic boney growth was found on several individuals that were examined by the researchers. Hypertrophic bone growth is caused when additional layering and thickening of bone develops in a jagged and uneven process. There is one case where the growth was considered extremely severe on the anterior portion of the left pubis of a 40-50 year old female, Burial 04-17/18 (Figure 3-83). The additional growth is jagged and quite thick from a normal pubis. There are two possible reasons for this type of hypertrophic bone growth to occur in this region of the pelvis: 1) from an injury to the pubic region (dislocation with muscle pull) and 2) injury during childbirth. Trauma to the pubic symphysis area of the pelvis is rather rare and is termed “pubic symphysis separation” (Galloway 1999, Key and Conwell 1942). Injury to the pubic region where dislocation or fracture occurs to the pubic symphysis would require the force of the impact to come from an anteroposterior compression. The force would cause separations at the pubic symphysis and the sacroiliac joint (Galloway 1999). In modern populations, these types of fractures generally occur as a result of falls from heights or automobile accidents.
The second possibility for this type of trauma possibly occurred through childbirth that results from a difficult labor caused by pressure from the head of the fetus coming through the birth canal. In modern populations, these fractures during childbirth can also occur from the force exerted by the obstetrician as they deliver the infant (Key and Conwell 1942). The amount of hypertrophic growth found on this pubis, then indicates that this trauma was possibly due to one
3-109 of the above causes. It is not suspected that there was a fracture to the element considering there is no evidence of a callus on the dorsal side of the element, which appears smooth. Another consideration regarding a trauma to this portion of the pelvis is age. According to Galloway (1999), older adults are more prone to injury in the pelvic area due to age-related declines in bone density. As this is an older female, it is possible to osteoporosis played a role in the trauma witnessed here.
Figure 3-83: Hypertrophic Bone Growth Found on Anterior of Left Pubis (Burial 04-17/18)
Another traumatic episode occurred to the right pectoral girdle from Burial 04-21 of a female 45- 59 years old. For the scapula, both the acromium process and the posterior portion of the glenoid fossa showed evidence of trauma (Figure 3-84). Specifically, on the dorsal margin of the glenoid fossa, pitting is present along the dorsal lateral margin that is similar to dorsal pitting present on the pubis that has been linked to childbirth. In this case, it looks as if the muscle and ligament attachments that hold the humeral head in place were stressed or pulled away from the bone leaving these pits. The distal end of the acromium process also shows roughened bone and possible pulling of the muscle attachments at this location. The corresponding clavicle at the proximal end has severe degenerative joint disease in the form of extensive lipping that curls back and under on the postero-medial margin (distal end missing). It is possible that this injury to the pectoral girdle on the right side was associated with an accidental fall. This assessment is considered given that the left clavicle for the same individual is fractured near the distal end and has been interpreted above as the result of a fall (Figure 3-81).
3-110
Figure 3-84: Traumatic Episode to the Pectoral Girdle (Burial 04-21)
Manifestations of infection that are associated with previous injuries are represented here by osteomyelitis (previously mentioned) and periostitis. Osteomyelitis occurs when an infectious agent (bacteria) enters the marrow cavity and puss is released through a cloaca that appears as a hole in the bone. If the individual has survived the trauma that has lead to the osteomyelitis and the infection itself, the cloaca will appear smooth, indicating that it has had time to heal, as was the case for one individual in this population (Figure 3-78). Periostitis is a less severe infection and is observed on the bone as reactive or as layering of additional bone over the original cortex. Periostitis general occurs when trauma to the bone surface disrupts the periosteum through impact. Even a fall or hard impact to the leg can cause an inflammation to the area and periostitis can develop. Only one burial exhibited any periosteal reaction for this population and this was for Burial 04-15 of a female 33-46 years old. The right distal fibula and a fibula diaphysis had slight indications of disruption to the periosteum that was most likely caused by injury to the bone from a fall.
Porotic hyperostosis from possible anemia was found on the entire cranium of one male individual over the age of 18 from Burial 04-6 (Figure 3-85). The porotic hyperostosis is recognized by the development of abnormal boney tissue and small holes that one sees on the cortex of the bone. Anemia is a condition that is characterized by a deficiency of hemoglobin, which is often accompanied by a reduced number of red blood cells. The anemia in this population possibly develops from a variety of causes, such as, nutrition, parasite or infection. Though anemia is not an unusual condition found in early prehistoric populations from this region, the amount of porotic hyperostosis found on this one individual’s cranium seems quite extensive.
3-111
Figure 3-85: Porotic Hyperostosis of the Cranium (Burial 04-6)
In this population, indications of age related diseases for individuals included osteoarthritis of the vertebral facets and peripheral joints and osteophytosis of the vertebral bodies. Another indication of age related changes to the skeleton occurs in the form of Pacchionian depressions that form on the endocranial margin. Pacchionian depressions or Arachnoid depressions appear as small circular indentations that form along the parietals. “Such irregularities are formed as the internal table of the cranial vault develops to conform to related structures of the brain and its surrounding tissues” (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). In this population, three individuals had indications of Pacchionian depressions (Figure 3-86). They were Burial 00-2 of a male over 45, Burial 04-15 of a female 33-46, and Burial 04-22A of a female 30-40 years old.
Figure 3-86: Pacchionian Depressions found on the Parietal (Burial 04-22A)
3-112 An unusual anomaly found in this population was a sternal foramen found in Burial 04-22A of a female 30-40 years old (Figure 3-87). The foramen is very small and located in the distal portion of the sternal body. The positioning of this foramen is quite unusual since documentation indicates that they usually appear between the third and fourth segments of the body. The foramen for this individual is located between the fifth and sixth segments, much lower then normal positioning. Additionally, the foramen size is very small with measurements of 3.5 x 3.3 mm with smooth edges on the anterior (ventral) side with a depressed or concaved appearance on the posterior (dorsal) side. No diagnosis for the lower location is offered here.
Figure 3-87: Sternal Foramen (Burial 04-22A)
Conclusion
Of the 29 individuals associated with this burial population the majority of those with paleopathologies, outside of dental, were found in nine skeletons. Additionally, the majority of those nine are older adults. Specifically, there are two individuals that are considered young adults (<30), two that are middle aged adults (31-40), and five that are older adults (>40). The pathologies for all the various age groups are grouped in Table 3-6. As the information suggests, the longer an individual lives, the more likely the evidence of past trauma will be represented in the skeletal remains (Mays 1996, Lovejoy and Heiple 1981). This simple statement was evident in the pathology found in this population. For both of the younger adults, each is associated with one pathology that was present in the skeletal remains. In both cases the pathology present would not be considered as life threatening. The youngest with the porotic hyperostosis has been considered linked to anemia which is caused by three methods: nutrient deficiency, infection, or parasites. Though this generally does not cause death, it will weaken an
3-113 individual’s immunity to other diseases that can lead to other health issues. The second young adult had indentations on the thoracic vertebrae that again would not have lead to their death.
Table 3-6 Paleopathologies Found at CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263
Young Adults (<30): Burial 04-6 Male (18+) Porotic Hyperostosis Burial 04-20 Male (20-30) Depressions on 3 Thoracic
Middle Age Adults (31-40): Burial 01-2 Male (30-39) Indention of T9 Sixth lumbar Left oblique ulna fracture Osteomyelitis Burial 04-22A Female (30-40) Pacchionian depressions Sternal foramen
Older Adults (>40): Burial 00-2 Male (45+) Osteophytosis cervical bodies Porotic lesions on cervical bodies Sixth lumbar Right distal humeral fracture Possible projectile point left ilium Pacchionian depressions Burial 04-15 Female (33-46) Degenerative joint disease of knee Periosteal reaction of fibula Pacchionian depression Burial 04-17/18 Female (40-50) Cranial depression Hypertrophic boney growth, left pubis Burial 04-21 Female (45-49) Osteophytosis of lumbar bodies Degenerative joint disease of wrist Distal left clavicle fracture Boney growth pectoral girdle Burial 04-22B Female (50-60) Osteoarthritis of lumbar facets Degenerative joint disease of both ossa coxae Degenerative joint disease of left patella Distal left transverse ulna fracture
The middle aged adults, unlike the young adults, have more paleopathologies present on the skeleton. The younger of the two middle aged adults has four different indications of pathologies, though two of these are more than likely related to each other. Specifically, osteomyelitis is generally evidence of secondary infection caused from another traumatic event. In this case, the individual with osteomyelitis has a distal left oblique ulna fracture most likely caused by a fall on to an outstretched hand. Once the individual fractured their ulna, a secondary infection appears to have set in and a cloaca formed where puss would have pushed through the
3-114 bone. Additionally, the edges of the cloaca are smooth indicating that the infection cleared up and the individual survived the traumatic event. The two spinal pathologies provide no indication of complications associated with their presence. Specifically, research in modern populations of individuals with a sixth lumbar has determined that it is not a cause for lower back problems in older individuals, that statistically, more individuals with no sixth lumbar have lower back problems (Verkuilen 2009). The second middle aged adult had two pathologies, though neither considered related to trauma. Pacchionian depressions are a clear indication of age related pathology. The other pathology associated with this individual, sternal foramen, though is an unusual anomaly and not an indication of issues caused by trauma.
Similar to the middle aged individuals, the older adults show evidence of more then one pathology. Additionally, some of the pathologies associated with these five individuals are more an indication of attaining old age. These pathologies included osteophytosis, osteoarthritis, degenerative joint disease, and pacchionian depressions. Trauma is represented by the fracture of several bones, muscle pulls, and periosteal reaction. The male over 45 had a fracture of the right distal humerus that in this case may be associated with accidental causation other then intentional trauma due to the location near the insertion point of the muscle (Galloway 1999). The skeleton also had possible evidence of intentional trauma in the ilium where a healed puncture wound appears. Two female skeletons showed evidence of intentional trauma in the skeleton with a fracture of the left ulna and a cranial depression. These were described above and demonstrate that not only were males associated with intentional trauma, but that females were also victims of assault. Ultimately, as the statement above suggests, the longer these individuals lived, the more likely their skeletons will bear the evidence of healed fractures and other pathologies associated with age. Thus, several of the individuals from this population lived to relative old age.
Finally, the majority of the older individuals that lived beyond 40 years of age are female at 6:1, while the younger individuals that lived only until approximately 30 were all male. This pattern could be a reflection of activity patterns associated with younger individuals involved in more risky behavior, such as, warfare and hunting. The older aged individual’s activity patterns could then be a reflection of the roles that females played in the pre-contact Ohlone populations.
3-115 Chapter 4 Preliminary Report on the Extraction of Ancient DNA from CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 by Cara Monroe, School of Biological Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA Brian M. Kemp, School of Biological Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA and Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA
BACKGROUND: MITOCHONDRIAL DNA (mtDNA) PROPERTIES AND NATIVE AMERICAN mtDNA VARIATION
MtDNA is an extra-nuclear genome found in the mitochondria of cells. Each mitochondrion contains one or two copies of the genome and each cell contains approximately 700 mitochondria (resulting in estimates of 1000-1500 copies of the genome per cell versus nuclear genes that are only found in only two copies per cell). The high copy number of the mtDNA genome partial compensates for the fact that DNA degrades with time, and has become the choice genetic marker for the investigation of DNA from skeletal remains.
Other unique characteristics of the genome further illustrate its utility in studies of biological relationships. Human mtDNA is strictly maternally inherited (Giles et al., 1980), reflecting only female movement/history, and is particularly useful in discerning ancestor-descendant relationships because it does not recombine during meiosis (Merriwether et al., 1991; Schurr et al., 1990). Rapid evolution of the mitochondrial genome (Brown et al., 1979) allows one to use this molecule in studies of populations that share recent common ancestry, such as the Native Americans. Lastly, the genome has been fully sequenced (Anderson et al., 1981) and its variation investigated in worldwide populations, having resulted in a large comparative database.
Mitochondrial DNA has been instrumental to the investigation of relatedness among and between Native American tribal groups (while not near a complete list, see Barrantes et al., 1990; Bolnick and Smith, 2003; Eshleman et al., 2004; Kolman and Bermingham, 1997; Kolman et al., 1995; Malhi, 2001; Malhi et al., 2004; Malhi et al., 2003; Torroni et al., 1994; Torroni et al., 1992; Weiss, 2001; among many others), migrations into the New World (Horai et al., 1993; Lorenz and Smith, 1997; Malhi et al., 2002; Merriwether and Ferrell, 1996), and ancient DNA (aDNA) in the Americas (Carlyle et al., 2000; Eshleman, 2002; González-Oliver et al., 2001; Kaestle and Smith, 2001; Kemp et al., forthcoming; Lalueza-Fox 1996; Lalueza-Fox et al., 2003; Lalueza-Fox et al., 2001; Malhi, 2001; Parr et al., 1996; Schultz et al., 2001; Stone and Stoneking, 1996; Stone and Stoneking, 1998). Studies of this genetic marker among New World populations have revealed that the mtDNA of most Native Americans belong to one of five maternal macro-lineages, or haplogroups A, B, C, D, and X (Brown et al., 1998; Forster et al., 1996; Schurr et al., 1990; Smith et al., 1999). The distribution of haplogroup frequencies across North America is non-random and is attributable to geographic distance and/or linguistic boundaries (Lorenz and Smith, 1996). This patterning has also been revealed in the overall structure of mtDNA diversity in North America (Malhi et al., 2002). Each haplogroup can be further sub-divided by genetic differences found in the control region (the hypervariable regions) of the molecule. Some of these sub-lineages (haplotypes) have been found to be tribal (Malhi et al., 2002; Torroni et al., 1993) or language family specific (Derbeneva et al., 2002). Therefore,
4-1 mtDNA may be used to characterize populations and, thus, be used to assess biological relationships.
Recent review papers provide a more thorough understanding of the use of mtDNA in addressing New World prehistory (Eshleman et al., 2003; Schurr, 2004).
TERMINOLOGY
“Haplogroup” versus “Haplotype” are two terms commonly misunderstood.
Haplogroups are groups of haplotypes that have shared mutations, denoting a common origin or shared ancestry sometime in the past. The mtDNA nomenclature is often confusing, but haplogroups are usually labeled with letters. For example A, B, C, D and X are Native American haplogroups, but are also found in Asia. These groups are determined (usually but not always) by mutations in the mtDNA coding region.
Haplotypes are specific lineages within a haplogroup defined by sequence variation beyond that defining the haplogroup. In our investigation haplotypes are defined by additional mutations that occur in the hypervariable region. Since there is a very high mutation rate in the hypervariable region, this area of the genome is particular informative in studying more recent population prehistory since there is sufficient time for mutations to accumulate, and therefore it is possible to distinguish between even closely related populations. Haplotype data provide finer resolution to the interaction of particular maternal lineages.
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
As DNA extracted from ancient remains tends to be in low copy number and is highly degraded (Lindahl, 1993; Pääbo, 1990), aDNA extractions are highly susceptible to contamination originating from modern sources. Modern contaminating DNA can be in higher copy number and more fully intact than the endogenous aDNA and, thus, can compete with aDNA during polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. Ancient DNA extractions can become contaminated via two sources: surface contamination of the bone or tooth from handling the material or later in DNA laboratory, during DNA extraction and analysis.
The former source of contamination can originate at any step of an aDNA study from the time of excavation of the remains to the time of DNA extraction. Modern contamination of the bone or tooth surface can arise from anyone who has had direct contact with the material, including the archaeologist that excavated the remains, any archaeological researchers that analyzed (e.g. cataloging, measuring) the remains, as well DNA laboratory personnel. That a skeletal or tooth surface can become contaminated, it is particularly important to successfully remove the contamination before DNA extraction begins. To accomplish this goal, the remains were treated with a bleach solution to remove surface contamination (Kemp and Smith, Forthcoming; see below in Methods section)
The latter source can originate from reagents, labware, PCR carryover, or DNA lab personnel. As such, procedures that reduce contamination were implemented, including: the use of DNA
4-2 free lab-ware and reagents, all processing of ancient materials was performed in a laboratory physically separated from the one in which modern DNA is examined, and the use of negative controls in both DNA extraction and amplification to monitor contamination, if present (following the advice of Kelman and Kelman, 1999).
DNA EXTRACTION
The first set of extractions utilized between 0.2-0.6g of tooth that was removed from the whole. The sample was submerged in 6% sodium hypochlorite (bleach) for 15 min (Kemp and Smith, 2005). The bleach was removed by rinsing the sample with DNA free water (Gibco). The sample was then submerged in 2-3 mL of molecular grade (DNA free) 0.5 M EDTA, pH 8.0 (Gibco) for >48 hours. An extraction control, to which no bone was added, accompanied the extraction and was subject to all of the steps that follow. To the samples three mg of Proteinase K was added, and then was incubated at 65°C for 3 hours.
DNA was extracted from the digested sample using a three-step phenol/chloroform method: two extractions adding an equal volume of phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1) to the EDTA, followed by one extraction with an equal volume of chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (24:1).
To aid in the removal of co-extracted polymerase chain reaction (PCR) inhibitors, DNA was precipitated out of solution with isopropanol (Hänni et al., 1995). This was performed by adding one half volume of room temperature 5 M ammonium acetate and, to this combined volume, one volume of room temperature absolute isopropanol, then storing the solution overnight at room temperature.
The tube was centrifuged for 30 min at 3100 rpm to pellet the DNA. The liquid was discarded and the tube was air-dried for 15 minutes. The pelleted DNA was washed with 1 mL of 80% ethanol by vortexing for about 30 seconds (making sure to dislodge the pellet from the side of the tube). Centrifuging the tube for 30 min at 3100 again pelleted the DNA. The ethanol was poured off and the tubes air-dried for 15 min. To further remove co-extracted PCR inhibitors, the pelleted DNA was re-suspended in 300 µL of DNA-free ddH2O and silica extracted (Höss and Pääbo, 1993) using the Wizard PCR Preps DNA Purification System (Promega), following the manufacturer’s instructions (except that the DNA was finally eluted with 100 µL of ddH2O). The final solution was stored between -20°C and +4°C.
PCR AMPLIFICATION AND MITOCHONDRIAL HAPLOGROUP ASSIGNMENT OF SAMPLES FROM CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263
The sample was first screened for the polymorphisms that define haplogroups A, B, C, and D. The sample was not tested for markers characterizing haplogroup X. To accomplish this screening, PCR is used to amplify small regions of the mtDNA genome that contain the known mutations that define the haplogroups. The defining polymorphisms for the Native American haplogroups are as follow: haplogroup A is defined by the HaeIII restriction enzyme site gain at nucleotide position (np) 663 (this number refers to the position in the mtDNA genome, at which the polymorphism is found), haplogroup B by a 9-base pair (bp) intergenic deletion in region V of the mtDNA genome, haplogroup C by the HincII site loss at np 13,259 and an AluI site gain at
4-3 np 13,262, haplogroup D by the AluI site loss at np 5176 (Forster et al., 1996; Schurr et al., 1990).
Fifteen microliter PCR amplification reactions contained: 0.32 mM dNTPs, 1X PCR Buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 2.4 mM primers, 0.3 U of Platinum Taq (Invitrogen), and 1.5 µL of template DNA. Negative controls (PCR reactions to which no DNA template was added) accompanied every set of PCR reactions to monitor the presence of contaminating DNA. Coordinates, numbered according to the Cambridge Reference Sequence (Anderson et al., 1981), for primers used are found in Table 1.
Table 4-1 Primers Used in this Study, with Annealing Temperatures
Annealing Target Region Primer Coordinates* Temperature Citation A 611F 00591-00611 55°C (Stone and Stoneking, 1993) 743R 00765-00743
B 8215F 08195-08215 55°C (Wrischnik et al., 1987) 8297R 08316-08297
C 13256F 13237-13256 55°C (Parr et al., 1996) 13397R 13419-13397 D 5120F 05099-05120 55°C (Parr et al., 1996) 5190F 05190-05211 HVI-1 15986F 15986-16010 62°C # This Study 16153R 16132-16153 HVI-2 16106F 16106-16126 62°C # This Study 16251R 16230-16251 HVI-3 16190F 16190-16209 58°C # This Study 16355R 16331-16355 HVI-4 16232F 16232-16249 58°C # This Study 16404R 16383-16404 *Coordinates, numbered according to the Cambridge Reference Sequence (Anderson et al., 1981). #Touch-down PCR used, decreasing the annealing temperature 0.1°C after each cycle.
PCR conditions were as follows: denaturation at 94°C for 3 min, followed by 15 second holds at 94°C, 55°C, and 72°C, followed by a final 3 min extension period at 72°C. Approximately four microliters of the amplified DNA was separated on a 6% polyacrylamide gel. The gel was stained with ethidium bromide and visualized under UV light, either confirming the successful amplification of the amplicon, for later restriction enzyme analysis, or to score the presence or absence of the 9-bp deletion.
4-4 The sample was not screened for haplogroup X markers. However, for reference haplogroup X is defined by the DdeI site loss at np 1715 and np 10,394 and the AccI site gain at np 14,465 (Brown et al., 1998; Forster et al., 1996; Smith et al., 1999).
HAPLOGROUP RESULTS
Eleven of the 30 samples from CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA263 have been assigned to haplogroup A, B, C, or D (Table 4-2). Three samples could not be assigned to haplogroup A, B, C, or D, and are currently under further examination. The remaining samples have not consistently amplified during PCR and may suffer from PCR inhibition. Further techniques will be utilized to determine if viable DNA exists.
Haplogroup frequencies of the CA-SCL-287/CA-SCL-263 site and those of other California and Great Basin populations are shown in Figure 4-1. This figure represents previous mtDNA work done on California populations as well as nearby regions. Note that some populations have extremely small samples sizes and may not represent haplogroup frequencies if sample sizes were increased.
A principle coordinate analysis was performed comparing the haplogroup frequencies from CA- SCL-287/CA-SCL-263 to other populations in the region both ancient and modern (Figure 4-2). This analysis produces a visual depiction of the genetic distances between populations (based on FST). The colored ovals have been added to depict the possible influence each haplogroup has had on the distribution of population across the plot. For example, groups from the Modern Great Basin have a high frequency of haplogroup B and D and correspondingly the analysis has placed this population in the lower left quadrant where other populations with similar haplogroup frequencies are located. CA-SCL-287/CA-SCL-263 separates out from most other populations. This may due to small sample sizes from the sites as well as other populations however, it could also be the result of varying regional patterns in haplogroup frequencies.
A Fisher’s exact test was also performed using the haplogroup frequencies exhibited by the CA- SCL-287/CA-SCL-263 burial population (Table 4-3). The principle behind this test is to determine if the CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 population could have statistically been drawn from the same gene pool as the other populations to which it is being compared. Using a 5% cut-off for statistical significance, p-values greater than 0.05 indicate that two populations are statistically indistinguishable from each other (signified by a minus sign (–) in Table 4-3), whereas values below 0.05 indicate that they are statistically different (denoted by a plus sign (+) in Table 4-3).
PCR Amplification and Sequencing of samples from CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263
Thirty microliter PCR amplification reactions contained: 0.32 mM dNTPs, 1X PCR Buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 2.4 mM primers, 0.3 U of Platinum Taq (Invitrogen), and 3.0 µL of DNA template. Each portion of the hypervariable region was subjected to 60 cycles of PCR, as follows: 3 min denaturing at 94°C, followed by 15 second holds at 94°C, at the annealing temperature (Table 4- 1), and at 72°C, followed by a final 3 min extension period at 72°C. About 3-4 µL of the amplicons were run on 6% polyacrylamide gels, stained with ethidium bromide and visualized
4-5 Table 4-2 Mitochondrial Haplogroup Assignment of Samples from CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA263
CA-SCL-287/CA-SCL-263 DNA Samples Studied
Site Burial No. Haplogroup Sequence 14C 5.0.1 Calib Corrected Assignment Data/Haplotype Age, B.P. (2 sigma) SCL-287 B. 00-1 B Results expected SCL-287 B. 00-2 A Results expected SCL-287 B. 00-3 C Results expected SCL-287 B. 01-1 D Results expected SCL-287 B. 01-2 Unknown* 1850 ± AD 160 (AD 65-254) 43 SCL-287 B. 01-3 Unknown 1848 ± AD 161 (AD 67-255) 43 SCL-287 B. 01-4 B Results expected SCL-287 B. 04-5 Unknown Results expected
SMA-263 B. 04-6 D 1611 ± AD 462 (AD 376-548) 42 SCL-287 B. 04-7 Unknown 1987 ± 4 BC (185 BC-AD 76 177) SCL-287 B. 04-8 Unknown 1822 ± AD 188 (AD 118-258) 35 SCL-287 B. 04-9 Unknown SCL-287 B. 04-10 Unknown SCL-287 B. 04-11 Unknown SCL-287 B. 04-12 C YES-see results 1301 ± AD 716 (AD 658-774) section 34 SCL-287 B. 04-13 Unknown SCL-287 B. 04-14 A Results expected SCL-287 B. 04-15 D Results expected 1814 ± AD 191 (AD 122-260) 36 SCL-287 B. 04-16 Unknown SCL-287 B. 04- B Results expected 1787± AD 234 (AD 131-337) 17/18 36 SCL-287 B. 04-19 Unknown SCL-287 B. 04-20 Unknown 1889 ± AD 141 (AD 48-233) 42 SCL-287 B. 04-21 Unknown SCL-287 B. 04-22A D Results expected 1846 ± AD 161 (AD 80-242) 35 SCL-287 B. 04-22B Unknown SMA-263 B. 04-23 Unknown SMA-263 B.04-24 Unknown *Unknown: Cannot yet confirm or disclaim the existence of endogenous DNA
4-6 Figure 4-1 Haplogroup Frequencies Exhibited by the Archaeological Populations Studied Here (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA263) and Other Previously Studied Extant and Prehistoric Populations from California, the Great Basin, and Plateau (Eshleman, 2002; Johnson and Lorenz, 2006; Kaestle and Smith, 2001; Malhi et al., 2004; Potter, 2005)
Northwest
MtDNA HAPLOGROUP
4-7 Figure 4-2 Principal Coordinate Plot Based on Haplogroup Frequencies
4-8 Table 4-3: Fisher’s Exact Test Based on Haplogroup Frequencies Significance p=0.05
Ancient ChannelIsl Ancient GreatBasin Applegate Site Cahuilla Cecil Site Chumash Southern Costanoan Cook Site Ipai/Tipai Luiseno/Gabrielino Modern GreatBasin NorthWest Coast Sahaptain (Plateau) Salinan Serano/Vanyume Sierra Miwok CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA- Tubatulabal Washo Wishram Yakima Yokuts
Ancient Channel Isl * Ancient Great Basin + * Applegate Site - + * Cahuilla - + - *
4-9 Cecil Site + + - - * Chumash + + + + + * Southern Costanoan ------* Ipai/Tipai - + - - - + - - * Luiseno/Gabrielino - + - - - + - + - * Modern Great Basin + - + - + + - + + + * NorthWest Coast + + + + + - + + + + + * Sahaptain (Plateau) - - - - - + - - - - - + * Salinan - + - - + - - + + + - - - * Serano/Vanyume ------+ - - * Sierra Miwok - - - - + + - - - + - - - * CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 - - - - + + - - - - + - - - - * Tubatulabal ------+ - - - - - * Washo - + - - + + - + - + + + - + - - - - * Wishram + + + + + + - + + + + + ------+ * Yakima + + + + + + - + + + + + - + - - - - + - * Yokuts + - + - + + - + + + - + ------*
with UV, as described above, to confirm success in amplification. Approximately 4µL of PCR product was separated on 6% polyacrylamide gels. The gels were stained with ethidium bromide and visualized under UV light to confirm successful amplification. Amplicons were prepared for sequencing by adding 10 U of ExoI and 2 U of SAP. This reaction was conducted at 37°C for 20 minutes, followed by 80°C for 20 minutes. Sequencing was conducted in both directions at the DNA Analysis Facility on Science Hill at Yale University.
RESULTS OF SEQUENCING HYPERVARIABLE REGION I
Sequencing of the CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 samples are still in progress. However sequence data from burial SCL-287 B. 04-12 is available from np 16011-16382, and exhibits the following polymorphisms, relative to the Cambridge Reference Sequence (Anderson et al., 1981): 16223(T), 16298(C), 16311(C), 16325(C), and 16327(T). This sequence confirms the assignment of individual SCL-287 B. 04-12 to haplogroup C.
RELATIONSHIP OF STA 4-12 SEQUENCE TO PUBLISHED NATIVE AMERICAN SEQUENCES
The first hypervariable region sequence of the SCL-287 B. 04-12 individual was compared to published Native American sequences both modern and ancient (Table 4-4). This individual has the same mitochondrial sequence as individuals in the following populations: Northern Paiute (Kaestle, 1998), Owens Valley Paiute (Kemp et al., 2006), Washo (Kaestle, 1998), Cook Site (CA-SOL-270) (Eshleman, 2002), Applegate Site (CA-AMA-56) (Eshleman, 2002), and Cecil Site (CA-SJO-112) (Eshleman, 2002). This indicates that the modern populations that match this individual (SCL-287 B. 04-12) have a maternal ancestry sometime in the past with the burial. The match of SCL-287 B. 04-12 with other prehistoric sites such as the Cook Site, Applegate Site, and Cecil Site (located in the Central Valley as well as the Bay Area) indicates that the residents of these three sites have common maternal ancestry. The fact that all matches are found in the California region (amongst over 3,000 sequences published to date) indicates that this is a regional haplotype/lineage specific to California and the Great Basin.
CONCLUSIONS
Over of a third of the burials from CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 appear to contain well-preserved mtDNA. This preliminary report hints at the place of this “population” among others in California and beyond. Additional analyses at Washington State University are needed to confirm these results and collect further sequence data from the samples. Upon completion of the project a manuscript will be prepared for a peer-review publication.
4-10 Table 4-4: Comparison of the CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263-Burial “Stan 4-12” Hypervariable Region I Sequence to Published Sequences
1 1 1 1 1 6 6 6 6 6 2 2 3 3 3 2 9 1 2 2 Population N 3 8 1 5 7 Origin Citation CRS* CTTTC STA 4-12 1 T C CCTBay Area C California Northern Paiute 2 TCCCTGreat Basin (Kaestle, 1998) Owen’s Valley Paiute 5 TCCCTGreat (Kemp et al., Basin/California 2006) Washo 2 TCCCTSierra California (Kaestle, 1998) Cecil Site (CA-SJO-112) 2 TCCCTCentral (Eshleman, California 2002) Cook Site (CA-SOL-270) 3 T CCCTBay Area (Eshleman, California 2002) Applegate Site (CA-AMA-56) 1 TCCCTBay Area (Eshleman, California 2002) *CRS=Cambridge Reference Sequence ?=missing data
4-11 Chapter 5 Paleodietary Analysis of Human Remains from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites: CA-SCL-287 AND CA-SMA-263 by Eric J. Bartelink, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico
INTRODUCTION
Since the late 1970s, stable isotope analysis has been used by archaeologists to provide insight on past lifeways, such as the reconstruction of ancient diets, human migration patterns, infant weaning practices, and prehistoric trade networks. The adage “you are what you eat” is the foundation for using stable isotopes for dietary reconstruction and refers to the relationship between the isotopic composition of an animal’s tissues and its diet (DeNiro and Epstein 1978; Fry 2006). Thus, isotopic analyses of bones provide a record of food consumption practices during the last 10-15 years of life of the individual. Paleodietary studies usually focus on carbon (13C/12C) and nitrogen (15N/14N) isotope analysis, which have provided baseline data on different societies that consumed isotopically distinct food resources.
In this chapter, I review the theoretical basis of stable isotope analysis and provide parameters for prehistoric diets using isotopic values of flora and fauna from central California. Next, I provide a dietary reconstruction of 26 of the 27 late Holocene human burials from CA-SCL-287 (n=24) and CA-SMA-263 (n=2) using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes of bone collagen and stable carbon isotopes of bone apatite. Ten of these burials have associated AMS dates (4 BC – AD 716), providing a subsample with greater temporal resolution. CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA- 263 are part of a single site called the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe; thus, both datasets are combined for analysis.
STABLE ISOTOPES
Stable isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons and a different number of neutrons. Because stable isotopes do not undergo radioactive decay, they provide a record of the in vivo chemical signatures of an organism. Although chemically similar, isotopes of the same element react at different rates in chemical reactions due to slight differences in atomic mass. This results in the disproportionate enrichment of one isotope over another is a process known as isotopic fractionation (Fry 2006). Stable isotope values are expressed as the ratio of the “rare” (heavy) isotope to the “abundant” (light) isotope (e.g., 13C/12C) compared to a known standard, expressed in permil (‰) or parts per thousand relative to the standard (Schoeller 1999). International laboratory standards are provided by the National Bureau of Standards and the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna. The delta notation symbol (δ) is used to express the isotopic ratio of a sample relative to the standard. Isotope values are calculated as follows: δ = (R sample – R standard)/ R (standard) x 1000
Where R is equal to the ratio of the rare to the abundant isotope in the sample compared with that of the standard.
5-1 Stable carbon isotopes are expressed relative to the PDB standard, a Cretaceous belemnite fossil from the Peedee formation in South Carolina. PDB is arbitrarily assigned a value of 0‰ and is enriched in 13C relative to organic carbon and most terrestrial carbonate materials. Hence, δ13C values for most living things are negative relative to the standard. Stable isotopes of nitrogen are 15 14 expressed by the ratio of N/ N relative to the standard of atmospheric N2 (AIR), also arbitrarily set at 0‰. Because air is more depleted in 15N than most living things, δ15N values in most living things are positive relative to the standard. Substances that have higher delta (δ) values are more enriched in the “heavy” isotope (Fry 2006).
STABLE CARBON AND NITROGEN ISOTOPE ANALYSIS
13 12 Carbon isotopes ( C/ C) in bone reflect the consumption of C3, C4, and CAM plants and the animals that eat these plants. During photosynthesis each type of plant utilizes a different carbon molecule to incorporate carbon into its tissues. C3 plants use a 3-carbon molecule, referred to as Calvin-Benson photosynthesis, which discriminates more against the isotopically heavier 13C when incorporating atmospheric CO2. These plants include most plant life (including trees, shrubs, legumes, and tubers) typical of temperate regions. C4 plants use a 4-carbon molecule (Hatch-Slack photosynthesis) that discriminates less against the isotopically heavier 13C compared to C3 plants when incorporating atmospheric CO2. C4 plants include tropical grasses such as maize, millet, and sorghum that are typical of hot and arid climates. Due to these differences, C4 plants average –12.5‰, while C3 plants average –26.5‰ (Schwarcz and Schoeninger 1991). CAM plants include succulents and cacti and fall between the range of C3 and C4 plants depending on the degree of daytime photosynthesis. In marine environments, carbon is derived from dissolved bicarbonate, C3 and C4 plants, and photosynthesizing phytoplankton. This typically results in carbon isotope values in organisms that overlap with C4 plants, thus permitting discrimination of marine versus terrestrial diets in a consumer’s tissues in regions where C4 plants are not consumed as food resources (Schoeninger et al. 1983; Schwarcz and Schoeninger 1991).
Controlled feeding experiments using rodents fed a pure C3, C4, or a mixed diet demonstrate that carbon molecules from dietary protein are preferentially routed to bone collagen, while carbon molecules in bone apatite are derived from bicarbonate dissolved in the blood and reflect the isotopic composition of the whole diet (Ambrose and Norr, 1993; Tieszen and Fagre, 1993). Thus, the use of carbon isotopes of both collagen and apatite permits greater discrimination of the contributions of different dietary macronutrients (Kellner and Schoeninger 2008).
15 14 Nitrogen has two stable isotopes, N and N, which are incorporated into plants from N2 in the atmosphere and ocean water. Marine plants typically have more positive isotope values than terrestrial plants and these differences are reflected in animal consumers. Unlike carbon, nitrogen isotopes show a trophic level effect, with the tissues of its consumers enriched ~3‰ over food values at each level in the food web (Schwarcz and Schoeninger 1991). Nitrogen isotope values are typically higher in marine ecosystems than in terrestrial ecosystems due to longer food chains.
5-2 DIETARY RECONSTRUCTION IN PREHISTORIC CENTRAL CALIFORNIA
California has long served as a testing ground for archaeologists interested in nonagricultural adaptive strategies (Beaton 1991; Broughton 1999; Jones and Raab 2004, ed.). Estimates for pre-contact central California suggest that populations reached some of the highest numbers for North America, despite the lack of agricultural development. In the Central Valley, archaeologists have suggested a greater emphasis on hunted game than vegetal foodstuffs in the Early Period (approximately 4950-2450 BP or 2940-400 BC), based on the abundance of large- tipped stone points and scarcity of stone grinding implements (Baumhoff 1963; Heizer 1949; Ragir 1972). Large artiodactyls dominate many Early Period faunal assemblages from central California, suggesting their importance as a food resource compared to smaller fauna (Broughton 1994, 1999). Middle and Late Period (approximately 2450-240 BP or 440 BC – AD 1769) sites show an increase in the abundance of portable mortars and pestles, presumably reflecting a shift in subsistence toward intensified acorn use, a finding also supported by paleobotanical research (Basgall 1987; Beaton 1991; Wohlgemuth 1996).
In the San Francisco Bay area, archaeofaunal research indicates a greater emphasis on large terrestrial fauna (e.g., elk, deer) and large marine mammals early in time, followed by a shift towards smaller terrestrial fauna and shellfish later in time (Broughton 1999, Simons 1992). Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data of bone collagen indicate that Early Period groups from the northeastern San Francisco Bay area received most of their dietary protein from high trophic level marine resources, whereas Middle and Late Period groups consumed a wider variety of marine and terrestrial resources (Bartelink 2006, 2009a, 2009b; Beasley 2008). The northeastern and southeastern reaches of the Bay provided ready access to marine resources compared to the more interior sites of the southern Bay, such as CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263. Therefore, it is expected that data from the southern Bay area will reflect a more terrestrially focused diet relative to other sites along the eastern bayshore. Stable carbon isotope data of bone apatite should also reflect the whole diet, and can be used in conjunction with carbon isotope data from collagen to assess the source of dietary macronutrients.
Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis can provide evidence regarding the relative importance of different foodstuffs to the diet, especially among groups that consumed resources from both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Stable isotopes record a bulk average of the dietary resources consumed over the past 10-15 years of life, and can be used to evaluate differences in diet among individuals and groups. The chemical analysis of human bone from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 will provide novel data on the food consumption patterns in the prehistoric San Francisco Bay area.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
AMS Dating
Bone samples from 10 burials were submitted by the Muwekma Tribe/Ohlone Families Consulting Services and Alan Leventhal (San Jose State University) to the University of Arizona’s NSF Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, located in Tucson, AZ for dating (see: http://www.physics.arizona.edu/ams/). AMS dates are reported in Table 5-1.
5-3 Stable Isotope Analysis
Preparation of the stable isotope samples was conducted by Melanie Beasley (lab technician) in the Stable Isotope Preparation Laboratory at CSU-Chico. For each burial, approximately 2-3 g of bone was sampled for stable isotope analysis. The “collagen” fraction was extracted using the hydrochloric acid chunk procedure and involved treating samples with a 0.25 M hydrochloric acid solution until demineralized (Ambrose 1993; Schwarcz and Schoeninger 1991). Collagen pseudomorphs were soaked for 24 hours in a 0.125 M sodium hydroxide solution to remove humic contaminants. Samples were then solubilized in pH≈3 water and then freeze-dried in glass scintillation vials. Collagen δ13C and δ15N was measured by continuous-flow mass spectrometry (PDZ Europa ANCA-GSL elemental analyzer interfaced to a PDZ Europa 20-20 isotope ratio mass spectrometer) at the Stable Isotope Facility, under the direction of Dr. David Harris, Department of Plant Sciences, UC Davis. The percent collagen yield and atomic C/N ratio for each sample fell within the range of well-preserved collagen (DeNiro 1985; van Klinken 1999), with the exception of Burial 04-24 (CA-SMA-263), which failed to produce collagen.
Bone apatite samples were ground into a powder using a steel mortar and pestle, and then sieved through fine mesh screen (200 μm). The organic “collagen” was removed with a 48 hour treatment of 1.5 percent sodium hypochlorite solution, replaced once at 24 hours using a 0.04 ml solution/mg sample ratio (Koch et al. 1997). The powdered apatite samples were then treated with a 1.0 M acetate-buffered (pH≈4.5) acetic acid solution for 24 hours (replaced once at 12 hours) to remove soluble contaminants (using a 0.04 ml solution/mg sample ratio). δ13C values were measured at the Stable Isotope Laboratory using a GVI Optima Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer, under the direction of David Winter and Dr. Howard Spero, Department of Geology, UC Davis.
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
General Comparisons: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes of Bone Collagen
Table 5-1 presents the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values for each burial. Table 5-2 provides the descriptive statistics. The δ13C values range from -19.3‰ to 14.8‰ (mean = -18.3‰ ± 0.9, 1 SD), which is consistent with a diet composed mainly of C3 terrestrial proteins with some contribution of marine proteins for some individuals. Burial 04-10 (CA-SCL-287), an adult male, has the highest δ13C value in the sample (-14.8‰), indicating this individual received the majority of his dietary protein from marine resources. With this burial removed, the sample has δ13C values that range from -19.3‰ to -17.1‰, reflecting a terrestrial emphasis for the remaining individuals.
5-4 Table 5-1: Stable Isotope Values and AMS Dates
13 15 13 14 Age-at- δ Ccoll δ Ncoll δ Capat Δ apat-coll C Age 5.0.1 Calib Corrected Site Burial No. Sex Death (‰) (‰) (‰) spacing B.P. (2 sigma) SCL-287 B. 00-1 F 25+ -18.6 8.1 -13.2 5.4 SCL-287 B. 00-2 M 45+ -18.3 9.5 -13.7 4.6 SCL-287 B. 00-3 M 17-23 -17.1 9.6 -11.5 5.6 SCL-287 B. 01-1 SA 3-5 -17.7 10.6 -12.0 5.8 SCL-287 B. 01-2 PM 25-35 -18.4 7.9 -12.3 6.1 1850 ± 43 AD 160 (AD 65-254) SCL-287 B. 01-3 SA 0.5-1.5 -18.3 10.5 -13.4 4.9 1848 ± 43 AD 161 (AD 67-255) SCL-287 B. 01-4 M 30-39 -18.2 9.8 -14.1 4.1 SCL-287 B. 04-5 Ind. 18+ (?) -18.2 8.8 -10.3 7.9 SMA-263 B. 04-6 M 18+ -18.0 9.1 -12.0 6.0 1611 ± 42 AD 462 (AD 376-548) SCL-287 B. 04-7 M 25+ -18.8 8.7 -11.2 7.6 1987 ± 76 4 BC (185 BC-AD 177) SCL-287 B. 04-8 M 26-32 -18.6 9.1 -12.4 6.2 1822 ± 35 AD 188 (AD 118-258) SCL-287 B. 04-9 F 33-46 -19.1 7.8 -11.5 7.6 SCL-287 B. 04-10 M 30+ -14.8 14.4 -8.8 6.0 SCL-287 B. 04-11 SA 3-7 -18.7 9.4 -11.4 7.3 SCL-287 B. 04-12 F 45-49 -18.7 8.3 -11.9 6.8 1301 ± 34 AD 716 (AD 658-774) SCL-287 B. 04-13 F 40-49 -19.1 6.5 -12.7 6.4 SCL-287 B. 04-14 Ind. 30+ -18.9 8.6 -12.0 6.9 SCL-287 B. 04-15 F 33-46 -18.6 7.8 -14.2 4.5 1814 ± 36 AD 191 (AD 122-260) SCL-287 B. 04-16 Ind. 18+ (?) -18.4 8.2 -12.4 6.0 SCL-287 B. 04-17/18 F 40-46 -19.3 7.3 -12.6 6.7 1787±36 AD 234 (AD 131-337) SCL-287 B. 04-19 Ind. 20-29 -18.1 8.8 -12.4 5.7 SCL-287 B. 04-20 M 20-30 -18.8 7.9 -11.9 6.9 1889 ± 42 AD 141 (AD 48-233) SCL-287 B. 04-21 F 45-59 -18.0 9.0 -14.2 3.8 SCL-287 B. 04-22A F 30-40 -18.3 8.8 -14.6 3.8 1846 ± 35 AD 161 (AD 80-242) SCL-287 B. 04-22B F 50-60 -18.7 8.1 -12.6 6.1 SMA-263 B. 04-23 M 16+ -17.6 10.1 -13.8 3.8 SMA-263 B.04-24 Ind Adult n/a n/a n/a n/a No collag
Table 5-2: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Descriptive Statistics
Δ apat-coll 13 15 13 δ Ccoll (‰) δ Ncoll (‰) δ Capat (‰) spacing
Mean -18.3 8.9 -12.4 5.9
Range 4.5 7.9 5.8 4.1
SD 0.9 1.5 1.3 1.2
The δ15N values range from 6.5‰ to 14.4‰ (mean = 8.9‰ ± 1.5, 1 SD), which is also consistent with consumption of C3 terrestrial and some freshwater fish or mussel and/or low trophic level marine protein. Again, Burial 04-10 (CA-SCL-287) has the highest δ15N value in the sample
5-5 (14.4‰), indicating consumption of high trophic level protein resources. With this burial excluded, the δ15N values range from 6.5‰ to 10.6‰, indicating there is still substantial variation in the trophic levels exploited by different individuals.
Figure 5-1 plots stable isotope values for a number of economically important plant and animal resources from central California. The data for animals represent adjusted “meat values”, accounting for published diet-to-tissue offsets due to fractionation between meat and bone collagen. The individual boxes represent minimum and maximum values for different food resources from central California based on archaeofaunal and modern faunal and floral data reported in Bartelink (2006). However, freshwater fish are poorly characterized for California and the box model represents a global range based on studies from a number of regions. The modern plant and animal carbon isotope values are corrected by +1.5‰ for the “Suess Effect” (i.e., the depletion of atmospheric δ13C due to fossil fuel burning) to bring values in line with the prehistoric food web. The plot shows clear differences between marine and terrestrial resources and also demonstrates the stepwise increase in nitrogen isotope values along the food web. This model should only be considered an approximation of the isotopic composition of available food resources due to limited sample representation of several key food resources.
For stable carbon isotopes, human collagen δ13C values should be ~5‰ higher than the source of dietary protein due to the average fractionation offset between diet and bone collagen (Figure 5- 1). This assumes that the δ13C of dietary protein is equal to that of the whole diet; thus, marine food consumers will have diet to collagen offsets higher than 5‰, slightly expanding the range of possible resources consumed (as represented in Figure 5-1 based on the apatite-collagen spacing of four individuals). Adding 5‰ to the human collagen values, the range of values (-22.1 to -24.3‰, excluding Burial 04-10) overlaps with terrestrial herbivores and plants from C3 ecosystems, freshwater fish, and freshwater mussel. For δ15N, human collagen values should be ~3‰ higher than the source of dietary protein due to the trophic level effect. Subtracting 3‰, the range of human values (3.5 to 7.6‰, excluding Burial 04-10) also overlaps with protein sources such as freshwater fish and mussel, and terrestrial herbivores from C3 ecosystems (Figure 5-1). Despite the lack of overlap with marine resources, such as shellfish, these foods may still have been consumed in small amounts.
Figure 5-2 plots the carbon and nitrogen isotope values on the x and y-axis respectively for the 26 burials (Note: B. 02-24 had no collagen) [see Table 5-2]. The graphic shows a moderate level of dietary variability among individuals, especially in the δ15N values. The individuals with low carbon and nitrogen isotope values received the majority of their dietary protein from C3–based resources, whereas those with higher carbon and nitrogen isotope values also likely consumed a small amount of freshwater fish and/or marine foods, most likely low trophic level resources such as shellfish. The overlapping isotope values in Figure 5-1 prevent discrimination between some food resources; however, it is clear that for most individuals (with the exception of Burial 04-10), dietary protein is primarily derived from C3 ecosystems with consumption of a small amount of freshwater fish and/or shellfish resources for some individuals. Faunal evidence from the site does not indicate use of freshwater mussel, so this resource may not have contributed to the isotope signatures.
5-6
Marine Mammals Marine Fish
N (AIR) N
15 Bay Terrestrial δ Shellfish Carnivores Freshwater Fish Terrestrial Herbivore
C3 Terrestrial “Meat” and Marsh Freshwater Plants Mussel
13 “Meat” δ C (PDB) Figure 5-1: Reconstructed Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Values for Dietary Resources in Central California (from Bartelink 2006). [Note: The dashed box represents the approximate adjusted diet-to-tissue range of δ13C and δ15N values for human bone collagen (excluding Burial 04-10).]
Figure 5-2: Bone Collagen Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Data for Burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Sex Comparisons
Table 5-3 and Figure 5-3 present stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values by sex (males, females, indeterminate sex). The average δ13C value for males is ~1‰ higher (i.e., less negative) than for females (♂ δ13C = -17.8‰, ♀ δ13C = -18.7‰). Similarly, average δ15N values are 1.6‰ higher among males compared to females (♂ δ15N = 9.6‰, ♀ δ15N = 8.0‰). Removing the one outlier male (Burial 04-10), the average δ13C value for males is only 0.5‰ higher than for females (♂ δ13C = -18.2‰, ♀ δ13C = -18.7‰). Similarly, average δ15N values are 1.1‰ higher
5-7 among males compared to females with the outlier male removed (♂ δ15N = 9.1‰, ♀ δ15N = 8.0‰). These differences may suggest that males consumed slightly greater amounts of marine protein than their female counterparts. The higher nitrogen values among males also suggest that they may have eaten a greater amount of higher trophic level resources compared to females, such as deer meat and/or freshwater fish. However, inspection of Table 5-3 and Figure 5-3 indicates that this interpretation may be biased because there are seven burials for which sex could not be determined (including three subadults). Thus, the data should only be viewed as tentative evidence of sex differences in diet. A larger sample size is required to statistically assess sex differences in diet.
Table 5-3: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Summary Statistics by Sex
Δ apat-coll 13 15 13 Sex δ Ccoll (‰) δ Ncoll (‰) δ Capat (‰) spacing Total (N=26) Mean -18.3 8.9 -12.4 5.9 Range 4.5 7.9 5.8 4.1 SD 0.9 1.5 1.3 1.2 Male (N=10) Mean -17.8 9.6 -12.2 5.7 Range 4.0 6.6 5.3 3.8 SD 1.2 1.9 1.5 1.2 Female (N=9) Mean -18.7 8.0 -13.0 5.7 Range 1.3 2.4 3.1 3.8 SD 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.4 Indeterminate Mean -18.4 9.3 -12.0 6.4 (N=7) Range 1.2 2.4 3.1 3.0 SD 0.4 0.9 1.0 1.0
Figure 5-3: Sex Comparisons of Bone Collagen Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Data for Burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
5-8 Temporal Comparison
The collagen δ13C and δ15N values for the 10 AMS dated human burials are presented in Figures 5-4 and 5-5, respectively. These figures show no evidence of temporal variation for either carbon or nitrogen isotope values, although eight burials have AMS dates close together in time. However, it is interesting to note the range of variation in burials dating to approximately the same time period. This may suggest that individuals from the same site consumed some isotopically distinct food resources, or alternately, similar types of resources but consumed in different relative amounts. Clearly, there is heterogeneity in food consumption practices among individuals in the sample, which may only be partially explained by possible sex differences in diet.
Figure 5-4: AMS Dates (5.01 Calib Corrected) and Bone Collagen Stable Carbon Isotope Values for Ten Human Burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Figure 5-5: AMS Dates (5.01 Calib Corrected) and Bone Collagen Stable Nitrogen Isotope Values for Ten Human Burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
5-9 Regional Comparison
Figure 5-6 plots the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values for the CA-SCL-287 and CA- SMA-263 burials with data from late Holocene sites along the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of the Central Valley. The linear correlation of δ13C and δ15N values for San Francisco Bay Area sites indicates a high level of variability in marine versus terrestrial resource consumption in the region, with dietary input coming from both ecosystems. In other words, some individuals (in the upper right quadrant of the plot) consumed diets focused mainly on marine protein, while others from other Bay area sites consumed greater amounts of terrestrial protein.
Burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 plot along the marine-terrestrial line, similar to burials from lower eastern bayshore sites (CA-ALA-328: Patterson Mound, CA-ALA-329: Ryan Mound) and one upper east bay site (CA-ALA-309: Emeryville Shellmound). These sites date to the Middle and Late Periods, and partially overlap in time with the dated sequences from CA- SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263. δ13C and δ15N values of the CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 burials are significantly lower than Early Period burials from the upper east bay CA-ALA-307 site (West Berkeley Mound), where high trophic level marine proteins were primarily consumed. Similar to other sites from the San Francisco Bay Area, the isotope values of individuals from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 do not overlap with the terrestrially-oriented diets found in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (Figure 5-6). That the CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 values plot on the marine-terrestrial line with other Bay area sites further indicates that some marine foods are being consumed, either low trophic level resources such as shellfish, or even very small amounts of higher trophic level resources (e.g., marine fish, etc.). This interpretation is based on the fact that the consumption of different combinations of isotopically distinct food resources can result in identical isotope values.
Carbon Isotopes of Bone Apatite
Controlled feeding experiments on rats and mice found an average offset value of 9.4‰ between diet and bone apatite, and an offset of approximately 5.0‰ between diet and bone collagen (Ambrose and Norr 1993; Tieszen and Fagre 1993). Thus, the apatite-collagen difference will be ~4.4‰ (9.4-5.0 = 4.4 ‰) when the δ13C value of dietary protein is equal to that of the whole diet. However, in the case of marine resources (e.g., shellfish, marine fish, marine mammals, etc.), dietary protein is enriched in 13C relative to the whole diet. This produces apatite-collagen spacing values that are <4.4‰. Alternately, if dietary protein is depleted in 13C relative to the whole diet, the apatite-collagen spacing is >4.4‰, suggesting a diet that consisted of 13C- depleted resources (e.g., freshwater fish, terrestrial C3 plants).
5-10 Sacramento Valley
San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 5-6: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Data for CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 Burials Compared with Other Late Holocene Humans from Central California [see Bartelink 2006, 2009a, b]
Table 5-3 presents data on stable carbon isotopes of bone apatite. The mean δ13C value of the entire sample from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 is -12.4‰ (± 1.3, 1 SD), with a range from -14.6 to -8.8‰. On average, the male δ13C value is 0.8‰ higher than females (♂ δ13C = -12.2‰, ♀ δ13C = -13.0‰). The mean apatite-collagen spacing value for the entire sample is 5.9‰, with identical average values for males and females (Table 5-3); however, individuals of indeterminate sex have a mean apatite-collagen 0.6‰ higher than both males and females.
Figure 5-7 plots the apatite-collagen spacing on the x-axis and the δ15N isotope values on the y- axis. There are only four individuals (two males and two females) who have apatite-collagen spacing values <4.4‰, indicating that dietary protein is more enriched in 13C than the whole diet (consistent with heavier marine protein consumption). Two burials have apatite-collagen spacing values of ~4.4‰, indicating that the 13C value of dietary protein is equal to that of the whole diet. The remainder of the sample (n=20) have apatite-collagen spacing values that are >4.4‰, indicating that dietary protein is depleted in 13C relative to the whole diet. This suggests that food resources with protein depleted in 13C were consumed, which may be due to high consumption of freshwater fish, or alternately due to a significant amount of dietary protein coming from plant foods.
5-11
Figure 5-7: Plot of the Apatite-Collagen Spacing and Stable Nitrogen Isotope Data for CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 Burials
A more recent model proposed by Kellner and Schoeninger (2007:1122) plots separate 13 regression lines for the correlation between collagen and apatite δ C for C3, C4, and marine- based diets (Figure 5-8). This model is based on modern fauna and the regression lines were not adjusted for the Suess Effect; thus, 1.5‰ was subtracted from the carbon isotope values to adjust to modern atmospheric conditions. Comparison of the collagen and apatite δ13C values with the three regression lines provides a more complete reconstruction of the diet. Humans that fall along the C3 line obtained most of their dietary protein from terrestrial animal resources and/or freshwater fish, while those who are shifted slightly toward the marine line (to the right) also consumed some marine proteins. Burial 04-10 (CA-SCL-287) again is unique in this regard, 13 13 with a δ C collagen value in-between the C3 and marine line, and a δ C apatite value that is in- between the 100% C3 and 100% C4 diet energy endpoints. This individual may have consumed a 13 significant amount of sea grasses in his diet, which have δ C values similar to C4 plants. It is likely that this individual obtained his heavy marine signature from the central coast or perhaps the northern San Francisco Bay area.
Comparisons of the isotope data with archaeofaunal trends in the San Francisco Bay area provide some interesting conclusions. The isotope values do not suggest that marine or anadromous fish or marine mammals (pinnipeds or sea otters) contributed significantly to the overall diet. Thus, the shift to a higher prevalence of sea otter relative to other marine mammal remains in Late Period midden contexts (e.g., Broughton 1999; Simons 1992) does not appear to be reflected in the isotope values from these burials. Although marine mammals continued to be exploited in the greater San Francisco Bay area, they may have contributed little to the overall diet, especially in the south San Francisco Bay area. Also, it has been suggested that otters may also have been exploited specifically for their pelage (Levy 1978; Simons 1992), indicating that there may be a variety of motivations for hunting sea otter other than simply caloric intake. With the exception of Burial 04-10, the stable isotope values indicate that most individuals were likely consuming similar types of resources, but in slightly different relative amounts. The stable carbon and
5-12 nitrogen isotope values provide support for the consumption of terrestrial mammals and plants, shellfish, and possibly freshwater fish. The isotope values from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 overlap with human burials from lower eastern bayshore sites in the Coyote Hills region (e.g., CA-ALA-328, CA-ALA-329; Bartelink 2006). This suggests that human foragers from the lower reaches of the Bay consumed more terrestrial resources and also lower trophic level marine foods (e.g., shellfish) compared to the more marine oriented groups from the upper eastern bayshore (e.g., CA-ALA-307, CA-ALA-309, CA-CCO-295; Bartelink 2006, Beasley 2008).
Figure 5-8: Plot of the Collagen and Apatite δ13C Values for the CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 Burials with the Three Regression Lines (Kellner and Schoeninger 2007)
SUMMARY
The implications of the paleodietary analysis of human burials from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA- 263 are highly significant, and the sample provides the first isotopic data set from this region of San Francisco Bay. Although temporal trends in diet were not identified in the ten AMS-dated samples, additional dating of burials will provide a more robust sample from the region, which may shed new light on temporal dietary patterns. Small sex differences in carbon and nitrogen isotope values provide tentative support for the greater consumption of marine resources among males compared to females, although this may be due to a sampling bias. Compared to other sites in the region, isotope values from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 overlap with Middle and Late Period groups from the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay, but are distinct from Early Period humans from the upper east bay as well as late Holocene humans from the Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data of bone collagen indicates that individuals mainly consumed terrestrial (e.g., herbivores) and/or freshwater fish resources, with some contribution of marine protein (e.g., shellfish). The use of stable carbon isotopes of collagen and apatite provide a much more comprehensive understanding of the contribution of different dietary macronutrients.
5-13 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first like to acknowledge Rosemary Cambra, Chairwoman of the Muwekma Ohlone Indian Tribe and President of Ohlone Families Consulting Services, the Muwekma Ohlone Tribal Council, and Norma Sanchez, Tribal Administrator for their permission and financial support in conducting this research. This important research could not have been conducted without their blessing and support. I thank Stanford University Archaeologist Dr. Laura Jones, Director of Heritage Services and Special Projects, for her assistance and support with this research. Special thanks are owed to Alan Leventhal of SJSU for his dedication and support of this research, as well as his valuable insights on California prehistory. I thank Melanie Beasley, who tirelessly prepared all the stable isotope samples well in advance of deadlines. I also would like to thank Karen Smith Gardner, who assisted in the early stages of processing of isotope samples. Contract funding from the Ohlone Families Consulting Services was administered through the CSU-Chico Office of Research and Sponsored Programs.
5-14 Chapter 6 Analysis of the Faunal Remains Associated with the Burials from Sites: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-267 by Jean Geary and Alan Leventhal
INTRODUCTION
Before presenting the results of the faunal analysis and although outside the scope of the present study, the authors thought it important to present a brief overview of the various plant communities surrounding sites CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 in order to understand the ecological setting and variation of precontact habitats where mammal and bird resources might be located and therefore reflected in the archaeological record.
Based upon previous studies conducted by Kuchler (1977) and others within the San Francisco Bay region it appears that at least five major plants communities/ecological habitats were available within a 5 mile radius from these two sites.
These five major plant communities were principally determined from reviewing both the Palo Alto and the adjacent Mountain View 7.5’ USGS Quad maps. Their general reconstruction was based upon general topography, elevation, slope, drainage and other variables within a 4 to 5 mile radius from the sites and supported by information derived from previous biological and archaeological studies that were conducted in the south San Francisco Bay region (see Kuchler 1977; Hildebrandt and Swenson 1983 in Hildebrandt 1983; and Hammett 1996 in Cambra et al. 1996).
These five identified major plant communities/ecological habitats were principally defined and based upon Kuchler’s (1977) study “The Map of the Natural Vegetation of California”. For purposes of this study two of Kuchler’s defined plant communities have been merged or combined with two other plant communities in order to facilitate general discussion. These five plant communities are as follows:
1) Riparian (San Francisco Creek); 2) Tule Marsh (Lagunita Marsh); 3) Coastal Salt Marsh (San Francisco Bay, sloughs and mud flats) 4) Valley Oak Savanna/California Prairie (open grasslands); and 5) Chaparral/Mixed Hardwood Forest (upland forest)
DEFINITIONS OF MAJOR PLANT COMMUNITIES AND PREVIOUS PALEOECOLOGICAL STUDIES
In his 1977 study, Kuchler provided the following descriptions and locations for each of these five major plant communities identified which we have included in this proposed paleo- environmental reconstruction:
6-1 1) Riparian Forest located within and areas immediately surrounding the San Francisco Creek drainage; 2) Tule Marsh located less than 1 mile to the southeast of the sites; 3) Coastal Salt Marsh, open waters, mud flats and fresh water sloughs (e.g., Charleston Slough) located approximately 4 to 5 miles to the east and north of the sites; 4) Valley Oak Savanna/California Prairie located between the bayshore wetlands and the 300-400 elevation contour, and 5) Mixed Hardwood Forest/Chaparral located in the foothills and Jasper Ridge area between ½ mile to 2 miles to the northeast, east and southeast from the sites above the 400 foot contour.
Descriptions of Each of the Five Communities
1. Riparian Forest:
The structure of this riverine forest is medium tall to tall, broad-leaved deciduous trees. It is cottonwood (Populus fremontii) with the other characteristic components listed below. Box elder (Acer negundo) White alder (Alnus rhombifolia) Mule fat (Baccharis viminea) Button bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) Virgin’s bower (Clematis ligusticifolia) Sycamore (Platanus racemosa) Valley oak (Quercus lobata) Blackberry (Rubus vitifolius) Willow (Salix spp.) Nettle (Urtica holosericea) Wild grape (Vitis californica) [Hildebrandt and Swenson 1983:1-42; cf. Kuchler 1977:20]
2. Tule Marsh [Laguinita Marsh]
Tule Marsh (Scirpus-Typha) [common tule-cattail]. Structure: Tall dense graminoid plant communities, occasionally interrupted by open water” (Kuchler 1977:24).
3. Coastal Salt Marsh
Coastal Salt Marsh (Salicornia-Spartina) Structure: Community of perennial germinoids and succulent forbs, the former 1 m tall or more, the latter usually less. Forbs usually dominate at higher elevations.
Dominants: Glasswort (Salicornia virginica), cordgrass (Spartina foliosa). (Kuchler 1977:24)
Other identified plants include: Atriplex prostrate-saltbush, Distichlis spicata-salt grass, Frankenia salina-alkali-heath, Grindelia stricta var. angustifolia-Pacific gumplant,
6-2 Jaumea carnos -fleshy jaumea, Limonium californicum-sea-lavender, Sarcocornia pacifica-pickleweed, Spartina foliosa-cordgrass, Triglochin maritime-seaside arrow-grass (information derived from Shoreline Plants: A Landscape Guide for the San Francisco Bay produced by the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, March 2007)
4. Valley Oak Savanna/California Prairie
For purposes of the present study the California Prairie plant community will be considered intermixed with the Valley Oak Savanna community. Kuchler 1977 provided the following description of both the Valley Oak Savanna and California Prairie communities in his study:
Valley Oak Savanna (Quercus-Stipa) [Valley Oak-California Prairie] Structure: Savanna of tall, broad-leaved deciduous trees, widely spaced and stately. Woody undergrowth is insignificant. Broad-leaved evergreens and/or needle-leaved evergreen trees occur occasionally. Density increases where merging with riparian forest. The California prairie (36) covers the ground”. (Kuchler 1977:22)
California Prairie (Stipa spp.) Structure: Dense to somewhat open, medium tall bunchgrass community with many forbs. Height and seasonal aspects of this prairie can vary greatly. Dominants: Needlegrass (Stipa cernus), speargrass (Stipa pulcha). (ibid: 23).
5. Mixed Hardwood Forest/Chaparral
Also for purposes of the present study the Mixed Hardwood Forest plant community is combined with the Chaparral community. Kuchler described the Hardwood Forest plant community as follows:
Mixed Hardwood Forest (Arbutus-Quercus) [madrone-oak] Structure: Low to medium tall, broad leaved evergreen forest with an admixture of broad-leaved deciduous and needle-leaved evergreen trees; the later may be towering above the canopy. The forest is more or less dense, and in higher elevations, its height may be so low as to make the forest appear shrubby. Inclusions of chaparral (29) are common. (Kuchler 1977:18)
In their study Hildebrandt and Swenson identified the following “dominant plants” and “common components” within the Mixed Hardwood Forest:
Dominant plants are: Madrone (Arbutus menziesii) Canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis; high elevations) Coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia); low elevations)
Common components: Buckeye (Aesculus californica) Coyote Brush (Baccharis pilularis)
6-3 Toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia) Tan oak (Lithocarpus densiflora) Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri) Douglas fir (Pinus menziesii) Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba) Black oak (Quercus keloggii) Interior live oak (Quercus wislizenii) [Hildebrandt and Swenson 1983:1-38 – 1-39]
FAUNAL ANALYSIS
Prehistoric sites CA-SCL 287 and CA-SMA-263 contained only a small assemblage of vertebrate faunal remains recovered in association with the burials. A total of 281+ faunal elements were included in this study and as a result this small recovered sample it is not suitable for any meaningful statistical analysis. However, those faunal elements did provide some species of significance in determining aspects of the local paleoenvironment. The faunal remains were derived from two different contexts: 1) 1) from burial/grave locus and 2) as isolates (meaning isolated finds from disturbed context).
Methods
Faunal remains were recovered using ¼ inch and at times 1/8” mesh screens. The remains were carefully bagged by burial and location in the field and later washed, sorted and placed in labeled baggies at the San Jose State University Anthropology Lab. Each identifiable faunal element was issued a consecutive catalogue reference and specimen number (e.g. Burial 1 Reference #1- 10, 1-11, 1-12 and etc.).
All faunal remains were compared with the comparative mammalian and avian osteological collection curated at the Museum of Birds and Mammals, Department of Biological Science at San Jose State University.
The identifiable element, and if fragmented, its portion, along with observations such as “juvenile”, “burnt” or “unburnt,” “cut marks” and etc. were recorded on faunal record catalog sheets, as well as the bag. Fragments that fitted together were considered one specimen and the number of pieces was recorded under remarks on the catalog sheet. The species identification was added to the bag and catalog sheet upon completion, as well as any additional information such as side or which vertebrae. Notes were kept separately regarding criteria used to determine between two similar species.
Birds and mammals were sorted into respective taxa. Bones with distinct features that could not be identified to species were identified as far as possible. Highly fragmented bone was considered “unidentifiable” given the time factor needed for specific identification. Small bones were compared to the reference material using a stereo dissecting scope and any marks that could be considered cut marks were also examined under the dissecting scope.
6-4 Small mammals, rabbits and rodents, were not included in this analysis. No exhaustive attempt was made to identify long bone fragments as to species. Highly fragmented bone might only be identified as far as “mammal fragments”, or “unidentifiable fragments”.
Of the economically significant species, artiodactyls were most represented, with Odocoileus hemionus (mule/black tailed deer) predominant and Cervus sp. (elk) was next most abundant. Possibly three species of Canis are also represented.
Taxonomic Composition
Of the 65 specimens identified to species, 11 species were represented. Four are bird and seven are identified as mammal.
Odocoileus hemionus, the Black-tailed Deer, was the most represented with 30 identified bones. The many long-bone fragments identified as artiodactyl were most probably Odocoileus. Therefore, the minimum number of individuals possible is 2.
Cervus elaphus nannodes, Tule Elk was the next most represented species with 15 bones. These bones were probably from one individual.
Two specimens matched size and morphology of Cervus elaphus roosevelti, Roosevelt elk. One specimen was a massive, intact manubrium. More work needs to be done to determine if there is a size overlap between C. e. nannodes and C. e. roosevelti, and if the morphological differences are consistent or attributed to individual variation. One scaphoid could only be identified to Cervus elaphus ssp.
Four Endydra lutris, sea otter, bones were present. All were from the axial skeleton, that is ribs and vertebrae, but were not found in association with each other.
California Sea Lion, Zalophus californianus, was represented by 2 phalanges. Like the sea otter remains, they were not found in association.
A fragment of a wolf, Canis lupus , mandible was present, as well as one Canis latrans, coyote, tooth. One canine root was present of an unidentified canid, Canis sp.
Four birds were identified. Chen caerulescens caerulescens, the Lesser Snow Goose, was represented by a tarsometatarsus. One ulna of Buteo lineatus, the Red-shouldered Hawk, was present, as well as one phalanx of Buteo jamaiscens, the Red-tailed Hawk. Two sections of ulna of Aquila chrysaetos, Golden Eagle, were present. It could not be determined whether they were from the same individual.
6-5 Table 6-1: Taxonomic List of Faunal Species from CA-SCL 287/CA-SMA-263
Class Aves
Family Anatidae Ducks and geese Chen caerulescens caerulescens Lesser Snow Goose
Family Accipitridae Hawks, eagles, ospreys, kites Buteo lineatus Red-shouldered Hawk Buteo jamaiscensis Red-tailed Hawk Aquila chrysaetos Golden Eagle
Class Mammalia
Order Pinnipedia
Family Otariidae Eared seals, sea lions Zalopus californianus California Sea Lion
Order Carnivora
Family Mustelidae Weasels, skunks, otters, badgers Enhydra lutris Sea otter
Family Canidae Dogs, wolves, foxes, jackals Canis lupus Wolf Canis latrans Coyote
Order Artiodactyla
Family Cervidae Deer and allies Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed Deer Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk Cervus elaphus roosevelti Roosevelt Elk
Discussion
It is of interest that, except in the case of Odocoileus hemionus, the elements found were similar, even though recovered from different burials; Zalopus, 2 phalanges; Enhydra, ribs and vertebrae; and Canis, mandible and teeth. This may be simply because of the low number of these species found, but may have some significance because they were included as burial associations. Cervus elaphus nannodes showed more diversity of elements over-all, but did not show diversity in element type within each burial. Odocoileus, with the largest number of bone elements represented, included almost every element of the body.
6-6 Birds
Buteo lineatus, the Red-shouldered Hawk, can often be found near water and swamps, preferring wet woodlands (Riparian, Tule Marsh and Valley Oak Savanna communities). They hunt from perches and feed on small to medium size mammals, reptiles, amphibians, large insects, snails, earthworms and birds (see Alsop, 2002, Robbins et al. 1983). Specimen # 31-6, a right ulna was recovered as an isolate located east of Burial #7 and near the east end of Hole #3. [Figure 6-1]
Figure 6-1: Red-Shouldered Hawk
Buteo jamaiscens, the Red-Tailed Hawk, is found in many habitats (Riparian, Tule Marsh, Coastal Salt Marsh and Valley Oak/Savanna communities) and has similar feeding habits as Buteo lineatus, though they may include fish and crustaceans in their diet as well. (Alsop, 2002) Specimen # 9-15, a 1st phalanx, was recovered in association with Burial #9 [Figure 6-2]. .
Figure 6-2: Red-Tailed Hawk
Aquila chrysaetos, the Golden Eagle, maintains territories as large as 60 square miles. The females are larger than the males and they build large nests in high places which they return to for several years. They principally reside in lightly forested areas with nearby open space (Valley Oak/Savanna communities). Ninety percent of their prey is caught at ground level. Rabbits and ground squirrels are favored prey, but they also eat other small mammals, large insects, carrion, reptiles, birds, and have been known to attack small deer and antelopes, though
6-7 they typically carry 2-3 pounds. A fragment of a left radius (Specimen #17/18-16) was recovered in association with Burial #17/18 [Figure 6-3]. (Alsop 2002; also see the following online sources for more information see: animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/golden-eagle.htm; and www.carolinaraptorcenter.org/g_eagle.php).
Figure 6-3: Golden Eagle
Chen caerulescens caerulescens (Lesser Snow Goose) winters in California, mostly in the central valley, but also in the Bay Area. These geese prefer mouths of rivers, river islands and coastal marsh habitats (Tule Marsh and Coastal Salt Marsh). They mainly feed on shoots of aquatic plants (for more information see: www.desertusa.com/animals/snow-goose.html and www.ffdp.ca/hww2.asp?cid=78id=51). One left tarsometatarsus (Specimen #. 00-3-10) was recovered from Burial #17/18 [Figure 6-4].
Figure 6-4: Lesser Snow Goose
6-8 Mammals
Zalophus californianus, the California Sea Lion, is a large marine mammal whose range extends from Vancouver, B.C., to the tip of Baja California, Mexico. They are social animals and groups can be seen hauled out on land along coastlines. Sea lions form rookeries on islands, and pups have been born on Año Nuevo Island and the Farallon Islands (see marinebio.org/species.asp?id=50). A sea lion phalanx (Specimen # 01-2-10 and Specimen #6- 25) was recovered in association with Burial #01-2 and Burial #6 [Figure 6-5].
Figure 6-5: California Sea Lion
The sea otter, Enhydra lutis, lived in the San Francisco Bay for at least over the past 2500 years as evidenced at sites CA-ALA-328 and CA-ALA-329 (Simons 1992). These aquatic mammals feed on marine invertebrates and fish. They can spend their entire lives in the water and rarely haul out on land. The pelt was highly sought after because of the dense insulating fur and may have been used for wrapping burials at CA-ALA-329 as part of the funerary preparations (Leventhal personal communication). For more information on otter adaptations see oceanlink.island.net/biodiversity/otter/otter.html. [Figure 6-6]
Skeletal elements from sea otters were recovered with the following burials: Burial # 00-3 Specimen # 00-3-12 (11th rib), Burial # 6 Specimen # 6-23; (2nd Thoracic vertebrae), Burial # 12 Specimen # 12-19 (6th Lumbar), and from an Isolated/disturbed context Specimen # 30-1 (11th rib).
6-9
Figure 6-6: Sea Otter
Canis lupus, the wolf, was represented by a portion of the mandible (Specimen # 6-20) which was associated with Burial # 6 [Figure 6-7].
Figure 6-7: Wolf (Canis lupus)
A single canine tooth (Specimen #. 23-10) of Canis latrans, coyote, was recovered from Burial # 23 [Figure 6-8].
Figure 6-8: Coyote (Canis latrans)
6-10 A root of a canine tooth (Specimen # 7-11) of an undetermined canid (Canis sp.) was also recovered in associated with Burial #7.
Odocoileus hemionus, the Black-tailed Deer, also known as Mule Deer, are widespread. They inhabit forest edges, open woodland and brushy, chaparral areas [Figure. 6-9]. Skeletal elements from deer were found in association with the following burials and isolated contexts:
• Burial #6 Specimen # 6-18 (antler fragment), Specimen # 6-19 (hyoid), Specimen # 6- 24 (femur head fragment) • Burial #7 Specimen # 7-10 (left tibia fragment) • Burial #8 Specimen # 8-31 (right 7th rib); Specimen # 8-32 (Thoracic 7th vertebra), Specimen # 8-33 (long bone) • Burial #9 Specimen # 9-16 (left maxillary fragment) • Burial #12 Specimen # 12-17 (left distal humerus) • Burial #13 Specimen # 13-11 (right 8th rib); Specimen # 13-14 (3 long bone fragments) • Burial 14 Specimen # 14-15 (right ecto + meso cuneiform) • Burial #15 Specimen # 15-15 (metacarpal/cannon bone fragment), Specimen # 15-16 (metacarpal fragment, juvenile) • Burial #17/18 Specimen #17/18-18 (long bone fragment) • Burial 20 Specimen # 20-10 (left ulna), Specimen 20-11 (right scapula fragment), Specimen 20-12 (right scapula fragment), Specimen 20-14 (left femur), Specimen #20- 15 (ischium), Specimen 20-17 (tibia) • Burial #21 Specimen # 21-11 (left cannon bone/undetermined metacarpal or metatarsal), Specimen # 21-12 (vertebra), Specimen # 21-14 (antler) • Burial 22A Specimen # 22A-10 (Thoracic 7th vertebra) • Isolates Specimen # 32-2 (rib), Specimen # 32-3 (antler), Specimen # 32-4 (femur) • Isolates Specimen # 36-1 (right Ilium), Specimen # 36-2 (pubis), Specimen # 36-3 (4 long bone frags)
Figure 6-9: Mule Deer/California Black-Tailed Deer
6-11 Cervus elaphus nannodes, the Tule Elk, is the smallest elk subspecies and only occurs in California. They prefer marshy areas but also occur in grassy and oak woodlands [Figure 6-10] (see "California Native Grasslands, A Historical Perspective," Sheila Barry, Stephanie Larson, Melvin George, Grasslands, Winter 2006, "Microsatellite Analysis of Three Subspecies of Elk (Cervus elaphus) in California", E.P.Meredith, J.A. Rodzen, J.D. Banks, R. Schaefer, H. B. Ernest, T.R. Famula and B.P. May, Journal of Mammalogy, 88(3):801-808, 2007).
Elk skeletal elements were found in association with the following burials:
• Burial #6 Specimen #6-15 (right distal tibia fragment), Specimen #6-27 (right proximal tibia fragment) • Burial #8 Specimen #8-30 (2nd Thoracic vertebra) • Burial #12 Specimen #12-15 (7th Thoracic vertebral fragments); • Burial #13 Specimen #13-10 (left innominate), Specimen #13-12 (8th Thoracic vertebra), Specimen #13-13 (rib fragment), Specimen #13-19 (7th rib) • Burial #14 Specimen # 14-16 (left scaphoid) • Burial #16 Specimen #16-11 (13th Thoracic vertebra fragments), Specimen #16-12 (11th Thoracic vertebra fragments), Specimen #16-13 (3rd Lumbar vertebra articular facet), Specimen #16-14 (12th Thoracic vertebra fragments), Specimen #16-15 (10th Thoracic vertebra fragments), Specimen #16-16 (10th rib fragment), Specimen #16-17 (7 vertebrae fragments) • Burial #17/18 Specimen #17/18-15 (left 6th rib fragment), and Specimen #17/18-17 (cannon bone fragment). • Isolates Specimen # 33-2 (manubrium possibly from Cervus elaphus.roosevelti) [see Figure 6-11].
Figure 6-10: Tule Elk
6-12
Figure 6-11: North American/Roosevelt Elk
Conclusions
Based upon the identification of the birds and mammals recovered from prehistoric sites CA- SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 and noting their respective preferred habitats, it seems reasonable to speculate that this site was strategically situated in close proximity to the following communities: Riparian, Tule Marsh, Coastal Salt Marsh/Bay, and Valley Oak Savanna/California Prairie. Also, based on this faunal analysis, it can be surmised that this locality was most likely situated within Riparian Valley Oak Savanna/California Prairie community at the time when these sites were used as settlement and cemeteries.
COMPARATIVE ARCHEO-FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGE FROM THE NON-BURIAL FEATURES FROM CA-SCL-287 AND CA-SMA-263
Valente (In Reese et al. 2006) conducted a comprehensive analysis of the faunal assemblages from the various archaeological sites encountered on Stanford lands. In the draft report she provides a comparative list of “economically significant” taxa and species that were recovered from non-burial related features encountered and excavated by Pacific Legacy, Inc. at CA-SCL- 287.
The species identified by Valente compare favorable to those recovered from burial contexts. Table 6-2 presents the various taxa and species, number of identified specimens (NISP), and minimum number of individuals (MNI) that Valente identified from this site:
Although the smaller mammal remains (e.g., hares, rabbits, tree and ground squirrels, pocket gophers and etc.) that were recovered from the burials were not completely analyzed, we do find however that the larger carnivores [i.e., Canidae: Canis lupus (Wolf) and Canis latrans (Coyote)] and larger herbivores [i.e., Artiodactyla: Cervidae: Odocoileus hemionus (Black-tailed Deer), Cervus elaphus nannodes (Tule Elk) and Cervus elaphus roosevelti (Roosevelt Elk)] were recovered from both burial and non burial-related contexts. We also find the same with the presence of Enhydra lutris (Sea Otters) from both contexts.
6-13 Table 6-2 Comparative Faunal Assemblage from Non-Burial Features from CA-SCL-287 (from Valente 2006:6.2-8)
Taxa NISP MNI Birds Anatidae 9 1 Tyto alba 1 1 Bubo virginianus 1 1
Mammals Leporidae 35 2 Sylvilagus spp. 108 6 Lepus californicus 5 1 Sciuridae 52 2 Spermophilus beecheyi 187 10 Neotoma spp. 36 5 Carnivora 4 1 Canis spp. 4 1 Mephitis mephitis 1 1 Enhydra lutris 3 1 Felis spp. 1 1 Artiodactyla 47 1 Cervidae 548 1 Cervus elaphus nannodes 120 2 Odocoileus hemionus 15 1 Total 1,177 39
SHELLFISH REMAINS
Ocean and Bay Marine Shellfish Species from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
The remains from several species of Bay and Marine shellfish were identified and recovered from the burial recovery program conducted at CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263. All of the following species are considered as a food resource with the exception of the Olivella beads which probably were used first as 1) a food resource, and then, 2) as a modified/decorative shell bead or ornament. The Pismo clam may also have been used for dual purposes as well. The following shellfish remains were identified as representative species from the site. [Note: detailed analysis on most of shellfish associated with the seven burials from the 2000 and 2001 field seasons was not made available for inclusion in this analysis.]
Burial # 00-3: 8 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 3 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); and 1 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel).
Burial # 01-3: 2 Mytilus edulis shell fragments.
6-14 Burial # 04-6: 100 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 245 plus 45 fragments Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 6 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel); 2 Penitella sp. (Boring clam); 1 unidentified clam shell fragment.
Burial # 04-7: 1 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster).
Burial # 04-8: 81 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 130 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 6 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel); 4 Penitella sp. (Boring clam); 1 Tivela stultorum (Pismo clam); and 19 Cancer sp. (Crab claws).
Burial # 04-9: 82 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 112 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 9 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel); 2 Penitella sp. (Boring clam); 1 Cancer sp. (Crab claw); and 1 Balanus sp.(barnacle).
Burial # 04-10: 3 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 4 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); and 3 Cancer sp. (Crab claws).
Burial # 04-11: 18 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 45 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 4 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel); 2 Cancer sp. (Crab claws) and 1 Olivella biplicata Type A1b medium bead.
Burial # 04-12: 39 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 16 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 1 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel); 4 Cancer sp. (Crab claws).
Burial # 04-14: 40 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 50 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 1 Penitella sp. (Boring clam); 1 clam sp.?, 1 Cancer sp. (Crab claw) and 1 balanus sp.(Barnacle).
Burial # 04-15: 7 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 7 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 6 Cancer sp. (Crab claws), 1 Pectin sp. (Scallop) and 1 Olivella biplicata Type C2 Split drilled bead.
Burial # 04-16: 1 Penitella sp. (Boring clam).
Burial # 04-17/18: 6 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 5 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 3 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel); 2 Penitella sp. (Boring clam); 5 Cancer sp. (Crab claws).
Burial # 04-19: 8 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 37 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 2 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel); 2 Cancer sp. (Crab claws).
Burial # 04-20: 14 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 215 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 55 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel).
Burial # 04-21: 21 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 22 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 1 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel); 2 Cancer sp. (Crab claws) and 1 Haliotis cracherodii.
6-15 Burial # 04-22A: 3 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 51 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 6 Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel); 2 Penitella sp. (Boring clam).
Burial # 04-22B: 1 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 1 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster).
Burial # 04-23: 12 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 21 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster); 5 Penitella sp. (Boring clam).
Isolated Reference # 31 (East of Burial #7 at the east end of Hole #3) 4 Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) shells; 7 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster).
Isolated Reference # 33 (Hole #3, central eastside) 1 Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster).
Of the recovered shellfish species four of these: 1) Mytilus edulis (Bay mussel), 2) Ostrea lurida (Bay oyster), 3) Cerithidea californica (California Horn Snail) and most likely 4) Cancer sp. (crabs) were harvested from the San Francisco Bay waters and surrounding wetlands. The five other identified species: 1) Penitella sp (Boring clam), 2) Olivella biplicata (Purple olive shell), 3) Tivela stultorum (Pismo clam), 4) Haliotis cracherodii (Black abalone), and 5) Balanus sp. (Barnacle) were most likely traded in from tribal groups occupying the Pacific Coast or the lost tribes has direct access to these resources.
The following identified species of shell fish were recovered from non-burial related contexts by Pacific Legacy, Inc. Michelle St. Clair (2006) conducted the analysis of the shell fish remains and presented the results in Pacific Legacy’s draft report on the San Hill Road Corridor (see Reese et. al 2006; St. Clair 2006:Section 6.4)..Table 6-3 presents the taxa, species, counts and weights obtained on the shell fish remains that were recovered from CA-SCL-287 (see St. Clair in Reese et al. 2006:6.4-36)
6-16 Table 6-3 Comparative Shellfish Assemblage from Non-Burial Features from CA-SCL-287
Taxon Common Name Count Weight (g) Balanus sp. Barnacles 1315 50.2 Cancer sp. Crab Shell and Crab Claws 3105 125.3 Cerethidea californica California Horn Snail 27,71 4933.0 Chiton Armor plated invertebrate 3 0.5 Clinocardium sp. Cockle 21 1.3 Echinoidea cl. Sand Dollar 2 0.2 Haliotis sp. Abalone 19 1.6 Land Snail 391 6.8 Mytilus californianus California Mussel 908 154.4 Mytilus edulis Bay Mussel 5660 208.6 Olivella sp. Olivella 6 2.1 Ostrea sp. Oyster 28,377 4397.6 Penitella sp. Boring Clam 4928 198.9 Tegula sp. Turban Snail 2 0.5 Unidentified Shell 38 3.8 Total shells and shell fragments 72,492 10,084.8
With the exception of Chiton, Echinoidea (sand dollar), Tegula and land snail, all of the above identified species were recovered from burial contexts.
FISH REMAINS
An unidentified fish skull bone (Specimen # 21-10) was recovered in association with Burial #21.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The analysis of faunal remains obviously contributes to our understanding of which species were available to hunt, snare, trap or harvest within the diversified plant communities and ecological habitat catchments surrounding the sites under investigation. Furthermore, the analysis of faunal remains contributes to our understanding about pre-contact Native American (in this case ancestral Ohlonean) subsistence (dietary/economic) patterns and seasonality of these food resources.
It is interesting to note that Pacific Legacy, Inc. reported on the discovery of ninety-one (91) non-burial features uncovered during grading activities at site CA-SCL-287 and that four of these they classified as “antler features (see Reese et al., 2006 and 2009:5, 177-178; Chapter 6:3, 66-67). Pacific Legacy explained that “The majority of were fire-altered rock features” and “[s]everal groundstone caches and two elk/deer antler features were noted.” (Reese et al. 2006 and 2009:5)
6-17 Pacific Legacy identified the following as “antler features” at CA-SCL-287: Feature 2001-80, Feature 2001-86, Feature 2001-89 and Feature 2001-90. In their report they only offered a brief description and the results of the C14 dating associated with each of these “antler features:
Feature 2001-80 – Location: Central Area, measuring 100 X 175, elevation 118.96’. Description: “Elk antler, vertebra, flat bones, and coccyx (tail bones). Feature also includes fish vertebrae, charcoal, shell and burned bones. Prehistoric antler feature. Coccyx in situ beneath antler and vertebra” (2006, Chapter 5:177).
Feature 2001-80 yielded a C14 date on “charred material” of 1980 ± 50 or AD 15 ± 52 (Reese et al. 2006: Chapter 8:2).
Feature 2001-86 - Location: Central Area, measuring 50 X 50, elevation 118.67’. Description: “Large antler fragment with fire cracked rock and charcoal. Prehistoric antler feature” (2006, Chapter 5:178).
Feature 2001-89 - Location: Central Area, measuring 100 X 100, elevation 120.13’. Description: “Fire cracked rock, faunal bones, human bones, Monterey and Franciscan chert debitage, ocher, charcoal, possible mano fragment, polished deer antler deer tip, shell, olivella saddle bead, and baked clay. Prehistoric rock feature. Human bone fragments probably from Burial 01-2” (2006, Chapter 5:178).
Feature 2001-89 yielded a C14 date on “charred material” of 1840 ± 50 or AD 173 ± 58 (Reese et al. 2006: Chapter 8:2).
Feature 2001-90 - Location: Central Area, measuring 50 X 50, elevation 119.06’. Description: “Deer antler with shell and charcoal. Prehistoric deer antler feature” (2006, Chapter 5:178)
Feature 2001-90 yielded a C14 date on “charcoal” of 1495 ± 70 or AD 544 ± 73 (Reese et al. 2006: Chapter 8:2).
Although not considered or discussed by Pacific Legacy consultants is the possibility that some of these “antler features” may be related to funerary and mortuary (i.e., ceremonial)-related activities, rather than a result of “economic-related” activities (for example see description of Feature 2001-89 in association with the discovery of human bone that was “probably from Burial 01-2”).
Another aspect not usually addressed in Central California archaeological literature is the symbolism associated with the placement of parts of animals as grave offerings. One interpretation of these associated animal remains is allocated to the gesture of “food offerings for the afterlife.” However, while food offerings may indeed have played a role, other interpretations may indeed be possible such as interpreting these animal body elements as part of a religious-spiritual-social system (such as dream helpers) and moiety markers representing the land/water or deer/bear divisions or sides that the individual was affiliated with in life and in the spirit world.
6-18
Shifting from a subsistence/economic perspective in Chapter 10 we revisit the cosmological and sociological implications of the placement of animal parts and the presence of animal burials within cemetery sites. This view is presented as a revisitation of a chapter entitled “What Must It Have Been Like”: Critical Considerations of Pre-Contact Ohlone Cosmology as Interpreted Through Central California Ethnohistory which was written in consultation with the Muwekma Ohlone Tribal leadership and members as part of the analysis of the human remains, animal burials and associated animal body elements recovered from the Three Wolves Site (Kaphan Húunikma) CA-SCL-732 Middle Period cemetery site. In Chapter 10 we also present symbolic meanings of sacred space in particular the “spirit house,” and “spirit food” (meaning sacred space and food set aside for the dead or for ghosts), symbolic meanings and the rules imbued within the belief systems of central California Indians as viewed through the Maidu Creation narrative as told by Hánc’ibyjim (Tom Young) to Roland Dixon in 1902.
6-19 Chapter 7: Analysis of the Stone, Bone and Shell Artifacts from Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263) by Alan Leventhal and Diane DiGiuseppe
INTRODUCTION: RESEARCH ORIENTATION
This chapter reports on the analysis of the flaked stone and ground and battered stone tool assemblage recovered from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (CA-SCL- 287/CA-SMA-263. Prior to conducting this analysis, it became clear that the archaeological deposit under investigation contained a major cemetery component. Furthermore, the majority of the site as well as the upper 20-30 cm of the visible deposit was highly disturbed by previous construction and utility placement activities.
Even though, there were substantial subsurface impacts to the archaeological sites, twenty-seven in situ primary inhumations/burials were encountered during the test excavations and monitoring of construction-related activities. One of the indicators of the archaeological deposit included the presence of a blackish and ashy midden soil which was identified within the upper 20-25 cm. Archaeologists have usually associated the presence of this type of middeny soil with "village" or "habitation sites."
The subsurface soils (below 25 cm) on the other hand, which contained the burials, appeared to be rather inorganic, ranging in color from brown to a lighter brown, but lacking the distinctive black ashy quality of habitation-related midden soils. Similar light colored non-midden inorganic soils have been encountered elsewhere in northern San Jose and in the East Bay and were associated with pure cemeteries without habitation-related features. Some of these cemetery sites include: CA-ALA-479, CA-SCL-38, CA-SCL-343, CA-SCL-581, and CA-SCL-674 (Leventhal, et al. 1987, 1988, 1989; Bellifemine 1997; Pastron and Bellifemine 2007).
As a result of the limitations placed on the archaeological data recovery program conducted at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263), the orientation of this study is focused on analyzing the flaked stone and ground stone assemblages as behavioral by-products resulting from several possible ancestral Ohlone/Costanoan cultural systems, that may also hypothetically represent two distinct, but interrelated cultural systems:
1) an ideological (ideotechnic) system as a consequence of ceremonial/religious-related behaviors associated with funerary activities and possibly annual mourning ceremonies); and/or 2) a subsistence/residential (technomic) system as a consequence of habitation and economic-related activities such as acquisition of raw materials, flaked stone tool manufacturing and maintenance, subsistence/hunting and on-site butchering, food preparation and processing through the use of ground stone tools such as mortars and pestles. (See Binford 1962; Blackburn 1976; Leventhal 1993).
7-1 In the process of postulating these two interrelated interpretive perspectives, further consideration was then focused on evidence of (technomic) habitation/economic/subsistence-related activities, by posing the following research question. Can we identify and distinguish between those assemblages associated with village/habitation/subsistence-related activities from those assemblages and artifacts that are reflective of group activities representing intensive, single event (one to multi-days) funerals and/or annual mourning ceremonies at this site?
In order to further advance an explanatory model that addresses the above research question, two objectives needed to be achieved:
1) a detailed analysis of the flaked stone and ground stone tool assemblages derived from the burial loci within CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263; and 2) conducting a brief ethnographic, ethnohistoric and archaeological overview focusing of the "treatment of the dead" within the greater Central California culture region, with an emphasis on the Ohlone/Costanoan area and their immediate linguistic neighbors.
A BRIEF OVERVIEW ON THE RELATIONSHIP OF CEMETERIES TO VILLAGE SITES WITHIN COSTANOAN AND ADJACENT AREAS IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA
Within aboriginal Central California, two of the most significant and intensive ceremonial/religious events were centered around Funerary rituals (which involves prescribed rules for disposal and treatment of the dead) and the ensuing annual Mourning Anniversary (see Gifford 1926, 1927, 1955; Blackburn 1976; Leventhal 1993; Luby and Grubber 1999). Kroeber in his monumental study on California Indians early on noted that:
The anniversary or annual ceremony in memory of the dead bulks so large in the life of many California tribes as to produce a first impression of being one of the most typical phases of California culture (1925:859-860).
As a result of archaeological investigations over the past 100 years in California, it is generally acknowledged that large populations of California Indians occupied the San Francisco Bay region prior to European Contact in 1769 (Cook 1943, Kroeber 1925, Dobyns 1966, Milliken 1983, 1995 and others). Historical first-hand accounts from the early Spanish colonial expeditions documenting their encounters with various Ohlone/Costanoan tribal groups are relevant to this discussion.
During the Anza-Font expedition, March 9 - April 14, 1776, while traveling between the present- day towns of Hollister and Gilroy, the group came upon a cemetery in the vicinity of a village located just south of Gilroy. Fray Font observed:
On passing near the village which I mentioned on the road, we saw on the edge of it something like a cemetery. It was made of several small poles, although it was not like the cemeteries which we saw on the Channel. On the poles were hung some things like snails and some tule skirts which the women wear. Some arrows were stuck in the ground, and there were some feathers which perhaps were treasures for the persons buried there (Bolton 1930:322).
7-2 Another independent account identifying the location of contact-era (ca. 1769-1800) Native cemeteries relative to their villages was recorded by Fray Palou two years earlier along the Pacific side of the San Mateo Peninsula. Members of the Rivera-Palou expedition, November 23 - December 13, 1774, traveling south toward Año Nuevo on two consecutive days (December 8 and 9) observed the location of cemeteries near villages by fresh water drainages:
Near the two large arroyos we found vestiges of villages, with a cemetery, in which were planted two slender poles, straight and very high. From the point of each one hung a small cape made of grass of the sort used by the heathen, doubtless belonged to those who were buried there, as is their custom. ...
On its banks we found vestiges of a deserted village, with cemetery, in which they planted a high pole, this being the monument used by the heathen for the sepulchers of the chief men of the village" (Bolton 1926:293-295).
Pedro Fages also commented briefly about Ohlone/Costanoan cemeteries and aspects of their religious world view:
They believe in the transmigration of souls, asserting that those of the dead go to live in a certain island of the sea, from whence they come to enter the bodies of those who are born. Their dead they inter in a place like regular cemeteries ... (1937:70).
Archaeologist Chester King was one of the first researchers to consider this cemetery-related ethnohistoric data and veered away from the traditional Bay Area archaeological interpretation that pre-contact Ohlones principally buried their dead in their village/habitation sites. In his “Matalan Ethnohistory,” King was the first to classify cemeteries as ceremonial sites. He wrote:
Historic data provides us with the description of several types of cultural sites which occur away from habitation. The presence of these types of sites possibly cannot be determined using the procedures most archaeologists have used in locating occupation areas. The following information is presented to enable archaeologists to anticipate the presence of the site types.
At what was probably the village of Thithirii (Carnadero), just south of Gilroy, Pedro Font observed in 1776: some thing like a cemetery. ...
Probably at least all of the large village sites in the Coyote Valley had similar cemeteries adjacent to them (1977:44).
Leventhal (1993) in his comprehensive study on the analysis of the assemblages recovered from CA-ALA-329, the Ryan Mound located in the Coyote Hills region near the East Bay town of Newark, demonstrated that the site was more of an earth mound, rather than a shellmound and that the overwhelmingly majority of the archaeological features identified in both the Stanford and San Jose State University excavations were the recovery of over 420 burials (and cremations) with almost no clear evidence of village/habitation features such as house floors and fire hearths.
7-3 Leventhal also postulated that the presence of shell fish remains in this mortuary mound was more probably a result of Funeral-related activities and Mourning Anniversary feasts rather than the result of normative village/subsistence-related activities. Luby and Grubber (1999) also further elaborated on the model originally proposed by Leventhal (1993), in their article entitled “The Dead Must be Fed: Symbolic Meanings of the Shellmounds of the San Francisco Bay Area”.
From the neighboring linguistic/tribal territories (i.e., Bay, Coast, Plains Miwok, Yokuts, Maidu, Patwin, and Nomlaki) we find additional evidence that cemeteries were also located outside of or adjacent to village/habitation sites (Powers 1877, Dixon 1905, Kroeber 1925, Gayton 1936, 1948, Goldschmidt 1951, Gifford 1955, Heizer 1978, and others).
Other Supporting Archaeological Information from Central California
Recent archaeological evidence derived from two other areas of Central California also supports the contention that cemeteries were established outside of village/habitation areas. For instance, Chartkoff and Chartkoff reported on the excavation of a large late period village earth mound site (CA-BUT-1), located within Konkow (Maidu) territory south of the present-day town of Chico. From their site report they state that this site contained up to 90 house features and the remains of only one intrusive burial which was buried in the site after the village was abandoned (Chartkoff and Chartkoff 1983 and 1984).
To the south of Ohlone/Costanoan territory, within the ethnographic Chumash region, Linda King, presented information on the Medea Creek Cemetery. Her doctoral study included the analysis of 397 human remains from this late period cemetery and she informs us that "Medea Creek village (CA-LAN-243), which lies ca. 300 meters south of the cemetery, was the main village ..." (L. King 1982:11).
In summation, there appears to be a growing amount of ethnohistoric and archaeological evidence that indicates that Central California Indian communities did not deliberately live on top of their dead (or bury their dead within their villages). Therefore, based upon this growing evidence it appears that we may have to rethink our long held assumptions about the presence of midden-like soils at cemetery sites and develop models and alternative explanations about site formation processes. This above perspectives has greatly influenced the research orientation and direction of the analysis of the flaked stone assemblages that were recovered from CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263.
Some Possible Research Oriented Postulates
With this hypothetical cemetery site perspective in place, two potentially testable postulates have been generated:
1. If the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 combined is a postulated cemetery site, then there should be a limited range of stone tool artifact types that are associated with three discreet activity sets:
a) placement of lithic materials as grave offerings (directly associated with and/or above burials);
7-4 b) placement of lithic materials, in the form of finished products that may have been attached to commemorative/grave marker poles; and, c) stone tools and lithic debris associated with the hosting of several day periodic, but intensive single event funerals and/or mourning ceremonies (therefore some evidence of localized hunting, butchering food processing, cooking, and manufacture of temporary shelter activities may have been conducted on-site or adjacent to the cemetery proper in order to host such ceremonies).
2. If the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 are a multi-use and/or multi-component site (i.e., a village/habitation site with a cemetery component), then there should be a full range of activities represented (e.g., stages of manufacturing [trajectories] in the form of debris and failures of bone, stone and possibly shell artifacts). In addition there should be distinctly identifiable habitation-related activity areas (e.g., hearths, house floors, concentrations of refuse) representing a patterning that is distinguishable from cemetery activity areas and patterning (e.g., burials, mortuary offering features, animal burials, and etc.).
Limitations of the Present Study
Due to the impacts to these archaeological sites resulting from the construction activities, and due to the focused burial recovery program only a limited sample of flaked stone and ground stone materials were recovered from burial associated contexts and as isolates from disturbed areas.
Analysis of the grave associated ecofacts, tools, beads, regalia, and other artifacts that were recovered with the seven burials from the 2000 and 2001 field seasons (Burials 00-1 – 00-3 and 01- 1 – 01-4), were not available for analysis for inclusion in this final report. However, information about these grave associated artifacts and ecofacts described below is derived from three sources: 1) field notes; 2) an informal catalog of materials provided by Pacific Legacy personnel; and 3) a preliminary analysis conducted in 2003 by Susan Morley and Alan Leventhal on the lithics and ground stone.
ANALYSIS OF THE FLAKED STONE AND GROUND AND BATTERED STONE ASSEMBLAGES
Flaked Stone – Methodology
As a result of the implemented burial recovery program, a total of one hundred and twelve (112) flaked stone elements were recovered from the burial loci:
In the field all of the recovered flaked stone lithic materials were placed in labeled unit level/burial loci bags thus maintaining their proveniences. After being transported from the site to the lab all the flaked stone materials were washed and placed onto sorting trays. These materials were then examined and sorted by material type, state of completeness, stage of reduction and modification, and overall form.
7-5 For purposes of this analysis, all flaked stone materials were individually reviewed under a Bausch and Lomb 10.5x - 45x variable stereoscopic microscope and a 150 watt incandescent lamp for any evidence of use/wear patterns and retouch modification. All materials were then weighed on an Ohaus triple beam balance scale and measured with a Mitutoyo Digimatic metric caliper. All damaged and pristine edge angles were determined by using a Ward's Contact Goniometer.
For classifying formed tools, informal tools, and debitage, the following attributes were used:
1. Material type
2. Type of flake (flaking debris) based on the following criteria: (a) Probable mode of production (e.g., bipolar, freehand hard hammer, soft hammer, or pressure flaking) (b) Condition of flake (e.g., complete, fragmented, shattered, thermally spalled & etc.) (c) Size and shape (orientation of the platform and bulb of percussion, expanding, & etc.) (d) Overall condition and thickness of flake (intact, fragment and etc.) (e) Presence, absence and percentage of cortex present on the dorsal and/or platform
3. Informal tools (e.g., utilized flakes, modified flakes), based on: (a) Degree of edge modification (b) Observed type of use/wear patterns and edge damage (c) Location and number of Edge Units (E.U.'s) exhibiting modification and/or use/wear edge damage (d) Two angles are measured on the Edge Units: Pristine Edge Angle (PEA) which calculates the angle or angle range of the edge of the tools before use and the Damaged Edge Angle (DEA) which measures the angle or angle range of the employed edge after use.
4. Formed (formally flaked) tools, based on: (a) Overall morphology and degree of modification (b) Presence of use/wear patterns or edge damage (e.g., polish, nibbling, nicking, gloss, impact fractures) (c) Evidence of reworking and reuse
Based on the above attributes, there were total of four (4) formed (formal) and informal tools as well as eight (8) debitage/waste flake categories that have been identified:
Formed (Formal) and Informal Tools (n=16)
1. Cores, Core Fragments, and Assayed Cobbles and Pebbles: (9 specimens/5 sub-types) 2. Projectile Points/Bifaces (2 specimens) 3. Utilized Flakes (4 specimens) 4. Modified Flakes (1 specimen)
7-6 Debitage/Waste Flakes (n=96)
1. Cortical Flakes (n=6) 2. Primary Flakes (n=74) 3. Thinning Flakes (n=7) 4. Pressure Flakes (n=1) 5. Bladelets (n=1) 6. Bipolar Flakes (n=2) 7. Resharpening Flakes (n=1) 8. Shatter (n=4)
These formed (formal) and informal tools along with the eight (8) flaked stone debitage classes were manufactured from one of ten (10) identified material types which are:
1. Red Franciscan Chert (RFC) (n=29) 2. Green Franciscan Chert (GFC) (n=14) 3. Gray Franciscan Chert (GrFC) (n=3) 4. Yellow Franciscan Chert (YFC) (n=2) 5. Monterey Chert (MC) (n=26) 6. Obsidian (OBS) (n=32) 7. Red Jasper (RJ) (n=1) 8. White Chert (WC) (n=3) 9. Black Chert (BC) (n=1) 10. Sandstone (SS) (n=1)
FLAKED STONE ARTIFACT DESCRIPTIONS
Cores, Core Fragments, Assayed Cobbles and Assayed Pebbles
Cores are made on pebbles, cobbles, nodules and/or quarried raw and/or heat treated knappable stone materials which are usually modified through either a hard or soft hammer percussion or a pressure flaking techniques to create two general lithic elements: 1) products (cores, bifaces, primary flake blanks, and etc.) and 2) by-products (flakes, blades and debitage). Cores from this collection fall into seven types:
Type 1 - Cobble cores (1 specimen) Type 2 - Pebble cores (2 specimens) Type 3 – Exhausted cores (2 specimens) Type 4 – Core fragments (3 specimens) Type 7 - Assayed pebble/cobbles (1 specimen)
A total of nine (9) specimens were classified as cores or assayed pebbles in this study (Table 7-1).
7-7
Table 7-1: Distribution of Core Types
Specimen # Type Provenience Material Type
24-5 Type 1 Cobble Core Burial 24 RJ 12-7 Type 2 Pebble Core Burial 12 MC 20-8 Type 2 Pebble Core Burial 20 RFC 15-6 Type 3 Exhausted Core Burial 15 GFC 15-7 Type 3 Exhausted Core Burial 15 MC 8-12 Type 4 Core Fragment Burial 8 RFC 20-9 Type 4 Core Fragment Burial 20 RFC 21-7 Type 4 Core Fragment Burial 21 MC 7-3 Type 5 Assayed Pebble Burial 7 MC
Type 1 - (1 specimen) Cobble cores are generally made on fist size rounded cobbles (originally greater than 3” (76 mm) of various knappable lithic materials. They generally retain much of their original cortex and size; thus distinguishing them from the smaller pebble cores as well as the other types.
- Specimen # 24-5 Red Jasper (RJ). Maximum length = 71.4 x 69.3 x 36.2 mm. Wt. 180.3 g. This specimen is a cobble core that appears to have been subjected to thermal annealing based upon differential coloration and glossy sheen on the material. The thermal annealing process was only partially effective based upon the micro-fractured, stress flawed and rough texture of the flaked interior of the cobble. This micro-fractured quality probably led to its abandonment as a core (Figure 7-1).
- The location of the quarry/outcrop/drainage that produced this red jasper material is most likely located approximately 2½ miles to the southwest of these sites at Jasper Ridge. Jasper Ridge most-likely fell into the resource catchment of this Middle Period ancestral Ohlone tribal group and possibly as a important red-colored lithic material fitted within the cosmological universe of this tribal group. The scarcity of this material type in burial context at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw sites possibly indicates that red jasper was considered an important symbolic (ideotechnic) as well a utilitarian (technomic) lithic material.
7-8
Figure 7-1: Burial 24 – Specimen # 24-5 Cobble Core Red Jasper
Type 2 - (2 specimens) Pebble cores share the same basic characteristics as cobble cores, except that they tend to be less than 3" (76mm) in original overall maximum length. Two specimens were recovered from burial context: Specimen 12-7 is a multi-face pebble core of Monterey Chert from Burial 12 and Specimen # 20-8 is a thermally affected and spalled core from Burial 20 (Figure 7- 2).
- Specimen # 12-7 Monterey chert. Max. length = 56.9 x 57.3 x 44.4 mm, wt. 155.5 g. - Specimen # 20-8 Red Franciscan chert. Max. length = 46.5 x 44.8 x 39.8 mm, wt. 80.9 g.
Figure 7-2: Pebble Cores – Specimen #s 12-7 and 20-8
7-9 Type 3 - (2 specimens) Exhausted cores tend to be either too small or difficult for further reduction and/or flake production, hence the usefulness of the core has become "exhausted" (Figure 6-3). Both specimens were associated with Burial 04-15 (Figure 7-3).
- Specimen # 15-6 Green Franciscan chert . Max. length = 22.8 x 22.4 x 21. mm, wt. 15.4 g. - Specimen # 15-7 Monterey chert. Max. length = 33.4 x 26.1 x 18.0 mm, wt. 18.3 g.
Figure 7-3: Exhausted Cores - Specimen #s 15-6 and 15-7
Type 4 - (2 specimens) Core fragments are fragments of cores that still retain a portion of their original flake scar detachment and striking platforms, but were either shattered or fragmented during the reduction process. These artifacts are placed within this category regardless of inferred original type of core. A total of three core fragments fall into this class: Specimen # 8-12 made of RFC was recovered from Burial 04-8, Specimen # 20-9 made of RFC was from Burial 04-20 and Specimen # 21-7 was associated with Burial 04-21 (Figure 7-4).
- Specimen # 8-12 Red Franciscan chert. Maximum length=32.9 x 32.3 x 25.6 mm, wt 32.3 g - Specimen # 20-9 Red Franciscan chert. Maximum length=35.9 x 25.9 x 16.7mm, wt 18.2 g. - Specimen # 21-7 Monterey chert. Maximum length = 42.6 x 22.3 x15.6mm, wt. 10.3 g.
7-10
Figure 7-4: Core Fragments - Specimen #s 8-12, 20-9 and 21-7
Type 5 - (1 specimen) Assayed pebbles/cobble/angular chunks are different from cores in that they exhibit only one or possibly, at most, two detached flake scars. Although the raw materials may be of knappable quality, they tend to have been struck once, evaluated or "assayed,” then discarded for some unknown reason. One specimen (Specimen # 7-3) was found in association with Burial 7.
- Specimen # 7-3 Monterey chert. Max. length = 37.1 x 32.0 x 14.5 mm, wt. 20.8g
Projectile Points/Bifaces
Projectile points are usually bifacially flaked tools with piercing tips that are attached to the ends of lances, spears, darts or arrows for purposes of hunting game and warfare. Darts were used in conjunction with the atlatl or throwing stick which served as an extension of the arm for obtaining a thrust of greater velocity for killing.
A total of two specimens have been recovered from this site. These projectile points/bifaces usually fall into one of three categories: 1) large projectiles/bifaces weighing more than 3.0 grams and intuitively considered to have tipped darts or spears, 2) small obsidian serrated projectiles weighing less than 3.0 grams and usually considered to be one of several varieties of the Stockton Serrated arrow, or small obsidian corner-notched points without serrated edges, or Desert Side- Notched points usually made of either Franciscan or Monterey chert, and 3) those that are too fragmented to clearly classify. Of the specimens recovered, there were no distinctive attributes to measure based upon Thomas’s (1970) projectile point attributes.
7-11 Large Projectiles/Dart Points/Biface (2 specimens).
- Specimen # 10-6 appears to be the base of an obsidian leaf-shaped biface/dart point which was recovered in association with Burial 04-10. This specimen was roughly flaked by soft hammer percussion flaking technique and displays an impact fracture perpendicular to the axis of the point above the remnant base. Axial length = 19.2 x15.5 x 7.7 mm, wt. 2.4 gr. (Figure 7-5)
Figure 7-5: Specimen # 10-6 Base of Obsidian Dart Point/Biface
- Specimen # 17/18-7 is a tip of a biface/dart point made of Red Franciscan chert which was associated with Burial 04-17/18. This specimen was finished by soft hammer percussion flaking technique and displays either a manufacturing failure break or an impact fracture perpendicular to the axis of the point below the tip. Axial length = 26.7 x20.2 x 9.6 mm. Wt. 5.1 gr. (Figure 7-6) -
7-12
Figure 7-6: Specimen # 17/18-7 Biface/Dart Point Tip
Utilized Flakes (4 Specimens)
Utilized flakes are informal or generalized tools; they have been employed for tasks involving cutting, shaving, whittling, and scraping, and then usually discarded. Consequently, these flakes show little or no purposeful post detachment modification other than that caused by the work they have performed.
In order for a flake to be classified as utilized, a flake must have one or more edges or Edge Units (E.U.s) exhibiting evidence of use/wear patterns. Two edge angle measurements are included within this study: Pristine Edge Angle (PEA) and Damaged Edge Angle (DEA). Pristine Edge Angles are the reconstructed angles of the edge prior to utilization. Damage Edge Angles are the actual measured range of the angle of the employed edge. All edge angles were determined by using a Ward's Contact Goniometer.
- Specimen # 8-9 is a utilized flake made on a primary expanding flake of Red Franciscan chert. This tool was recovered from Burial 04-8. There are four EUs identified on this specimen. o EU #1 is located on the right lateral edge (ventral view). This EU is concave and exhibits unifacial nibbling and nicking. The EU measures 19.3 mm. The Pristine Edge Angle (PEA) range measures 43° - 45° and the Damaged Edge Angle (DEA) range measures 64° - 66°. o EU #2 is located on the right distal edge (ventral view) and is actually a continuation of EU #1 but on a different edge. This EU is straight to slightly convex and displays unifacial nibbling. The PEA range measures 40° - 43° and the DEA range measures 52° - 55°.
7-13 o EU #3 is located on the left distal edge (ventral view). This EU is straight to slightly undulating. The EU exhibits slight retouch and unifacial nibbling. The PEA range measures 40° - 42° and the DEA range measures 48° - 50°. o EU #4 is located on the upper left lateral edge (ventral view). This EU is straight to slightly concave. The EU exhibits unifacial nibbling and the PEA range measures 41° - 42° and the DEA range measures 46° - 47°. The bulbar length (as opposed to maximum length) measures 28.4 x 28.6 x 4.5.
- Specimen # 12- 9 is a utilized flake made on a primary flake of Monterey chert. This specimen was recovered in association with Burial 04-12. The single EU displays rounding and unifacial nibbling on the upper right lateral edge (ventral view). The Edge Unit length is 10.6 mm and the PEA range measures 28º - 30º and the DEA range measures 35º - 38º. Bulbar length = 22.6 x 22.0 x 6.4 mm. Wt. 2.6g.
- Specimen # 13-2 is a utilized flake made on a primary flake of Red Franciscan chert. This specimen was recovered in association with Burial 04-13. The single EU is slightly concave, displaying unifacial nibbling and nicking and slight retouch(?) on the right lateral edge (dorsal view). The Edge Unit length is 14.4 mm and the PEA range measures 30º - 35º and the DEA range measures 51 º - 54º. Bulbar length = 24.0 x 25.3 x 6.3 mm. Wt. 4.1g.
- Specimen # 17/18-11 is made on a bladelet flake of White chert. A bladelet is an elongated primary flake that is at least three times as long as it is wide. The lateral edges are also usually parallel to each other. This tool has one EU and it was recovered from Burial 04- 17/18. The EU is located along the right lateral edge (ventral view) and displays unifacial nibbling, nicking and rounding. The EU length measures 24.5 mm and the PEA range measures 28º - 36 º and the DEA range measures 56º - 61 º. Bulbar. length = 38.1 x 12.9 x 3.4 mm. Wt. 1.4 g.
Modified Flakes (1 Specimen)
Modified flakes are considered informal tools. Some Modified flakes were selected as primary flake blanks by the tool maker for the purpose of further reduction and shaping. Other specimens may exhibit limited edge modification without evidence of use. This class of artifact is usually modified by either soft hammer percussion and/or pressure flaking techniques and for some reason abandoned. Modified flakes may also, in some cases, represent resharpened tools such as utilized flakes that were not redeployed again as tools after modification. In other words the modification process eliminated any previous evidence of use/wear on previously utilized flakes.
- Specimen # 12-9 is a utilized flake made on a primary expanding flake of Green Franciscan chert. This specimen was recovered in association with Burial 04-12. The distal edge of the flake (ventral view) exhibits a series of pressure retouched flake scars. Bulbar length = 24.1 x 35.1 x 12.8 mm. Wt. 12.8g.
7-14 Debitage/Waste Flakes
A total of 96* flaked stone elements have been classified within one of the eight identified categories of “Debitage/Waste Flakes”. Debitage consists of the flaking debris produced during stone tool manufacture and by other means. The debitage and waste flakes from this assemblage were classified based on the probable mode of production or causality of breakage. A total of eight (8) debitage/waste flake categories have been identified from this collection:
1. Cortical flakes are usually produced by freehand hard hammer and/or soft hammer percussion techniques. Cortical flakes represent the first in a series of flake detachments from a nodule forming a core and these flakes retain at least 50% or more of their cortex or patina.(n=-6)
2. Primary flakes are removed from a core or quarry blank by either hard hammer percussion, or if from a primary flake blank, by both hard hammer and/or soft hammer percussion techniques. Primary flakes, as opposed to cortical flakes, retain less than 50% of the cortex. Cortex, however, may still be present on the striking platform. If these flakes were derived from a primary flake blank, neither cortex or previous flake scars would necessarily be present on the dorsal face. (n=74)*
*Note (this includes the 23 obsidian specimens sent to Pacific Legacy for XRF sourcing and listed as “debitage” by Pacific Legacy. These specimens were not available to OFCS for classification but for purposes of convenience we have placed them in this general category)
3. Thinning (Secondary) flakes are usually produced by soft hammer or antler baton percussion. These flakes tend to be much thinner than primary flakes, with smaller striking platforms and less pronounced bulbs of percussion, and usually retain two or more previously detached flake scars on their dorsal surfaces. These flakes often appear to be by-products of the production of formed tools, such as bifaces and/or projectiles points (and others), rather than as the result of initial core reduction. Some thinning flakes are typically longer than they are wide (sometimes referred to as bladelets). These thinning flakes are distinctive and are the result of the last stages of preform/bifacial tool production. (n=7)
4. Pressure flakes are usually derived from pressing an antler tine, a sharpened bone, or hafted tooth against the edge of a flake or stone tool, resulting in this distinctively tiny flake. These flakes are usually representative of the very last stages of tool manufacture. The process is also referred to as final edge treatment. Pressure flakes may also be produced as a result of resharpening the edge of a worn tool. (n=1)
5. Bladelets are usually either primary or thinning flakes that are produced by either hard hammer or soft hammer percussion flaking techniques. Bladelets are usually made from very fine knappable materials and are usually at lest three time as long as they are wide. The lateral edges of these little bladelets also parallel. Sometimes these bladelets are employed in tasks and become utilized flakes. (n=1)
7-15
6. Bipolar flakes are produced by an anvil and hard hammer reduction technique rather than by freehand hard hammer. These flakes are distinguished by three bulbar types: a) flat or sheared, b) salient, and c) diffused (Kobayashi 1975). They retain less than 50% cortex on their dorsal surfaces. (n=2)
7. Resharpening flakes are the result of resharpening utilized edges of stone tools that have become dulled after much use or in the reshaping (and therefore resharpening) projectile points that have been spent but are intact enough to be deemed reusable. Resharpening flakes retain the remnant of utilized edges or portions of truncated end/impact spalls from spent projectiles. (n=1)
8. Shatter refers to usually angular, irregular-shaped detritus that are most probably flake fragments and/or failed “shattered” materials derived from assayed cobbles, cores and/or tools. Since these specimens have lost almost all of their flake attributes and characteristics and therefore cannot reliably be placed in any of the other debitage classes.(n=4)
MATERIAL SUMMARY
As mentioned above, a total of 96 flaked stone elements were classified under the debitage/waste flake category. Franciscan cherts of all colors (red, green, gray and yellow) combined represents the most predominant material type in this assemblage accounting for 42% (n = 40) of all the debitage/waste flakes recovered from the site. This is not surprising since the Franciscan chert formations are located to the west of the sites in the Santa Cruz Mountain Range as out crops and in fresh water drainages. During this analysis, the Franciscan cherts were sub-divided into four sub- color categories. In order of dominance, they are as follows:
1) Red (n = 23 or 24%), 2) Green (n = 12 or 13%), 3) Gray (n = 3 or 3%), and 4) Yellow (n = 2 or 2%).
The following is a breakdown of the Red Franciscan chert specimens: Cortical flakes n=2; Primary flakes n=16; Bipolar flakes n=1; and Shatter n=4.
Green Franciscan chert specimens: Primary flakes n=11 and Thinning flakes n=1.
Gray Franciscan chert specimens: Cortical flakes n=1 and Primary flakes n=2.
Yellow Franciscan chert specimens: Cortical flakes n=2.
Obsidian was the second most abundant material represented at this site. A total of 30 specimens representing 31% of the assemblage were recovered as flakes/debitage (this includes the 23 specimens from associated with the burials from the 2000 and 2001 field seasons). Twenty four of these were classified as Primary flakes, one was a Pressure flake and five were thinning flakes (Figure 7-7).
7-16 Table 7-2 presents the distribution of the obsidian debitage/flakes associated with the 2000 – 2001 field season burials and along with source identification based upon visual id by Glen Wilson:
Table 7-2 Number of Obsidian Debitage/Flakes Recovered from Burials from 2000-2001
Burial # Pac.Leg. Catalog # Description Source
00-1- n/a debitage Casa Diablo
01-1/1 004-021/1 debitage Napa 01-1/2 004-021/2 debitage Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-1/a 004-013 chunk? Napa? 01-1/b 004-014 flake Napa 01-1/c 004-015 debitage Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-1/d 004-016 flake Napa 01-1/e 004-017A debitage Napa 01-1/f 004-018 chunk Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-1/g 004-019 flake Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-1/h 004-020 flake Napa
01-2/1 004-012A debitage Napa 01-2/2 004-012A debitage Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills
01-3/a n/a flake Napa 01-3/b n/a flake Napa? 01-3/c n/a flake Napa 01-3/d n/a flake Napa 01-3/e n/a flake Napa 01-3/f n/a flake Napa 01-3/g n/a flake Napa 01-3/h n/a flake Napa 01-3/i n/a flake Napa? 01-3/j n/a debitage ?
01-4/2 004-016 debitage Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-4/3 n/a debitage Napa
7-17
Figure 7-7: Specimen # 8-24 Three Obsidian Thinning Flakes from Burial 04-8
Monterey chert was the third abundant material type accounting for 21 lithic elements or 22% of the total debitage assemblage. Monterey chert is an exotic import that has its origins to the west of these sites and the San Andreas faultline. Available sources for Monterey chert occur along the Santa Cruz coast especially at Point Año Nuevo approximately 24 miles to the southwest of the sites. At Año Nuevo Monterey chert is found in the form of water worn rounded and tabular- shaped cobbles on the beach. The source of these cobbles is from an offshore submerged marine Miocene-age formation (Clark, 1970).
The following is a breakdown of the Monterey chert specimens: Cortical flakes n=1; primary flakes n=19 and Thinning flakes n=1 (Figure 7-8).
7-18
Figure 7-8: Specimen # 8-17 Three Monterey Chert Primary Flakes from Burial 04-8
The remaining four material types have only one or two specimens represented. In order of prevalence they are: White chert [possibly a chalcedony] with n = 2 or 2% which includes one Primary flake and one Bladelet; Black chert (n = 1 or 1%) Bipolar flake; Sandstone (n = 1 or 1%) Primary flake (perhaps off a chopper); and Red Jasper (n = 0 or .0%).
7-19 ANALYSIS OF GROUND, BATTERED, PECKED AND POLISHED STONE TOOLS
A total of thirteen (13) ground stone, battered stone and pecked stone tools were recovered from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. These tools fall into several categories: 1) mortars, 2) pestles, 3) pecked cobbles, and 4) modified stones/choppers.
Mortars (8 specimens)
Mortars or stone bowls are used in conjunction with stone pestle. These distinctive tools serve as a stone “Cuisine Art” container for processing many different kinds of foods including plants, nuts, berries, seeds, fish and meats. None of the working well/bowl areas of these mortars were washed. Attempts were made to obtain interested researchers who were will to sample these groundstone tools in order to conduct chemical and residue analyses upon them. One such researcher who is currently working on her doctorate at University of Arizona has of late expressed interest in examining these mortars.
- Specimen # 7-6 is a large egg-shaped boulder mortar of indurated greywacke sandstone that was recovered ion association with Burial 04-7. The mortar had been placed over the head of this individual at the time of burial and a portion of the cranium was removed from the soils adhering to the well of the mortar. The interior well is very deep and exterior of the mortar exhibits no evidence of manufacturing. The rim around the bowl is beveled as a result of pestle wear (Figure 7-9)
Max. Exterior/axial length = 37.8 x 31.7 x 23.3 cm.; Max. diameter of the rim of well = 23.9 x 22.7 cm.; Interior diameter of the rim of well = 20.3 x 21.3 cm.; Depth of the bowl (chord) = 111.3 mm.; Weight = 65 lbs (29.5 kg).
Figure 7-9: Specimen # 7-6 Boulder Mortar from Burial 04-7
7-20 - Specimen # 8-19 is an intact unshaped cobble mortar made of sandstone that was directly associated with Burial # 04-8. The interior well exhibits pecking as part of the manufacturing process (Figure 7-10).
Max. exterior diameter = 137.2 mm x 107.7 mm x 52.9 mm. Max. diameter of the well rim = 60.2 x 58.1 mm. Depth of the bowl (chord) = 111.3 mm. Weight = 1.3 kg.
Figure 7-10: Specimen # 8-19 Associated with Burial # 04-8
- Specimen # 8-21 is an intact unshaped cobble mortar made of sandstone associated with Burial # 04-8. The interior well exhibits pecking as part of the manufacturing process (Figure 7-11).
Max. exterior diameter = 133.5 x 117.6 x 73.1 mm. Max. diameter of the well rim = 84.3 x 75.8 mm. Depth of the bowl (chord) = 20.1 mm. Weight = 1.3 kg.
7-21
Figure 7-11: Specimen # 8-21 Associated with Burial # 04-8
- Specimen # 12-6 is a fragment of hopper boulder mortar of basalt that was recovered in association with Burial 04-12. This mortar fragment has a very shallow working area thus suggesting that it was used in conjunction with a hopper open-ended basket for processing seeds and nuts (Figure 7-12).
Max. Exterior length = 23.2 x 14.7 x 13.6 cm. Max. diameter of the rim of well = 8.8 mm. Depth of the bowl (chord) = 20.1 mm. Weight = 14 lbs (6.4 kg).
7-22
Figure 7-12: Specimen # 12-6 Hopper Mortar Associated with Burial #04-12
7-23 - Specimen # 13-3 is a small hand-held cobble sandstone mortar fragment which was found in association with Burial 04-13. One face has a shallow manufactured pecked well and on the opposite face it exhibits a proto-well with pitting (Figure 7-13).
Maximum exterior diameter/length = 82.1 x 73.8 x 56.5 mm. Maximum diameter of the well = 53.4 mm. Interior diameter of the rim/bowl = 10.0 x 9.9 cm. Depth of the bowl (chord) = 17.3 mm. Wt. 314.4 g.
Figure 7-13: Specimen # 13-3 Cobble Mortar Associated with Burial 04-13
- Specimen # 14-11 is an unshaped hopper mortar fragment made on a boulder of sandstone that was recovered in association with Burial 04-14. This mortar fragment has a very shallow working area thus suggesting that it was used in conjunction with a hopper open- ended basket for processing seeds and nuts (Figure 7-14).
Max. Exterior length = 23.0 x 15.9 x 10.8 cm. Max. diameter of the rim of well = 12.8 x 10.4 cm. Depth of the bowl (chord) = 17.3 mm. Weight = 314.4 g.
7-24
Figure 7-14: Specimen # 14-11 Hopper Mortar Fragment Associated with Burial 04-14
- Specimen # 20-6 is a medium-sized unshaped boulder mortar of indurated sandstone that was directly associated with Burial # 04-20. This broken specimen appears to have been reused as a mortar. Therefore the new well has been shifted perpendicular to the original orientation of the interior well which displays evidence of beveling on the newly established rim (Figure 7-15).
Max. exterior diameter = 23.1 x 15.9 x 10.8 cm. Max. diameter of the well rim = 12.8 x 10.4 mm. Depth of the bowl (chord) = 7.6 mm. Weight = 12 lbs.
7-25
Figure 7-15: Specimen # 20-6 Reworked Boulder Mortar in Association with Burial 04-20
- Specimen # 24-1 is a shaped boulder mortar of vesicular basalt that was recovered in direct association with Burial # 04-24. This broken specimen appears to have been split in half at the time of burial. The other half was never recovered from the site. The exterior body of the mortar appears to have been deliberately shaped. The well displays pestle use-wear beveling (Figure 7-16).
Max. exterior diameter = 28.6 x 12.2 x 12.2 cm. Max. diameter of the well rim = 20.4 cm. Max. diameter of the inner well = 18.1 cm. Depth of the bowl (chord) = 14.3 cm. Weight = 14 lbs (6.4 kg).
7-26
Figure 7-16: Specimen # 24-1 Boulder Mortar Fragment in Association with Burial 04-24
Pestles (2 specimens)
Pestles are used in conjunction with mortars or stone bowls. They are usually made from naturally oblong cobbles of suitable size and shape or from large sandstone quarry blanks. Pestles are generally used to pulp and mash various kinds of foods including acorns, seeds, nuts, berries, fruit, corms, fish and meats. This is accomplished usually through an up and down and rotating movements.
- Specimen # 8-20 is a distal end of an unshaped pestle of sandstone that was recovered in association with Burial 04-8. The proximal appears to have been broken prior to placement in the grave. A portion of the body retains a caliche deposit on it. The distal end exhibits evidence of heavy use/wear in the form of rounding, stepped fractures and battering. Axial length = 145.3 x 73.5 x 44.0 mm. Wt. 800 g (Figure 7-17)
7-27
Figure 7-17: Specimen # 8-20 Unshaped Pestle Fragment Associated with Burial 04-8
- Specimen # 8-23 is a distal end of an unshaped pestle of sandstone that was also recovered in association with Burial 04-8. The proximal appears to have been broken by heavy equipment. The distal end exhibits evidence of heavy use/wear in the form of rounding, and battering. Axial length = 130.9 x 74.2 x 67.7 mm. Wt. 830 g (Figure 7-18)
Figure 7-18: Specimen # 8-23 Unshaped Pestle Fragment Associated with Burial 04-8
7-28 Manos (Handstones) and Metates
No manos (handstones) or metate grinding slabs were found in association with the burials.
Pecked cobbles (2 specimens)
Pecked cobbles have been found at many archaeological sites within the greater San Francisco/Monterey Bay region. They tend to be an informal tool that may have been intended for a variety of purposes such as serving as an anvil stone, nutting stone, or perhaps intended to be at times employed as an abrader.
- Specimen # 8-22 is a flat sandstone cobble that exhibits unifacial pecking on one of its surfaces. Prior to burial this specimen was split along the axis of the cobble. The slight pecking observed on this specimen seems to represent the first round of modifying the surface of the cobble. This specimen was found in association with Burial 04-8. Axial length = 153.1 x 58.1 x 65.4 mm. Wt. 730 g.
- Specimen # 24-3 is a flat rounded cobble of indurated sandstone that exhibits slight unifacial pecking on one of its surfaces. The slight pecking represents the first round of modifying the surface of this cobble. This specimen was found in association with Burial 04-24. Axial length = 19.8 x 14.1 x 6.8 cm. Wt. 2700 g (Figure 7-19)
Figure 7-19: Specimen # 24-3 Pecked Cobble Associated with Burial 04-24
7-29 Chopper-like Tool (1 specimen)
Choppers are hand-held tools that are used to chop through organic materials such as wood, bone, fibers and perhaps meat and fish. Based upon the overall shape and form of these tools as well as observed use/wear and spalling patterns these activities can be inferred. .
- Specimen # 10-5 is an intact chopper-like tool made on a split and modified cobble of sandstone. This specimen exhibits a relative sharp chopper-like edge that was modified by a flaked/edge modification technique. Although the edge does not exhibit remnant use- wear patterns (e.g., battering, crushing, spalling, stepped fractures) distinctive of chopping- related activities, the edge of this specimen may have been resharpening prior to placement in the grave of Burial 04-10. Max. length = 131.0 x 102.8 x 30.1 mm. Wt. 392.4 g (Figure 7-20).
Figure 7-20: Specimen # 10-5 Chopper-Like Tool Associated with Burial 04-10
Miscellaneous Manuports: Cobbles, Pebbles and Vitrified Clay
Manuports are usually unmodified or raw materials (e.g., rocks) that were carried onto an archaeological site by people transporting them. Numerous manuport unmodified cobbles and pebbles were retained for cleaning and description. These specimens do not fall into a tool category but instead represent inferred behaviors by their presence at the site. The many unmodified cobbles and pebble that were recovered from mortuary contexts are considered manuports because they were brought onto the site by the ancestral Ohlone people. Vitrified clays on the other hand represent remnants of intensive fires reaching approximately 1200º C that transformed clays into vitrified slag.
7-30 During excavations the field crew encountered multiple fragments of sandstone cobbles and pebbles. The majority of which did not display any evidence of being exposed to fire (thermally affected). Archaeologists have referred to thermally affected cobbles as “fire cracked rocks” or FCR. Usually thermally affected rocks display either oxidation reddening and/or blackening. In this case the majority of the cobbles encountered during monitoring and excavations can not be classified as “fire cracked rocks” due to lack of evidence.
Worked Graphite - Polished Pendant Fragment (1 Specimen)
A single fragment of a polished pendant made of graphite was recovered in association with Burial # 01-2 and was assigned Specimen # 01-2-3. This graphite pendant grave association was not available for inclusion in this analysis and thus no further description is possible.
Table 7-3 presents the distribution of Ground, Pecked, and Polished Stone tools found in association with the Burials.
Table 7-3 Grave Associated Ground, Pecked and Polished Tools
Burial # Sex Age Specimen # Type of Artifact 01-2 Female 30-39 01-2-3 Polished Graphite (Pendant?) 04-7 Male 25+ 04-7-6 Unshaped Boulder Mortar 04-8 Male 26-39 04-8-19 Unshaped Cobble Mortar 04-8 Male 26-39 04-8-21 Unshaped Cobble Mortar 04-8 Male 26-39 04-8-20 Unshaped Pestle (fragment) 04-8 Male 26-39 04-8-23 Unshaped Pestle (fragment) 04-8 Male 26-39 04-8-19 Pecked Cobble 04-10 Male 30+ 04-10-5 Chopper-like tool 04-12 Female 40-49 04-12-6 Hopper Mortar 04-13 Female 40-49 04-13-3 Small Cobble Mortar 04-14 Indeterm. 30+ 04-14-11 Hopper Mortar (fragment) 04-20 Male 20-30 04-20-6 Boulder Mortar (fragment) 04-24 Indeterm. Adult 04-24-1 Boulder Mortar (fragment) 04-24 Indeterm. Adult 04-24-3 Pecked Cobble
7-31 ANALYSIS OF WORK BONE TOOLS AND PENDANTS
Bone Artifacts (9 Specimens)
Bone Awls (4 specimens)
Bone awls are usually specialized tools made of animal bone with pointed tips. These tools are usually associated with the art of basket weaving however these tools were also employed in other tasks other than the manufacture of baskets. Such tasks may have included the weaving of mats, netting, woven traps, and as punches for perforating animal hides.
One bone awl specimens were recovered from Burial 04-21: Awls are generally made on either modified long bones and/or calcanei (foot bone) from animals such as deer (Figure 7-21).
Figure 7-21: Specimen # 21-8 Bone Awl Fragment from Burial 04-21
Three additional awl fragments were recovered from the following burials: Burial # 01-2 (Specimen # 01-2-2 – awl tip), Burial # 01-3 (Specimen # 01-3-4 – awl tip) and Burial # 01-4 (Specimen # 01-4-6 – awl fragment), however these specimens were not available for this analysis and detailed description.
7-32 Bone Hairpins (2 specimens)
Two elongated bi-pointed worked bone “hairpins” were recovered from Burial 04-6 a young Male age 18+ years. One specimen Specimen # 6-8 is completely intact while the other specimen Specimen # 6-7 is incomplete and was recovered in four pieces (Figure 7-22) . Both bi-pointed bones were found next to the cranium thus suggesting that they might have served as “hairpins.” Gifford (1940) in his comprehensive analysis on California Bone Artifacts classified several similar looking specimens under category “T. Bipointed Object” as Type T1b. Gifford’s descriptions of these bipointed bone objects further supports the possibility that these specimens were manufactured and used as hair pins.
T. Bipointed object, straight, bowed, or beveled; not perforated. Undoubtedly objects served several purposes; very likely hairpins, nose sticks, fishing equipment, possibly awls. … T1b, Fusiform, more or less circular in cross section throughout; ….S[an}Joaquin [Valley] 6 [specimens], 1 figured : “hairpin”; D[elta] R[egion] 28 [specimens] … All SJ (6) specimens, of elk cannon bone, are longer than others of type and are regarded as hairpins on the basis of modern analogy; … Ethnological: 4 Yurok hairpins from lower Klamath r.; range in length from 160-176 mm. (1940:176)
In a footnote (55) Gifford cites Loeb’s study 1926 on the Pomo states:
Loeb (1926 p. 155) gives a similar explanation for modern Pomo bone hairpins which are of same length. The Pomo also use bipointed wooden hairpins or skewers, which are thrust through the hair after it has been bundled on top of the head and secured with a hair net. (Ibid).
The two specimens recovered from Burial 04-6 provide the following measurements: Specimen # 06-8 181.0 x 10.0 x 6.1 mm, with one end retaining 55.1 mm of black mastic, wt. 9.4 g.
Specimen # 06-9 reconstructed length = 152.0 x 8.1 x 4.9 mm, wt. 5.6 g., with slight trace of black mastic on one end. (See Figure 7-23 Choris painting of Ohlone Indians at Mission Dolores 1816 for an example of possible use and placement of hair pins).
7-33
Figure 7-22 Specimen #s 6-8 and 6-9 Associated with Burial 04-6
Figure 7-23: Ohlone Indians at Mission Dolores (1816)
Worked/Polished Bone (Possible Pendant Fragment) [1 specimen]
A single worked/polished bone displaying striations, polish and perpendicular cut marks (possible remnant of a hafting element) on one end was collected as an isolated artifact by the 4th Tee. Specimen # 34-1 measures 50.1 x 6.8 x 4.6 mm and weighs 1.5 g. (Figure 7-24).
7-34
Figure 7-24: Work/Polished Bone Possible Pendant Fragment (Isolate)
Polished Bone Tool Fragment from a Large Mammal (1 specimen)
A polished bone tool fragment from a large mammal was measured and superficially described in 2001 and was not available for inclusion in this analysis. This worked bone tool was associated with Burial # 00-1 and was assigned as Specimen # 00-1-10. This artifact measures 32 mm x 13 mm. and weighs 6 grams.
Cut Bird Bone (1 specimen)
A single cut bird bone artifact was recovered in association with Burial # 01-2 and was assigned Specimen # 01-2-4. This cut bird bone grave association was not available for inclusion in this analysis.
7-35 ANALYSIS OF SHELL BEADS AND PENDANTS
Shell Beads (61+ Specimens)
Type F3a Square Saddle Olivella Shell Beads (51+ specimens)
There were a total of 35 intact and 16 fragmented Type F3a Olivella cut shell beads (Specimen # 6- 6) recovered from Burial 04-6 who is a Male 18+ years old (Figure 7-25). Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) describe Olivella Type F Series Beads as “Saddles”
“Oval to rectanguloid beads from the shell wall.
F3a. Square Saddle: Squarish bead with small, central perforation drilled conically from the interior, with exterior retouch. Bead length is equal to, or slightly exceeds, width. … These beads have rounded corners, in contrast to Class L and M Rectangular beads. Size: 7.0 x 6.0 – 10.0 x 10.0; … curvature 1.5 – 3.0; perforation diameter 0.8 – 1.7.
Temporal significance: Middle period marker type. First appears with type F2 in the late phase, occurs by itself in the terminal phase, and appears for the last time with type M1 in the Middle/Late period Transition. (1987:129- 131)
Ten type F3a beads from this burial lot were selected and measured. All the beads were measured using a Mitutoyo Model CD-6”B Digital Calipers under a Bausch & Lomb 40x Scope. Two methods were used in obtaining the perforation diameter: 1) with the Mitutoyo caliper (M)and 2) by Ocular Bishop Graphics (OBG), “Peak” 10X De-Luxe with a millimeter scale. Both measurements will be presented in the following table. Table 7-4 presents these attribute measurements (all measurements are in millimeters).
Table 7-4 Attribute Measurements for Selected Type F3a Beads from Burial 04-6
Specimen # Length Width Curvature Perforation Perforation Diameter (M) Diameter (OBG) 04-6-6A 8.75 7.86 1.91 1.56 1.7 04-6-6B 8.63 8.00 1.90 1.37 1.5 04-6-6C 7.98 8.30 2.21 1.08 1.1 04-6-6D 8.71 7.94 2.19 1.09 1.3 04-6-6E 9.14 7.72 1.77 1.16 1.2 04-6-6F 8.92 8.42 2.52 1.20 1.3 04-6-6G 8.50 8.23 1.91 1.11 1.2 04-6-6H 8.71 8.33 2.49 1.05 1.2 04-6-6I 8.78 7.25 1.75 1.05 1.2 04-6-6J 8.83 7.79 1.96 1.20 1.4
7-36
Figure 7-25 Specimen # 6-6 Olivella Type F3a Shell Beads from Burial 04-6
Type F1 Oval Saddle Olivella Shell Bead (1 specimen)
A single Olivella Type F1 bead was associated with Burial # 01-2 and was assigned Specimen # 01-2-1. This specimen was identified in 2001 and was not available for measured for inclusion in this analysis. Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) describe Olivella Type F Series Beads as “Saddles”
F1. Oval Saddle: Oval bead with large central perforation, usually drilled biconically. Width equal to, or greater than, length. … Not “cut” diagonally, but with ground edges. Distinguished from F2 by a larger perforation, and lack of diagonal “cutting,” deep curvature, and chipped edges. Size: 6.0 x 7.0 – 11.0 x 14.0; … curvature 1.4 – 2.0; perforation diameter 2.0 – 4.8.
Temporal significance: Marker type for the Early/Middle Period transition phase in Alameda, Napa and Cosumnes districts in central California (1987:129).
Type F2b Round Saddle Olivella Shell Bead (1 specimen)
A single Olivella Type F2b? bead was found in association with Burial # 01-3 and was assigned Specimen # 01-3-6. This specimen was identified in 2001 and was not available for measured for inclusion in this analysis. Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) describe Olivella Type F Series Beads as “Saddles”
7-37 F2b. Round Saddle: Oval bead with small, central perforation drilled conically from the interior, with exterior retouch. Bead width is equal to or slightly more than its length. … Most beads were “cut” diagonally from the shell wall, producing a lopsided roundish-oval bead with deep curvature. Edges more frequently ground than type F2a. Size: 6.0 x 6.5 – 13.0 x 14.0; … curvature 2.4 – 4.7; perforation diameter 1.1 – 2.1.
Temporal significance: Middle Period Marker type. Grave lots with only F2 are diagnostic of the intermediate phase, but they persist through the late phase in association with the derivative type F3 (1987:129-131).
Type C3 Split Oval Olivella Shell Bead (1 specimen)
A single Olivella shell bead Type C3 Split Oval was found in association with Burial # 04-15 and was assigned Specimen # 15-12. This bead is uniconically drilled from the dorsal side, edge ground with no shelf, measures 10.1 mm x 9.2 mm, curvature = 3.2 mm, perforation diameter = 1.9 mm; wt. 0.1 grams.
Based upon the over morphology of the bead, measurements, and the fact that this specimen displayed no evidence of a shelf it has been classified as a Type C3. (Figure 7-26).
Figure 7-26: Specimen # 15-12 Type C3 Split Oval Bead - Dorsal View (Burial 04-15)
7-38 Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) provide the following descriptive information on this class of bead:
Class C: Split
Description: Half-shell bead usually with a full shelf, or quarter-shell with shelf edge or no shelf. All edges ground, variable size. Confined temporally to the Middle period and adjacent transitional phases. … C3. Split Oval Description: Medium-size centrally perforated quarter-shell bead usually with no shelf, occasionally with self edge. Size: Length 8.5 – 12.0; width 7.5 – 10.0; perforation diameter 1.8 – 2.8 [mm].
…Temporal significance: Middle/Late period Transition [700-900 AD] (Californian) (1987:122-123).
Type Alb Medium Spire-Lopped Olivella Shell Bead (1 specimen)
A single Olivella shell bead Type A1b Medium Spire-Lopped bead was found in association with Burial # 04-11 and was assigned Specimen # 11-5. This bead length = 10.7 mm with a maximum diameter of 6.6 mm (Figure 7-27).
Figure 7-27: Specimen # 11-5 Type A1b Medium Spire-Lopped (Burial 04-11)
7-39 Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) provide the following descriptive information on this class of bead:
Class A: Spire-Lopped
Description: Nearly complete shell with only the spire removed perpendicular to the body axis. … Size: Three divisions based on maximum diameter are used for all species in Classes A, B and O. Length has not been used because of the variable extent of end grinding and natural wear. Small: 3.0-6.5; Medium: 6.51-9.5; Large: 9.51-14.0.
…Temporal significance: none (1987:117-118).
Type B3b Medium Spire Ground Barrels Olivella Shell Bead (6 specimens)
A total of six Olivella shell bead Type B3b Medium Spire Ground Barrel beads were found in association with two burials: Burial # 01-3 and Burial #01-4. These beads were assigned Specimen # 01-3-5 and Specimen # 01-4-1 respectively. These beads were identified as Type B3 in 2001 and were not available for detailed analysis and measurement for inclusion in this report.
Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) provide the following descriptive information on this class of bead:
Class B: End-Ground
Description: Both the spire and variable amounts of the aperture end have been removed. … B3. Barrel Description: Extensive end-grinding produces a bead with the maximum diameter at the middle.
Size: Same three metric divisions as type A1. Temporal significance: Early/Middle Transition (1987:121-122).
Abalone Pendants/Ornaments (4 Specimens)
A total of four abalone pendant fragments were found in association with three of the burials. Two fragments of Haliotis rufescens were recovered from Burial # 00-3 and were assigned Specimen # 00-3-14. A single fragment of Haliotis rufescens was recovered from Burial # 01-3 and assigned Specimen # 01-3-1. Burial # 01-4 yielded a possible Haliotis rufescens pendant fragment and it was assigned Specimen # 01-4-2. None of these abalone specimens were available to analyze and measure, therefore, only a limited amount of information can be presented.
7-40 DISCUSSIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS
Based upon the results from the analysis of the flaked stone, ground stone and battered stone tools recovered from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites, a limited range of activity sets may be inferred from these data. While these inferred activities may not represent the entire universe of precontact Ohlone behavior that occurred at this site, the patterning and interpretations derived from this representative sample does help shed light on understanding some aspects of the nature of the site and the site formation processes occurring there.
Discussion of the Mortuary Complex and Grave Associations
The recovery of 27 primary inhumations as well as at least two other individuals (MNI = 29) from burial contexts supports part of the interpretive argument that the sampled portion of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites was indeed a cemetery site. AMS dating of the ten burials places this cemetery site within the Middle Periods that span from Early Middle through the very beginning of the Middle/Late Period Transition ca. 4 BC – AD 716 (Bennyhoff and Hughes1987 Scheme B1).
This cemetery complex most likely developed as a consequence of the establishment of an adjacent village which was strategically located relative to San Francisquito Creek and adjacent marshes as sources of fresh water and food resources. This cemetery area was then set aside by the residents of this village for purposes of burying their dead according to the customs of the time for a period extending at least 700 years (4 BC to AD 716).
Historic and presumably ancestral Ohlone mortuary-related activities were tied to two significant ceremonies: the Funeral and the commemorative Mourning Anniversary. Clearly, some aspects of these ceremonial expressions can be discerned by the deliberate placement of grave offerings such as deer, elk, coyote, wolf hawk, eagle and goose remains, lithics, and large intact boulder mortars as symbols of both the real and cosmological worlds (see Chapter 10 What It Must Have Been Like!).
As mentioned above, a total of 112 flaked stone tools and debitage/waste flakes were recovered the burials as grave associations. Why these lithic materials were placed with these deceased people obviously will never know, but no doubt they were placed for symbolic reasons, presumably to take with them and use in the afterlife.
Thirteen ground, pecked and polished stone tools were deliberately placed with, on top of or along side at least nine of the burials: Burial #s 01-2, 04-7, 04-8, 04-10, 04-12, 04-13, 04-14, 04-20, and 04-24..
The presence of the Olivella beads and abalone shell (ornament fragments) were associated with seven of the burials: Burial #s 00-3, 01-2, 01-3, 01-4, 04-6, 04-11 and 04-15. These associated Olivella beads and Haliotis ornaments represent sociotechnic or symbols of wealth and status (Binford 1962) that most likely came into their possession as prestigious imported trade items (Leventhal, 1993; Leventhal and Seitz, 1989).
7-41 Without having full access to the data derived from Pacific Legacy’s analysis of the non-burial features, it is difficult to interpret those non-burial related features as either being residential/habitation-related features or as mortuary-related features. Therefore, it is speculated that some these non-burial-related features were possibly associated with mortuary-related activities rather than simply residential-economic related activities (see Leventhal 1993, Luby 1991, and Luby and Gruber 1999). It would be up to Pacific Legacy to test the validity of this hypothesis.
POSSIBLE INFERRED EVIDENCE OF TECHNOMIC (ECONOMIC-SUBSISTENCE RELATED) ACTIVITY SETS
As discussed above there were various and bone tools recovered from burial contexts. Some of these tools apparently were at some point were involved in various economic-subsistence-related activities. These tools can be classified as “technomic” artifacts (after Binford 1962), however, because they were recovered from within a mortuary/cemetery context, they should also be considered as “transformed” into symbolic “ideotechnic” grave objects. Likewise, prior to placement of the boulder mortars and pestles as grave associations, these mortars were employed in normative food processing activities. However, placement within the cemetery with presumably their owners, transformed them from “technomic” tools to either “sociotechnic” (prestige) or “ideotechnic” symbols (Binford 1962) for the afterlife (see Chapter 11 What It Must Have Been Like!)
In conclusion, it may be suggested that many of the unassociated lithic tools and debitage are indeed the result of nearby habitation-related activities. However, based upon the limited scope of this analysis two distinct activity sets may be forwarded that may explain the distribution of these materials within the cemetery area.
1. Some of the lithic tools and debitage could be associated with resource exploitation of the riverine/marshland environment either prior to or after the establishment of the cemetery area of this site.
Hunting is also an inferred activity indicated by the presence of the basal-section of the obsidian dart point and tip of a chert point, faunal remains, and tool manufacture/maintenance in the form of flakes and debitage/waste which was probably taking place during this period of time.
2. Some time during the middle to late Middle Period (4 BC to AD 716), this area was identified as suitable to establish semi-sedentary residential settlements which when people died produced this burial ground. The Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] cemetery site was established in an area presumably outside or adjacent to the village(s). The distribution of both lithic as well as other non-grave associated materials may well indeed be associated with the various funerary and annual Cry or Mourning ceremonies that may have been held on the cemetery or in proximity to the village living area. If this hypothesis is correct, then in order to host. obtain and prepare food to feed large groups of people over a period of several days, then we would expect to find evidence of short term, intensive, single event activities in the form of discarded tools and fauna (mammal, bird and
7-42 shell fish) remains. Obviously, this hypothesis must be independently tested with other sets of data in order to reconstruct socio-cultural and ceremonial activities at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites.
To summarize, based upon the data presented above, it may be stated that these pre-contact ancestral Puichon Ohlone people exploited a localized lithic catchment for most of their flaked and ground stone tools. It appears that it was important to place a variety of lithics with deceased individuals, ranging from formed "finished tools" to various debitage elements.
DISCUSSION OF OUR PRIMARY RESEARCH QUESTION: CEREMONIAL PERSPECTIVE
Can we identify and distinguish between those assemblages associated with normative village/habitation site-related activities from those assemblages derived from hosting groups of people attending intensive, single event (presumably multi-day) Funeral and/or annual Mourning anniversary-related ceremonies at adjacent cemetery sites?
This question cannot be fully addressed until the entire assemblage from both burial and non- burial-related features and contexts are analyzed collectively and compared. This can be accomplished in consultation with Pacific Legacy.
We do have evidence of stone tool manufacturing at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. Clearly, this indicates that some technomic (economic-subsistence) related activity sets were carried on site. We can only hypothesize, that if the non-grave associated lithic assemblages were indeed associated with the technomic related activities (e.g., the acquisition and processing of mammal, bird, shellfish and plant foods) in order to host large groups of people for a one-to-four day funeral or mourning ceremonial event, we should then find evidence of these tools and their associated manufacturing debris, especially over a 700 year period.
In addition, supporting this interpretive position, several ethnohistoric accounts were selected from central California, so this could be visualized as occurring at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. Blackburn citing Gayton's 1936 study on the Yokuts in the San Joaquin Valley offers this contact period account of a mourning ceremony:
In 1819, Estudillo estimated the number of people participating in a mourning anniversary at Chischa to be somewhere between 2500 and 3000. (Blackburn 1976:231)
Still later, in the early 1870s, Steven Powers provided a first hand account of a Yokut's "dance for the dead":
While in Course Gold Gulch, it was my good fortune to witness the great dance for the dead (ko-ti'-wa-chil) which was one of the most extraordinary human spectacles I ever beheld. First, it will be well to explain that among the Yokuts the dance for the dead is protracted nearly a week. ...
7-43 We found about three hundred Indians assembled... Glittering necklaces of Haliotis and other rare marine shells; ...baskets of the finest workmanship, on which they had toiled for months, perhaps years, circled and furred with hundreds of little quail-plumes, bespangled, scalloped, festooned, and embroidered with beadery until there was scarcely place for the handling; plumes, shawls, etc. (1877:384-385,388).
Again Powers offered a detailed description for the Konkow (Konkau) anniversary:
The dance for the dead (tsi'-pi ka-mi'-ni, "the weeping dance")... They bring together a great quantity of food, clothing, baskets, and whatever other things they believe the dead require in the other world. ... the ornaments are the best they can procure. These are hung on a semicircle of boughs or small trees, cut and set in the ground leafless... . In the center burns a great fire, and hard by are the graves. ... They seat themselves on the graves, men, women and squaws together, as the twilight closes in around them, and begin a mournful wailing, crying, and ululation for the dead of the year. (1877:437-438).
This aforementioned description of the poles with offerings is very similar to the early Spanish accounts describing the cemeteries observed within Ohlone territory. Although these ethnographic examples are from adjacent tribal territories and also are first-hand Contact Period observations, they, nonetheless potentially serve as ethnographic analogs for the archaeological record within the Ohlone region. Furthermore, we know that the Ohlones had a reciprocal moiety system (Deer/Bear) much like the Miwok (Land/Water), Coast Miwok (Land/Water), Yokuts (Downstream/Upstream) and Salinan (Deer/Bear) that presumably functioned in an analogous fashion, especially during ritual obligation (Gifford 1916:140; Harrington 1942:32; Hester 1978; Kelley 1978; Mason 1912; Spier 1978).
During a funeral or mourning ceremony, the members of these moieties functioned as ritual washers for members of the opposite moiety (Blackburn 1976). Gifford (1955) informs us that the "Cry" ceremony of the Miwok occurred approximately one year after death. It lasted from one to six nights with four being the average number of days. Furthermore, Gifford states that "(a)n assemblage of three to four hundred people for a cry is not unusual" (Ibid:313). After the "Cry" ceremony everyone was washed with mugwort (estafiate) by the opposite moiety's members (Gifford 1955:315).
Presumably the act of reciprocal washing has also something to do with ritual purification in order to avert sickness and death. Apparently ritual washing was performed after both the mourning anniversary and the funeral. Gifford provided additional information about Miwok ritual behavior:
In the old days after a cremation, and nowadays after a burial, the ceremony of epetu is performed. Each of the chief mourners lies face down on the grave and his back is pressed from head to foot by people of the opposite moiety. The purpose of epetu is to ward off illness from the mourners (1955:312).
7-44 To summarize, we find that in central California there are prescribed rules for the proper disposal of the dead and for conducting mourning ceremonies. Cemeteries are areas distinctively set-aside from village living areas. Due to the development of complex ceremonial behaviors, which specifically centers around funerals and mourning ceremonies and focuses on purification rituals due to "ritual pollution" (e.g., handling of a corpse, being a chief mourner, etc.), we find it difficult to accept the view that pre-contact Ohlone people would deliberately live on top of their dead. In fact when we reviewed the larger ethnographic record for North American Indians (Driver 1969) as well as other world wide hunting and gathering populations (Coon 1971; Service 1978; Fried and Fried 1980), we found no evidence of any group deliberately living on top of their dead.
Therefore based upon the recovered tool and debitage assemblages recovered from the mortuary context from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites, taken in conjunction with the ethnographic information discussed above, it is our conclusion that this portion of the site constitutes a formal cemetery set-aside and removed from village/settlement activities areas. Furthermore, the presence of these stone, bone and shell assemblages are more than likely a consequence of ceremonial and funerary-related activities conducted at this location that were placed with the deceased individuals for the afterlife, as symbolic markers in life as well as in the spirit world.
7-45 Chapter 8 The Dating and Chronological Placement of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 by Alan Leventhal and Rosemary Cambra
AMS DATING OF TEN OF THE BURIALS RECOVERED FROM THE YUKI KUTSUIMI ŠAATOŠ INŪXW [SAND HILL ROAD] SITES: CA-SCL-287 AND CA-SMA-263
During the course of conducting the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program, at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites, a decision was made by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribal leadership to allow for the submittal of a small amount of human bone from eleven of the twenty-seven field designated burials for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating in order to obtain chronological information on the temporal components represented at these two adjacent sites. On February 22, 2007, samples of bone was packaged up and sent to the NSF Arizona AMS Facility, University of Arizona at Tempe, for AMS dating from Burial #01-2, Burial #01-3, Burial # 04-6, and Burial # 04-7, Burial # 04-8, Burial # 04-12, Burial # 04-15, Burial # 04- 17/18, Burial # 04-20, Burial # 04-22A, and Burial # 04-24. Based upon the association of Olivella type F3a beads with Burial #04-6 and an Olivella type C3 bead associated with Burial 04-15, OFCS staff predicted a date ranging from AD 200 to AD 1000 for this mortuary population. The results from NSF Arizona AMS Facility were finally obtained on November 30, 2008 for ten out of the eleven samples that were submitted (Appendix D). Burial # 04-24 failed to yield any collagen however, a second sample from this burial was also submitted and it too did not yield any amount of datable collagen, therefore, we can only report on the results from ten of the burials from this population. RESULTS FROM THE AMS DATING OF HUMAN COLLAGEN FROM TEN BURIALS
After reviewing these AMS dating results, OFCS staff and Muwekma Tribal leadership were pleased to see that they fell within the estimated age prediction of the site which was made prior to submitting the samples for dating. The Calib 5.0.1 C14 correction program was applied to the uncorrected AMS radiometric assays (at the 2 sigma level). The intercept was determined as the midpoint of the corrected (Conventional) date (at the 2 sigma level) thus providing a calibrated date for approximately when these people died
Table 8-1 presents the results for the ten burials that were dated at the NSF Arizona AMS Laboratory employing the Bennyhoff and Hughes’ Temporal Dating Scheme B1 (1987). [See Appendix D - Dating Report from NSF-Arizona AMS Laboratory.]
8-1 Table 8-1 AMS C14 Dates from CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 (Scheme B1, after Bennyhoff and Hughes 1987)
Burial # C14 Age BP Calib 5.0.1 Range Intercept
Middle/Late Transition Phase (AD 700 – AD 900) Burial # 04-12 1,301 ±34 AD 658 – AD 774 AD 716
Terminal Middle Period Phase (AD 500 – AD 700) (No dated burials)
Late Middle Period Phase (AD 300 – AD 500) Burial # 04-6 1,611 ±42 AD 376 – AD 548 AD 462
Intermediate Middle Period Phase (AD 100-AD 300) Burial # 04-17/18 1,787 ±36 AD 131 – AD 337 AD 234 Burial # 04-15 1,814 ±36 AD 122 – AD 260 AD 191 Burial # 04-8 1,822 ±35 AD 118 – AD 258 AD 188 Burial # 01-3 1, 848 ±43 AD 67 – AD 255 AD 161 Burial # 04-22A 1,846 ±35 AD 80 – AD 242 AD 161 Burial # 01-2 1,850 ±43 AD 65 – AD 254 AD 160 Burial # 04-20 1,889 ±42 AD 48 – AD 223 AD 141
Early Middle Period Phase (200 BC - AD 100) Burial #04-7 1,987 ±42 185 BC – AD 233 BC 4
*Early/Middle Period Transition Phase (500 BC – 200 BC) Undesignated Burial 2270 ±80 BC 800 – 50 BC 307 ±88 BC
[*Note: This is an undesignated burial from CA-SMA-263 that was dated by charcoal by Pacific Legacy and reported on in their draft report (Reese et al. 2006). Pacific Legacy provides no additional information about the provenience or excavation of this burial therefore it is treated as a distinct and separate burial in this report].
If we accept the corrected calendar dates which range from 4 BC to AD 716 and place these dates within the Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) Temporal Scheme B1, then as stated above then we discover that one individual died during the Early Middle Period Phase (200 BC - AD 100); seven died during the Intermediate Middle Period Phase (AD 100-AD 300); one died during the Late Middle Period Phase (AD 300 – AD 500) and one died approximately 250 years later during the Middle/Late Transition Phase (AD 700 – AD 900).
Independently Pacific Legacy had submitted a sample of charcoal to Beta Labs from an undesignated burial from CA-SMA-263 which yielded a date of 2270 ±80 BC or 307 ±88 BC (Reese et al. 2006). The date of this burial places it earlier in the Early/Middle Period
8-2 Transition Phase (500 BC – 200 BC) [Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) Temporal Scheme B1; see Table 8-2 below]
What the above dating distribution of burials suggests is that with the exception of the following burials: the undesignated burial from CA-SMA-263 (dating to 307 BC), Burial #04-7 (dating to 4 BC), Burial # 04-6 (dating to AD 462) and Burial #04-12 (dating to AD 716), the majority of the dated mortuary population died within 93 years of each other. By including those other four burial outliers it is clear that the tribal groups who occupied this region used these two sites as a cemetery for a period of time that spans approximately 1020 years.
On the other hand, if these dates are placed within the newly proposed Temporal Scheme D dating scheme as initially proposed by Groza (2002) and refined by Hughes and Milliken (2007), then one of these individuals died during the Early/Middle Transition Phase (500 – 200 BC), eight of these individuals died during the Middle Period Phase M1 Bead Horizon (200 BC – AD 450), one died during the Middle Period Phase M2 Bead Horizon (AD 450 – AD 600) and one died during the Middle Period Phase M3 Bead Horizon (AD 600 – AD 800). [See Figure 8-1: Temporal Schemes B and D below].
Regardless of which Temporal Scheme we employ, it is clear that these eleven ancestral Ohlone burials from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites died over a period of 1000 years during the Middle Period between 307 BC to AD 716.
As stated above Pacific Legacy, Inc. submitted to Beta Labs seventeen organic samples from several non-burial-related units and features from CA-SCL-287 and six samples from CA-SMA- 263 including a charcoal sample from one unidentified burial (Reese et al 2006:E:\Chapter 8). Table 8-2 presents the results from these two sites:
Table 8-2 Radiocarbon Dates for Sites in the Project Area and Immediate Vicinity
Site Provenience Material Measured Oxcal CalPal 14C Age Calibrated Calibrated (BP) Result Result
SCL-287 Feature 8-10 Charcoal 370 ± 60 AD 1430 to 1650 AD 1538 ± 71 SCL-287 Feature 16 Charred Material 580 ± 50 AD 1290 to 1430 AD 1360 ± 41 SCL-287 Feature 49 Charred Material 710 ± 40 AD 1240 to 1400 AD 1312 ± 44 SCL-287 Feature 5 Wood 1280 ± 40 AD 660 to 880 AD 731 ± 41 SCL-287 Feature 10 Charred Material 1380 ± 50 AD 580 to 780 AD 654 ± 33 SCL-287 Feature 90-1 Charcoal 1495 ± 70 AD 420 to 670 AD 544 ± 73 SCL-287 Feature 89 Charred Material 1840 ± 50 AD 50 to 330 AD 173 ± 58 SCL-287 Feature 14 Charred Material 1880 ± 40 AD 20 to 240 AD 141 ± 56 SCL-287 Feature 80 Charred Material 1980 ± 50 110BC to AD140 AD 15 ± 52 SCL-287 Unit 17, 100-120 Wood 2190 ± 185 800 BC to AD 250 259 ± 237 BC SCL-287 Unit 20, 100-110 Wood 2230 ± 170 800 BC to AD 100 312 ± 229 BC SCL-287 Feature 21 Charred Material 2320 ± 40 490 to 200 BC 345 ± 59 BC SCL-287 Unit 8, Level 8 Charcoal 2580 ± 140 1050 to 350 BC 681 ± 178 BC SCL-287 Feature 8 Charred Material 3510 ± 40 1890 to 1680 BC 1828 ± 53 BC
8-3 Table 8-2 Radiocarbon Dates for Sites in the Project Area and Immediate Vicinity (continued)
Site Provenience Material Measured Oxcal CalPal 14C Age Calibrated Calibrated (BP) Result Result
SMA-263 Unit 7, 20-30 Wood 660 ± 110 1470 AD 1317 ± 72 SMA-263 Unit 9, 30-40 Wood 860 ± 180 AD 750 to 1450 AD 1131 ± 148 SMA-263 Unit 7, 50-70 Wood 1320 ± 100 AD 540 to 970 AD 739 ± 98 SMA-263 Unit 8, 260-280 Wood 1820 ± 180 250 BC to AD 650 AD 193 ± 204 SMA-263 Burial Charcoal 2270 ± 80 800 to 50 BC 307 ± 88 BC SMA-263 Unit 8, 310-330 Wood 3020 ± 160 1650 to 800 BC 1233 ± 194 BC
Based upon the C14 results obtained by Pacific Legacy on the non-burial features and units from CA-SCL-287, the site’s “occupation” and use spans approximately 3366 years dating from approximately 1828 ± 53 BC to AD 1538 ± 71.
Similar results were obtain on the six samples submitted for the adjacent CA-SMA-263 which spans approximately 2550 years of “occupation” and use dating from 1233 ± 194 BC to AD 1317 ± 72. These dates bracket the AMS dates obtained on the human collagen samples submitted for ten of the burials presented above which ranges from 4 BC to AD 716.
Furthermore, if we accept these corrected calendar dates which range from approximately 1828 BC to AD 1538 and place these dates within the Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) Temporal Scheme B1, then these two sites were “occupied” from Early Period - Phase B1 (2000 - 1800 BC), Early Period - Phase D3 (800 - 600 BC), Early Middle Period Transition Phase (500 – 200 BC), Early Middle Period Phase (200 BC - AD 100); Intermediate Middle Period Phase (AD 100 - AD 300); Late Middle Period Phase (AD 300 – AD 500), Terminal Middle Period (AD 500 – AD 700), Middle/Late Transition Phase (AD 700 – AD 900), Late Period Phase 1B (AD 1100 – AD 1300), Late Period Phase 1C (AD 1300 – AD 1500), and possibly Late Period Phase 2A (AD 1500 – AD 1700).
Based upon a cursory review of available C14 dates from some sites within the San Francisco Bay region it appears that these ten individuals recovered from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites were living around the same time when these other sites were either “occupied” or specifically used as cemeteries. Table 8-3 presents some dates from other bay Area sites:
Table 8-3 Comparative Dates from San Francisco Bay Area Sites
Site Number Calendrical Date Material Dated Source
CA-ALA-413 AD 388 (corrected) G2b Olivella Bead (Groza 2002:158) CA-ALA-328 AD 338 (corrected) C3 Olivella Bead (Groza 2002:210) CA-ALA-328 AD 332 (corrected) F2b Olivella Bead (Groza 2002:221)
8-4 Table 8-3 Comparative Dates from San Francisco Bay Area Sites (continued)
Site Number Calendrical Date Material Dated Source
CA-ALA-328 AD 251 (corrected G3b Olivella Bead (Groza 2002:219) CA-ALA-329 AD 340 (corrected) Human Collagen (Leventhal 1993) CA-SCL-38 AD 257 (corrected) Human Collagen (Bellifemine 1997) CA-SCL-128 AD 250 (corrected) Charcoal (Breschini et al. 1984) CA-SCL-732 AD 227 (corrected) Human Collagen (Cambra et al. 1996)
OBSIDIAN HYDRATION AND SOURCING STUDIES
Although Obsidian Hydration is no longer considered by some archaeologists to be a primary technique of dating archaeological site components, OFCS staff made a decision to submit ten specimens recovered from burial contexts to Mr. Glen Wilson, Director of the SJSU Obsidian Laboratory for visual sourcing and Obsidian Hydration readings (Table 8-4).
As discussed in Chapter 7 obsidian was the second most abundant material represented from the grave associated flaked stone materials and represented by a total of 31 specimens (this includes the obsidian biface/point base).
Wilson obtained the following obsidian hydration results and visual source identification:
Table 8-4 Obsidian Hydration Values and Visual Sourcing Results CA-SCL-287
Ref. # Provenience Artifact Type Mean Hydration Value Visual Source
1-1 Burial 01-1 Flake 4.0 microns Napa Valley 1-2 Burial 01-1 Flake 4.2 microns Casa Diablo/BH 1-1A Burial 01-1 Flake 4.1 microns Napa Valley 1-1B Burial 01-1 Flake 4.1 microns Napa Valley 1-1C Burial 01-1 Flake 3.3 microns Casa Diablo 1-1D Burial 01-1 Flake 3.9 microns Napa Valley 1-1E Burial 01-1 Flake 3.6 microns Napa Valley 1-1F Burial 01-1 Flake 3.7 microns CD/BH 1-1G Burial 01-1 Flake 3.7 microns CD/BH 1-1H Burial 01-1 Flake 3.8 microns Napa Valley 1-1I Burial 01-1 Flake 3.7 microns Napa Valley 2-1 Burial 01-2 Flake 4.4 microns ? 2-2 Burial 01-2 Flake 4.1 microns ?
Wilson visually identified seven of these specimens as coming from the Napa Valley source to the north, four coming from Casa Diablo or Bodie Hill from the eastern Sierra, and two were unidentifiable.
8-5
Independently, Pacific Legacy submitted twenty-five samples of obsidian for XRF sourcing to Northwest Research Obsidian Studies Laboratory located in Corvallis, Oregon. Of these specimens fourteen were identified as Napa, three were possibly from Napa Valley, seven were identified as Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills and 1 was either not obsidian or from an unknown source. Table 8-5 presents the obsidian sourcing results provided by Ms. Ellie Reese from Pacific Legacy:
Table 8-5 Number of Obsidian Debitage/Flakes Recovered from Burials from 2000-2001
Burial # Pac.Leg. Catalog # Description Source
00-1- n/a debitage Casa Diablo
01-1/1 004-021/1 debitage Napa 01-1/2 004-021/2 debitage Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-1/a 004-013 chunk? Napa? 01-1/b 004-014 flake Napa 01-1/c 004-015 debitage Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-1/d 004-016 flake Napa 01-1/e 004-017A debitage Napa 01-1/f 004-018 chunk Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-1/g 004-019 flake Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-1/h 004-020 flake Napa
01-2/1 004-012A debitage Napa 01-2/2 004-012A debitage Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills
01-3/a n/a flake Napa 01-3/b n/a flake Napa? 01-3/c n/a flake Napa 01-3/d n/a flake Napa 01-3/e n/a flake Napa 01-3/f n/a flake Napa 01-3/g n/a flake Napa 01-3/h n/a flake Napa 01-3/i n/a flake Napa? 01-3/j n/a debitage ?
01-4/2 004-016 debitage Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills 01-4/3 n/a debitage Napa
Calendical conversion formulas for converting the obsidian hydration values have been proposed for several of these sources (Table 8-6). Glen Wilson is his (2004) study on obsidian hydration
8-6 values from central coastal California sites provided the following “Calendric Date Conversion Formulae for Corrected Hydration Readings”:
Table 8-6 Calendar Conversion Formulae for Selected Obsidian Sources
Source Rate Reference
Casa Diablo y = 129.626 x² Hall (1984) Bodie y = 129.626 x² Tremaine (1990) Coso y = 31.62 x² Basgall (1990) Napa y = 153.4 x² Origer (1982, 1989) Annadel y = 184.6 x² Origer (1982, 1989) [Wilson 2004:6]
Therefore, if the Napa Valley formula is applied to the mean hydration micron values obtained by Wilson on the seven specimens from CA-SCL-287 the conversion dates are calculated as follows with the value y = date and x = mean micron hydration value (Table 8-7):
Example: Ref.# 1-1: Napa Valley [date = 153.4 x 4.0²] = 2454 before present (BP) or 450 BC
Table 8-7 Conversion Dates on the Mean Hydration Values from CA-SCL-287
Bur./Ref. # Artifact Mean Hydration Source Date
Burial 01-1 Flake 4.0 microns Napa Valley 2454BP/ 450 BC Burial 01-1-2 Flake 4.2 microns CD/BH 2287BP/ 282 BC Burial 01-1A Flake 4.1 microns Napa Valley 2579BP/ 575 BC Burial 01-1B Flake 4.1 microns Napa Valley 2579BP/ 575 BC Burial 01-1C Flake 3.3 microns Casa Diablo 1412BP/ AD 592 Burial 01-1D Flake 3.9 microns Napa Valley 2333BP/ 329 BC Burial 01-1E Flake 3.6 microns Napa Valley 1988BP/ AD 16 Burial 01-1F Flake 3.7 microns CD/BH 1775BP/AD 229 Burial 01-1G Flake 3.7 microns CD/BH 1775BP/AD 229 Burial 01-1H Flake 3.8 microns Napa Valley 2215BP/ 211 BC Burial 01-1I Flake 3.7 microns Napa Valley 2100BP/ 96 BC Burial 01-2-1 Flake 4.4 microns ? Burial 01-2-2 Flake 4.1 microns ?
Discussion of the Implications of Employing the Calendar Conversion Formulas
As can be ascertained from the results of applying the calendar conversion formulas to the sourced obsidian artifacts recovered from CA-SCL-287, we find that the resultant temporal range spans from 575 BC to AD 592, thus placing them within an acceptable dating range for the mortuary activities at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. This is further
8-7 supported by the presence of Middle Period Olivella F series “Saddles” and C series “Split Oval” bead types that were recovered with several of the burials
Inferred Trade Networks
Indication of prehistoric far flung prehistoric trade networks is supported by the presence of exotic lithic materials. These lithic materials include the obsidian specimens sourced to the eastern Sierra from the Casa Diablo/Bodie Hills obsidian quarry located approximately 160 miles as-the-crow-flies to the east of Stanford. The obsidian from Napa Valley (Glass Mountain) came from a quarried source located approximately 75 miles to the north of Stanford. (see Figure 8-1 below).
The other exotic lithic material was the Monterey chert which naturally occurs within a Miocene formation to the west of the San Andreas faultline and submerged off shore from Point Año Nuevo. Usually found as rounded or flatten cobbles these oil-bearing 14 million year old sedimentary chert formation cobbles are readily available as raw material collected on the beach especially after the winter storms. Point Año Nuevo is located approximately twenty miles as- the-crow-flies to the west/southwest of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites.
8-8
Map 8-1: Location of Obsidian Sources in Central California
8-9 HALITOTIS ORNAMENTS AND OLIVELLA BEADS
As discussed in Chapter 7 a total of four non-diagnostic abalone ornament fragments were recovered in association with the burials, therefore, these specimens can not be applied to temporally diagnostic artifacts. However, fifty four temporally diagnostic Olivella shell beads Types F1, F2 and F3a “Saddles” including one Type C3 “Split Oval” bead were found in association with four burials.
Fifty-one (+) Type F3a beads were recovered from Burial # 04-6 which Bennyhoff and Hughes state is a “Middle Period marker type” (1987:129-131).
A single Type F1 Oval Saddle bead was associated with Burial # 01-2 which is the “which is Marker type for the Early/Middle Period transition phase in Alameda, Napa and Cosumnes districts in central California” (1987:129).
A single Type F2b Round Saddle bead was founding association with Burial # 01-3 is also a “Middle Period Marker type” (1987:129-131).
A single Type C3 Split Oval bead was found in association with Burial # 04-15 which Bennyhoff and Hughes suggest represents the “Middle/Late period Transition [700-900 AD] (Californian) (1987:122-123).
Discussion
All four cut Olivella bead types do fall within the expected “Middle Period” phases as predicted by Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987). The Type F3a beads associated with Burial #6 fell within the Late Middle Period Phase (Scheme B1). The “Saddle” Types F1 and F2b and “Split Oval” Type C3 predate the F3a series and they all fall into the Intermediate Middle Period Phase (Table 8-7). No obsidian hydration was available for temporal concordance between the AMS dates and the associated shell beads.
Table 8-8 AMS Dates for Four Burials with Olivella Cut Beads
Late Middle Period Phase (AD 300 – AD 500) Burial # 04-6 1,611 ±42 AD 376 – AD 548 AD 462
Intermediate Middle Period Phase (AD 100-AD 300) Burial # 04-15 1,814 ±36 AD 122 – AD 260 AD 191 Burial # 01-3 1, 848 ±43 AD 67 – AD 255 AD 161 Burial # 01-2 1,850 ±43 AD 65 – AD 254 AD 160
8-10
Figure 8-1: Temporal Dating Schemes Based on Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987) Scheme B1; Hughes and Milliken (2007) Scheme D (from Jones and Klar 2007)
8-11 Chapter 9
An Ethnohistory of Santa Clara Valley and Adjacent Regions; Historic Ties of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area and Tribal Oversight of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw Sand Hill Road Sites, CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 Burial Recovery Mitigation Program
Rosemary Cambra, Alan Leventhal, Monica V. Arellano, Shelia Guzman Schmidt, Gloria E. Arellano Gomez and Charlene Nijmeh,
INTRODUCTION
As presented elsewhere in this report Ohlone Families Consulting Services (OFCS), the Cultural Resource Management arm of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area had oversight on the burial recovery mitigation program conducted at Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw (San Hill Road) Sites CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263. The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe has over the past 30 years continuously exercised its stewardship over the Tribe’s ancestral heritage and human remains discovered within their aboriginal territory. The Tribe’s leadership and members were involved in the recovery program and final report on this ancestral cemetery/heritage site discovered at the two Sand Hill Road sites, which the Tribe has renamed the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw Site.
The Renaming of Sites CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe in Their Native Chocheño/San Francisco Bay Ohlone Language
Towards the completion of field work in 2004 of the archaeological and burial recovery program conducted at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw Site, it became apparent that the most significant aspect of these sites was the recovery of approximately 29 burials. As the skeletal analysis ensued a decision was made by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribal leadership and the Tribe’s Language Committee (Monica V. Arellano, Sheila Guzman-Schmidt and Gloria E. Arellano- Gomez) to honor their deceased ancestors by renaming the site with a new name in the Tribe’s aboriginal Ohlone Chocheño/San Francisco Bay Costanoan language.
This practice follows Tribal tradition which has over the past decades renamed some of their ancestral village and cemetery sites. This renaming tradition has formally occurred at several other South Bay pre-contact ancestral Muwekma Ohlone cemetery sites. Some of these sites include: CA-SCL-869 located in south San Jose which was recently renamed Katwáš Ketneyma Waréeptak (The Four Matriarchs Site) in 2008 (Leventhal et. al 2009); CA-SCL- 732 located along Coyote Creek was renamed in 1995 as Kaphan Umux (Three Wolves) Site [and recently corrected to Kaphan Húunikma] (Cambra et al. 1996); CA-SCL-38 located in Milpitas which comprised a very large mortuary mound that was renamed by the Tribe in 1996 as the Yukisma (“at the Oaks”) Site (Bellifemine 1997); and CA-SCL-867 which is located in the Willow Glen area of San Jose was renamed in 2006 as the Ríipin Waréeptak Site which means “(in the) Willows Area” Site (Leventhal, et. al 2007).
9-1 As mentioned above, as a result of the discovery of this Middle Period cemetery the Muwekma Tribal Language Committee decided upon the name Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw which literally means “Sand=Yuki Kutsuimi; Hill=Šaatoš; Road=Inūxw” as the alternative Tribal place name for this important cemetery site. Therefore, CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 as a combined site will at times be referred interchangeably as Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw Site in this report.
In this ethnographic section, the authors provide an ethnohistoric overview of the Santa Clara Valley and surrounding geographic regions. This section also explores the complex historic interrelationships between the aboriginal Ohlone tribal groups from the greater San Francisco Bay region at the time of contact and the ensuing impacts resulting from the advent of the expanding late 18th century Hispanic Empire; the establishment of the Catholic Church and the effects of Missionization; the mid-19th century American conquest of California; the Gold Rush and theft of California Indian lands; the effects of the emergent State of California; and the Federal Recognition of California Indian Tribes and specifically the historic Verona Band of Alameda County. These topics are introduced and explored though discussions involving contact-period regional and ethnohistorical tribal ties to the present-day Muwekma Ohlone Tribe and by presenting aspects of the survival strategies and continual cultural identity of this historic tribe.
ETHNOGRAPHIC AND ETHNOGEOGRAPHIC SETTING
The Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw Site [Sand Hill Road] represents a pre-contact ancestral Muwekma Ohlone cemetery. Formally designated by the State’s trinomial system as CA-SCL- 287 and CA-SMA-263, these two adjacent sites are located within the contact-period ethnogeographic territory of the Puichon Ohlone-speaking Tribe from the western side of the San Francisco Bay. Randall Miliken described the Puichon Ohlone in his ethnographic study of the San Francisco Bay Ohlone tribal groups as follows:
The Puichon were the largest local tribe on the west shore of San Francisco Bay. Their lands were along lower San Francisquito Creek [right through the heart of these sites] and lower Stevens Creek, now the areas of Palo Alto, Los Altos, and Mountain View. Their San Francisquito Creek village of Ssipùtca was mentioned six times in the Mission Dolores baptismal records. At Santa Clara they were lumped into the "San Bernardino" district with other people from the west of Mission Santa Clara. Some of them were identified more specifically as being from the rancheria of San Francisquito…Puichon people went to mission Dolores between 1781 and 1794 and to Mission Santa Clara between 1781 and 1805 (Milliken 2007).
To the south/southeast of the Puichon Ohlone were the Tamien Ohlone-speaking tribal groups whose village settlements were situated in an area surrounding the newly established Mission Santa Clara. These tribal groups, village communities and districts included: San Jose Cupertino, San Francisco Solano, Our Patron San Francisco, Our Mother Santa Clara, San Juan Bautista and San Carlos or Matalan Tribal Group/Districts.
9-2 The Tamien Ohlone speaking tribal groups/villages/districts were named after Catholic saints by the Mission Santa Clara priests (see C. King 1994, Milliken 1991, 1995, 2004; Hylkema 2007 [CA-SCL-690 Tamien Station]). The San Juan Bautista Tribal District, not to be confused with the Mission San Juan Bautista established about 20 years later in 1797 (located further south within Mutsun Costanoan-speaking territory in San Benito County), was identified by the priests from Mission Santa Clara as being located to the south of the mission that included a portion of the Coyote Creek Corridor.
To the east of the Puichon Ohlones directly across on the eastern side of the bayshore were the Chocheño or East Bay Ohlone-speaking Alson and Tuibun Ohlone tribal groups.
Previous Ethnohistoric Studies
Meaningful ethnohistoric studies focusing on the demography and geopolitical distribution of the different Ohlone/Costanoan tribal groups at the time of contact who were principally baptized at Mission Santa Clara beginning in 1777 were conducted by Chester King in the 1970s (1974, 1977, 1978a, 1978b, and 1994) and continued by Milliken (1983, 1991, 1995, 2004 and 2007 [in Hylkema 2004, 2007]). These studies helped lay the foundation for reconstructing the geopolitical and linguistic boundaries of those tribal groups and districts that were brought into each mission, as well as providing information about the transformation and the cultural and political adaptation and responses of those surviving Ohlone/Costanoan tribal groups adjusting to the disruption caused by the expanding Hispanic colonial empire, the impacts of missionization and ensuing spread of diseases and malnutrition.
The Santa Clara Valley and adjacent areas supported fairly large populations of Native peoples for thousands of years. This is evidenced by the prevalence of large pre-contact cemeteries within the San Francisco Bay region [see reports on Emeryville (CA-ALA-309); Ellis Landing (CA-CCO-295); Ryan Mound (CA-ALA-329) [Leventhal 1993]; CA-SCL-732, Three Wolves Site (Cambra et. al 1996); CA-SCL-38 (Bellifemine 1997); CA-SCL-690 Tamien Station (Hylkema 2007); CA-SCL-674 Rubino Site (Grady et al. 2001) and others].
Furthermore, based upon the analysis of grave-associated wealth and regalia data derived from central California cemetery sites, it can be postulated that the greater San Jose area appears to be located within the southwestern-most region of a Late Period religious complex, ceremonial, economic interaction sphere that employed the use of "Big Head" (or “N series”) abalone shell effigy pendants that began sometime around the Phase I-Late Period (circa 1100 A.D.), and which presumably was part of the larger geographically-area-widespread Kuksu religion that was practiced by a multitude of North–Central California Indian tribal groups. These Kuksu practicing tribal groups ranged from the Hokan-speaking Salinans to the south (southern Monterey County); to the San Francisco Bay Penutian-speaking Ohlone and interior Bay Miwok tribal groups, to the Penutian-speaking Coast Miwok and Patwin (Marin, Napa, Yolo, and Colusa Counties); to the Penutian-speaking Plains Miwoks and Konkow-Nisenan (Maidu-speaking groups) in the Sacramento and Central Valley foothills of the Sierra Nevadas; to the Hokan- speaking Pomoan tribal groups (Sonoma, Lake and Mendocino Counties), Yukian-speaking Yukian tribal groups (northern Mendocino) and the Athabascan-speaking Cahto tribe located to
9-3 the north of Fort Bragg. (see Loeb 1932, 1933; Du Bois 1939; Gifford 1947:20; Bennyhoff 1977:50; Winter 1977, 1978; Bean and Vane 1978; Leventhal 1993:230-236; Hylkema 2007).
The preliminary data derived from similar and comparative mortuary patterning and associated grave assemblages identified from Late Period cemetery sites taken in conjunction with the similarities of tribal personal name-endings derived from the mission records as in the cases of “tole” and “mayen” (or a variant thereof) for females and “cse” (or a variant thereof) for males found amongst the different linguistic groups within the same macro-geographical area as the Big Head/Kuksu pendants, suggests that the South and East Bay regions had strong cultural ties, via trade, intermarriage, ceremonial interaction and shared religious belief systems as well as other cultural influences with the Central Valley interior, including the Sacramento and San Joaquin Delta (Stockton) regions (Lillard, Heizer and Fenenga 1939; Heizer and Fenenga 1939; Gifford 1947; Bennyhoff 1977; Leventhal 1993, Milliken 1995.
The evidence of a far-flung ceremonial and economic interaction sphere further suggests that the Tamien Ohlone-speaking tribal groups, including the Puichon Ohlone and their neighbors, were significantly involved within this larger religious and ceremonial interaction network that partially was influenced through mechanisms of trade, economic, military and marriage alliances with those tribal groups located to the east and north of the South Bay region – a region that at the time of Spanish contact had already cross-cut several major linguistic boundaries (San Francisco Bay Ohlone, North Valley Yokuts, Patwin, Coast, Bay and Plains Miwok) as well.
Limited detailed ethnohistoric information about the aboriginal lifeways of the different San Francisco Bay Ohlonean-speaking tribal groups who resided within this mega-sphere of socio- cultural interaction, tends to be restricted to the various accounts written by early Spanish explorers, missionaries, and visiting European travelers. Other historical records written after the cataclysmic impact caused by missionization and the ensuing American conquest through the 20th century include the research by more formally trained ethnographers, ethnohistorians, linguists as well as by other visitors to the greater Bay Area.
Early Spanish Expeditions in the San Francisco Bay Region
According to ethnohistoric research conducted by Millken and others, an expedition led by Gaspar de Portola and Father Juan Crespi had traveled north along the California coast north of Monterey and on October 23, 1769 had encountered the Quiroste Ohlone village of Mitenne near Punta de Año Nuevo (New Year’s Point). The Quiroste were located on the Pacific coast between Bean Hollow Creek and Año Nuevo and approximately 25 miles to the southwest of the Puichon. Milliken citing Crespi [1769] noted that:
The friendly Quirostes showered the Spaniards with foods and gifts.
They brought two or three bags of the (wild) tobacco they use, and our people took all they wanted of it. One (old) heathen man came up smoking upon a very large (and well carven) Indian pipe made of hard stone. The Indians almost all carry tall red- colored staffs, some with many feathers; they presented four of these to Sergeant Don Francisco Ortega (Milliken 2007:87)
9-4
Sometime around mid-November the Portola expedition traveling south along the east side of the San Francisco peninsula eventually entered the territories of the Ssalsons, Lamchins and Puichons. The Lamchin Ohlone-speaking tribal group was the immediate northern neighbor of the Puichon and their territory spanned from Belmont to Redwood City. The Ssalson Tribal group was located to the north of the Lamchin. Milliken indicated that the expedition “camped in the Palo Alto area” (2007:88)
In 1770 Captain Commander Pedro Fages, was perhaps, the first Spanish exploration to travel through the northern part of the San Juan Bautista and San Carlos/Matalan tribal districts (Tamien Ohlone-speaking territory) within the Santa Clara Valley. The San Juan Bautista and San Carlos groups occupied the areas of south San Jose to perhaps Morgan Hill. Milliken commented on and noted in his doctoral study on the San Francisco Bay tribal groups at the time of contact the following historical account derived from Captain Fages’ diary:
The Matalans and Thamiens of Santa Clara Valley watched a small Spanish party pass north through their lands in November of 1770. The party, under Pedro Fages, continued north along the east shore of San Francisco Bay (until) (sic) it reached a plain opposite the Golden Gate (presently North Oakland). ... Fages wrote of only one encounter:
‘Up close to the lake we saw many friendly good-humored heathens, to whom we made a present of some strings of beads, and they responded with feathers and geese stuffed with grass, which they avail themselves of to take countless numbers of these birds [Fages 1770 in Bolton 1911].’
The goose hunters were Tuibuns or Alsons at a lake on the Fremont Plain just south of Alameda Creek (Milliken 1991:78).
Captain Commander Fages apparently at a later date again passed through the Tamien-speaking region in 1772 and explored the interior of the East Bay (see Crespi in Bolton 1926:336, also see Hylkema 1995).
However, it was not until 1774 that the first intensive exploration of the Santa Clara Valley region occurred, which was led by Captain Fernando Rivera y Moncada who was then accompanied by Fray (Father) Francisco Palou. Writing of this expedition, Milliken made note of one of Rivera y Moncada's accounts:
The next Spanish expedition into the Bay Area, in the late fall of 1774, came for the purpose of scouting locations for a possible mission and military base on the San Francisco Peninsula. ... Near the town of Coyote (south San Jose), in Matalan territory, a group of local people were startled, but not terrorized.
‘We passed a patch of willows and cottonwoods, and now found running water in the creek. Here all at once there were heathens standing with their weapons in hand [though] they made no show of them. In people such as these, who have no
9-5 knowledge of others and live like wild beasts at bay, it is a second nature to snatch them up (Rivera y Moncada [1774] quoted in Milliken 1991:80-81).
Milliken commenting on the Fernando Rivera y Moncada expedition going through the Puichon Ohlone territory noted that:
The new Spanish party intended to document the nature of San Francisco Bay and scout a location for a Spanish presidio and mission near its mouth. Passing through the Santa Clara Valley, the party arrived among the Puichons on San Francisquito Creek on November 28, 1774, where it was warmly received. Here Father Palou commented about similarities between the local language and that of the natives at Mission Carmel (Milliken 2007:89)
Three years later, Mission Santa Clara was established on January 12, 1777. Collectively, with the establishment of Mission Dolores in 1776, Mission Santa Clara in 1777, and later Mission San Jose in 1797, located east of the Fremont Plain, the various Ohlone tribal groups within the San Francisco Bay region began to experience the cataclysmic disintegration from this newly imposed colonial system of indenture and peonage. Milliken in one of his studies offered the following explanation of the circumstances under which the Ohlone tribal people agreed to enter into these missions:
Through the ritual of baptism some young people from the Yelamu tribe began to exchange their independence for a subservient role of "neophytes" at Mission San Francisco in the spring of 1777. During the summer and fall local Alson and Thamien teenagers joined the Mission Santa Clara community. Francisco Palou wrote that the first converts came to the missions out of interest in cloth, trinkets, and Spanish foods.
‘They can be conquered first only by their interest in being fed and clothed, and afterwards they gradually acquire knowledge of what is spiritually good and evil. If the missionaries had nothing to give them, they could not be won over [Palou 1786].
Most scholars have agreed with Palou's assessment that a material impulse brought the first Indian converts to be baptized. Sherburne Cook [1943:73] wrote that "ceremony, music, processions" and "inducements of clothing, shelter, and food" attracted large numbers of converts over the first twenty years. Malcolm Margolin [1989:28] pointed out "the dazzle of Spanish goods" (Milliken 1991:109-110).
While these somewhat limited interpretive perspectives provide a “normative dominant society" explanation, which suggests at its foundation that “lesser complex indigenous cultures” were unilaterally influenced by the “more complex European colonizing cultures,” as an alternative perspective we need to explore possible alternative explanations, especially when viewing these dynamics through the social rules and mechanisms of Native California world view rather than through the colonial lens. Such alternative explanations should consider those pre-existing and established Native protocols and socio-cultural-political rules of social conduct, interaction and integration accorded to strangers, visitors, and guests as practiced by central California tribal groups.
9-6
For example, in cases when elites and notable families from neighboring tribal groups would make arrangements to visit, or those who were invited to ceremonies, funerals, and/or economic exchange functions (e.g., Mourning Anniversaries, ceremonial dances, weddings, trade feasts, and etc.), there were specific rules that these groups would follow as social protocols. The same social principals and rules that were in place between tribal groups and elite families would have no doubt been in effect when the Spanish expeditions made their presence known. Once a period of contact had been established between the Indian communities and the settled Spanish, no doubt, those established elites and their families would desire to have their children associated (to some degree) with these newly established powerful and (relatively) wealthy Spanish entities.
The aboriginal social rules and protocols probably included:
1) Marriage arrangements of eligible "teenagers" for purposes of establishing and/or strengthening inter-tribal and/or intra-tribal alliances especially between and amongst powerful elite families;
2) The attempt by these powerful elites and/or families of specialists to establish formal ties with these newly emergent Spanish power brokers through “apprenticeships” -- by having their children enter into the missions through the ritual of baptism-- and by doing so, creating and thus perpetuating, an extant belief system that this “apprenticed relationship” would continue to maintain their own power brokerage and provide them additional prestige within this new order.
By acting in conformance with these older socio-political-economic rules for establishing and maintaining military alliances, trade networks, and marriage alignments with neighboring tribal groups, villages and the newly established Spanish colonial presence, these elites were probably under the belief that by exercising this formal process, partially through the ceremony of baptizing themselves and/or their children, was done as a continuation of their aboriginal power brokerage (see Bean 1978). For example there was already a reciprocal ceremonial practice of purifying persons of the opposite moiety (deer vs. bear or land vs. water) with water amongst central California tribal groups especially during and after the handling of the dead and the personal property. Therefore, the use of water in baptism has some pre-existing analogous practice and meaning in aboriginal purifications ceremonies (Gifford 1955).
Initially, the "official policy" of the Spanish Empire was to develop the missions into self- supporting agricultural centers whereby Indians would be "civilized" and become peon laborers for the civilian pueblos and presidios. Ultimately it was expected that the Indians would themselves become citizens of the crown and help further colonize the region for Spain (see Rawls 1986, Hurtado 1988 and Monroy 1990). Nonetheless, the colonial experience resulted in the decimation of the California Indian tribes who were exposed to European diseases, unsanitary living conditions, and malnutrition while residing at and around the missions (Cook 1976). Although the Native population was severely depleted after the first 40 years, by the time of the secularization of the missions during the mid-1830s, the surviving missionized Ohlone/ Costanoan Indians continued to live and work in several areas within the Santa Clara Valley as
9-7 well as on the various rancherias and Californio ranchos surrounding each of the other greater Bay Area missions.
Distribution of Ohlone Tribal Groups of Santa Clara Valley and Adjacent West and East Bay Regions
At the time of European contact in 1769, the Spanish explorers called the Indians living along the Monterey coast "Costeños," or people of the coast. After the missions were established, the Indians and the Spanish priests referred to the Mission Santa Clara Indian people as "Clareños" (Harrington 1921-1934) During the mid-19th century, scholars anglicized the term Costeños into "Costanoan"1 to encompass all those tribal groups whose aboriginal territories spanned from greater Monterey Bay, Soledad, Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, San Francisco, East Bay and the Carquinez Straits, and who spoke distinctive, but related languages (Heizer 1974; Levy 1978; Milliken et al 2007).
Very little information about the aboriginal Tamien Ohlone-speaking tribal groups who once occupied the lower Guadalupe River, Coyote Creek and Alameda Creek drainages was recorded by the Contact Period Spanish missionaries who first established Mission Santa Clara. Apparently some of these missionaries did not record the names of the many Tamien tribal rancherias and villages, as was practiced at the neighboring Costanoan area missions (e.g., Missions San Jose, Dolores, San Juan Bautista and others). Instead, the mission Fathers had assigned either directional or names of Saints to the various "districts" surrounding Mission Santa Clara, rather than documenting the specific tribal villages when newly recruited Indians from the surrounding villages and localities came to be baptized at the mission (see C. King 1994).
Milliken (1983, 1991, 1995, and 2007) and C. King (1978, 1994) have to date, conducted the most comprehensive geopolitical reconstructive ethnohistoric studies using the available Santa Clara Mission records (also see Winter 1978a and 1978b). Their studies clearly demonstrate that both the Tamien-speaking Ohlone tribal groups of Santa Clara Valley and the neighboring East Bay Chocheño-speaking Ohlone tribal groups (e.g., Santa Agueda or Alson) of the Fremont Plain were brought under the sphere of influence of Mission Santa Clara and many of these Indians were baptized, married and had died there. Chester King in his 1994 study entitled “Central Ohlone Ethnohistory” noted:
1 More recently, various authors have suggested that the present-day descendants prefer to be called "Ohlone"; however, there are three surviving historic BIA-documented tribal groups with ancestral ties to 1) Missions San Jose, Dolores, Santa Clara, 2) Missions San Juan Bautista and Santa Cruz, and 3) Missions San Carlos (Carmel) and Soledad, who have formally organized (in accordance with the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act). These three historic tribal communities whose ancestors spoke their respective Costanoan/Ohlone languages as late as the 1930s, have since revitalized and organized themselves as tribal governments and communities. All three are presently listed with the BIA’s Office of Federal Acknowledgment (OFA) as: Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Region, Amah-Mutsun Ohlone Tribal Band, and Ohlone/Costanoan- Esselen Nation respectively. The tribal name Muwekma is actually the aboriginal term referring to "la Gente" meaning “the People” in the Tamien and Chocheño languages spoken in the South and East Bay (Kroeber 1910; Harrington 1921-1934; Milliken et al. 2007).
9-8 The area between San Jose and San Juan Bautista [mission] and extending from Santa Cruz to the San Joaquin Valley has proven to be difficult map by village or tribe. At Santa Clara Mission only the closest villages were given separate names. The more distant were grouped by region.
The closest villages to the mission were given the names “our mother Santa Clara” (north San Jose), “our father San Francisco” (downtown San Jose), San Juan Bautista (San Jose south of Hillsdale), San Jose Cupertino (Cupertino), Santa Ysabel (east San Jose), and San Francisco Solano (Milpitas-Alviso).
The next four groups recognized in the Santa Clara Mission registers are very large and include people from villages located in particular directions from the mission. The four groups were Santa Agueda (villages north of Milpitas), San Bernardino (villages west [and north] of Cupertino), San Carlos (villages south of San Jose), and San Antonio (villages east of San Jose), northeast of San Antonio were the Luechas and southeast of San Antonio were Tayssen. (King 1977, Milliken 1991) (Cited in King 1994:203).
Milliken, in his study A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area 1769-1810, provides a more detailed location for the neighboring Matalan or San Carlos group:
The Matalan tribe held the Santa Clara Valley corridor from the present town of Coyote south to the present town of Morgan Hill. (1995:248)
In the Tamien Station Site CA-SCL-690 report Milliken also provides reconstructed information regarding the geographical distribution and inter-relationships between the Tamien speaking tribal groups within the region surrounding Mission Santa Clara:
… Four of the seven towns near Mission Santa Clara supplied enough converts to suggest that they originally contained more than 100 inhabitants:
San Bernardino, probably located on lower Stevens Creek, at what is now Mountain View (44 adult married converts 1778-1800).
San Francisco Solano, probably situated on the lower Guadalupe River at or near present Alviso (44 adult married converts 1778-1800).
Santa Ysabel, probably established on the lower Coyote River or Penitencia Creek, now in north San Jose (40 adult married converts 1794-1802).
San Jose Cupertino, probably found on Calabazas Creek or upper Stevens Creek, now part of Cupertino (50 adult married converts between 1780 -1797).
The other three smaller villages were:
9-9 Our Mother Santa Clara, which was probably west of the Guadalupe River within a few yards of one of the Mission Santa Clara sites … .
Our Patron San Francisco, probably placed on the Guadalupe River near Our Mother Santa Clara and Santa Ysabel, east of present-day downtown Santa Clara … .
San Juan Bautista, probably located on the Guadalupe River in the Willow Glen area south of present-day downtown San Jose … . (Milliken 2004:58-59; 2007:51-52).
In the same study, Milliken also noted that:
The Santa Agueda district was the source of 90 percent of the Native people who went to Mission San Jose. Thus the Santa Agueda district actually must have been located on the Fremont Plain (2004:61; 2007:54). (Map 9-1 and Map 9-2)
In an earlier study, Milliken (1983) determined that:
The East Bay people at Santa Clara Mission were listed under the district name "Santa Agueda". ... The earliest were the "Estero," "Alameda," "Palos Colorados," and "Este." Many "Alameda" and "Estero" adults at Mission San Jose had children that had been baptized at Santa Clara under the "Santa Agueda" designation. ... Most of the Santa Clara converts who later married at Mission San Jose were also "Santa Agueda"..., although some were from "San Bernadino"...
... The Mission San Jose priests provided more detailed genealogical information for each person than did those at Mission San Francisco. ... The cross references indicate that people from the "Estero" and the "Alameda" districts came from the Yrgin and Tuibun tribelets (Milliken 1983:99).
In his 1991 dissertation, Milliken, presented information about the “Santa Clara Valley Conversions, 1780-1784” stating that:
At the start of 1780 the core group of adult Christians at Mission Santa Clara were from the Alson village of San Francisco Solano, rather than the nearer tiny Thamien villages of Our Mother Santa Clara and Our Patron San Francisco. (1991:139)
Within the Santa Clara Valley and adjacent regions, during the first twenty years since the establishment of Mission Santa Clara, Milliken suggested that "(c)onversion of adult married couples in April (1795) had been concentrated among people from the southern East Bay, Alson, Tuibun, and perhaps Jalquin/Yrgin" tribal groups (1991:224).
Milliken's research also demonstrated that after the Mission San Jose was established in 1797, that "(i)n January of 1801 twenty-one couples became Christians, ... (t)hey were Alsons and Tuibuns from the local villages of the Fremont Plain" (1991.:265). These East Bay Chocheño (and possibly Tamien)-speaking tribal couples were relations to the families from those same
9-10 tribal groups who were baptized years earlier at Mission Santa Clara. Furthermore, it is interesting to note that Milliken also found that "(i)n January and February (1802) twenty-one Jalquin/Yrgin families moved to Mission San Francisco" and that "(t)hey were intermarried with Suenens and Tatcans (1991.:266); (see Map 9-3 and Figure 9-1 - Costanoan Indians at Mission Dolores Choris)
Map 9-1: Distribution of Ohlone Tribal Groups and Tribal Districts in the Santa Clara Valley [From C. King 1994]
9-11
Map 9-2: Distribution of Ohlone Tribal Groups Surrounding the Tamien Region [From Milliken 1994]
9-12
Map 9-3: Distribution of Tribal Groups in the East Bay [From Milliken 1991]
9-13
Figure 9-1: Indians at Mission Dolores in 1816 Drawn by Louis Choris
The complex process that brought together East Bay and Santa Clara Valley Costanoan/Ohlone tribal groups into the mission system, though cataclysmic, this newly emergent community had nonetheless maintained vestiges of their languages and culture that survived into the early 20th century. Thus two of the East Bay Chocheño-speaking linguistic consultants, Maria de los Angeles Colos who was born in 1840 and Jose Guzman who was born about 1853, had provided linguist John P. Harrington (from the Smithsonian’s Bureau of American Ethnology) with the interrelationship and linguistic observation that "the Clareños were very much intermarried with the Chocheños, the dialects were similar," and also he recorded the Chocheño linguistic term – “muwe'kma, la gente” [the people] (Harrington 1929 field notes [1921-1934]).
Milliken (1991) based upon mission records conducted ethnogeographic reconstructions of tribal, village and district locations surrounding Mission Santa Clara for inclusion in his doctoral dissertation and had noted that:
The Santa Clara Mission settlement lay at the northeastern edge of the Thamien tribal district, very near to the lands of three other tribes. ...
The missionaries at Mission Santa Clara gave each of them a Spanish designation; San Francisco Solano village of the Alson tribe a mile or two downstream at the mouth of the
9-14 Guadalupe River, Santa Ysabel village of a different, unnamed tribe east of San Francisco Solano on the lower Coyote River, and San Joseph Cupertino village of the Thamien tribe in the oak grove about three miles to the southwest of the mission site (1991:117).
Distribution of Costanoan/Ohlone Languages
Ohlone/Costanoan-related languages were spoken over a considerable geographic area, stretching from the San Francisco peninsula, Angel Island and the Carquinez Strait to the north, to a less well defined southern boundary near or inland around Soledad and just south of Monterey Bay on the coast bordering Esselen and Esselen-Costanoan (e.g., Sargentaruc) speaking tribal groups. The interpretive linguistic literature, which includes Kroeber (1910, 1925), Beeler (1961), Levy (1976; 1978), and Milliken (1991) diverges concerning the extent to which the variation between what language was spoken from place to place should be differentiated as either dialects of one idiom or as completely separate languages. Levy (1976; 1978) identified eight distinct Ohlone idioms: Ramaytush (San Francisco Peninsula), Awaswas (Santa Cruz area), Rumsen (Monterey Bay and Carmel Valley), Mutsun (San Juan Bautista), Chalon (Soledad), Tamien (Santa Clara Valley), Chocheño (East Bay), and Karkin (southern and northern shores of Carquinez Strait and possibly up to lower the Napa Valley).
Perhaps the most weighty first-hand study in this regard was initiated by Father Felipe Arroyo de la Cuesta, who was perhaps the first literary person to describe the regional variation and interrelatedness of Costanoan/Ohlone languages. In his May 1, 1814 reply to the Interrogatory of 1812 regarding the languages spoken around Mission San Juan Bautista, Father de la Cuesta stated the following about the Costanoan/Ohlone languages:
Though they appear to speak distinct languages this is only accidentally true; that is, some of the words are different only because of the manner of pronunciation, in some cases rough, in others agreeable, sweet, and strong. Hence it is that the Indians living in a circumference of thirty or forty leagues* understand one another (Arroyo de la Cuesta [1814] in Geiger and Meighan 1976: 20-21). [*Note: a league equals about 2⅔ miles or 4.3 kilometers]
Aided by the linguistic records written by Father Arroyo de la Cuesta, Milliken (1991) concluded that people who lived in neighboring villages and regions likely would have spoken mutually comprehensible dialects, but that those who lived at the farthest extremes of the Costanoan/ Ohlone area probably would not have been able to understand one another. If, in fact, language variation occurred as smooth clines in this way, then the southern Santa Clara Valley was one of the regions of transition from one dialect to another. The Mission San Juan Bautista Mutsun- speaking dialect, bordered on the south of the centrally located Santa Clara Valley dialect Tamien-speaking language area, likely making the Coyote Creek corridor a place where dialectic differences merged or overlapped [see Forbes 1969:184 for the Muwekma (northern) and Mutsun-Rumsen (southern) divisions of Ohlonean languages; Levy 1976; 1978].
Ortiz (1994a) in her study entitled Chocheño and Rumsen Narratives: A Comparison points to this difference by employing Costanoan personal names generated by Milliken from the mission
9-15 records centering around the terms Kaknu (prairie falcon) from the Santa Clara Valley area to the North Bay and Ka-kun (chicken hawk) which was used in Costanoan speaking tribal territories to the south of Santa Clara Valley (Mutsun/Rumsen –speaking areas within the greater Monterey Bay region):
Kaknu's use disappears in the personal names of those individuals baptized at Mission San Carlos Borromeo, Mission Santa Cruz, and San Juan Bautista. The similar "cancun," however, occurs in the names of four persons baptized at Mission Santa Clara. Two such names belong to individuals from the Fremont area, one from the San Antonio Valley, and only one outside that area. (Ortiz 1994a:107).
The existence of the Mutsun and Tamien linguistic boundary was also noted by 19th century historian Frederic Hall in his 1871 publication The History of San Jose and Surroundings:
… The tribe of Indians which roamed over this great valley, from San Francisco to near San Juan Bautista Mission, (known a century ago as the valley of San Bernardino,) were the Olhones (sic) or (Costanes.) Their language slightly resembled that spoken by the Mutsuns, at the Mission of San Juan Bautista, although it was by no means the same. (1871:40)
Although Levy strongly implied that language areas were coterminous with areas of ethnic identity, e.g., that those people who spoke the Chocheño dialect self-identified as the Chocheño people, there is no evidence to support such a view. To the contrary, regional cultural identities in native California clearly overlapped language boundaries. Moreover, based upon pre-contact inter-marriages, especially among elites, natives (especially women due to village exogamy and patrilocal residential patterns) were more than likely multi-lingual speakers (see Blackburn 1976; Milliken 1983:70; 1991), which again in the case of the Coyote Creek corridor seems particularly likely amongst the Tamien-speaking San Carlos/Matalan tribal group due to their strategic location bordering north of the Mutsun speaking tribal groups.
Evidence of Social Stratification and Hereditary Leadership in the S.F. Bay Region
Clearly, the basic political unit for native Californians, including those ancestral Puichon Ohlone of the San Francisquito Creek drainage (CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263), was the residential village (one of many within the larger political tribal territory). Pre-contact and contact-period central California tribal geopolitical boundaries, social structures, subsistence-settlement patterns and ceremonial and economic institutions were very complex and social interactions and ritual obligations between lineages went beyond the residential village community (see Goldschmidt 1951; Blackburn 1976; Bean 1978; Bean and Vane 1978; T. King 1970, 1974; Wiberg 1984; Luby 1991 and Leventhal 1993).
Because of the seasonality of subsistence-related activities covering a wide range of the micro- ecosystems (e.g. fresh water creeks and streams, inland lagoons and marshes, bay shore wetlands, coastal, and estuarine resources, hardwood and mixed chaparral forests, grasslands, etc.) that were all possibly located within a single tribal territory, Native families and small
9-16 multi-family groups may have moved about during the course of a year from one harvesting locality to another all within a half day’s trek from villages or resource-base camps.
These temporary resource-based sites, possibly composed of several temporary house-shelters, contrasted with the larger, permanent (or semi-permanent) strategically situated principal ceremonial village. Thus each tribal group actually occupied a territory dotted with seasonal resource-related occupational and specialized task sites, lesser villages as well as semi- permanent and permanent villages. The Coyote Creek corridor, with its mostly year-round water supply and mixture of seasonally variable riparian, marsh, hilly and valley habitats, fits this description well. Father Palou, in 1774, described his encounter with this habitat:
[We] came to a large bed of a river [Coyote Creek], well grown with cottonwoods, alders, and willows, but without water. We followed this bed along its bank, which was very high and steep, and we made out across the river on a hill to the north of a village of heathen.
We followed the bed of the river and came to a thick wood of several kinds of trees and blackberry bramble which it was necessary to cross, and in it we found some little houses of the heathen, who at the noise we made, left their things and concealed themselves in the thick woods. We crossed, near a village, a good brook of running water, which we soon saw no more, and we judged that it sank into the sand (in Bolton 1926: 260).
Encompassing the territorial areas of each tribal group and its resource harvest (catchment) zone were larger regions composed of several villages and their outliers (ceremonial shrines, cemeteries and specialized task sites). The Spanish explorers called these territorial units rancherias. Anthropologists have described these larger regions variably. Kroeber (1939, 1962) used the term "tribelet" to denominate rather small multi-village regions that he asserted composed the largest political units in native California. C. King's (1977) description of pre- contact conditions in the southern Santa Clara Valley offers an early assessment of the political geography of what he calls the Matalan tribelet, who inhabited the Coyote Creek corridor and environs just south of the Santa Teresa Hills study area. Perhaps unsurprisingly, King conflated language boundaries with the political borders of Kroeberian defined tribelets. There is also some confusion between the extent to which villages and multi-village regions composed units of kinship, such as clans, moieties, lineages, or residence groups, which are not equivalent. Milliken (1991) recognized that villages were residential units composed of several non-related kin groups in the Costanoan/Ohlone areas generally and the Santa Clara Valley specifically (Milliken 2004; 2007). He also described the larger multi-village regions as political groups that defended large territories. Bean (1976) has shown that intermarriage between village elites constructed regional elites, also described by King (1977) specifically for the Tamien-speaking Matalan territory. Through trade fairs and feasts, marriages and funerals, and other important ceremonial events were part of widespread ritual complexes such as the Kuksu religion, such elites were able to intermarry across considerable distances, effectively integrating even larger zones of complex interaction.
As far as these elites and the social hierarchy are concerned, many early explorers made clear that institutions of authoritarian leadership existed among native Californians in the San
9-17 Francisco Bay area. While Father Arroyo de la Cuesta erroneously wrote "they neither had nor recognized any captain or superior," (Arroyo de la Cuesta [1814] 1976:115), he nonetheless described charismatic individuals who were instrumental in organizing both warfare and peacemaking with neighboring groups.
Milliken (2004) quoting Father Narciso Duran from Mission San Jose:
They recognize neither distinction nor superiority at all. Only in war do they obey the most valiant or the luckiest, and in acts of superstition they obey the sorcerers and witch- doctors. Outside of these they do not recognize any subordination, either civil or political (Duran quoted in McCarthy 1958: 274).
C. King, by contrast, quoting Father Amoros' description of the natives near Mission San Carlos (Monterey) noted:
The prominent Indians are the captains or kings. There is one for each tribe. They command obedience and respect during their lifetime. This office is hereditary, or, in default of an heir by direct descent, it goes to the closest relative. This chief alone among the pagans could retain or desert a number of unmarried women; but if he had children by one of them, she was held in higher esteem and he lived permanently with her (King 1977 quoting Heizer 1974: 41).
Bean (1976) concurs that chiefs (often referred to as capitanes (captains) by the Spaniards) utilized their kin-ties with neighboring elites to facilitate trade relations that acted as insurance against periods of relative resource deprivations, as well as possessing the power to collect and redistribute food surpluses in their own territories. The power of chiefs and the elite families that controlled chiefly positions were symbolized by the possession of treasure goods which passed down through families over considerable lengths of time. King's ethnohistory of the Matalan (San Carlos Tamien-speaking tribal group) describes leadership and social stratification that accords with Bean's framework.
Milliken's view (1983, 1991), while tending more toward a strictly charismatic rather than stratified view of chiefs, also makes clear the importance of leadership among the pre-contact Costanoan/Ohlone peoples. He (Milliken 1983: 55-56) cites Father Vicente de Santa Maria who wrote:
We noticed an unusual thing about the young men: none of them ventured to speak and only their elders replied to us. They were so obedient that, notwithstanding we pressed them to do so, they dared not stir unless one of the old men told them to; ... [Santa Maria in Galvin 1971 [1775]: 31].
Leventhal (1993a:155-157) in his archaeo-mortuary study entitled A Reinterpretation of Some Bay Area Shellmound Sites: A View from the Mortuary Complex at CA-ALA-329, the Ryan Mound also considered the first-hand ethnohistoric observations made by Father Santa Maria in 1775 concerning political authority and military capability recorded among the Carquin (Karkin)
9-18 Ohlone tribal group residing on the southern side of the Carquinez Straits in the vicinity of Martinez. Father Santa Maria noted:
On the 15th of August the longboat set out on a reconnaissance of the northern arm [of the bay] with provisions for eight days. On returning from this expedition, which went to have a look at the rivers, José Cañizares said that in the entranceway by which the arm connects with them [Carquinez Strait] there showed themselves fifty-seven Indians of fine stature who as soon as they saw the longboat began making signs for it to come to the shore, offering with friendly gestures assurances of good will and safety. There was in authority over all these Indians one whose kingly presence marked his eminence above the rest. Our men made a landing, and when they had done so the Indian chief addressed a long speech to them ... .
... After the feast, and while they were having a pleasant time with the Indians, our men saw a large number of heathen approaching, all armed with bows and arrows.
... This fear obliged the sailing master to make known by signs to the Indian chieftain the misgivings they had in the presence of so many armed tribesmen. The themi (chief) (sic), understanding what was meant, at once directed the Indians to loosen their bows and put up all their arrows, and they were prompt to obey. The number of Indians who had gathered together was itself alarming enough. There were more than four hundred of them, and all, or most of them, were of good height and well built [Santa Maria in Galvin 1971:51-53].
Captain Commander Fages (governor of Alta California, Monterey) in 1775 also contributed first-hand descriptive accounts about aspects of aboriginal contact-period political authority, social structure, and redistributive economy among the Costanoan-Esselen groups in the Monterey Bay region:
Besides their chiefs of villages, they have in every district another one who commands four or five villages together, the village chiefs being his subordinates.
Each of them collects every day in his village the tributes which the Indians pay him in seeds, fruits, game, and fish. ...
The subordinate captain is under obligation to give his commander notice of every item of news or occurrence, and to send him all offenders under proper restraint, that he may reprimand them and hold them responsible for their crimes. ... Everything that is collected as the daily contribution of the villages is turned over to the commanding captain of the district, who goes forth every week or two to visit his territory. The villages receive him ceremoniously, make gifts to him of the best and most valuable things they have, and they assign certain ones to be his followers and accompany him to the place where he resides (Priestley1937:73-74).
9-19 Material Culture and Subsistence
The Spanish explorers encountered in central coastal California modes of living which were alien to their sensibilities. While the soils were clearly fertile, with the exception of tobacco, the native peoples did not cultivate. The numbers and diversity of wildlife astounded such early writers as Pedro Fages and Fray Juan Crespi, yet through their eyes such faunal abundance connoted untrammeled wilderness; everywhere they traveled they encountered villages and substantial populations of Native peoples. It is only recently that anthropologists have been able to pierce the incomprehension that the Spaniards and other European evinced about native Californian peoples before the latter’s ways of life were destroyed by the activities of the former.
The material culture -- in other words the technologies for producing goods and products [technomic, sociotechnic and ideotechnic products (after Binford 1962, 1971)] -- that native Californians created are clearly derived from their adaptation to the landscapes they inhabited and the resources they utilized. Native Californians were sedentary-to-semi-sedentary gathering, hunting and fishing peoples living in an extraordinarily rich biotic habitat who, by their subsistence activities, tended to increase rather than deplete the resources upon which they depended. Lewis (1973), Bean and Lawton (1976) and Blackburn (1976) were among the first to demonstrate that natives' use of controlled burns augmented the growth of wild grains eaten both by humans and herds of herbivores who congregated around areas humans altered in this way. These practices have been referred to as "quasi-agriculture" and "incipient game management." Burns also helped to create concentrations of oak trees in specific areas from which harvests of acorns played an important seasonal role in native diets (Lewis 1973; Bean and Lawton 1976; Weigel 1993; Anderson 2006).
Tools manufactured by natives were thus utilized to process the foods obtained from native resource management. Hunters, mostly male (women did engage in rabbit and possibly antelope drives and fishing; (see E. Wallace 1978), flaked ultra-sharp chert and obsidian arrow points, dart points, knives, chopping tools, scrapers, etc., found at the sites of their hunting camps and village sites. Such tools could also be used by women to process and cook meat, fish, and shellfish. Both sexes likely contributed to the weaving of string, cordage, rope, fishing nets and the construction of basketry traps for fish and small animals. But women clearly excelled in fiber manufactures: California is renowned as the locus of the finest and most diverse basketry in the world, and the Costanoan/Ohlone area was no exception in this regard. Women utilized porous baskets to leach acorn meal in order to remove toxic tannic acid, and water-tight baskets to cook a variety of meals from different plants, animals and fish. Baskets were used in fishing, for hauling abalone and other mussels from the waterside, and for winnowing wild grain. Very large woven baskets on stilts acted as granaries and very small baskets were used to store jewelry and other commodities (Elsasser 1978b; Shanks and Shanks 2006).
Both genders may have worked Haliotis (abalone), Olivella shell, and colorful feathers were integrated into elaborate necklaces, ear, nose and hair ornaments, and beads woven into dance skirts, headdresses and other regalia (Bates 1982). While men and children commonly virtually wore no clothing during the warmer summer months, women used plant fibers and deer skin to fashion skirts. Ritual regalia and the finery of the social elite were also manufactured from the
9-20 pelts of rabbits, deer, elk, antelope, bear and wild cat or, in coastal areas, from sea otter and sea lion fur.
Residential shelters were basically round grass or tule and bulrush thatched structures built on willow pole frames, while the larger, excavated semi-subterranean ceremonial buildings utilized for assembly or dance houses and sweatlodges, probably used boughs of hardwood or redwood trees (especially on the West Bay) as center posts for structural support. The sweat lodges and dance houses (tupentak in the Chocheño dialect, but more commonly referred to in the literature by the Mexican term “temescal”) may also have been earth covered as elsewhere in California.
Ritual Practices and Ceremonial Sites
Of all aspects of pre-contact native Californian culture, religion and ritual evoked the most hostility from Spanish colonial invaders whose observations accordingly are difficult to assess for accuracy. It is clear that performances which in Western discourse are referred to as dancing were central aspects of religious ritual, not only in the sense of worship, but also as activities which could themselves positively affect the balance of forces in the world and universe (Bean and Vane 1978).
From the reports of Fages, Font, Palou, Crespi, Arroyo de la Cuesta, and others it is also apparent that each region's rituals may have varied in details of procedure, regalia, and song. However, given the view that these rituals were perhaps practiced within a larger framework or interaction sphere among neighboring tribal groups, Milliken's caution (2004) that one ought not to draw excessively direct conclusions about the nature of ritual in the Santa Clara Valley from what is known about dance ceremonies conducted by East Bay Ohlones or the peoples of the Monterey region may be useful, but not necessarily conclusive. Notwithstanding that proviso, Santa Clara Valley Costanoan/Ohlone tribal groups likely danced world renewal ceremonies and paid a great deal of attention to funerary and mourning rituals as can be ascertained by Late Period mortuary sites (e.g., CA-SCL-128 Holiday Inn Site, CA-SCL-38 Yukisma Site and CA-ALA-329 Ryan Mound).
Dance enabled participants to open and travel through doors between the conscious world and an ongoing supernatural world where the beings who had initiated the creation of the world and of human beings continued to enact mythic dramas. Dancers' regalia were imbued with the power of these rituals, and certain natural locations, such as springs, rock formations, trees, etc. marked nodal points and served as shrines where ritual performance became particularly effective (see Bean 1975; Bean and Vane 1978, Davis 1992).
Humans could also hallow sacred places through the burial of their ancestors in locations that even the Spanish identified as cemeteries (see Leventhal 1993, Font in Bolton 1933 below). This is of especial note for the purposes of this study since the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw (San Hill Road) Site contains at least 24 plus burials and therefore does indeed represent the presence of a large cemetery.
Pedro Font traveling through different parts of the Santa Clara Valley made several observations about the nature of Ohlone cemeteries. Near modern-day Gilroy, Font noted:
9-21
On passing near the village I mentioned on the road we saw on the edge of it something like a cemetery. It was made of several small poles, although it was not like the cemeteries which we saw on the Channel [between Santa Barbara and the Channel Islands]. On the poles were hung some things like snails and some tule skirts which the women wear. Some arrows were stuck in the ground, and there were some feathers which perhaps were treasures of the persons buried there (in Bolton 1933: 322).
Approximately 27 miles south of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw Site, Font described the following scene within the Coyote Creek corridor located in the area of the Three Wolves Site CA-SCL-732 in south San Jose. From his description, it can be understood that the use of feathers and other regalia hung from poles and related structures may not have been exclusive to cemeteries but were established as a kind of shrine:
At this place we found still standing the poles of the little bower erected in the journey which in September of last year was made by the ship captain Don Bruno de Hezeta and Father Palou . . . We found that the Indians had made a fence of little poles around them, and in the middle had set up a thick post about three spans long, decorated with many feathers tied in something like a net, as if dressed, and with an arrow stuck through them. On one pole many arrows were tied and from another were hung three or four balls of grass like tamales, filled with pinole made of their seeds and of acorns, or of others of their foods which we did not recognize. In the middle of a long stake there was hung a tuft of several goose feathers, but we were unable to understand what mystery this decoration concealed (Font 1930 [1776]: 321-322).
These above ethnohistoric observations potentially provide some of the parameters of ceremonial activity and ritual performance that were carried on at the CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 Site locality (within the Puichon Tamien-Ohlone speaking tribal territory) approximately between 2,005 years ago (4 BC) to 1,293 years ago (AD 716) when these 24+ ancestral Ohlone people died and were buried at what was to become Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw Site by the Ohlones Indians comprising the present-day Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area.
The Transformation of Costanoan/Ohlone Societies: The Impact of the Spanish Empire’s Expansion in Alta California (1769-1836)
Based upon the research of many Californian anthropological scholars (e.g., Kroeber 1932, 1939, Goldschmidt 1951; Gifford 1955; T, King 1970, 1974; Fredrickson 1973; Bennyhoff 1977; Chartkoff and Chartkoff 1984; Moratto 1984; Bean and King, eds. 1974; Bean and Blackburn, eds. 1976; and others), prior to the time of contact with the expanding Spanish empire, central California Indian societies had already developed complex social, political, economic and ceremonial institutions that interconnected neighboring tribal groups and regions. This is evidenced by the wide distribution of artifact assemblages, traits and burial patterns found in central California mortuary mounds (sometimes referred to as Shellmounds in the S.F. Bay Area) especially during Phases 1 and 2 of the Late Period (Bennyhoff and Hughes 1987), and also demonstrated by the even wider distribution of the Kuksu religion which geographically ranged from the Salinan tribal groups to the south in Monterey County to the Cahto and Yuki to the
9-22 north in Mendocino County; (see Mason 1918; Loeb 1932, 1933; Bennyhoff 1977; Bean and Vane 1978; Leventhal 1993).
These inter-regional linkages were principally integrated through mechanisms of trade, kinship (especially through marriage alliances of elites), the performance of shared rituals and ceremonial obligations (e.g., Kuksu ceremonies, trade feasts, funerals and mourning anniversaries [see Blackburn 1976]).
Among village elites, for example, the political world clearly did not stop at the boundaries of their own territory. Elites from villages throughout the territory of Costanoan/Ohlone-speaking peoples (and neighboring linguistic groups) married their children into other elite families from important neighboring villages, villages in which Costanoan/Ohlone-related languages may or may not have been spoken (see Milliken 1993). Intermarriage gave rise to extended kinship networks of multi-lingual elite families and communities, whose wealth and status represented the accumulation of economic surpluses from territories much larger than the village community itself (Bean 1978; Milliken 1990, 1991; Brown 1994). Through elite intermarriage, larger regions were integrated which overlapped and crossed linguistic boundaries (Bean and Lawton 1976; Bean 1992).
Elite intermarriage patterns also facilitated and underscored other regional integrating forces such as trade and ritual obligation (see Blackburn 1976). People from different villages, often distantly related, struck up personal trading relationships, called “special friendships,” which often lasted whole lifetimes (Bean 1976). Through networks of “special friends” different foods, tools, and treasure goods were traded from village to village over long distances.
Networks of ritual and ceremonial obligation called together large numbers of diverse peoples for particular occasions, such as the funerals of significant inter-village elite personages (Blackburn 1976). On such occasions, trade fairs also occurred where elites likely arranged the future marriages of their children. Taken all together, the trading of subsistence and treasure goods, the exchanges of marriage partners, and the cycles of ritual and ceremony tied together constellations of kin-based village communities into integrated political, economic and cultural fields led by a small inter-village elite strata (see Fages 1775; Bean 1992). These elite-ruled realms might be described as quasi-chiefdoms or ranked chiefdoms (Service 1962, 1975; Fried 1967; for an archaeological perspective on evidence of social ranking within the San Francisco Bay see T. King 1970, 1974; Wiberg 1984; Luby 1991; and Leventhal 1993).
The paradox of a bountiful environment, large populations, and lack of recognizable cultivation confounded the Spaniards, the first Europeans determined to control what is now the state of California. Elsewhere in Latin America, particularly in the Andes and Meso-America (see Salomon 1981, Rappaport 1990, Smith 1990, many others), indigenous structures of governance and processes for manufacturing commodities were more familiar to European eyes. Therefore, at least for a time following the initial conquest of indigenous civilizations, the Spaniards harnessed indigenous political and economic organization for their own purposes. Because the Spaniards could not cognitively apprehend a civilization whose productive base, economic surplus, and sources of wealth were fundamentally alien, their domination of Californian natives
9-23 hinged upon completely re-molding their cultures and societies into forms that were comprehensible to European sensibilities.
The Franciscan missions, the method the Spanish Empire used to lay claim to California, may be seen as the process of implanting European political and economic systems. This process required that Native American religions and cultural practices be restricted and eventually forbidden, and later, the destruction of the economic and environmental foundations of native life (Cook 1976b; Castillo 1978). The missionized peoples of the Bay Area and elsewhere in coastal California became a labor force for an emergent agricultural and pastoral economy which obliged natives to leave aside most indigenous ritual and ceremonial practices, as well as the manufacture of many aspects of aboriginal material culture. As agricultural laborers, missionized Indians were largely separated from the seasonal rhythms of their own food production practices, while the growth of mission farms and rangeland for cattle initiated an environmental transformation of the Bay Area and the entire coast that destroyed much of the resource base of the indigenous economy.
Demographic collapse of the Costanoan/Ohlone populations held captive at Mission Dolores at the tip of the San Francisco peninsula, Missions Santa Clara and San Jose in the South and East Bay respectively, Mission San Juan Bautista farther to the south (San Benito County), and the Esselens at Mission San Carlos on the Monterey peninsula occurred because of the horrendous effects of European-introduced diseases, exacerbated by the unhealthy diet and over-crowded living conditions at the missions. Birth rates plummeted from a psychological phenomenon now recognized as post-traumatic stress (Cook 1976a; Rawls 1986; Hurtado 1988; Jackson 1992).
As the populations of Costanoan/Ohlones both inside and surrounding the missions contracted diseases, survivors tended to congregate around the missions, seeking solutions to their seemingly unsolvable problems from the missionaries and colonists who were causing those same problems. Under the circumstance of socio-cultural “holocaust” which took approximately forty years (1769-1810) to unfold, many Bay Area Ohlones may have identified with their oppressors, who seemed to have overthrown and taken control of all of the old systems of spiritual and earthly power, although others may have fled and sought protection with the interior tribes to the east (see Milliken 1991, 1995 and 2008 for a different interpretation that partly exonerates the missions).
In response to the diminution of their labor-force, the Franciscan fathers and civil authorities directed Spanish soldiers to bring in new converts from outlying tribal areas. The Coast Miwok, Bay and Plains Miwok, Yokut, Patwin, and Esselen speaking peoples from villages located east, north and south of the Bay Area missions became the new cohort of neophytes as laborers, and they intermarried with the surviving Ohlone-speaking peoples (Harrington 1921-1939; Milliken 1978, 1982, 1983, 1990, 1991, 1995, 2007, and 2008). Such intermarriage patterns was, as emphasized above, already established between neighboring North Valley Yokuts, Coast, Bay and Plains Miwok, Patwin and Costanoan/Ohlone-speaking elites during the late pre-contact and contact periods. Milliken (1991) discussing common female name suffixes amongst the Huchiun-Aguastos Costanoan/Ohlone speaking tribal group of the southeast shore of the San Pablo Bay region noted:
9-24 The Huchiun-Aguastos spoke a Costanoan dialect most similar to their Huchiun neighbors, and also very similar to the Carquins, if female personal names suffix clusters are good reflections of language. “Maen/main” was the most common female name suffix at thirty-one percent, higher than any other Bay Area group. … Huchiun- Aguastos, Huchiun, and Carquin personal names contains numerous root and suffix syllable clusters common to Coast Miwok, and Bay Miwok names, such as “eyum,” “joboc,” “ottaca,” “saquen,” and “tole”, suggesting extensive culture sharing in the San Pablo Bay area across language boundaries. (Milliken 1991:427)
At the missions, intermarriage apparently continued to subtly reinforce sociopolitical hierarchies and older surviving elite families. Even under the triple assault of religious conversion, ecological and economic transformation, and demographic collapse, indigenous political leadership and resistance did not disappear.
The missions struggled against frequent desertions by neophytes, and armed rebellions occurred at Missions Dolores, San Jose and Santa Clara (Milliken 1983, 1991). Led by Pomponio at Mission Dolores (early 1820s), by the famous Estanislao at Mission San Jose, and by Cipriano at Mission Santa Clara, indigenous guerrilla armies combined the forces of both runaway neophytes and natives from villages the Spanish had not yet dominated (Holterman 1970; Brown 1975; Rawls 1986). Yet the Spaniards mostly succeeded in destroying the ecological basis for the indigenous economy, and in transforming the Bay Area peoples and their close neighbors into an exploited, impoverished soon-to-be landless working class. It was as indebted peons that the ancestors of the Muwekma, the Ohlone people of the San Francisco Bay Area and elsewhere in Hispanic California confronted the next two stages of European domination, with the secularization of the missions and the ensuing conquest of California by the United States.
West Bay Ohlone Tribal Groups and the Last of the Puichon Descended Indians - The Evencio Family of San Mateo County
Randall Milliken (2007) recently conducted a comprehensive ethnohistoric study for the Golden Gate National Park on the Indians of the San Francisco Bay Area, wrote the following historic account on the Evencio family. Descended from the Lamchin/Puichon Ohlone-speaking tribal groups of the West Bay around San Francisquito Creek area and the Saclan Bay Miwok speaking tribal group of the East Bay, Pedro Evencio and his children were the last of Doloreño Indians who had aboriginal descent from the West Bay. Milliken wrote:
A four year old boy named Yaculo, who was to found the only San Mateo county Indian extended family documented into the twentieth century, was baptized at Mission Dolores on October 31, 1790. He was brought to the mission by his father Gesmon ("The Sun" [also spelled Exmon]) and his mother Ssipiem, San Francisco Bay Costanoan speakers from either the Lamchin or Puichon local tribe, and he was christened Evencio. Four years later, Evencio's future parents-in-law were baptized. They were Sacalinchi and his wife Uimusmaen, who led the first group of adult Saclan Bay Miwoks through the baptismal ceremony at the mission in December of 1794; after fleeing in 1795 they returned with a son who was christened Juan Diego in 1798. Their mission-born daughter Geronima, Evencio's future wife, was baptized in June of 1800. Geronima and Evencio were married in about 1826 and had at least eight children between that year and 1844. Their oldest son, Pedro Evencio, was the
9-25 man whose testimony in federal court in 1869 about the eviction of the Indians from Rancho San Mateo, … .
… Pedro Evencio's paternal grandparents, Rosendo Exmon and Osana Ssapiem, were baptized at Mission Dolores in 1793 (SFR-B 1231, 1248), three years later than their son Evencio Yaculo. Evencio Yaculo grew up in the Mission Dolores community and married Salaverba, a Huchiun San Francisco Bay Costanoan, in 1804 (SFR-M 953, SFR-B 2747). Evencio and Salaverba had five children before she died in 1820 … . Evencio Yaculo then married Geronima some time during the mid-1820s, although no record of the wedding has been found. The seven children of Evencio and Geronima who appear in the Mission Dolores baptismal record were baptized between 1828 and 1844. Since none of them was named Pedro, we presume that he was born in 1826 and that Evencio Yaculo and Geronima were also married that year.
Evencio Yaculo and Geronima raised their children during the Rancho Era at the mission outstation of Rancho San Mateo. Pedro Evencio stated in 1869 court testimony that his father had been the leader of the San Mateo Indian community when Pedro was young. …
Pedro Evencio married Pastora at Mission Dolores in December of 1846. She was a Churuptoy Patwin from the present Woodland, Yolo county area by way of Mission San Francisco Solano (SFS-B 1166). The marriage entry lists Pedro as 20 years old and the bride as 18 (SFR-M 2162). Pedro Evencio and Pastora had four children who were baptized at Mission Dolores between 1852 and 1862. Those children were typical mixed-ancestry Dolorenos, having as they did a Puichon San Francisco Bay Costanoan/Saclan Bay Miwok father and a Churuptoy Patwin mother.
The Evencio family did not appear as individuals in the 1860 census. In the 1870 census of San Mateo County, however, the "Abensio" family was listed as follows:
■ Abensio, Padro, 45, male, Farm laborer ■ " Pastora, 38, female, Keeping home ■ " Maria, 17, female ■ " Casusa, 8, male ■ " (no name listed) 4, female ■ Diago, John, 68, male (U.S. Census Bureau 1870a)
Later evidence indicates that the Evencio family also had a son Joseph, about 10 years old in 1870, whom the census taker apparently missed. …
… John Diego, the 68-year-old man living with Pedro Evencio and Pastora in 1870, has an interesting story of his own. In the 1869 Rancho San Mateo court case Pedro Evencio had stated that "John Diego" was his uncle and that the two of them were the only original San Mateo County Indians still alive (Land Case 178 ND). Mission register evidence shows that Juan Diego was the brother of Pedro Evencio's mother Geronima; he was the child that Sacalinchi and Uimusmaen had brought for baptism when they returned to Mission Dolores in 1798 after the Saclan flight of 1795. … (Milliken 2008).
9-26 Pedro Evencio and his family were also listed on the 1880 Census for San Mateo County, Township 1. He was identified as Pedro Abencio, age 58, (b. ca. 1822), Indian, Farm Laborer; Mary, wife, age 58, Indian; Mary, daughter, age 25, Indian; Refuga, daughter, age 16, Indian; Paul Jose (Joseph), son, age 22, Indian is crossed out [he was residing elsewhere]; Thomas, son, age 5, Indian. All were born in California. The family was living next to a farmer named Louis Doff and family who were from France.
Living nearby in the Milbrae Township in San Mateo County was Pedro’s son, Jose Abencio. He was listed as Jose Abencio, age 22, [b. ca. 1858], Indian, and working as a stableman for Peter Leyton, who was a hotel proprietor originally from Holland.
In 1894, Mary Sheldon Barnes a faculty member at Stanford University interviewed Pedro Evencio and she published a portion of that interview in the The Sequoia magazine. Barnes wrote:
There lives in San Mateo, an old Indian, Pedro Evancio by name, the last of all the... Indians born and bred at the Mission Dolores. Don Pablo Vasquez of Spanish town put us on his track one day when we were asking if there were still any living descendants of the old inhabitants of the valley. "His father was my father's man," he said. "When my father was vaquero of the Mission Dolores, just before the Americans came in."
When we went to see Pedro, we found him in a little white-washed house, neat within and without, the garden full of pinks and stocks, and all sweet, bright flowers, with a dog haunting about it. His wife, a dark Spanish woman, showed us into a neat living room; in one corner of it stood the bed; various ornaments adorned the walls, and on the table stood a great bunch of flowers.
"Could we see Mr. Pedro Evancio?" "Si, si," and there appeared in the kitchen-door Pedro Evancio; a well-built, well-proportioned man, dignified though shy, with a dark beard, an observant eye, dressed in workman's clothes.
We advanced with ardor; but he met our advance with a grave and questioning reserve... Spanish was his native tongue, and our first interview consisted mostly of surprise, friendliness, and a little embarrassment. But in a later interview through his son, an intelligent young workman, we were able to carry on a second-hand conversation, and to obtain photographs of Pedro Evancio. He could not say to what tribe he belonged,—he knew himself only as a Mission Indian; but the old Indian trails, especially that trail by which the Mission Indians used to drag redwood to the Mission Dolores, were all fresh in his mind, and his son Joseph could make us a clear map of the whole Santa Clara Valley with all its old trails.
Pedro's general appearance, and especially his rather full beard, made us doubt the purity of his Indian descent. But in Palou's diary of 1774, full descriptions of our Santa Clara valley Indians are given; "well-formed and tall many of the bearded like a Spaniard..." (Barnes 1894:277).
9-27
Figure 9-2 Pedro Evencio (Photo taken by Barnes in 1894)
Pedro Evencio died on either January 19 or 20, 1896 and he was buried at St. John’s Cemetery in San Mateo.
Pedro’s eldest son, Joseph Evencio was identified on the 1900 Census living in the City of San Mateo. He was identified as Joe Evencio, age 40, born March 1860, Black, laborer and single. Joe was listed as a “roomer” residing house of C. C. Moore, and engineer from New York and his family.
Milliken’s research on the Evencio family brought to light the death of one of Pedro’s sons named Joseph Evencio in 1907:
Joseph Evencio, son of Pedro Evencio, was himself killed by an electric railroad car near Millbrae in early November, 1907. The newspaper report called him "Indian Joe," said that he was full blooded, and stated that he had earned his living doing odd jobs. This was the article that noted that his father had also been killed by a railroad train about ten years earlier (San Mateo Leader November 6, 1907:4).
… The burial of Joseph Evencio, who was 47 or 49 years old when he died in 1907, is not the end of the Evencio family story. In 1963 historian Frank M. Stanger stated in his
9-28 book South From San Francisco that one "Indian Joe" was living in a "crude shelter" at Coyote Point during the late 1930s, adding that "... his real name, it seems, was Joseph (Jose) Evencio" (Stanger 1963:32). Alan Brown (1973b: 16) reproduced a photograph of him, supposedly taken in the early 1920s at Coyote Point. The man seemed to be about 40 years old in the photograph. Perhaps he was a son or nephew of the Joseph Evencio who died in 1907. With the disappearance of the younger Joe Evencio, "the San Mateo County Indians have vanished from among us as completely as any people could," wrote Brown (1973b:23).
Figure 9-3: Joseph Evencio “Indian Joe” at Coyote Point circa. 1920s
Unfortunately, with the passing of the Evencio family, there are no other known living descendants from either the Puichon Ohlone or other West Bay Ohlonean tribal groups that survived into the late 20th century. There are however enrolled members of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe, who are descendants of Doloreños, Ohlone Indians who were brought into Mission Dolores, during the early part of the 19th century from the East Bay. Mission records attest that there was intermarriage between elites from the Yelamu Ohlone of San Francisco and the Jalquin East Bay Ohlones during the early Contact Period (Milliken 1991:111; 1995:62).
9-29
1834-1846 Secularization of the Missions and its Aftermath
In the last decades of Mission San Jose's existence, between 1800 and the 1830s under Franciscan administration, the population of Ohlone peoples from the East, South and West Bay had endured such steep demographic declines that, as mentioned above, the mission's fathers were obliged to seek further a field for native people for conversion and to provide the labor to maintain the mission's farmlands, ranches and extensive herds. As discussed above, many Indians from the Coast Miwok, Bay and Plains Miwok, to the north and east of the missions, and from the North Valley Yokut and Patwin tribal groups as well, were converted at Missions Dolores, San Jose and Santa Clara (Cook 1957, 1960; McCarthy 1958; Bennyhoff 1977; Milliken 1982, 1991, 1995, 2008; Milliken, Leventhal and Cambra 1987). Also as noted previously, marriage exchanges between these tribal peoples followed extremely old and established kinship traditions in central California; intermarriage and strong relations of kinship continued within the setting of the mission, albeit under circumstances Indian peoples found alien, harsh and objectionable.
Notwithstanding the enormously destructive changes missionization wreaked upon indigenous culture and society, the missions themselves were vulnerable to the winds of political change. Situated at the very northern edge of the Spanish empire, central California's history was really a part of a larger Latin American history until the late 1840s. The Spanish crown had decided to secularize the missions as early as 1813, but the struggle for Mexican independence intervened. Between 1834 and 1836, the Mexican Republic enacted legislation that terminated the missions and proposed to divide mission properties among the missionized indigenous peoples. Yet this division of land and resources did not fully occur in the San Francisco Bay region. Instead, the local families of Spanish-Mexican descent, known as Californios, proceeded to make formal claims upon most of the property owned by missions Santa Clara and San Jose. Large cattle ranchos were created and the Californios established themselves as neo-feudal lords (Phillips 1981; Milliken 2008; Milliken, Leventhal and Cambra 1987).
Milliken, conducting research with the Muwekma Tribe for the Interpretive Recommendations and Background Report for the East Bay Regional Park District, noted:
Under Spanish law, Mission lands were to be held in trust for the Indians until the government felt that they had become enough like Europeans to be considered "people of reason". The Mexican government came under strong pressure during the 1820's to ignore the Indian land rights and open up mission lands to settlement by the families of ex-soldiers and by new settlers from Mexico. The government of Mexico finally gave in to these pressures with a series of secularization acts between 1834 and 1836. On paper these acts protected the Indian land rights. Administrators were to divide mission properties among the Indians, with the left over lands to be allocated to Mexican immigrants through petition.
A veritable landrush began among local Mexican families from San Jose when Jose Jesus Vallejo became administrator of Mission San Jose in 1836. Within a two year period an instant feudal aristocracy was formed, complete with a population of Indian serfs.
9-30 Families such as the Vallejos, Pachecos, Alvisos, Castros, and Bernals gained control of the mission lands and herds. These new land owners continued to live in San Jose, while former Mission San Jose Indians did all the labor on various ranchos (Milliken, Leventhal and Cambra 1987:11).
Thus the ancestors of the Muwekma Ohlone experienced a second abrupt and catastrophic shift in their lives when the Mexican government secularized the Franciscan Missions. Although, as stated above, Mexican law decreed that half of all the mission held lands were to be given to the patriated neophytes, no such lands were formally granted with the exception of three or four individual land grants to several Ohlone Indian families (see below). Most Indians left the missions to become manual laborers, domestics and vaqueros on neighboring Californio-owned ranchos.
Mexican Land Grants Issued to Secularized Clareño Indians
Around the area of Mission Santa Clara, however, several (Clareño) Ohlone families were fortunate to be granted land grants by the Mexican government. In 1845, Governor Pio Pico granted the Ulistac land grant near Alviso in Santa Clara to Marcello (SCL-B #1360; baptized June 15, 1789 at age 4), whose father Alexandro Seunes (SCL-B # 4577; baptized July 21, 1804 at age 44 and died August 5, 1812) and whose mother Pacanagua (not baptized) were from the San Bernardino (district) Costanoan/Ohlone Tamien-speaking tribal group located to the west of Mission Santa Clara. The Ulistac land grant was also issued to two other Mission Santa Clara Indian men named Pio Guatus (SCL-B # 4805; baptized June 21, 1805 at age 12 and died November 21, 1846) and Cristobal (SCL-B # 6157; baptized November 7, 1813 at age 3 days) and whose father Audito Lataig (SCL-B # 4737; baptized June 20, 1805 at age 20) and whose mother Audita Petsilate (SCL-B # 4838; baptized June 21, 1805 at age 20, and died February 1, 1825) were from the Tayssen Ohlone-speaking tribal group.
As mentioned above, the San Bernardino tribal group/district was located in the Stevens Creek, Saratoga and Pescadero Creek water shed region to the west/southwest of Mission Santa Clara and also included the Puichon Ohlone as well (Milliken 1995:252). Pio Guatus and Cristobal were traced through the Mission Santa Clara Baptismal records to the Tayssenes Ohlone- speaking tribal group whose territory included the upland valleys to the east of San Jose towards the Orestimba Creek drainage.
Rancho Ulistac measured half a league (2270 acres) and included the bay shore of the present- day cities of Santa Clara and Alviso (Brown 1994).
Earlier, on February 15, 1844, another Clareño Ohlone Indian named Lope Yñigo was issued title to 1695.9 acres (2.64 square miles) around present-day Moffett Field near Mountain View by Governor Micheltorena (Brown 1994). This land grant was called Rancho Posolmi y Pozitas de las Animas (Little Wells of Souls). Apparently, Yñigo was recognized as a chief or capitane of the "San Bernardino" Ohlone-speaking people who originally occupied this region. He was baptized at Mission Santa Clara in 1789 (SCL-B # 1501; baptized December 26, 1789 at age 8 years old). Yñigo’s father Celedonio Samis (SCL-B # 3106; baptized April 5, 1795 at age
9-31 4 and died November 8, 1820) and mother Temnen (died before being baptized) were also from the San Bernardino tribal district. (Huntington Library On-Line Mission Database)
The Posolmi land grant was also referred to as Yñigo's grant, Yñigo Reservation (Thompson and West 1876 Historical Atlas Map of Santa Clara County) and Pozitas de las Animas, or Little Wells of the Souls. Although reduced to approximately 400 acres, Yñigo's claim came under review in the U.S. Land Commission of 1852 (Walkinshaw vs. the U.S. Government, Posolmi, 125, Land Case 410) and he retained this small portion of his land until his death on March 2, 1864. Yñigo was buried somewhere on his land which is now occupied by Moffett Field and Lockheed Corporation. After Yñigo's death, it appears that his descendants may have afterwards moved to the Alviso Rancho [(see U.S. Land Commission Index to land Grants 1852, U.S. General Land Office, Posolmi, 125, Land case 410); Bancroft 1886; Harrington 1921-1934; Arbuckle 1968; see: Thompson and West 1876 Map identifies Yñigo Reservation (Moffett Field); Yñigo Rancho by Pat Joyce; Obituary of Yñigo in San Jose Patriot)].
In 1844, Governor Manuel Micheltorena formally granted Rancho de los Coches (the Pigs), totaling 2219.4 acres, to a Mission Santa Clara Clareño (Ohlone) Indian named Roberto Antonio Balermino. Since 1836 Roberto had occupied this land west/southwest of the confluence point where the Guadalupe River and Los Gatos Creek meet in downtown San Jose.
Roberto was baptized Roberto Antonio on September 26, 1785 at the age of 3 years old (SCL-B # 0791). He was identified as being from the San Juan Bautista (district) Costanoan/Ohlone- speaking tribal group. Roberto’s father was Juan Jose, who was baptized on December 4, 1802 at the age of 40 years (SCL-B. # 4384). He also was identified as being from the San Juan Bautista (district) Costanoan/Ohlone tribal group. Juan Jose’s Indian name was Guascai and he died on February 7, 1825 (MSC death register #5808). Roberto’s mother’s name was identified as Sulum but there was no additional baptism information.
Rancho de los Coches was adjacent to the aboriginal territory of Roberto’s tribal homeland that included the district that the Spanish Priest called San Juan Bautista (again not to be confused with Mission San Juan Bautista located south near Hollister). At the age of nineteen (around 1801) Roberto had married his first wife Maria Estefana (this date is based upon the birth of one of their children). Roberto’s marriage to Maria Estefana connected him to the San Francisco Solano district located to the north of Mission Santa Clara (Milpitas/Alviso), and also connected him to the Santa Ysabel district to the east hills above San Jose (Brown 1994; C. King 1994).
Maria Estefana was baptized on August 8, 1785 (5 days old) and she was identified as coming from the Santa Ysabel (district) Costanoan/Ohlone-speaking tribal group (SCL-B. # 0773). Maria Estefana’s mother was Micaelina Antonia who was baptized at Mission Santa Clara on June 18, 1780 at the age of 18 years. She was identified as belonging to the San Francisco Solano (district) Costanoan/Ohlone tribal group (SCL-B # 0181). Maria Estefana’s father was named Francisco Gil by the Spanish priests and was baptized on April 21, 1782 at the age of 20 years (SCL-B # 0347). His Indian name was Gilan. Francisco Gil was identified as coming from the Santa Ysabel (district) Costanoan/Ohlone tribal group. Roberto had died on October 26, 1847 (MSC death register #8053).
9-32 On the West Bay, a land grant was issued to another Clareño Ohlone Indian man named Jose Gorgonio and his family. Jose Gorgonio and his son, Jose Ramon, were granted Rancho La Purisima Concepcion by Governor Juan B. Alvarado on June 30, 1840. This rancho comprised 4,440 acres or 1 square league around the present day Palo Alto/Los Altos Hills area (Brown 1994). Jose Gorgonio was probably baptized as Gorgonio (SCL-B # 1721; baptized July 15, 1790 at age 1.5 years). His father’s Indian name was Lulquecse and his mother’s name was Seguem. Lulquecse was identified as Chrisostomo Lulquesi (SCL-B # 2672; baptized November 27, 1794 at age 42 and had died November 5, 1801). He was listed as being from the San Bernardino district located to the west of Mission Santa Clara. Gorgonio was also identified as being from the San Bernardino tribal district.
During the post-secularization period (after 1836), there were at least six Indian rancheria settlements established areas surrounding Pueblo de San Jose. One major rancheria was located on the Santa Teresa Rancho (Bernal's property) south of the Pueblo San Jose near the Santa Teresa Hills. Another was located in the valley east of San Jose called Pala Rancho, while a third was established along the Guadalupe River above Agnew on the Rinca de los Esteros Rancho (City of Santa Clara). In the present-day City of Cupertino was the Quito Rancho. In Pueblo de San Jose, there was a settlement of "free Indians" on the east side of Market Street, and the sixth community was located further west along the banks of the Guadalupe River near Santa Clara Street (King 1978; Winter 1978a).
Establishment of the East Bay Rancherias
After secularization of the missions, many of the Mission Santa Clara (Clareño) Ohlones, including the Luecha, Santos and other families, found refuge with their familial cousins residing in the East Bay on rancho lands owned by Californios, especially near the present-day towns of Pleasanton, San Lorenzo, Livermore, Sunol, Niles and Alviso (Harrington 1921- 1934).
During the years 1841-1842 some of the surviving Bay Area Ohlones left the missions and found work on many of these neighboring ranchos as domestics, field laborers, farm hands and vaqueros (cowboys). During this period of time there appears to have been a free and independent Indian community working (and possibly owning) land between the San Leandro and San Lorenzo Creeks located within the aboriginal Jalquin/Yrgin Ohlone-speaking tribal territory near the present-day City of Hayward (see Nicholas Gray Survey Map of 1855; also see Harrington 1921-1934 interviews with Susanna Nichols, Jose Guzman and Maria de los Angeles Colos). This rancheria was known as “the Springs” and was located where they built the Fairmont Hospital in San Leandro (Sandoval, nd:41).
Based upon Mission San Jose record studies, the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe has documented that Efrena Quennatole [who was the great-grandmother of Dario, Dolores, Isabelle, Ramona, Mercedes, Victoria, Lucas and Trina Marine, grandmother of Avelina Cornates Marine and Francisca Nonessi Guzman, and the mother of Liberato Nonessi] was recalled by Verona Band/Muwekma Ohlone consultants Jose Guzman and Maria de los Angeles Colos during one of their interviews with Harrington (see below). Mission record’s suggest that Efrena Quennatole and her third husband Ybon Uacu-uga, were living at "de Rancho de San Lorenzo" at the time
9-33 of the birth and baptism of their son Ybon in 1838 (Mission San Jose baptism dated March 31, 1838). Years later, Ybon (Jr.) went through life by the name of Miguel Santos Pastor and as a young man he had married Celsa Santos2. The following is Ybon’s Mission San Jose 1838 baptismal record.
1838 Mar 31, Ybon, "de Rancho de San Lorenzo" Born: Mar 16, 1838 (15 days old) Father: Ybon Mother: Efrena
Based upon his research, Milliken also discovered that during this period of time:
One group of Indians established an independent community somewhere along the road north from Mission San Jose toward Alameda Creek during the 1840's. The head of the community was Buenaventura, one of the few survivors of the original villages from the local "Estero" area, or bayshore. Buenaventura had been baptized as a two year old at Mission San Jose in 1798 (JOB 161). Father Miguel Muro granted a license to Buenaventura, six other adult males and their families on 2 November 1844. His wife Desideria was of a family that had moved to the mission from the Jalalon area, now eastern Contra Costa county.
Buenaventura died in 1847, Desideria sold the group's license to an American in 1849. The U.S. Land Commission of the 1850's did not recognize the license as a valid land title, however [Land Case 290 n.d.:11] (Milliken, Leventhal and Cambra 1987).
The "Estero" area along the bayshore included the possibly Chocheño/Tamien-speaking (bilingual) Alson tribal group located along the lower Guadalupe River and the Tuibun tribal group of the Fremont Plain. As discussed above both of these groups were first missionized at Mission Santa Clara (Milliken 1983, 1991, 2007, 2008).
1846 - 1870s American Invasion and Post-Conquest Period
Many of the missionized Indians, who had previously labored in the mission's fields and cared for the livestock, were hired on as vaqueros by the new Californio estate-owners, who continued the tradition of controlling indigenous peoples on and near the old mission lands. Yet, many of the formerly missionized Indians who worked on these ranchos opted in some cases to move to the most remote areas of the back-country within their old homelands. At least a thousand former mission Indians lived in the vicinity of Mission San Jose in the early 1840s, and it is likely that more Indians came to the area from the Mission Santa Clara region (History of Washington Township 1904). During this historic period, the part of the East Bay extending north of Mission San Jose up to San Leandro became a region of refuge (especially after the
2 On the 1880 Census, Miguel Santos (age 40); Maria (Celsa), wife, age 35; Hosa S. (Jose Santiago), son, age 15; Maria (Antonia), daughter, age 7; Vincent (Jose Antonio), son, age 5; and Pappoose, son, age 5/12, (born January 1880), were residing in Brooklyn Township, north of the San Leandro Creek near the old San Lorenzo Rancheria, possibly near the old town of Fitchburg (now Oakland).
9-34 American invasion and conquest of California), to which the missionized Indian peoples of the East and South Bay migrated and in which communities of mission survivors coalesced.
During this period, invasion of the tribal territories throughout California accelerated dramatically. Losses of land due to the Bear Flag Revolt of 1846-47 (American Conquest), Gold Rush of 1848-49, and indifferent enforcement of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848 cut off any traditional means of subsistence, and forced the ancestors of the Muwekma Ohlones residing on the East Bay rancherias and surrounding ranchos into even greater dependence on the non-Indian economy.
Peter Hardeman Burnett (November 15, 1807 – May 17, 1895) was an American politician and the first state Governor of California, serving from December 20, 1849 to January 9, 1851. He was also the first California governor to resign from office. Burnett previously served briefly during December 1849 as the territorial civilian governor of California (Figure 9-4).
Figure 9-4: Governor Peter Burnett
In 1851, the California Governor Peter Burnett stated “A war of extermination will continue to be waged between the two races until the Indian race become extinct.” Burnett’s comments reflected the overall sentiment towards California Indians.
After California statehood, in 1850, President Millard Fillmore and United States Congress appointed three commissioners to enter into treaty agreements with the Indians of California for the purpose of ceding and quit claiming all lands identified within the eighteen treaties which were negotiated between 1851-1852 (Figure 9-5). In return for quit claiming their aboriginal title to California, the tribes of California were to receive as a set-aside, reservation lands totaling approximately 8.5 million acres along with food, supplies and services. Although reaching Washington D.C., these eighteen treaties were never ratified by the United States Senate (Heizer 1972; Hoopes 1975). Under the terms of these treaties, the ancestors of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe were to be the intended beneficiaries of two of the treaties:
E. Treaty of Dent's and Ventine's Crossing, May 28, 1851 M. Treaty of Camp Fremont, March 19, 1851
9-35
Letter to Hon. Franklin K. Lane Secretary of the Interior, Washington, D. C. From Congressman John Raker September 22, 1913 RE: Certain California Indians Under 18 Unratified Treaties
… “Message from the President of the United States, Communicating eighteen Treaties Made with Indians in California, of the following Tribes, …
(California Indian) 1851 -52 treaties
Muwekma territory within treaties E & M
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 9-5: Eighteen Unratified Treaties of California
During this transformative American Conquest period between the late 1840s and 1860s, the small steps that the Indian rancherias of the San Francisco Bay, the ancestors of the contemporary Muwekma Ohlone, had taken to revitalize their communities and culture suffered a series of severe blows. The military invasion of California by the United States in 1846 and the subsequent Gold Rush (1849), followed by statehood in 1850, ushered in a new period of genocide against indigenous Californians.
A war of involuntary servitude and extermination was launched against indigenous peoples by the first legislators of the state (Hoopes 1975; Rawls 1986). Laws barred Indians from voting, from giving testimony in court, or from bringing lawsuits (Rawls 1986; Hurtado 1988). At the same time, American laws in most cases refused to recognize the validity of the land titles for the Californios' ranchos (1853 land cases). Coupled with a crippling drought afflicting central California during the 1860s, most of the Californios were could not afford to maintain their land bases and were driven off their South and East Bay estates (Wood 1883). New American owners most likely expelled the Indian vaqueros and their families from the land (Milliken 2008; Milliken, Leventhal and Cambra 1987).
9-36 Between the decades spanning 1840 and the early 1860s, for reasons that are still not completely clear, many if not most of the remaining Indian people from Mission San Jose, perhaps many from Mission Santa Clara and elsewhere, gathered at several refuges which included the Alisal (the Alders) Rancheria, located just southwest of the city of Pleasanton on Rancho El Valle de San Jose which was granted to Antonio Maria Pico, Antonio Suñol and Augustin and Juan Bernal on April 10, 1839.
One historic account about the establishment of some of the East Bay rancherias has recently come to light via the oral recollections of Mary Ann Harlan Smith which was recorded by her daughter Emma Smith. Mary Ann Harlan was the daughter of George Harlan who was a wagon master on the Donner Party expedition and who led his group successfully into California in 1846/47. Mary Ann Harlan had married Henry C. Smith in 1847 and was living at Mission San Jose at the time of the removal of the Indians to Alisal located between Sunol and Pleasanton. Emma Smith recorded the following account from her mother:
My husband was appointed the first Alcalde or justice of the peace by Gov. Riley, Military Governor of California. He could speak Spanish very fluently and the Spaniards came to him with their difficulties. My husband and his brother remained in partnership for a couple of years, then his brother sold his interest to E. L. Beard and moved to Martinez. Beard and my husband continued in business for a short time. My husband purchased tract of land two and a half miles from the Mission, and also 800 acres on the Arroyo De Alameda, where he afterwards laid out and named the town of Alvarado. My second daughter, Emma was born in Mission San Jose. … .
I grew very tired of living there, so we built a house on the rancho, near the Mission and moved there. We engaged in farming and stock raising. In the summer of 1850, my father who was living in Mission San Jose died from typhoid fever the age of forty-eight.
… . The Mission Indians had a rancheria on our rancho and we often watched them performing their religious ceremonies. They had a large room dug in the ground and covered with brush and earth, with one door to enter. This place was called a sweet house. The Indians decorated themselves with feathers and all sorts of ridiculous costumes. A fire was built in the center of the room and the Indians danced around it. When one made a trip in those days from Oakland to San Jose, one would see millions of cattle and quite a lot of wheat which was raised by the Indians.
Cholera broke out among the Indians, and a number of them died. Their crying and howling and moaning were almost unbearable. My brother Joel, was obliged to take his family and go away where they could not hear the dreadful noise. When I found out that he was going, I had our men take me and my family along. I was very much afraid of the disease. My husband was away at the time. When he returned and found us gone, he immediately had all the Indians moved to the Alisal, located where Pleasanton now is. (Emma Smith, 1923). [Emphasis added]
The Alisal Rancheria appears to have been established in the vicinity of a large pre-contact ancestral Muwekma Ohlone village, now underneath or near the Castlewood Country Club
9-37 (Gifford 1947). The Bernals, who, unlike many of their Californio neighbors, were able to hold onto their rancho lands, continued to maintain their economy with the help of Indian labor. The Bernals also had a long history of sponsoring Indian children as godparents and apparently had children with some of the ancestors of the Muwekma Ohlone.
Furthermore, Maria de los Angeles Colos (Angela), one of J. P. Harrington's principal East Bay Ohlone Chocheño speaking and cultural consultants, stated that she was born in the 1840s on the Bernal rancho located at the Santa Teresa Hills (near prehistoric site CA-SCL-125) in south San Jose (Harrington 1921-1934; Ortiz 1994a). From the Santa Clara and San Jose Mission records research conducted by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe, it was discovered that Maria de los Angeles' parents were Zenon and Joaquina Pico whom were married at Mission Santa Clara in 1838.
Other examples of interrelationships with the Bernal and Sunol families are found in the mission records, censuses and historic documents. In the Alisal Rancheria community there was a Clareño Ohlone man named Raymundo Bernal, who was also identified in San Jose Mission records as Raymond Sunol. Mission Santa Clara baptismal records identifies a child by the name of Jose Raymundo (Bernal) who was baptized on April 10, 1842 (MSC Baptism # 10219). He was identified as the son of Domingo Bernal and Maria Tacia Sunol who were both listed as “neofitos” (baptized Indians). His godparents were Antonio Bernal and Eusebia Valencia.
Raymundo Bernal (Sunol) was married to a Mission San Jose woman named Angela Cornelia (possibly Angela Colos) and they had a child named Joaquino Guadalupe Sunol who was baptized at Mission San Jose on May 15, 1872.
1872 May 15, #1046, Page 211, Joaquino Guadalupe Sunol (Indiei) [Indians] Born: Jul 7, 1872 (probably 1871) Father: Raimundi Sunol (Bernal) Mother: Angela Cornelia (Colos?) Godparents: Franciscus Garcia & Jesus M. Refugio
A year later, on May 30, 1873, Maria de los Angeles and Raymundo Bernal (Sunol) joined with other Indian couples of the Muwekma community to renew their marriage vows at Mission San Jose. Interestingly, this was done during the height of the 1870 Ghost Dance religious movement.
1873 May 30, #212, Page 62, Jose cum Refugia - This entry holds three marriages. "Die 30, May 1873, coram Maria Selio et Raimundo consentium renovavares J.o Jose cum Rafaela; 2. Reimendums Bernal (Sunol) et Maria de los Angeles 3. Maria con Selso.
In 1875, Raymundo Sunol (Bernal) and Maria had their third son, Eduardo Sunol who was baptized at Mission San Jose on December 19, 1875:
1875 Dec 19, #1378, Page 262, Eduardo Sunol Born: Oct 13, 1875 Father: Raymundo Sunol
9-38 Mother: Maria (de los Angeles) Godparents: Philippo & Maria Catharina Gonzales* [*Note: Philippo and Maria Catherina Gonzales were also Indians from this community]
On the1880 Census for Murray Township, Alameda County (District 26), Angela Colos was identified as Sincion, Anchaline, (Asuncion, Angeline) Indian, age 30. She was listed as a widow and living with her daughters, Francisca (Luecha), Indian, age 14 (born ca. 1866), Juana, Indian, age 11 (born ca. 1869), Louisa (Aloisia?), Indian, age 6, Rita (Aloisia?), Indian, age 2. Angela Colos and her family were living eight houses away from Antonio Bernal, Jr.
Also on the 1880 Census for Murray Township, Alameda County (District 26), a Ramon Sinol (Sunol), estimated age 22 (born ca. 1858) was listed as a farm hand in the household of John Kottenger. He was also living not too far from Angela Colos and her daughters. Ramon was most likely Angela and Raymundo’s son Joseph who was born in 1862. Raymundo Sunol (Bernal) and his half sister, Francesca Luecha appeared as godparents for another Indian couple in 1882.
Raymundo Bernal was remembered by Muwekma Ohlone Elder Dario Marine in 1965, when he was interviewed by members of his sister’s family during the time when the Tribe was involved in saving the Ohlone Indian Cemetery from destruction. Dario was born in 1888 and in that 1965 interview he identified the Ohlones who were members of the Muwekma/Verona Band/Mission San Jose Indian community. Dario remembered Raymundo and Guadalupe Bernal stating:
Raymundo Vernal was Great grandfather people, so were Lupe Vernal and Jose Vinoco an uncle” (Avelina Family History, Dario Marine Interview 1965).
In 1894, Antonio Bernal (most likely Jr.?) and Muwekma ancestor, Magdalena Armija Marshall Thompson (b. 1878 – d. 1931) had a daughter named Rosa Bernal who was baptized at Mission San Jose on January 26, 1895:
1895 Jan 26, Rosa Bernal (Indian) Born: Nov 20, 1894 Father: Antonio Bernal Mother: Magdalena Armina (Armija) Godparents: Manetta Cosmo* & Petra Igo (Phoebe Inigo) (*Note: Rosa’s Godfather was either Daniel Cosmos or Manuel Santos)
Perhaps, as a consequence of these factors and familial interrelationships between the Bernals and Sunols and the ancestors of the Muwekma Ohlone, the Bernal family was willing to allot a portion of their rancho lands to the Muwekma Indian community which became the Alisal Rancheria.
In other areas throughout the East Bay, small groups of formerly missionized Indians also settled at lesser known rancherias in nearby Livermore (Arroyo del Mocho), Niles (El Molino) and Sunol (Harrington 1921-1934). All of these rancherias maintained close ties with their Plains,
9-39 Bay, and Coast Miwok and North Valley Yokut neighbors and Ohlone blood-relations as well (Kroeber 1904; Gifford 1926, 1927; Kelly 1932).
The Alisal Rancheria was unquestionably one of the most prominent and important communities of Ohlone Indians from the 1860s onward into the early twentieth century, and constituted the first known post-American conquest Indian revitalization center within the Bay Area. The people of Alisal and surrounding rancherias revived many dance ceremonies during the early 1870s, which strongly implies that other traditional arts and kinds of cultural knowledge, about ceremonial regalia, songs, sacred language, and crafts also experienced a resurgence. But more than revival took place at Alisal and the other rancherias.
The available evidence depicts a constant ebb and flow of people, of surviving Indians from all over the Bay Area (including Clareño Ohlones from the Mission Santa Clara area) and central California moving into and out of Alisal, Niles, San Lorenzo and Livermore rancherias (Gifford 1926, 1927; Gayton 1936; Kelly 1978; Harrington 1921-1934). Thus, many surviving fragments of knowledge and ritual were brought together in this one place, from the many Ohlone peoples, each with their own varying customs and ways of thinking, as well as from the intermarried and neighboring Miwok, Yokut, and other more distant tribal peoples brought under the sphere of influence of the missions. Inevitably, a blending of older forms took place, a fusion of traditions and religious beliefs that together generated a new cultural vitality (Gifford 1926, 1927; DuBois 1939).
1870 Religious Revitalization Movement: The Ghost Dance at Pleasanton Rancheria
During the 1870s, a religious messianic-oriented revitalization movement referred to as “the Ghost Dance” spread throughout central California. This first Ghost Dance originated in Nevada beginning around 1869, involved a Paiute prophet named Wodziwob who taught that by dancing certain dream inspired dances, Indian people could end the domination of their land and destruction of their lives by the whites, and usher in a new golden age for all Indian peoples (Du Bois 1939).
At Alisal, the ancestors of the contemporary Muwekma Ohlone combined elements and doctrine from the imported Ghost Dance with the ancient Kuksu Religion, regalia and compliment of dances, the World Renewal Ceremonies as well as other rites practiced throughout central and northern California (Gifford 1926; Loeb 1932, 1933; DuBois 1939; Bean and Vane 1978). So potent was the syncretic combination derived by the people of Alisal (and the surrounding rancherias) that non-Christian Native American missionaries were sent out from there to preach the new religious doctrine to other indigenous peoples to the east, south, and north of the Pleasanton Rancheria (Gifford 1926, 1927, 1955; Kelly 1932, 1991; Gayton 1936; Field et al. 1992).
Gifford visited the Livermore and Pleasanton region in 1914 and the Alisal Rancheria in particular. Still later, as a result of field work conducted in the interior amongst neighboring central California tribes, Gifford reported in his Miwok Cults (1926) and Southern Maidu Religious Ceremonies (1927) that his principal cultural consultants recollected that the songs, dances and regalia were brought to them by three non-Christian missionaries from the Pleasanton
9-40 region. These three teachers included: Sigelizu, who taught the following dances to the Central Miwok: Tula, Oletcu, Kuksuyu, Lole, Sunwedi, Sukina, Kilaki, Mamasu, and Heweyi. Another man named Yoktco, from Pleasanton, introduced similar dances to Southern Maidu, while a third, named Tciplitcu taught these dances to Miwoks and North Valley Yokuts at Knight's Ferry.
Interestingly, all three teachers had non-Hispanic or non-Anglo names, thus perhaps representing through a revitalized religious doctrine a rejection of colonial (alien) order. Knight's Ferry is on the Stanislaus River, in Lakisamne North Valley Yokuts tribal territory (see information relating to Estanislao), showing continuous ties to the area throughout the 1870s. The Lakisamne tribal region is also where Muwekma Elder Jose Guzman's maternal grandmother, Nimfadora, originally came from (Milliken, Leventhal and Cambra 1987; Milliken 1991; see Mission San Jose baptismal record # 4276, September 26, 1820)
Ethnographic information from the Coast Miwok region on the Marin Peninsula recorded by Kelly 1931-1932 (1932, 1978, and 1991) provided other accounts about how important the Pleasanton/San Jose Mission [Verona Band] region was to the Coast Miwok and demonstrates the ebb and flow of contact between Marin and Pleasanton areas during this period of time. Tom Smith and Maria Copa were two of Kelly's principal linguistic and cultural consultants. Kelly inquired from them "Did they dance Kuksui at San Jose?" Maria Copa's response was
I should say so. My grandmother said that the people here had to buy Kuksui Dance from the San Jose people. All of those songs are in the San Jose language (Kelly 1991:354).
There were also specific references to Mrs. Martha Guzman (herself a Coast Miwok and Costanoan descendant) from Marin regarding the kawai-yoyolomko (horse eaters) [Costanoans]
This is what the people around Redwood City were called. Mrs. Guzman's father belonged to those people. I saw Mrs. Guzman last night. Her father came from Santa Clara, although once before she said Redwood City (Kelly 1991:355).
Jose Guzman (born around 1853) was one of the last knowledgeable singers from the Muwekma community until his death in 1934 (Harrington recorded 27 songs at Niles in 1930). He recollected songs that he and his father were introduced to while visiting other Indian communities to the south at Missions San Juan Bautista and San Antonio (and possibly San Carlos/Carmel) during the time the 1870 Ghost Dance was in its full height.
Although not mentioned by name, Cora Du Bois attempted to interview Jose Guzman in 1934as part of her 1870 Ghost Dance Study:
In the central portion of California which lies to the north and south of the Sacramento delta there occurred during the 1870’s an interchange of dances and ceremonies. Gifford described a portion of these movements when he presented data concerning the Pleasanton revival. One man from Pleasanton, called Yoktco, took the Kuksui and other dances to the Nisenan of Ione; while Sigelizu, also of Pleasanton, imported a series of
9-41 dances to the Central Miwok of Knights Ferry. Gifford is inclined to attribute the Pleasanton “revival” and the spread of dances from there to the 1870 Ghost Dance. … Unfortunately the last survivor of the Pleasanton period is unable to throw light on the tentative suggestions of Gifford and Gayton. Repeated attempts to elicit information were useless because his physical disabilities and senility. (1939:114)
Furthermore, cultural ties to the interior tribes continued to be maintained during the 1940s and later years, especially by Dario Marine and his son Lawrence Domingo Marine who had married Pansy Potts (daughter of Marie Potts) who was from one of the Maidu tribal groups. Dances that were exported from Pleasanton continued to be danced by members of the Miwok, Nisenan and Maidu tribal communities into the present day (see Gifford 1926, 1927; Du Bois 1939). The children of Lawrence Domingo Marine (Lawrence, Jr. and Marvin Marine) were taught tribal dances and continued the tradition of dancing with these interior tribal communities to present day and some of these dances have been recently reintroduced back to the Costanoan/Ohlone area (News from Native California, Vol. 7 No. 3, 1993).
U. C. Berkeley ethnographer Edward Gifford during the early twentieth century interviewed various Maidu and Miwok elders who remembered aspects of the 1870 Ghost Dance religious revitalization when they were young. These interior Miwok elders recollected that "there appeared... teachers of dances who came from the west" (Gifford 1926:400). As mentioned above, based upon Gifford's interviews with both Miwok and Maidu elders they identified the names of three such missionaries: Yoktco, who preached among the Southern Maidu; Sigelizu, himself a Plains Miwok, who came to the Central Sierra Miwok; and Tciplitcu, a Costanoan/Ohlone man who taught the dances to the Plains Miwok were known to have come from the Pleasanton area (ibid).
Also as mentioned above, all of these men's names are in their respective indigenous language, whereas after missionization, Costanoan/Ohlones, Miwoks, Yokuts, and their descendants were given either Hispanic or Anglo Christian names when baptized. A more generalized revival of indigenous names may have also taken place at Alisal as well as on the other rancherias in order to "reject" the older imposed colonial system. Although the Ghost Dance did not achieve its full objectives, its fluorescence at Alisal and at the other rancherias demonstrates the depth and conviction of indigenous identity and culture in the East Bay during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
A number of published and unpublished documents also record the lifeways and linguistic complexity of the Alisal Indian community or as it also came to be known after the construction by Western Pacific of the Verona Railroad Station nearby, the “Verona Band of Alameda County.” In 1880, French linguist Alphonse Pinart recorded a detailed North Valley Yokuts vocabulary at Alisal (Kroeber 1908; Merriam 1955). Other languages were also spoken, particularly the Plains Miwok Ki'k (meaning “water”) language, as well as the Chocheño and Tamien Ohlone dialects as well as other Costanoan idioms (Curtin 1884, Kroeber 1910; Gifford 1914; Mason 1916; Harrington 1921-1934; Milliken, Leventhal and Cambra 1987).
9-42 Late 19th Century: East Bay
Sometime during the mid-1880s, George and Phoebe Apperson Hearst purchased a large parcel of land from the Bernals that included the Alisal Rancheria, and they allowed the Indians to maintain their community and some worked for the Hearsts and Appersons. A slow decline in the Verona Band community during the late 19th century, however, is apparent in light of later events. Pressures of assimilation, an increasingly large number of white Americans settling in surrounding towns and farmlands and taking over the old Californio ranchos, the precarious economics of seasonal ranch work, and some out-migration, as well as death due to infectious diseases all contributed to the waning of the indigenous revival at Alisal (Olsen, Leventhal and Cambra 1985; Milliken 1994 in Davis et al. 1994).
According to several historic documents, the last Kuksu dances were held at Alisal in 1897 (Womens' Research Committee of Washington Township 1904; Marine Family History 1965; Galvan 1968). Writing in 1904, the authors of the History of Washington Township wrote about such ceremonial events:
The dance in September was a very serious, ceremonial dance, lasting several days. Their dresses, worn for the dance, were very elaborate and well made, of feathers. Upon one day, the Coyote dance, a rude sort of play, was given, one of the favorite characters being Cooksuy--a clown. There must have been some meaning of a memorable character to this dance, because when asked why they danced, they always replied: "Because our fathers are dead" (1904:52).
Earlier that year, on January 6, 1897, the last recognized Capitan of the Alisal Rancheria, José Antonio, died. Noted in Book of Funerals at Mission San Jose 1859-1908 (p. 147)
Josephus Antonius, Indian DOD: 6 Jan 1897, Age: about 70 [60]. Buried: Indian Cemetery, Mission San Jose, D.A. Rapora, Astt. Mission San Jose
In 1904, the Northern Association for California Indians, a philanthropic group of concerned citizens who advocated on behalf of the dying and landless Indians submitted a "Memorial of the Northern California Indian Association, Praying that Lands be Allotted to the Landless Indians of the Northern Part of the State of California" to President Theodore Roosevelt. The Memorial was signed by Mrs. T. C. Edwards, President, and Charles E. Kelsey, Secretary for the Association. Attached to the Memorial was a “Schedule” identifying the landless Indian bands/communities and their estimated population which were scattered throughout northern California (meaning north of Los Angeles County).
In Alameda County, the Schedule identified the Indians living at Pleasanton (Verona Band) as having a population of 70, at Niles, there was a community of 8, and in Contra Costa County in the towns of Danville and Byron having a population of 5 and 20 people, respectively. All four communities were identified as “Costanoan.” (Sen. Doc. No. 131, 58th Cong., 2d Sess., 1904, 1- 16 (reprinted in Robert Heizer's Federal Concern about Conditions of California Indians 1853 to 1913: Eight Documents 1979) [Figure 9-6].
9-43
In the History of Washington Township published in 1904, the authors provided the following commentary about the Mission San Jose/Verona Band/Muwekma Indians residing at the nearby rancherias:
The only remaining Indian villages today in this part of the state are in this township. They are in the native tongue, El Molino, the mill near Niles, and Alisal near Pleasanton, with perhaps half a hundred persons in each village. In the former, the last full-blooded Indian chief died some three years ago. In Alisal, the wife of the chief still lives, and six others of full blood. ... Alisal is on Mrs. Phoebe Hearst's property, and that lady has always a kindly hand ready to help them when necessary. ...
All of the information appearing in these papers concerning the old Indian history and customs has been gleaned from these seven full-blooded Indians, one being the widow [Jacoba] of the last chief, whose name was Jose Antonio. .... (History of Washington Township, 1904:53).
Members of the Verona Band, Alameda County, California
Maria Trinidad Gonzales Reyes and Peregrina Piños and George Santos Marriage Paula, circa 1905 Photo, circa 1904 Lived on the Alisal, Pleasanton Rancheria Lived on the Niles Rancheria
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 9-6: Muwekma Indians at the Niles and Pleasanton Rancherias
9-44 From the interviews conducted between 1925-1930 with Muwekma Elders Jose Guzman and Maria de los Angeles Colos, Bureau of American Ethnology linguist John Peabody Harrington, was able to learn that Capitan Jose Antonio’s Indian name was Hu'ská (Harrington Field Notes 1921-1934). Jose Antonio was a great-great-grand relation to the some current generation of the Muwekma Elders and ex-council members such as Lawrence Marine, Jr. and his younger brother Marvin Lee Marine are directly descended from him and Jose Guzman. Jose Guzman had married Jose Antonio’s daughter Augusta.
After his death in 1897, Jose Antonio’s wife Jacoba, who was a mayen (meaning the wife of a captain or a female chief), directed that the ceremonial sweat-lodge (or tupentak in Chocheño) be torn down, in keeping with tradition (Galvan 1968). A new tupentak was not constructed, as it would have been in previous times, because the community did not formally select a new captain. Apparently, the political power was inherited by Jacoba through marriage as well as her descendency from her parents Capitan Taurino and Joaquina.
According to Muwekma oral tradition, it was Raphael Marine, husband of Avelina Cornates Marine who was tasked to take down the old ceremonial Tupentak roundhouse. Interestingly, just two years prior to his death, Capitan Jose Antonio and his wife Jacoba served as godparent to Raphael and Avelina’s fourth daughter, Mercedes Marine (co-authors Monica V. Arellano and Gloria Gomez’s great-grandmother) who after the death of her mother, in 1904, was raised on the Alisal rancheria by Jacoba. (1910 Federal Indian Population Census, “Indian Town,” Pleasanton Township, Alameda County.)
Also raised by Jacoba was Catherine Peralta who was identified on the 1900 Federal Indian Census (Washington Township); Kelsey's 1905-1906 Special Indian Census; (Heizer 1971); and on the 1910 Federal Indian Population Census (Pleasanton Township) as an “Indian” resident of the Alisal Rancheria in Alameda County (see Figure 9-7).
9-45 Washington Township (Niles Rancheria) Indian Population Census - June 4, 1900 Alameda County, California
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 9-7: 1900 Indian Population Census, Niles, Washington Township, Alameda
Just before the turn of the 20th century (1897) there were still at least eleven casitas (houses) and the Tupentak (temescal) still standing on or near the Alisal Rancheria. During this critical period of time, the Guzman, Armija, Santos, Pinos, Marine, Nichols, Inigo (Alaniz), and other interrelated Muwekma (Verona Band) families remained in Pleasanton or near the original Alisal Rancheria until fire destroyed the remaining houses due to work along the Western Pacific Railroad tracks sometime around 1916.
The house of Catherine Peralta (granddaughter of Jose Guzman) and Dario Marine (eldest son of Avelina Cornates Marine) which was originally owned by Jacoba and Jose Antonio had burned down as a result of that fire. Prior to the fire, Catherine and Dario had raised their first four children, Beatrice (born 1909), Josephine (b. 1911), Evelyn (b. 1914) and Filbert Marine (b. 1915) on the rancheria. By the time their fifth child, Lawrence Domingo Marine was born in 1919, they had moved to 544 Alvarado-Centerville Road in Centerville now part of the City of Fremont (see 1900 and 1910 Indian Censuses and 1920 Census, Washington Township; Harrington field notes; Olsen, Leventhal and Cambra 1985; 1928-1933 California Enrollment Applications # 10298 and 10675; 1910, 1920 and 1930 Federal Censuses).
9-46 After the Alisal Rancheria was abandoned, the various surviving Muwekma families continued to work locally in the East Bay, residing on ranches, vineyards, hopyards and renting homes in Niles (e.g., Shinn property), Newark, Centerville, Fremont, Milpitas, Pleasanton, Sunol, Livermore, Alameda and elsewhere. The Muwekmas continued to live peaceably near the Alisal Rancheria as long as they could and had continued to visit and use the locality as best they could. Avelina Marine's children [Dario, Dolores, Elizabeth (Belle), Ramona, Mercedes, Victoria, Lucas and Trina] along with the Nichols, Guzman, Binoco, Pinos, Santos, Inigo, Juarez, Armija and other Muwekma families, had to readapt and relocate to other nearby residences in order to work and maintain their families. Some of the men worked for Southern Pacific Railroad, Spring Valley Water Company, Leslie Salt, and on the local orchards, ranches, and farms.
During the 20th century Muwekma families continued to marry and baptize their children at Mission San Jose, St. Augustine's Church in Pleasanton, Corpus Christi in Niles, and St. Edwards in Newark. Photographic and other records showing life around the Alisal Rancheria and neighboring areas from the early 1900s, WW I, the depression, and WW II survive.
Kelsey Special Indian Census 1905-1906, the Congressional Homeless California Indian Act of 1906, and the Federal Recognition of the Muwekma/Verona Band of Alameda County
In 1905, as a result of the discovery of the 18 unratified California Indian Treaties (which were negotiated between 1851-1852) from the U. S. Senate Archives, Mr. Charles E. Kelsey of San Jose, who was affiliated as the Secretary of the Northern Association for California Indians was appointed Special Indian Agent to California by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (Indian Service Bureau/Bureau of Indian Affairs) in Washington, D.C. In 1905, Agent Kelsey was charged by the Bureau to conduct a Special Indian Census, and identify all of the landless and homeless California tribes and bands residing from north of Los Angeles to the Oregon border.
Based upon the results of Kelsey’s Special Indian Census, and the discovery of the 18 unratified California Indian treaties from the secret Senate archives, Congress passed multiple Appropriation Acts beginning in 1906 on through 1937, for the purpose of purchasing “home sites” for the many surviving California Indian tribes and bands.
One of the bands officially identified by Special Indian Agent Kelsey was the Verona Band of Alameda County residing between Pleasanton, Sunol and Niles (as well as other areas and ranches surrounding Mission San Jose). The direct ancestors of the present-day Muwekma Tribe who comprised the Verona Band became Federally Acknowledged by the U.S. Government through the Appropriation Acts of Congress beginning in 1906. Between the years 1906 and 1927, the Verona Band fell under the direct jurisdiction of the Indian Service Bureau in Washington, D.C., and by 1914, the Tribe’s jurisdiction was transferred to the Reno Agency, and later again, transferred over to the Sacramento Agency (sometime after 1923). During this time, U. S. Government Indian Service Bureau agents attempted to purchase land for many of the Federally Recognized, but still landless, California Indian tribes and bands.
9-47 To this effort, both the Indian Service Bureau agents and the Indian bands were faced with two major problems:
1) Many Californian landowners did not want Indians living next to or near them, so they would not sell suitable parcels of land 2) Others who were willing to sell parcels to the government wanted greatly inflated prices, usually at prices much higher than what was either allocated to purchase lands, or above the actual value of the land.
After the Congressional Appropriation Acts of 1906, 1908 and ensuing years (as late as 1937) many Indians in California obtained trust lands as members of tribes which had not abandoned their respective tribal areas, and these homesites became known as Indian “rancherias.” [see the Indian Homestead Act of March 3, 1875 (18 Stat. L. 420), 25 U. S. C. 334, 336, Feb.. 8, 1887, Ch.. 119, Sec. 4, and other statutes, (34 Stat. 325, June 24, 1906 and 35 Stat. 70, April 30, 1908), and using an added set aside of $10,000 under the Joint Resolution of March 4, 1915 (CR 6122, March 4, 1915)].
The evidence of previous Federal Recognition of virtually all the present-day unacknowledged tribal groups in California and especially in this case, the Verona Band of Alameda County, is found in the Federal records at the National Archives (Record Group 75. California Consolidated Files, Cal. Special, file # 12026113-032, filed with 114202-13-032; Map, accompanying Letter of October 41 1913, Special Indian Agent for California C. E. Kelsey to Commissioner in response to request for information from 2nd Dist. Congressman John Raker, 9/22/1913. See file # 114202) (Figure 9-8 – Special Indian Agent Kelsey’s Map of Indian Rancherias – Verona Band).
9-48 Map of California Showing location of Indians By C.E. Kelsey, Special Agent for the California Indians July 1, 1910
Alameda County * Verona 30 *Mission San Jose
Indian Rancherias
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 9-8: Indian Agent Kelsey’s Map of Indian Rancherias – Verona Band
By 1913, being exhausted and personally in debt over $18,000, Special Indian Agent C. E. Kelsey tendered his formal resignation. It was not until a year later that a new agent was selected to replace Kelsey.
Writing to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs on Dec. 7, 1914, from the Reno, Nevada Indian Agency, Charles H. Asbury, already named Special Indian Agent for California, reported progress in his investigation of the character, location and need of landless California Indians. It is noteworthy that he called on his predecessor C. E. Kelsey for help in locating 30 individuals at Verona, and then proceeded to suggest that they receive assistance in a land purchase in his report to the Commissioner. However, a thorough investigation of the Indians of California not provided with land would have required a great deal of time and expense.
Being understaffed and located in Reno, Special Agent Asbury was not able to accomplish anything on behalf of the landless California Indian bands and he was reassigned to the Indian Agency in the Southwest sometime in 1915. John Terrell was then selected as a replacement as Special Indian Agent for most of northern and central California by May 1915 and he continued to conduct on-site inspections and make censuses of many the bands that were under his jurisdiction. However, during Terrell’s tenure between 1915 and 1919, his efforts were oriented towards “needy” tribes and bands that were located in northern California counties (e.g., Mendocino and north) as well as the Sacramento Valley and the Sierra. Those tribes that were located within the northern “mission area” including the Muwekma (Verona Band of Alameda
9-49 County), Amah Mutsun (San Juan Bautista Band), Esselen Nation (Monterey Band of Monterey County), the Salinan tribal communities (Pleyto, Milpitas and Jolon) centering around Missions San Miguel and San Antonio, as well as the Coast Miwok located at the towns of Bodega Bay, Marshall, and Fishman were all but ignored and neglected.
After Terrell left the Indian Service, the jurisdiction fell to James Jenkins, Superintendent of the Reno Agency. Writing his Annual Report to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1923, Superintendent Jenkins commented:
The jurisdiction of Reno Agency comprises the following named reservations and colonies, villages, camps, etc., in addition to all scattered bands of Indians in Nevada and California not under the jurisdiction of any other superintendency; also Indians whose allotments, homesteads, etc., are carried at the land offices located at Stockton, Sacramento, Visalia, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Independence and Marysville, California, and Carson City and Elko, Nevada. …
… Other Indians in California under this jurisdiction but not occupying government lands are found in the localities named below:
County Communities Estimated … Alameda Verona 30 (1923 Annual Report:3-5)
Sometime after 1923, the jurisdiction of the landless Indians of northern central California had shifted to the Sacramento Agency under the aegis Colonel Lafayette A. Dorrington, who was a prison warden in the Philippines during the American occupation. Dorrington, who was probably a political appointee to the Sacramento Superintendency and was probably rewarded for his military service as a prison warden.
In January 1927, Sacramento Superintendent Col. Lafayette A. Dorrington (1918-1930) received a detailed office directive from Assistant Commissioner E. B. Merritt for him to list by county all of the tribes and bands under his jurisdiction that had yet to obtain a land base for their “home sites.” This directive was issued so that Congress could plan its allocation budget for fiscal year 1929. Dorrington, who was not an advocate for California Indians, was chronically derelict in his duties and he decided not to respond to this directive. He also decided not to respond to many of the other requests issued by the Washington, D. C. Office. By May 1927, under threat of investigation, Dorrington yet again received another strongly worded directive from the Assistant Commissioner E. B. Merritt.
To this second directive, Dorrington reluctantly responded on June 23, 1927 by generating a report, which in effect, illegally, unilaterally and administratively “terminated” the existence and needs of approximately 135 tribes and bands throughout northern California from their Federally Acknowledged status. He did this by completely dismissing the needs of these identified homeless and landless tribal groups. The very first casualty on Dorrington’s “hit list”
9-50 was the Verona Band of Alameda County. Without any benefit of any on-site visitation or needs assessment, which he was charged to conduct by the Assistant Commissioner, Dorrington opined:
There is one band in Alameda County commonly known as the Verona Band, … located near the town of Verona; these Indians were formerly those that resided in close proximity of the Mission San Jose. It does not appear at the present time that there is need for the purchase of land for the establishment of their homes. (Report dated June 23, 1927)
The fact that Dorrington makes mention that the Verona Band resided “near the town of Verona” makes it clear that he never visited the Muwekma Tribal community. There is no town of Verona in Alameda County. Thus with the stroke of a pen and without benefit of any due process or direct communication with the tribe, the Muwekma/Verona Band along with the other 134 tribes and bands of California, apparently lost their formal status as Federally Recognized Tribes. These tribes were essentially knocked off the “radar screen” of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and as a landless tribe were considered ineligible to organize as tribes under the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act.
During the 20th Century, no other state within the United States had experienced the massive illegal termination of so many Federally Recognized tribal groups. This massive dismissal and removal was deliberate and due as a result of the callous actions and dereliction of duty by an incompetent Bureau of Indian Affairs agent.
Three years later, Dorrington, still being prodded by BIA officials in Washington, D.C. about the needs of the landless and homeless Indians in California under his jurisdiction, offered insight to his actions and his personal beliefs in a letter he wrote to Commissioner Rhoads. In that letter dated April 23, 1930, Dorrington wrote:
…Kindly be respectfully advised that the matter of land purchase for homeless Indians has really been given constant and diligent attention throughout the current fiscal year to date and an earnest effort has been made to fully meet the needs of the Indians to the fullest extent without unnecessary or unjustified expenditure of funds, believing that to be the spirit of the law and your wishes in the premises. …
It has been my opinion, and therefore my belief, for several years that the best interests of the Indians will be served through an arrangement whereby those concerned may be settled on the already acquired land instead of procuring additional which cannot be turned to beneficial use and occupancy by the Indians in mind because of their inability financially to establish themselves thereon.
…In its final analysis, Mr. Commissioner, kindly understand and know that additional land for homeless Indians of California is not required and therefore further demands on the appropriation for the fiscal year 1930 are not warranted or justified (Dorrington Letter to Commissioner Rhoads April 20, 1930). [Emphasis added]
9-51 By July 1931, Dorrington had either quit the Indian Service or was transferred or was fired and he was replaced by Oscar H. Lipps as Superintendent of the Sacramento Agency. Lipps, responding to an inquiry written by Assistant Commissioner J. Henry Scattergood offered specific concerns about the conditions of the homeless California Indians for whom land was purchased:
Receipt is acknowledged of your letter, dated June 30, 1931, relating to the matter of purchasing land for homeless Indians of California. …I am addressing this letter to you personally and calling the subject matter thereof to your special attention for the reason that there appears to be a grave lack of understanding in the Office regarding this whole matter of providing homes for homeless California Indians. ……
I think it is all the more important that this matter be brought to your personal attention at this time in view of your recent visit to California with the Senate Committee and your familiarity with the sentiment and feeling in this State with respect to the past administration of the affairs of the California Indians.
The conditions on some of these rancherias are simply deplorable. No one can view many of them and observe the conditions under which the Indians are trying to exist without the feeling that some one is guilty of gross neglect or inefficiency and that a cruel injustice has been meted out to a helpless people under the name of beneficent kindness… And yet there are those who say that I will never do to let the local authorities have charge of the affairs of the Indians lest the Indians be neglected and abuse.
…I have not yet seen a single instance where the federal government has done anything like so much for the improvement of the homes and living conditions of the Indians under this jurisdiction as has been done by Sonoma County for the Indians residing on the Stewart’s Point Rancheria.
Now it seems to me that the thing for us to do is to look at the facts in the face and admit that in the past the Government has been woefully negligent and inefficient, and then start out with the determination, as far as possible, to rectify our past mistakes. It is difficult to locate the blame, but somewhere along the line there appears to have been gross negligence or crass indifference. If Congress has been honestly and fully advised of conditions and has refused or failed to give relief asked for, then the Indian Bureau is not responsible for the neglect of the Indians. On the other hand, if Congress believed and intended by appropriating funds for the purchase of lands for homeless Indians and improvements thereon that good and suitable lands would be purchased and houses constructed and improvements made, then we have neglected to do our duty. [Emphasis added]
Although left completely landless, and in some instances completely homeless, between 1929 and 1932 all of the surviving Verona Band/Muwekma lineages enrolled with the BIA under the 1928 California Indian Jurisdictional Act which were approved by the Secretary of Interior in the pending claims settlement. Concurrently, during the first part of the 20th century (between 1884 and 1934), renowned anthropologists and linguists such as Jeremiah Curtin,
9-52 Alfred Kroeber, E. W. Gifford, James Alden Mason, C. Hart Merriam and John Peabody Harrington interviewed the last fluent speakers of the “Costanoan” and other Indian languages spoken at the East Bay rancherias. It was during this time period that Verona Band Elders still employed the linguistic term “Muwekma” which means “la Gente” (the People) in Chocheño and Tamien Ohlone language spoken in the East and South San Francisco Bay region.
A CALL TO WAR: MUWEKMA MEN ENLIST IN THE US ARMED FORCES DURING WORLD WAR I
Even before California Indians legally became citizens in 1924, prior to and at America’s entrance into World War I, at least six Muwekma men served in the United States Armed Forces in the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. These men enlisted through the San Francisco Presidio and Mare Island and four of them are buried at the Golden Gate National Cemetery:
Antonio (Toney) Guzman, U.S. Army, Private, Battery F., 347th Field Artillery, 91st Division. Toney Guzman was born on March 27, 1890 either in Centerville or on the Niles Rancheria. He was the son of Muwekma Indians Francisca Nonessa and Jose Guzman. Toney enlisted in the U.S. Army and he fought in the Meuse-Argonne (September 26 to October 8, 1918), Ypres- Lys, and Lorraine campaigns in France. Toney served in the Army from April 29, 1918 and was honorably discharged at the San Francisco Presidio on April 26, 1919.
The 91st Division was known as the "Wild West Division." The Division's shoulder patch was a green fir tree referring to its origin at Camp Lewis in the Pacific Northwest. The Division was deployed to France in August, 1918 and fought with great distinction. In the Ypres-Lys campaign, the Division served in the Flanders Army Group, under the command of the King of Belgium. The Division was headquartered adjacent to Flanders Field. Five members of the Division earned the Congressional Medal of Honor. The 347th Field Artillery Regiment was assigned 4.7" inch guns, and the 91st Division received the following Victory Medal Clasps: Ypres-Lys, St. Mihiel, Meuse-Argonne and Defensive Sector. In October 1931, Toney Guzman and his brothers, enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs under their mother’s BIA Application #10293. On his WW II Registration Card dated April 27, 1942, Toney was identified as “Indian”. Toney passed away on October 8, 1948 and was buried on October 12, 1948 at the Golden Gate National Cemetery (Section J, Grave 254).
Alfred (Fred) Guzman, U.S. Army, Private, Company “C,” 110th Infantry, 28th Division under Brigadier General T. W. Darrah. Alfred Guzman was born on the Pleasanton Rancheria on June 27, 1896 to Francisca and Jose Guzman. Prior to the declaration of War, Fred Guzman had served in the National Guard at Fort Mason in San Francisco in 1917. Afterwards he enlisted in the U.S. Army, and served in the 28th Division, 55th Brigade Infantry, 110th Infantry, Company “C” and fought in the major battles at Ourcq-Vesle (July 28, 1918), Second Battle of the Marne (July 15-August 5, 1918), Meuse-Argonne Offensive (September 26 to October 8, 1918), and Havrincourt (October 8 – November 11, 1918) in France. The 28th Division fought in the following campaigns: Champagne-Marne, Aisne-Marne, Oise- Aisne, Meuse-Argonne, Champagne (1918), Lorraine (1918). The cost in lives of these six campaigns was 4,183 casualties including 760 dead. The six fleurs-de-lis on the regimental insignia commemorates their World War I service. The 28th Infantry Division was a unit of the
9-53 United States Army formed in 1917 at the outbreak of World War I. It was nicknamed the "Keystone Division", as it was formed from units of the Pennsylvania Army National Guard; Pennsylvania is known as the "Keystone State". It was also nicknamed the "Bloody Bucket" division by German forces in WWII, after its red insignia. Fred Guzman served from July 28, 1917 and was honorably discharged at San Francisco Presidio on May 31, 1919. On his WW II Registration Card dated April 25, 1942, Fred is identified as Indian. Fred Guzman died on November 3, 1961 and was buried at the Golden Gate National Cemetery (Section Y, Grave 1059).
Joseph Aleas, U.S. Army, Sergeant, Company D, 21st MG BN, 7th Division. Joseph Aleas was born on the Alisal (Pleasanton) Rancheria on May 11, 1893 and was the son of Margaret Armija. He enlisted in the US Army on June 30, 1916. According to Armija-Thompson family recollections, he was a good horseman and wanted to fight against Pancho Villa had led approximately 1,500 Mexican raiders in a cross-border attack against Columbus, New Mexico, in response to the U.S. government's official recognition of the Carranza regime. Villa’s troops attacked a detachment of the 13th U.S. Cavalry, seized 100 horses and mules, burned the town, killed 10 soldiers and eight of its residents, and made off with ammunition and weapons. President Woodrow Wilson responded by sending 6,000 troops under General John J. Pershing to Mexico to pursue Pancho Villa and his troops. This military mobilization was called the Punitive or Pancho Villa Expedition.
Later, Joseph Aleas served in France in the 21st Machine Gun Battalion, 7th Division (its Hourglass insignia dates back to 1918). Organized originally to serve in the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) during World War I, the U.S. Army's 7th Infantry Division was created at Camp Wheeler, Georgia on December 6, 1917 and it fought in Alsace-Lorraine, France during the war. The division also served as an occupation force in the post-war period. On October 10-11, 1918 the 7th was shelled for the first time and later it encountered gas attacks in the Saint-Mihiel woods. Defensive occupation of this sector continued from October 10th to November 9th during which the infantry regiments of the 7th Division probed up toward Prény near the Moselle River, captured Hills 323 and 310, and drove the Germans out of the Bois-du Trou-de-la-Haie salient. After 33 days in the line of fire the 7th Division had suffered 1,988 casualties, of which three were prisoners of war. Thirty Distinguished Service Crosses were awarded members of the 7th Division.
Joseph Aleas was honorably discharged at Camp Funston, Riley, Kansas on July 9, 1920 and was awarded the World War I Victory Medal and the Bronze Victory Button. Joseph Aleas enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs in October 1931 (BIA Application # 10299). On May 24, 1955 Joseph enrolled during the second enrollment period with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Joseph Francis Aleas passed away July 13, 1964 and was buried at the Gold Gate National Cemetery Plot Z, grave 2597 (See Figure 9-9).
Henry Abraham Lincoln Nichols, U.S. Navy, Fireman 1st Class, Battleships USS Arizona and USS Oklahoma. Henry Nichols was born in Niles on February 12, 1895 to Charles Nichols and Muwekma Ohlone Susanna Flores Nichols. Henry enlisted on May 23, 1917 and first served on the USS Albatross. By December 31, 1917 he was transferred to the Battleship USS Arizona, and later on March 26, 1918 he was transferred again to the Battleship USS Oklahoma. During
9-54 World War I Henry Nichols served in the North Atlantic and was on escort duty in December 1918 when the Oklahoma was serving as escort during President Woodrow Wilson’s arrival in France at the end of the war (November 11, 1918). The Oklahoma returned to Brest, France on June 15, 1919 to escort home President Wilson who was transported on the USS George Washington from his second visit to France. Henry Nichols was honorably discharged at Mare Island on August 14, 1919 and was issued the World War I Victory Medal. On Henry Nichols Draft Registration Card dated April 27, 1942 he is identified as Indian. Henry Nichols passed away on January 5, 1956 and was buried at the Golden Gate National Cemetery (Section L-5, Grave 7455).
Franklin P. Guzman (Service # 87843) Sergeant, U.S. Second Marine Corps Division, Fourth Marine Infantry Brigade, Sixth Machine Gun Battalion, 81st “D” Company. Franklin was born on the Alisal Rancheria on January 15, 1898 and was the son of Pleasanton Indians Teresa Davis and Ben Guzman (who later died in 1907). He was also the nephew of Toney and Fred Guzman. Franklin was listed on the 1910 Federal Indian Population Census for “Indian Town”, Pleasanton Township. He enlisted on October 20, 1916 while working near Sacramento, reported for duty on October 25, 1916 and was assigned to Company “B” Marine Barracks, Navy Yard, Mare Island. On May 28, 1917 Franklin was promoted to the rank of Corporal. By March 31, 1918, he earned an Expert Rifleman Badge and a Marksman Badge and by April he was assigned to the 111th Company, 8th Regiment. In May, Franklin was transferred to the 150th Company 1st Machine Gun Replacement Battalion at Quantico, Virginia and he was promoted to Sergeant on May 22, 1918.
The 1st Machine Gun Replacement Battalion sailed on May 26, 1918 on the USS Henderson and disembarked in France on June 8, 1918. The 1st Machine Gun Battalion was later renamed the 6th Machine Gun Battalion in France. From September 12 to 16, 1918 the brigade was engaged in the St. Mihiel offensive in the vicinity of Remenauville, Thiaucourt, Xammes, and Jaulny. On September 16, 1918, he was wounded in the left thigh and from September through December he was placed in various Field and Base Hospitals in France, and finally transferred back to the States on December 16, 1918. Franklin remained in recovery at the US Navy Hospital at Norfolk, Virginia until he was honorably discharged from service as a Sergeant on June 27, 1919.
Franklin’s Battalion participated in the Chateau-Thierry sector (capture of Hill 142, Bouresches, Belleau Wood) from June to July, 1918; Aisne-Marne (Soissons) offensive from July 18 to July 19, 1918; Marbache sector, near Pont-a-Mousson on the Moselle River from August 9 to August 16, 1918; St. Mihiel from September 12 to September 16, 1918; and later the Meuse-Argonne offensive (October 1 to 10, 1918, and November 1 to 10, 1918).. Franklin passed away on May 30, 1979 and was buried in the Riverside National Cemetery (Section 8, Grave 2826).
John Michael Nichols was the older brother of Henry Nichols and he served in the U.S. Army from 1914 to1920. John enlisted on October 27, 1914 at Fort McDowell on Angel Island. He fought in France serving with the 59th Coast Artillery Corps. The 59th was engaged in the St. Mihiel offensive and the Meuse-Argonne offensive. John was discharged at Fort Winfield Scott at the SF Presidio on June 4, 1920. John M. Nichols was listed as an Indian on the 1930 Federal
9-55 Census along with his son Alfred in Santa Cruz County. On John Nichols’s Draft Registration Card dated April 27, 1942 he was identified as residing at the Veteran’s Home in Napa (Yountville), California and he had resided there from 1941 to 1953. John Nichols died in April 1968 while living in Stockton, California.
During WWI lands associated with Stanford University served as a major west coast military support site identified as Camp Fremont from 1917 to 1919 (Jones personal communication). It was the original intention of the War Department to mobilize and train the 41st Division, a National Guard division, at this camp, and some organizations within the division were mustered into the service there, however shortly afterwards they were transferred to points east. On December 17, 1917, the 8th Division, Regular Army, was organized at Camp Fremont. In August, 1918, 5,000 men of this division were transferred to the American Expeditionary Forces in Siberia. Then the division was recruited to full strength, and on October 30, 1918, began to embark for France.
Figure 9-9: Grave Sites of Joseph Aleas, Fred Guzman and Toney J. Guzman
MUWEKMA ENROLLMENT WITH THE BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS (1928-1932): THE CALIFORNIA INDIAN JURISDICTIONAL ACT OF 1928
As a result of the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, also known as the Snyder Act, California Indians and Allied Indian Associations started to advocate looking into claims against the federal government for lands illegally taken under the 18 unratified treaties of California. Under the 1924 Act indigenous people did not have to apply for citizenship, nor did they have to give up their tribal citizenship to become a U.S. citizen. Most tribes had communal property and in order to have a right to the land, Indians must belong to the tribe.
In 1928, the United States Congress passed the California Indian Jurisdictional Act, which created a special Indian census enrolling of all eligible California Indians who could prove that
9-56 their ancestors resided in California at the time when the 18 unratified treaties were negotiated between1851-1852. Over 17,000 California Indian applications petitioned by surviving individuals and families were approved by the Secretary of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Federal Courts.
Between the years 1928 and 1932 almost all of the Muwekmas enrolled as “Ohlones” and/or “Mission San Jose Tribe” under this act and their applications were approved by the Secretary of Interior, the BIA and Federal Court (Figures 9-10 – 9-14: - Muwekma Ohlone BIA 1928- 1932 Applications).
9-57
Figure 9-10: Lucas Marine BIA Application # 10298
9-58
Figure 9-11: Lucas Marine BIA Application Identifying His Tribe “Ohlones”
9-59
Figure 9-12: Francisca Guzman and Family BIA Application # 10293
9-60
Figure 9-13: Phoebe Alaniz BIA Application # 10301
9-61
Figure 9-14: Magdalena Thompson BIA Application # 10296
9-62 MUWEKMA CHILDREN AND INDIAN BOARDING SCHOOLS
During the Great Depression years (1930s through the beginning of World War II), the Muwekmas continued to adjust to the economic hardships facing the families. Although at times moving around as farm hands, fruit pickers and laborers, the family heads still maintained important social kinship networks, religious, economic and political ties with each other.
Just prior to the outbreak of World War II, the youngest son of Dario Marine (BIA Application # 10677) and Catherine Peralta Marine (BIA Application # 10675), Lawrence Domingo Marine was sent to the Bureau of Indian Affair’s Indian boarding school at Sherman Institute, Riverside County in southern California and there he met his future wife, Pansy Lizzette Potts (daughter of Marie Potts Mason, Maidu Tribe). Lawrence and Panzy’s first three children Lawrence Mason Marine, Marvin Lee Marine and Suzie Marine were born and raised in Quincy, California (Maidu territory) and later they lived in Sacramento. Both Lawrence and Marvin Lee became traditional California Indian dancers with the help of their grandmother Marie Potts and Nisenan/Miwuk tribal elder, Bill Franklin (see Bibby article in News for Native California Vol. 7, No. 3, Summer 1993:21-36).
The children of Jack Guzman and Flora (Marine) Munoz, John Guzman, Jr. and his sister Rena Guzman were sent to the BIA boarding school at Chemawa, in Salem, Oregon during the early 1940s. At this time, leadership was still in the hands of Muwekma adults and elders: Phoebe Alaniz (Petra Inigo) [died 1947], Margarita Pinos Juarez, Francisca Nonessi Guzman (died 1942), Dolores Marine Galvan, Dario Marine, Lucas Marine, and Trina Marine.
JOHN PEABODY HARRINGTON’S ETHNOGRAPHIC AND LINGUISTIC FIELD WORK: INTERVIEWS WITH THE MUWEKMA TRIBAL COMMUNITY
During the late 1920s and early 1930s, anthropological linguist John Peabody Harrington from the Bureau of American Ethnology conducted interviews with members of the Muwekma tribal community (e.g., Susanna Nichols, Jose Guzman, Francisca Nonessi, Maria de los Angeles Colos, Catherine Peralta and others) who were still residing in the the Niles, Centerville, Newark, Pleasanton and Livermore areas.
Harrington's principal linguistic and cultural consultants are direct biological ancestors of the Muwekma Ohlone families many of whom are presently living in the Oakland/ Livermore/Hayward/Castro Valley/Fremont/Newark/Niles/San Jose/Tracy areas. Also during this period of time sound recordings made by Harrington of twenty-seven songs sung by Jose Guzman in 1930 and later in 1934 photos were taken by C. Hart Merriam of Jose Guzman and his family members which attest to the Tribe’s presence within their historic homeland (See Figure 9-15: John P. Harrington, Muwekma Elders Jose Guzman and Maria de los Angeles “Angela” Colos).
J. P. Harrington's field notes (dated October 12, 1929, October, 1934) provides information about the culture, history and languages spoken by the Verona Band/Mission San Jose Indians. Jose Guzman and Angela Colos shared the following information with him:
9-63 - The San Jose Indians were of many tribes gathered at the mission. They are called Chocheños. - I asked inf. how to say Abajeños, but inf. never heard the term. But inf. knows how to say arribenos.... when I asked if these were the Indians of Oakland, Inf. said no, that they were from [Martinez]. - Inf. does know one tribe, Halkin. It is the name of a tribe up San Rafael way. Liberato here was a Halkin, or was said to be one. [inf.] told him he was a Halkin, and Liberato got mad, denied it.... He [Jose Guzman] made a map, showing the location of "Hacienda Station" for Mrs. Hearst's place. - From Sunol, … he drew a line, indicating the former location of "Barona" [Verona] Station north of the San Jose Mission. Then, he noted under Roundhouse/Dancehouse: - Was a big temescal just up the road from here. Until recently could see the place. Door inside and a big hole & also a smaller hole in the roof. Tu'pentak, temescal. Used to have fiestas here.
J.P. HARRINGTON PRINCIPAL CHOCHENYO LANGUAGE INFORMANTS 1921 - 1930
John Peabody Harrington Jose Guzman Maria De Los Angeles Colos (1884 – 1961) (circa 1934) (circa 1929)
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 9-15: J. P. Harrington, Muwekma Elders Jose Guzman and Angela Colos
9-64 THE OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR II: MUWEKMA MEN AGAIN ANSWER THE CALL TO WAR
During World War II, almost all of the Muwekma men served in the United States Armed Forces both in the Pacific and European theaters and stateside.
Hank A. Alvarez, Pfc. U.S. Army, 101st Airborne Division landed Utah Beach Normandy. Hank was born on February 27, 1922 in San Jose. He spent his childhood in Santa Cruz, Alvarado and Brentwood. While living in Brentwood, on March 18, 1932, his mother Dolores Marine enrolled herself and her children with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA Application # 10681).
Hank enlisted at the San Francisco Presidio and served from December 28, 1942 to December 15, 1945 in the 101st Airborne Division. He returned home from Europe with the 82nd Medical Battalion, 12th Armored Division. While serving in the 101st Airborne Division he landed at Utah Beach in Normandy, he was later reassigned to the 106th Infantry Division, 423rd Infantry Regiment, Company B and continued to fight in France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany. He regiment saw action at Saint Laurent sur Mer and Saint Nazaire, France, and near Malmedy, Belgium. Later, Hank was reassigned to the 326th Engineer Battalion during the Battle of the Bulge at Bastogne and at the Ramagen Bridge crossing the Rhine River in Germany. After landing in Europe Hank’s units fought in the following campaigns with the 101st Airborne Division: Ardennes, Rhineland (GO 40 WD 45), and Northern France (GO 33 WD 45). Hank was issued the following medals and badges: Sharpshooter M1, WWII Victory Medal, and European African Middle East Campaign Medal. The 101st Airborne Division and the 106th Infantry Division earned Presidential Unit Citations. Hank was honorably discharged at Camp Beale, California on December 15, 1945. Hark enrolled himself and his family with the BIA on April 26, 1950 during the second enrollment period. During the early 1960s Hank served in a leadership position along with his brothers and sister to save the Tribe’s Ohlone Indian Cemetery from destruction. Hank has served on the Muwekma Tribal Council since 1992 and is presently the oldest surviving member of the Verona Band of Alameda County and oldest veteran in the Tribe.
John (Johnnie) Abraham Alvarez was the older brother of Hank Alvarez. John Alvarez was born on May 24, 1914 in San Jose and spent most of his life living in Santa Cruz. He was enrolled with his siblings with the BIA in March 1932. John enlisted in U.S. Army on October 22, 1941 just prior to America’s Declaration of War against Japan, Germany and Italy and he served as a Pfc. in the U.S. Army Air Corps in the Pacific Theater. He was honorably discharged on November 20, 1945 and received the American Defense Service Medal, American Campaign Medal, WWII Victory Medal, and Honorable Service Lapel Button WWII. John Alvarez died on March 6, 2002.
Francis Salvador “Sal” Samuel Dominic Piscopo, Sergeant Technical [E-7] U.S. Army, European Theater. Salvador was born in San Jose on October 1, 1923 and was a younger brother of Hank Alvarez. He went by the name of Samuel Dominic by the time he enlisted in the US Army. He was enrolled on March 18, 1932 with the Bureau of Indian Affairs with his
9-65 siblings under his mother Dolores Marine’s BIA Application # 10681. Sal spent his younger years in Brentwood and San Jose.
Sal enlisted in the U.S. Army on January 25, 1943. He attained the rank of Sergeant Technical (E-7) and served in Patton’s tank/armored 3rd Army Division. Patton’s Third Army Division had begun the Lorraine Campaign by August 1944 and reached the Moselle River near Metz, France. By December 1944, Salvador’s tank division turned north to relieve the surrounded and besieged 101st Airborne Division at Bastogne in the Ardennes during the Battle of the Bulge. By February 1945 the Third Army moved into the Saar Basin in Germany and later crossed the Rhine River at Oppenheim on March 22, 1945.
On Salvador Piscopo’s uniform at the time when his photograph was taken he had four service bars representing two years of overseas service and also one three year reenlistment service stripe. Sal was wounded when his tank was hit by German anti-tank fire. He carried shrapnel in his chest all of his life. He also was captured by the Germans and was issued a Prisoner of War Medal with three Bronze Stars, Good Conduct Medal and World War II Victory Medal. He was hospitalized after being liberated and after he was discharged. His brother Hank Alvarez said that Sal’s nickname was “Fade Away” meaning that “no one can find him, one day he’s around and then he would be gone for weeks and then show up again”. Sal was discharged at Camp Beale in 1945. Salvador died on September 21, 1968 and is buried in the Disabled Veterans section of Oak Hill Cemetery in San Jose, California.
Philip Galvan Pvt. US Army, Fort Benning, Georgia. Philip was born in September 1926 in Alvarado, Alameda County and was the younger brother of Sal Piscopo. He was enrolled along with his siblings with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on his mother Dolores Marine’s BIA Application # 10681. Philip enlisted in the U.S. Army on April 13, 1944 and was sent to the Monterey Presidio and afterwards he was stationed at Fort Benning, Georgia. Fort Benning was the home of the 2nd Armored Division called “Hell on Wheels”. Ft. Benning The core units of the 2nd Armored Division were the 41st Armored Infantry Regiment, the 66th Armored Regiment, the 67th Armored Regiment, the 17th Armored Engineer Battalion, the 82nd Armored Reconnaissance Battalion, and the 142nd Armored Signal Company. The 2nd Armored had three artillery battalions (the 14th, 78th, and 92nd). The Division also had support units, including the 2nd Ordnance Maintenance Battalion, a Supply Battalion, the 48th Armored Medical Battalion, and a Military Police Platoon. Some of the units were attached to the 41st Infantry Division in Europe Philip was honorably discharge at Camp Beale in 1946. During the 1960s Philip and his siblings were responsible for protecting the Tribe’s Ohlone Indian Cemetery from destruction. Later, Philip joined the editorial board of the American Indian Historical Society’s Indian Historian publication journal. Philip also served as the Secretary for the Ohlone Indian Tribe from 1965 t0 1971. Philip Galvan is still living and is presently the caretaker of the Tribe’s Ohlone Indian Cemetery, located near Mission San Jose.
“Ben” Michael Benjamin Galvan, Merchant Marines, U.S. Navy – (USS Enterprise), U.S. Army and Army Air Corps. Ben was born on June 23, 1927 in Alvarado and was the last “formal” member of the Federally Recognized Verona Band of Alameda County. In March 1932, he was enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs under his mother Dolores Marine Alvarez Piscopo Galvan’s BIA Application 10681. After serving in the Merchant Marines
9-66 because he was under aged, he served in the Navy on board the USS Enterprise. The USS Enterprise participated in nearly every major engagement of the war against Japan, including the Battle of Midway, the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, various other air-sea actions during the Battle of Guadalcanal, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and the Battle of Leyte Gulf, as well as participating in the "Doolittle Raid" on Tokyo. USS Enterprise has the distinction of earning 20 battle stars, the most for any U.S. warship in World War II. After being injured during combat on the USS Enterprise, Ben requested to be transferred to the U.S. Army/Army Air Corps. At the end of his service, he reenlisted in the service on January 15, 1946 at Camp Beale, Marysville, California. On December 4, 1951 Ben enrolled himself and his family during the second BIA enrollment period. During the early 1960s he was involved is saving the Ohlone Indian Cemetery from destruction and in 1965 Ban became the first chairman of the Ohlone Tribe. Ben served as the chairman of the Ohlone Tribe for thirteen years from 1965 to 1978. He was issued another BIA number in 1968 as part of the California Indian Claims Judgment. Ben Galvan passed away on April 13, 1987.
Thomas Joseph Garcia, Pfc. U.S. Army, Co. F. 358th Engineers GS Regiment. Joseph Garcia was born on December 12, 1912 on the Alisal Rancheria near Pleasanton. Both his mother Mercedes Marine and his father Joseph Armijo Garcia were Muwekma Ohlone Indians. After the death of his mother in 1914, Joseph was adopted by his godmother Phoebe Inigo Alaniz who was also a member of the Verona Band Indian Community. He enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs with his step-mother Phoebe Alaniz on October 7, 1930 (Application # 10301) and spent most of his life in Livermore.
Thomas Garcia enlisted on July 30, 1942 at the San Francisco Presidio and he served until November 27, 1945. On January 10, 1943 the 358th Engineers Regiment was activated at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana and they departed the U.S. for Europe on July 1, 1943. The Regiment landed in France on August 24, 1944 and crossed into Belgium November 27, 1944 and participated in the Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, and Central Europe Campaigns. He was honorably discharge on November 27, 1945. On April 22, 1953, he enrolled during the second BIA enrollment period. Thomas Garcia passed away on February 9, 1956 and was buried Golden Gate National Cemetery (Section Q, Grave 59).
Ben L. (Angel) Guzman, Pfc. U.S. Army. Bennie Guzman was born on October 2, 1922 in Niles. His father was Fred Guzman who had served in the 28th Infantry Division during WW I. Bennie enlisted on November 5, 1942 at San Francisco Presidio. He first went to Camp Niles, California and then onto Camp White, Oregon, and fought in the Asiatic Pacific Theater of Operations. His enlistment record identifies as an “American Indian, Citizen”. Ben attained the rank of Private and was discharged on January 9, 1946 at Camp Beale, California. He was issued the World War II Victory Medal, WW II Lapel Button, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, Bronze Star, and Combat Infantry Badge. Ben Guzman died on March 11, 1995 and he is buried in the San Joaquin National Cemetery, in Gustin, Ca. (Plot C-3 0 517).
Frank Harry Guzman, Pfc. U.S. Army. Frank was the younger brother of Bennie Guzman and he was born on April 2, 1926 in Pleasanton. Muwekma Ohlone Indians Dario Marine and Cecelia Armija were his godparents. Frank and his brother Bennie were photographed with their uncle Toney Guzman by anthropologist C. Hart Merriam in September 1934.
9-67
Frank’s enlistment record identifies him as an “American Indian, citizen” and that he enlisted at the San Francisco Presidio. Frank served from July 21, 1944 to June 1946 as a Light Machine Gunner in the unattached 345th Infantry Regiment, 87th Infantry Division that was during the war assigned to the 3rd Corps, 8th Corps, 12th Corps of General Patton's 3rd Army (25 Nov 1944), 15th Corps of the 7th Army, 8th Corps of the 1st Army and the 8th Corps of the 9th Army during the European Theater of Operations (October 1944 - May 1945). Frank was also briefly assigned to the 82nd Airborne Division and received his Parachute Badge.
On December 15, 1944, the 345th Infantry Regiment was in the vicinity of Rimling, France and by December 17rt the regiment took the town of Medelsheim, Germany. By December 26th the Germans had broken through the American defenses along the German-Belgian border between Malmedy, Belgium and Echternach, Luxembourg and create a fifty-five mile salient through the Ardennes Forest. The 345th was sent to the Cathedral city of Rheims to prevent a German breakthrough there and by December 28th the regiment was reassigned to General Patton's Third Army. On 29 December 29th the 345th Infantry Regiment was again on the road bound for an assembly area in the Luchie Woods 19 kilometers southwest of Moircy, Belgium.
The Battle of the Bulge which lasted from December 16, 1944 to January 28, 1945 was the largest land battle of World War II in which the United States participated. More than a million men fought in this battle including some 600,000 Germans, 500,000 Americans, and 55,000 British. At the conclusion of the battle the casualties were as follows: 81,000 U.S. with 19,000 killed, 1,400 British with 200 killed, and 100,000 Germans killed, wounded or captured
Frank was engaged in the Rhineland and Central Europe campaigns. He received the Army Presidential Unit Citation Ribbon, Combat Infantry Badge, European Africa and Middle Eastern Campaign Medal (Three Bronze Stars for Campaigns), Good Conduct Medal, American Campaign Medal, World War II Victory Medal, Army of Occupation Medal (Berlin), Parachute Badge, Marksman Badge for Machine Gun and Rifle. Frank was honorably discharged at Camp Beale, California on June 27, 1946. Frank Guzman was a member of the V.F.W. Post No. 1537 of Tracy, California; he died on March 17, 1982. Ernest Marine, Pfc. U.S. Army, 58th Field Artillery Battalion, 76th Division. Ernest Marine was the son of Muwekma Ohlone Indians Lucas Marine and Catherine Peralta. He was born on January 26, 1926 in Centerville. He was enrolled with his father with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on January 11, 1930 (BIA Application # 10299) and his mother had filled out a separate BIA enrollment (Application # 10675). His father had identified his mother and Ernest’s mother as “Ohlones” on his BIA Application.
Ernest Marine enlisted on April 13, 1944 at the Monterey Presidio and he served in Europe in the 58th Field Artillery Battalion and Tank Battalion in the 76th Division and fought in the Rhineland (September 15, 1944 – March 21, 1945), Ardennes-Alsace (Battle of the Bulge, Bastogne, Belgium, December 16, 1944 – January 25, 1945) and Central Europe Campaigns (March 22, 1945 – May 11, 1945). Ernest enrolled with his father Lucas Marine during the second BIA enrollment period on December 23, 1950. Ernest Marine was honorably discharged at Camp Beale on June 15, 1946. After the war he spent most of his life living with his aunt Trina Thompson Ruano in Newark and he passed away on October 20, 1977 in Sacramento.
9-68
Filbert S. Marine, U.S. Army, Pacific Theater. Filbert was the last child born on the Alisal Rancheria on December 31, 1915. Both of his parents Dario Marine and Catherine Peralta were Muwekma Ohlone Indians. His godparents were also Muwekma Ohlone Indians Franklin Guzman who served in the Marine Corps during WWI and Francisca Guzman. Filbert and his siblings were enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on their father’s BIA Application # 10677 on March 11, 1932.
Filbert enlisted in the Army on February 18, 1942 at the Presidio of Monterey. He fought in the Pacific Theater. His enlistment record identifies him as “American Indian, citizen.” He died in Sacramento on March 31, 1953.
Lawrence Domingo Marine, Staff Sergeant, U.S. Marine Corps (Serial # 299599). Domingo was the younger brother of Filbert Marine and he was born on May 4, 1919 in Centerville. He was one of the last Muwekma Ohlone Indians to be baptized at Mission San Jose. He was enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on his father’s BIA Application # 10677 on March 11, 1932. He was also sent to Indian Boarding School at Sherman Institute, Riverside, California in 1931 and graduated from there in 1939. He also met his future wife Pansy Potts from the Maidu Tribe while attending Sherman Institute.
After leaving Sherman Institute, Domingo returned to the Bay Area and enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps in January 1940 in San Francisco. He was later assigned to the 2nd Marine Brigade and on August 2, 1942, Lawrence was promoted to a Line Sergeant. According to his son, Lawrence Marine, Jr., he was in the 1st Marine Division as a “Para-Marine” or Marine paratrooper. Although his military records are not clear he was possibly assigned to the 1st Marine Parachute Regiment, 3rd Marine Parachute Battalion which was formed in early 1941 near San Diego). Although the Para-Marines were never dropped by parachute into combat, they were utilized during beach raids in the Pacific Theater, including on August 7, 1942 on Guadalcanal and by amphibious landing craft on the island of Gavutu 20 miles to the north.
Domingo was later assigned to anti-aircraft batteries and was engaged in the following major battles, engagements, and ports from January 2, 1942 – November 8, 1945: Hawaiian Islands Area, American Samoan Islands, Wellington, New Zealand, Guadalcanal, B.S.I (British Solomon Islands, New Georgia), Eniwetok, Marshall Islands, Ulithi, Caroline Islands, Okinawa, and Ryukyu (southern Japanese Islands). The Battle of Eniwetok was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought February 17, 1944 - February 23, 1944 on Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands. The invasion of Eniwetok followed the American success in the battle of Kwajalein to the southeast. Capture of Eniwetok would provide an airfield and harbor to support attacks on the Mariana Islands to the northwest. Battle of Okinawa was the largest amphibious invasion of the Pacific campaign and the last major campaign of the Pacific War. More ships were used, more troops put ashore, more supplies transported, more bombs dropped, more naval guns fired against shore targets than any other operation in the Pacific. The fleet had lost 763 aircraft. Casualties totaled more than 38,000 Americans wounded and 12,000 [including nearly 5,000 Navy dead and almost 8,000 Marine and Army dead killed or missing], more than 107,000 Japanese and Okinawan conscripts killed, and perhaps 100,000 Okinawan civilians who perished in the battle.
9-69
Lawrence Marine was honorable discharged at Treasure Island on November 20, 1946 after having an extended two year reenlistment. He received the Presidential Unit Citation, Good Conduct Medal, and Good Conduct Medal Bar No. (1), Honorable Discharge Button, Honorable Service Button. Lawrence Domingo Marine enrolled during the second BIA enrollment period on October 12, 1950. Domingo died on May 21, 1988 and was buried in Woodland, California.
Henry Vernon Marshall, Sergeant, U.S. Marine Corps was born in Newark on June 27, 1925. He was the son of Muwekma Ohlone Indian Henry Marshall, Sr. who was the son of Magdalena Armija Marshall Thompson. Henry Marshall, Jr. was a member of the Verona band of Alameda County. His grandmother, Magdalena enrolled her children with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on October 7, 1930 (BIA Application # 10296). Henry Marshall, Jr. enlisted in the United States Marine Corps and was assigned to the 1st Marine Division (Guadalcanal). He fought in the Pacific Theater of Operations and was issued the Navy Presidential Unit Citation with one Bronze Star, American Campaign Medal, Asiatic Pacific Campaign Medal, Rifle Sharpshooter Badge, and a three tiered Weapons(?) qualifying badge. His father enrolled the family during the third BIA enrollment period on May 7, 1969 as part of the California Indian Claims Judgment. Henry passed away on September 24, 1986.
Arthur M. Pena, Sergeant, U.S. Army, Company A, 155th Engineers Combat Battalion, Pacific Theater. Arthur was born in Crockett, California on September 4, 1924. His mother was Erolinda Santos (Juarez/Saunders) Pena Corral who was a member of the Muwekma Ohlone Verona Band Indian Community. Arthur was enrolled along with his mother and siblings with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on his great-aunt Maggie Pinos Juarez’s BIA Application # 10676 on March 18, 1932.
Arthur Pena enlisted on April 13, 1943 at the San Francisco Presidio and served in the unattached 155th Engineering Combat Battalion in the Pacific Theater. He served in the Southern Philippines and Western Pacific Campaigns (Leyte October 17, 1944 – July 1, 1945 and Western Pacific June 15, 1944 – September 2, 1945) and his battalion was sent to Guadalcanal (August 12 – August 24, 1944). From Guadalcanal, the battalion went on to Palau, Ulithi, New Caledonia (February 20, 1945), Southern Philippines (May 16, 1945) and Japan (September 8, 1944 – September 25, 1945). Arthur Pena was honorably discharged at Camp Beale, Marysville, California on February 2, 1946 and he was issued the Philippines Liberation Ribbon, Asiatic Pacific Campaign Medal, American Campaign Medal, Good Conduct Medal and World War II Victory Medal. He reenlisted on August 7, 1946 and served in Germany in Company C 793rd Military Police Battalion and he also went through the European Command Intelligence School. He was honorably discharged on March 25, 1955 and then reenlisted again on March 26, 1955. After serving another two years, Arthur was discharged at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri on December 9, 1957. Arthur was also issued the UN Service Medal, National Defense Service Medal, and Army of Occupation Germany Medal. On December 27, 1957, he enrolled his family with the Bureau of Indian Affairs during the second enrollment period.
9-70 Robert P. Corral, U.S. Army, Pfc. Infantry, Head Quarters Regiment, Ft. Benning, GA. Robert was born in Crockett, California on June 1, 1926 and was the younger brother of Arthur Pena. His mother was Erolinda Santos (Juarez/Saunders) Pena Corral who was a member of the Muwekma Ohlone Verona Band Indian Community. Robert was enrolled along with his mother and siblings with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on his great-aunt Maggie Pinos Juarez’s BIA Application # 10676 on March 18, 1932.
Robert enlisted at the San Francisco Presidio on December 18, 1944 and was honorably discharged on November 13, 1946. At Fort Benning, Georgia Robert completed six parachute jumps and was awarded a Parachutist Badge, World War II Victory Medal, Good Conduct Medal, and American Campaign Medal. On May 16, 1955 Robert enrolled himself and his family during the second BIA enrollment period. During the third BIA enrollment period on April 30, 1969, Robert enrolled his family as “Ohlone Indians” with the BIA as part of the California Indian Claims Judgment (Application # 21123). During the 1990s Robert P. Corral served as a Muwekma Ohlone Tribal Elder and he passed away on June 28, 1996 in Stockton.
Enos Marine Sanchez, Pfc. U.S. Army, 89th Division, 1st Battalion, Co. M, 354th Infantry Regiment, (39 390 899). Enos Sanchez was born on February 1, 1910 near the Alisal Rancheria in Sunol and his birth certificate identified him as “California Indian”. Enos and his younger siblings were enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on March 18, 1932 (BIA Application # 10680). His mother was Ramona Marine who was a member of the Verona Band of Alameda County.
Enos enlisted on June 29, 1942 in Sacramento and was shipped to Camp Carson, Colorado Springs and later that year served in Greenland and Iceland. The 89th Division was called the “Rolling W” standing for MW (Middle West). After landing at LeHarve, France, the 89th received orders to move into Mersch, Luxembourg (March 8, 1945). The 89th was assigned to the XII Corps of General Patton’s Third Army. Crossing into Germany the 89th met the German 2nd Panzer Division and seven Volksgrenadier Divisions and by March 26, 1945, the 89th crossed the Rhine River. Enos’ MOS was a Heavy Machine Gunner (605). On April 4, 1945, the 89th was involved in the liberation of the Ohrdruf Death Camp, which was part of the Buchenwald concentration camp network. Enos’ unit fought in the Rhineland and Central Europe (GO WO WD 45) Campaigns and he was awarded the Combat Infantry Badge (31), Good Conduct Medal, American Campaign Medal, European, African, Middle Eastern Campaign Medal, World War II Victory Medal (TWX WD 23 Oct 45), and Marksman M1 Rifle Sep 42 (55). Enos was honorable discharged on November 15, 1945 and separated from Camp Beale, California. In 1965 Enos was identified along with his family and fellow Tribal members by the American Indian Historical Society on a list of “Ohlone Contacts and Ohlone Members”. He died on July 19, 1995 at the age of 85 and was buried at the Calvary Cemetery in San Jose California.
Robert R. Sanchez, U.S. Army, Technician Fourth Grade, 7th Co. 508th Prcht. Infantry, 82nd Airborne Division. Robert Sanchez was the younger brother of Enos Sanchez and he was born in Sunol near the Alisal Rancheria on March 26, 1917. Robert and his siblings were enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on March 18, 1932 (BIA Application # 10680).
9-71 Robert enlisted in October 1942 and he volunteered to join the 82nd Airborne Division, 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment. On June 5-6, 1944, the paratroopers of the 82nd's three parachute infantry regiments and reinforced glider infantry regiment boarded hundreds of transport planes and gliders and, began the largest airborne assault in history. They were among the first soldiers to fight in Normandy, France. The Division air-assaulted behind Utah Beach, Normandy, France, between Saint Mere Eglise and Carentan on June 6, 1944, being reinforced by the 325th Glider Regiment the next day. The 82nd Airborne Division was reinforced by both the attached 507th PIR and the 508th PIR. The 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment (a.k.a. the Red Devils) whose battle cry was “Diablo!” was originally an organic part of the 2nd (Battalion) Airborne Infantry Brigade that was attached to the 82nd Airborne Division through most of its time in combat. Campaigns include Normandy (D-Day June 6, 1944), Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace (France), and Central Europe (Nijmegen-Arnhem Holland, and Belgium). By July 1945, the 82nd Airborne was moved to Berlin to occupy the American Sector. The 508th which had fought along side the 82nd since Normandy, was sent to occupy Frankfort, Germany. For his service in the 508th PIR, Robert Sanchez was issued the Distinguished (Presidential) Unit Citation, Combat Infantry Badge, Parachute Badge, European Africa and Middle Eastern Campaign Medal, World War II Victory Medal, Army of Occupation Medal (Berlin), Belgian Citation (Lanyard) and French Citation (Lanyard). The 82nd Airborne Division and the 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment were issued the Distinguished (Presidential) Unit Citations for actions during the Normandy Campaign. "The 508th Parachute Infantry is cited for outstanding performance of duty in action against the enemy between 6 and 9 of June 1944, during the invasion of France. … The courage and devotion to duty shown by members of the 508th Parachute Infantry are worthy of emulation and reflect the highest traditions of the Army of the United States. The Netherlands Citation was issued by the Dutch Government to the 82nd Airborne and its attached divisions (508th PIR) on October 8, 1945 for airborne operations and combat actions in the central part of the Netherlands (Nijmegen) during the period from September 17, 1944 to October 4, 1944. The 82nd Airborne Division became the first non-Dutch military unit to be awarded the Militarie Willems Orde, Degree of Knight Fourth Class to wear the Orange Lanyard of the Royal Netherlands Army. The Belgian Citation (Lanyard) was issued by the Belgian Government to the 82nd Airborne Division with the 508th Parachute Infantry attached “has distinguished itself particularly in the Battle of the Ardennes” from December 17, 1944 – December 31, 1944. The French Citation (Lanyard) was issued to the 508th Parachute Infantry by the Government of France. “The President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic Cites to the Order of the Army: 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment: A magnificent unit, reputed for the heroism and spirit of sacrifice of its combatants and which made proof of the greatest military qualities during the battle of Normandy” (June 6, 1944 – June 20, 1944). This citation includes the award of the Croix de Guerre with Palm. O. B. Hill from the 508th P.I.R. Association, 82nd Airborne Division wrote: “2,056 men of the 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment (attached to the 82nd Airborne) jumped into Normandy on D- Day, and on July 15, 1,918 returned. The rest had been killed, captured or wounded”. Robert was honorably discharged on February 2, 1948 and spent most his life in the greater Bay Area. Robert Sanchez was one of the early prime movers and active Elders in the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe. He passed away on April 26, 1999.
9-72 Daniel G. Santos (Juarez), Technical Sergeant, U.S. Army, 41st Division – 1941-1945. Daniel Santos (Saunders/Juarez) was born in Sunol near the Alisal Rancheria on January 21, 1917. Both his parents Joseph Saunders and Erolinda Santos were members of the Verona Band of Alameda County. Daniel was enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs along with his mother and siblings under his great-aunts’ BIA Application (# 10676) on March 18, 1932. Daniel Juarez (Santos) received a draft notice dated March 14, 1941, from Local Board No. 36 located in Manteca, California. It was addressed to Mr. Dan George Juarez, Route, Box 29A, Tracy, California. The letter stated:
“We received a call for 70 men to be inducted from this area on March 27th 1941. it is probable that you will be included in the group, and we are therefore taking this opportunity of notifying you, before (?) official order is issued, so that you may make your plans accordingly.”
Daniel enlisted on March 27, 1941 at Sacramento before the war was declared. The Jungleer or Sunset Division was Federalized on September 16, 1940. By December 7, 1941, the 41st Division was ready. It continued the series of "firsts" by being the first United States Division to deploy to the South Pacific. It became the first American Division sent overseas after Pearl Harbor, the first American Division trained in Jungle Warfare. It spent 45 months overseas (longer than any other Division), and earned the title of "Jungleers". The 41st Division left for Australia in March of 1942. Elements of the division landed January 23, 1943 in Dobodura, New Guinea. On the Island of Biak (May 27, 1944) the American Forces fought the first tank battle of the war against the Japanese destroying seven without loss. The division also fought in the Philippines (January 9, 1945) and fought on Palawan and Sulu Archipelago (March 10, 1945) and arrived in Japan on October 6, 1945. They participated in 3 campaigns (New Guinea, Luzon, and Southern Philippines) and suffered 4,260 casualties. Former Secretary of Defense Caspar W. Weinberger also served in the 41st Division as an officer. The 41st Division earned three Distinguished (Presidential) Unit Citations. Daniel Santos was honorably discharged in 1945. Daniel enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs during the second BIA enrollment period on May 23, 1955. He worked at Leslie Salt Company in Newark and spent his life working on and racing cars. Daniel passed away on April 28, 1980. Lawrence Thompson, Sr., Tech. Fifth Grade U.S. Army, 640th Tank Destroyer Battalion. Lorenzo Thompson, Sr. was born in Newark September 9, 1918. His mother Magdalena Armija Thompson was a member of the Verona Band of Alameda County. Lawrence and his siblings enrolled with their mother with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on October 7, 1930.
The 640th Tank Destroyer Battalion was formed at Camp San Luis Obispo on December 19, 1941 as an element of the 40th Infantry Division, and served in the Pacific Theater of Operation. The 640th was activated on March 3, 1941 from National Guard Divisions from California and Utah and was sent overseas on August 23, 1942. The 640th Campaigns included: Bismarck Archipelago, Southern Philippines, and Luzon and were issued 3 Distinguished Unit Citations; Awards: MH-1; DSC-12; DSM-1; SS-245; LM-21; SM-30; BSM-1,036; AM-57.
Lawrence Thompson enlisted at the age of 23 on September 10, 1941 at the San Francisco Presidio. At that time he was living at 2370 Pine St. in San Francisco. His MOS was Cannons S45 and he fought in the following campaigns: Aleutian Islands [Attu and Kiska Island with
9-73 the 7th Infantry Division], Luzon and Southern Philippines and Eastern Mandates [Marshall Islands, Kwajalein, Eniwetok]. Initially deployed to Hawaii in September 1942, the 640th Tank Destroyer Battalion participated in combat landings at Guadalcanal (February 5, 1944), Cape Glouster, New Britain (May 3, 1944), Lingayen Gulf, Luzon, Commonwealth of the Philippines (January 9, 1945), and Los Negros Islands (March 29, 1945). The 640th Tank Destroyer Campaign Honors include: Bismarck Archipelago [islands of New Guinea] (December 15, 1943 – November 27, 1944), and Luzon and Southern Philippines [GO 33 WD 45] (December 15, 1944 – July 4, 1945). “Seek, Strike, and Destroy" was the motto of the Tank Destroyers. Lawrence Thompson was honorably discharged on October 2, 1945 at Camp Beale, Marysville, California and was issued the American Defense Service Medal, Asiatic Pacific Campaign Medal and Philippine Liberation Ribbon with Bronze Star.
After the war Lawrence Thompson, Sr. and his son Lawrence Thompson, Jr. enrolled with the Bureau of Indian Affairs during the third BIA enrollment period on June 24, 1969. Later during the early 1990s Lawrence, Sr. served on the Muwekma Tribal Council. He passed away in November 1999. (Figures 9-16 to 9-17)
During WWII Stanford University served as a military training ground for the Pacific Theater. Dibble Army Hospital in Menlo Park was a major military hospital (1943-1946) that was taken over by Stanford University to house student veterans. The site is currently occupied by Stanford Research Institute and United States Geological Survey.
9-74 Muwekma Ohlone Tribe WWII Veterans 1941 - 1945
Lawrence Domingo Marine Sergeant, U.S. Marine Corps, Guadalcanal, Eniwetok, Marshall Islands, Okinawa, Daniel Santos Juarez Ryukyu (center) 1940–1946 Ernest Marine Sergeant, U.S. Army, WWII Pfc. U.S. Army, 58th 41st Division, WWII Field Artillery Battalion, 1944 1944-1946, WWII
Lawrence Thompson, Sr. (photo taken in Hank A. Alvarez 1997, 79 years U.S. Army, old) 101st Airborne Tech. Fifth Division Grade, U.S. 1942-1945, Army, 640th WWII Tank Destroyer Michael Benjamin Galvan Battalion, Pacific (right) Theater 1941- U.S. Navy And Army 1945, WWII WWII Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 9-16: Some of the Muwekma Men Who Served During World War II
9-75 Muwekma Ohlone Tribe WWII Veterans 1941 - 1945
Frank H. Guzman Thomas Garcia, Pfc, U.S. (photo taken 1946) Army 345th U.S. Army, Infantry, WWII European Buried in the Campaign, Golden Gate 1944-1946, National Cemetery WWII Salvador Piscopo Sergeant, US Army, European Theater, 1942-1946, WWII
Robert R. Sanchez Ben U.S. Army Guzman, Technician Enos Sanchez U.S. Fourth Grade, (photo taken 1947) Army, 508th Prcht. U.S. Army, Patton’s nd WWII Infantry, 82 Army Tank (photo Airborne Command North taken Division Africa, WWII 1945) 1943-1948, WWII
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 9-17: Muwekma Men Who Served During World War II
POST-WORLD WAR II TO THE 1960S
At the end of the war, the returning Muwekma men had to readjust to the peacetime economy and search for employment throughout the central California region. Work was difficult to find at times, but families helped each other and maintained tribal relations through religious and social mechanisms (e.g., compadrazo/godparenting and witnessing) that have long been established within the Muwekma families.
After Word War II, in May 1947, Ernest Thompson, Jr. the son of Magdalena Armija Thompson, became a member of the Bay Area California Indian Council which represented the contractual interests for over one thousand California Indians residing in the Bay Area as a result of the 1928, 1944 and 1946 Indian Claims Acts and ensuing legal decisions by the Justice Department.
After 1950, those surviving Muwekma and other California Indians were issued checks for the sum of $150.00 per person as compensation for the value (with interest going back to 1852) for
9-76 the 8.5 million acres of land and promised services that they never received. Deducted from the final lump sum was the cost of every military operation, Indian services and bullets spent so that the settlement would not be a burden to the American taxpayer.
Community and tribal related activities fell under the leadership of Muwekma Elder, Margarita (Maggie) Pinos Juarez, and Dolores Marine Galvan and her brothers Dario Marine and Lucas Marine and her younger sister, Trina Marine Thompson Ruano (Ernest Thompson, Sr., had married Trina after the death of his first wife, Magdalena Armija Thompson). These tribal activities and revitalization were also spurred by communications with the BIA Sacramento Agency, which notified the Muwekma lineages of the expanded enrollment opportunities under the California Indian Jurisdictional Act for children born after May 28, 1928. Families contacted and helped each other go to Sacramento to enroll their children, nieces and nephews. After the California Indian Roll was approved on November 23, 1951, the Sacramento Area Office published a list of enrollees that identified forty Muwekmas as "Tribe Mission San Jose" (BIA list 1951).
Also, during this period of time (from 1930s and 1950s), some of the families moved about seeking new employment opportunities and residential stability. The residence of Lucas Marine and Catherine Peralta (before her passing in 1934) on the Shinn Ranch in Niles became an important gathering place for the families and relations (see Harrington notes 1921-1934 regarding events between Liberato and Pedro Confessor prior to the turn of the century). Other important households were the residences of Dolores Marine Galvan in Brentwood and San Jose, Dario Marine in Centerville and later Woodland, and Margarita Pinos Juarez and Trina Marine Thompson Ruano in Newark where the families would gather for various occasions.
CONTINUOUS CONNECTIONS TO THE TRIBE’S SACRED SITES: THE PROTECTION OF THE OHLONE INDIAN CEMETERY, FREMONT, CALIFORNIA
The Ohlone Indian Cemetery located on Washington Boulevard, one mile west of Mission San Jose in Fremont, was used for burial by members of the Guzman, Santos, Pinos, Marine, Armija (Thompson) and Nichols families until 1926, while the original Ohlone burial ground was located under the northern wing of the mission church. Martin Guzman (died October 4, 1925), Victorian Marine Munoz (died November 27, 1922) and her son Jose Salvador Munoz (died 1921) were some of the last Muwekma Ohlone Indians to be buried there. On Jose Salvador Munoz’s death certificate it identifies his place of burial as “Ohlone Cem[etery]”.
During the 1960’s Muwekma families under the leadership of Dolores Marine Galvan, participated in securing the legal title to the Historic Ohlone Cemetery located on Washington Boulevard in the City of Fremont. In 1971, a board of directors for the Ohlone Indian Tribe, Inc. was established by Dolores Marine Galvan and her children Philip Galvan, Benjamin Michael Galvan and Dolores Galvan Lameira in order to secure title to the tribe’s ancestral cemetery.
During this period of time when the American Indian Historical Society obtained legal title of the Ohlone Cemetery on behalf of the Muwekma Ohlone community, invitations went out to various families, including the children of Magdalena Armija and Ernest Thompson and the
9-77 other Marine-related families, to help clean up the run-down cemetery (Figure 9-18 – Ohlone Cemetery). As mentioned above, the Guzman, Marine, Armija-Thompson and Nichols families had loved ones (e.g., Avelina Cornates Marine, Elizabeth (Belle) Marine Nichols, Ramona Marine Sanchez, Victoria Marine Munoz, Dario's son Gilbert Marine, Rosa Nichols and Mary Nichols, Salvador Munoz, Charles Thompson and Martin Guzman) buried there during the first three decades of this century (Marine Family History 1965; Leventhal, Escobar, Alvarez, Lameria, Sanchez, Sanchez, Sanchez and Thompson 1995).
Figure 9-18: Lillian Massiatt, Ramona and Michael Galvan at Ohlone Cemetery (1966)
Benjamin Michael Galvan was born on June 23, 1927 and was the last formal member of the historic Verona Band of Alameda County to be born into the Federally Recognized tribe. Ben was born the same day that BIA Superintendent Lafayette A. Dorrington decided in his report that the landless Verona Band tribe did not need any land. Ben served as the first chairman of the Ohlone Indian Tribe between 1965 and 1978.
Since World War II, Dolores Marine's children have married and raised families and presently Henry Alvarez and Dolores "Dotty" Galvan Lameira are Muwekma Tribal Elders and have served as elected council members. Dotty Lameira’s son Arnold Sanchez had served as an elected tribal councilman. The family of Benjamin and Jenny Galvan are also enrolled in the
9-78 Tribe and their son, Albert Galvan, had also served as a tribal council member. The same is the case for the children and grandchildren of Victoria Marine (1928 BIA Application # 10678) and Ramona Marine's children (1928 BIA Application # 10680). Magdalena Armija had married Ernest Thompson, Sr. and their sons Edward Thompson and Lawrence Thompson, Sr. were elders, and Lawrence was a former elected tribal councilman of the tribe (1928 BIA Application # 10296).
The children of Ernest Thompson, Jr. are also enrolled tribal members. As discussed earlier, Francisca Nonessi (1928 BIA Application 10293) was married to Jose Guzman, their son Jack Guzman (Sr.) had married Flora Freda Munoz (Victoria Marine's daughter), and their son John Guzman, Jr. (now deceased) and daughter, Rena Guzman Cerda and their respective children are Muwekma tribal members.
In the late 1890s, George Santos (grandson of Hipolito Santos and Refugia Simon who were one of the founding families of the Niles rancheria) had married Peregrina Pinos (who was the daughter of Benedicta Guerrera and Manuel Pinos). Their eldest daughter, Erolinda Pinos Corral, enrolled with the BIA with her children along with her Aunt, Maggie Pinos Juarez, in 1932 (1928 BIA Application 10676). The children and grandchildren Alfonso Juarez, who was the eldest son of Erolinda Santos Juarez Pena Corral are enrolled members of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe. Presently Carol Juarez Sullivan is a Muwekma tribal councilwoman (Figure 9- 19).
Figure 9-19: Muwekma Elders Maggie Juarez and Erolinda Santos Juarez Corral
MUWEKMA FAMILIES ENROLL WITH THE BIA DURING THE SECOND ENROLLMENT PERIOD (1948-1957)
Under the Act of 1948, the many of the Muwekma Ohlone “heads of household” enrolled with their families once again with during the second BIA Enrollment between 1950 and 1957. These Muwekma include:
9-79 Dolores Marine Galvan, October 6, 1950; Domingo Lawrence Marine, October 12, 1950, Dario Marine, November 1, 1950, Flora Munoz Carranza, December 12, 1950, Lucas Marine, December 23, 1950, Henry Alvarez, April 7 & 26, 1951, Trina Marine Thompson Ruano, May 21, 1951 Maggie Pinos Juarez, July 19, 1951, Benjamin Galvan, December 4, 1951, Belle Stokes Olivares Nichols February 25, 1952, Ernest Thompson, April 16, 1952, Thomas Garcia, April 22, 1953, Flora Emma Martel Thompson, February 4, 1954, Erolinda Santos Juarez Pena Corral, May 16, 1955, Robert Corral, May 16, 1955, Edward Thompson, May 21, 1955, Daniel Santos, May 23, 1955, Joseph Francis Aleas, May 24, 1955, Albert Arellano, June 18, 1955, Dolores “Dottie” Galvan Lameira, October 3, 1955, and Arthur Pena Corral, December 27, 1957.
THIRD BIA ENROLLMENT 1968-1971
Following the Act of 1964, between 1969 and 1971, the following Muwekma “heads of households” and their families once again enroll during the third BIA Enrollment period with most of the applicants identifying themselves as “Ohlone” on Question # 6 “Name the California Tribe, Band or Group of Indians with which your ancestors were affiliated on June 1, 1852”:
Mary Munoz Mora Ramos Archuleta, January 10, 1969, “Ohlone, Mission.” Mary Marine Galvan, January 27, 1969, “Ohlone.” Ernest George Thompson,. February 20, 1969, “Ohlone Tribe, Mission San Jose.” Patricia Ferne Thompson Brooks, March 27, 1969, “Mission Indians.” Madeline Cynthia Thompson Perez, March 27, 1969, “Mission Indians.” Karl Thompson, March 27, 1969, “Mission Indians.” Robert P. Corral,. April 30, 1969, “Ohlone Indian.” Henry Marshall, May 7, 1969, “Ohlones.” Glenn Thompson, June 11, 1969, “Mission Indian.” Lorenzo Thompson, June 24, 1969,. “Costanoan.” Lawrence Thompson, Jr., June 24, 1969, “Costanoan.” Rosemary Juarez Ferreira, July 15, 1969, “Ohlone Indians.” Peter D. Juarez, July 23, 1969, “Ohlone Indians.” Dolores Sanchez Martinez, August 11, 1969, “Ohlone.” Margaret Martinez, August 21, 1969, “Ohlone Mission Indian.” Joan Guzman, August 26, 1969, “Ohlone Indian.” Belle Nichols, September 4, 1969, “Mission.” John Paul Guzman, September 12, 1969, “Ohlone Mission Indian.” Beatrice Marine, January 5, 1971, “Costanoan.”
MUWEKMA SERVICE IN THE ARMED FORCES 1950S, VIET NAM TO IRAQ
During the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s Muwekma men served in Korea, Viet-Nam and elsewhere.
Candelario T. Martinez, United States Marine Corps, Korea (1950s).
Ruben Cota Arellano, Sr. Corporal, U.S. Army, Medical Corps, SP4 E4 HQ Battery 1st TGT ACQ Battalion, 25th Artillery, APO 2, July 5, 1960 – July 4, 1966, Korea.
9-80
Lawrence Mason Marine served in the United States Marine Corps from 1959-1965 and was a Staff Sergeant serving in Viet-Nam, 3rd Marine Division, 3rd Tank Battalion, and 3rd Force Reconnaissance, Charlie Company (Viet-Nam) from 1960-1961. Lawrence also served on the Muwekma Tribal Council.
Marvin Lee Marine (younger brother of Lawrence Mason Marine) also served in the Viet-Nam War in the U.S. Army’s 173rd Airborne Division. Muwekma Elder Lawrence Mason Marine and his family are enrolled members of the Muwekma Tribe.
Karl Thompson, SP5, U.S. Army, 43rd Engineer Bn. 931st Eng. Gp. Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (Korea), May 8, 1968 – May 7, 1971.
Tom M. Alvarez, Sr., U.S. Army, Medical Corps, 1965 – 1967, Vietnam, recipient of Soldier's Medal.
Frank Y. Ruano, Sr., E4, U.S. Army, 56th Artillery, 1965 – July 25, 1971, Vietnam.
Robert C. Martinez, Sr., Sergeant, Air Cavalry, 14th Cavalry Regiment U.S. Army, European, 7th Army Command, May 22, 1968 – May 14, 1970.
Rick Martinez, Vietnam
John A. Massiatt, Airman, U.S. Air Force January 1, 1968 - October 1, 1969.
Thomas Joseph Marshall (U.S. Army Vietnam Era) [deceased] Richard A. Juarez, SP 4 – E-4, U.S. Army, 589th Transportation Co., Co. B 4H BN 2D BCT BDE, 1st Army, Fort Eustis, Virginia., January 25, 1971 – October 30, 1973.
JayP Massiet, Staff Sergeant U.S. Air Force Van Nuys Air National Guard, June 1975 – January 1988
Michael F. Galvan, Jr., Sergeant, U.S. Air Force, 95th Recon Squadron, 1977 – 1997 (Desert Storm Campaign)
Tracie Massiet Lents, U.S. Air Force, 1979 – 1983
Paul Guzman (Service Records n/a)
John J. Cambra, Jr., Pfc. U.S. Army Company C 4th Battalion 30th Infantry and Company B 2nd Battalion 159th Infantry, 1991 – 1994
David J. Splan, Lance Corporal, U.S. Marine Corps, 1993 – 2001
Cory Massiet, Airman 1st Class, U.S. Air Force, 1994 – 1997
9-81 In the 1990s, Michael Galvan, son of Benjamin and Jenny Galvan, and Thomas Alvarez, Jr. both served in Desert Storm. Presently, Jesse Calles, the grandson of Muwekma Elder Faye Thompson Frei is serving in the U.S. Army in Iraq since December 2005 in the Headquarters and Headquarters Battery Fires Brigade 41D Division (Mechanized), Awarded the Army Commendation Medal 2006. 2004 – Present. Jesse served in Baghdad, Iraq since December 2005.
Angela Galvan, the granddaughter of Muwekma Elder Jenny Galvan had recently served in Iraq in the U.S. Marine Corps, Corporal/E-4, 1st Marine Logistics Group, 7th Engineer Support Battalion, Support Company Motor Transportation Platoon, May 27, 2003 - Presently serving in Iraq (twice deployed). Campaigns and Citations: OIF 2 Fallujah Campaign in Feb 2004 - Sept 2004 and OIF 3-6 Sept 2005 - Mar 2006, Combat Action Ribbon for operations on Michigan ASR (Alternative Supply Route) and an impact Navy Marine Corps Achievement Medal for operations in Haditha (December 2005); also involved during OIF 3-6.
Jay P Massiet, Jr. U.S. Army, Second Tour in Iraq; issued a Purple Heart.
MUWEKMA TRIBAL STEWARDSHIP OVER THEIR ANCESTRAL HERITAGE AND CULTURE SITES
Since 1980 to the present, the Muwekma families have worked independently to establish the "Most Likely Descendant" (MLD) status of members of the Muwekma Tribe in their area with the Native American Heritage Commission of the State of California. Also in 1984 the Muwekma developed their own Cultural Resource Management firm, Ohlone Families Consulting Services (OFCS), which has been recognized since 1986 by the Department of the Interior as a Native American business under the Buy Indian Act.
Since the establishment of OFCS many of the Muwekmas, as well as Amah-Mutsun and Esselen Nation tribal members, and Pomo, Sioux, Yokuts, Miwok, Wiyot and other tribal people have gone through archaeological training and obtained employment as field crew on various archaeological projects. OFCS has sought alternatives for indigenous people who are concerned about their ancestral past. Under these circumstances, the aboriginal tribal people of the San Francisco Bay Area have taken greater responsibility for their ancestral heritage by becoming fully engaged in the environmental and ensuing scientific processes that affect their ancestral sites as in the case of the burial recovery project conducted at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites.
MUWEKMA OHLONE TRIBE AND ITS REAFFIRMATION AS A FEDERALLY RECOGNIZED TRIBE
In 1989 the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe began the arduous process of petitioning the U.S. Government regarding its status clarification as a Federally Recognized tribe under 25 C.F.R. Part 83. Over the years, interfacing with the BIA’s Office of Federal Acknowledgment has been a very difficult and acrimonious process. However, in face of the “extinction” sentence issued by Alfred L. Kroeber in his 1925 California Handbook, and adversity by the BIA, the Muwekma
9-82 Ohlone Tribe has nonetheless made great strides forward. In 1996, the Tribe shattered the myth that it was never Federally Recognized.
On May 24, 1996, the United States Department of the Interior, Deborah Maddox, Director of the Office of Tribal Services for the Bureau of Indian Affairs, formally concluded in a letter sent to the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe that:
Based on the documentation provided, and the BIA's background study on Federal acknowledgment in California between 1887 and 1933, we have concluded ... that the Pleasanton or Verona Band of Alameda County was previously acknowledged between 1914 and 1927. The band was among the groups, identified as bands, under the jurisdiction of the Indian agency at Sacramento, California. The agency dealt with the Verona Band as a group and identified it as a distinct social and political entity (letter in response to the Muwekma Petition, Branch of Acknowledgment and Research, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Washington, D.C.).
In 2000 – U.S. District Court Justice Ricardo Urbina wrote in his Introduction of his Memorandum Opinion Granting the Plaintiff’s Motion to Amend the Court’s Order (July 28, 2000) and Memorandum Order Denying the Defendants’ to Alter or Amend the Court’s Orders (June 11, 2002) that:
The Muwekma Tribe is a tribe of Ohlone Indians indigenous to the present-day San Francisco Bay area. In the early part of the Twentieth Century, the Department of the Interior (“DOI”) recognized the Muwekma tribe as an Indian tribe under the jurisdiction of the United States. (Civil Case No. 99-3261 RMU D.D.C.)
On October 30, 2000, the BIA’s Office of Federal Acknowledgment and Tribal Services Division responded to Justice Urbina’s Court Order regarding the Muwekma Ohlone Tribal enrollment and their descendency from the Verona Band of Alameda County:
… . When combined with the members who have both types of ancestors), 100% of the membership is represented. Thus, analysis shows that the petition’s membership can trace (and, based on a sampling, can document) its various lineages back to individuals or to one or more siblings of individuals appearing on the 1900, “Kelsey”, and 1910 census enumerations described above.
On June 30, 2005, Congressman Richard Pombo, Chair of the House Resources Committee wrote to Secretary of Interior Gail Norton supporting a settlement of the Muwekma lawsuit against Interior:
Dear Secretary Norton:
As part of my Committee's oversight of the procedures for federal recognition of Indian Tribes, I have heard testimony in a hearing earlier this year of the protracted litigation concerning the recognition of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe. The Tribe informs me that the
9-83 Department of the Interior has determined that Muwekma is a previously recognized tribe, federally recognized until 1927, also that no formal action by the Department and no Act of Congress removed it from recognition and that 99% of the members of the current tribe are direct descendants of the members of the recognized tribe.
The Muwekma Tribe raises the issue that, in a very similar situation, the Department reaffirmed the federally-recognized status of the Lower Lake Koi Tribe and the Ione Band of Miwok in California by a letter signed by the then Assistant Secretary of the Interior restoring them to recognized status without making them go through.forma1 recognition procedures.
I understand that in December of 2003 the Tribe explored with the Department a possible settlement, including a rehearing that might lead to reaffirmation of the Tribe, or, according to the Tribe, at the suggestion of a Department attorney, the organization of the half-blood members of the Tribe as a new Tribe under the Indian Reorganization Act.
Despite numerous calls and letters from the Tribe, I understand these efforts at settlement have been largely ignored. I urge you to bring to resolution this dispute with the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe if possible. My concerns stem from the fact that in continuing this litigation, only unnecessary time and expense will result and some settlement along the lines your Department has already considered may be the best result.
Therefore, I would suggest, if possible, that the Department meet with the Tribe to pursue settlement opportunities. …
After the Office of Federal Acknowledgement “declined” to extend, and therefore reaffirm the Tribe’s Federally Acknowledged status on September 6, 2002, the Muwekma Tribe had to pursue its second lawsuit against the Department of the Interior.
Muwekma Tribe’s Present Litigation Against the Department of Interior
On September 21, 2006, U.S. District Court Justice, Reginald B. Walton in Muwekma Ohlone Tribe v. Dirk Kempthorne, Secretary of the Interior, et al., Civil Action No. 03-1231 (RBW) issued a favorable Court Opinion on the side of the Muwekma Tribe stating:
The following facts are not in dispute. Muwekma is a group of American Indians indigenous to the San Francisco Bay area, the members of which are direct descendants of the historical Mission San Jose Tribe, also known as the Pleasanton or Verona Band of Alameda County (“the Verona Band”). … From 1914 to 1927, the Verona Band was recognized by the federal government as an Indian tribe. … Neither Congress nor any executive agency ever formally withdrew federal recognition of the Verona Band. … Nevertheless, after 1927, the federal government no longer acknowledged the Verona Band, or any past or present-day incarnation of the plaintiff, as a federally recognized tribal entity entitled to a government-to-government relationship with the United States … (alleging that “sometime after 1927 the Department began to simply ignore the Tribe
9-84 for many purposes and substantially reduced the benefits and services provided to the Tribe”) … (pages 2-3) …
The Present Litigation
Muwekma brought this action on June 6, 2003, seeking reversal of the Final Determination, placement on the Department’s list of federally recognized tribes, and other injunctive relief. ... On July 13, 2005, Muwekma moved for summary judgment, alleging, inter alia, that the Department violated the APA and the Equal Protection Clause when it required Muwekma to petition for acknowledgment of its tribal status pursuant to the “lengthy and thorough” regulatory procedures of Part 83, …, despite administratively reaffirming the status of similarly situated tribes without requiring those tribes to undertake the Part 83 process and without sufficient explanation for the disparate treatment. ... Specifically, Muwekma contends that “[t]he Department returned Lower Lake and Ione to the list of recognized tribes outside of the [Part 83] procedures [while] requir[ing] Muwekma to complete the Part 83 process and then, applying a greater evidentiary burden, denied Muwekma recognition despite [its] significantly stronger case for recognition.” … (pages 10-11) …
If the Department were compelled to require tribes seeking federal recognition to complete petitions under Part 83—that is, if it had no discretion to exempt certain tribes from the Part 83 procedures—then its argument that “federal acknowledgment regulations specifically take into account demonstrations of previous acknowledgment,” … Here, however, the Secretary of the Interior is expressly empowered to “waive or make exceptions to [the Department’s regulations] in all cases where permitted by law,” if the Secretary makes a finding that “such waiver or exception is in the best interest of the Indians.” 25 C.F.R. § 1.2; ... Thus, if the Department is “permitted by law” to waive or except the Part 83 tribal acknowledgment procedures when it is “in the best interest of the Indians,” 25 C.F.R. § 1.2, and if it appears that it has waived the acknowledgment procedures in other, ostensibly similar instances, then it is incumbent upon the Department to explain to Muwekma “why it has exercised its discretion in a given manner” in this instance, State Farm, 463 U.S. at 48-49. ... This it has not done. (pages 18-20) …
In addition, the Department’s representation to Muwekma that it lacked the authority to confer federal recognition on the tribe outside of the Part 83 acknowledgment process, see Answer at 23 (admitting that “[n]otwithstanding the Department actions to the contrary with respect to the Ione Band and Lower Lake, [Department] staff repeatedly advised [Muwekma] that the Assistant Secretary [of Indian Affairs] lacked authority to administratively reaffirm tribal status”), appears from the Department’s own admission to be patently false, ... (footnote 12, page 21) …
Upon remand, the Department must provide a detailed explanation of the reasons for its refusal to waive the Part 83 procedures when evaluating Muwekma’s request for federal tribal recognition, particularly in light of its willingness to “clarif[y] the status of [Ione] . . . [and] reaffirm[] the status of [Lower Lake] without requiring [them] to submit . . .
9-85 petition[s] under . . . Part 83.” … At issue for the purpose of this remand is not whether the Department correctly evaluated Muwekma’s completed petition under the Part 83 criteria, but whether it had a sufficient basis to require Muwekma to proceed under the heightened evidentiary burden of the Part 83 procedures in the first place, given Muwekma’s alleged similarity to Ione and Lower Lake. In addition, the Department shall express its position regarding whether it is permitted, under 25 C.F.R. § 1.2 or otherwise, to waive or make exceptions to the Part 83 acknowledgment procedures, and whether this waiver or exception imposes a lesser evidentiary burden on petitioning tribes than the completion of a Part 83 petition. (pages 31-32) …
IV. Conclusion
When an agency provides a statement of reasons insufficient to permit a court to discern its rationale, or states no reasons at all, the usual remedy is a ‘remand to the agency for additional investigation and explanation.’” ... Here, the Court is unable to discern the Department’s rationale for requiring Muwekma to proceed through the Part 83 tribal acknowledgment procedures while allowing other tribes that appear to be similarly situated to bypass the procedures altogether, an issue which is dispositive of Muwekma’s Equal Protection Act and APA claims. Accordingly, it will remand this matter to the Department for the limited purpose of supplementing the administrative record in a manner consistent with this Opinion. During this time, the case shall be administratively closed. The Court shall retain jurisdiction over this matter and shall require the Department to complete its evaluation and submit a supplement to the administrative record by November 27, 2006. In light of the Department’s past delays, and given the narrow purpose for which this matter is being remanded, the Court will look extremely skeptically on motions for extensions of time. …. (page 32)
On September 30, 2008 the US District Court in Washington, D.C. handed the Muwekma Tribe another victory. Judge Reginald B. Walton opined:
These arguments, and the explanation from the Department giving rise to them, seemingly cannot be reconciled with the Court’s September 21, 2006, memorandum opinion. In that opinion, the Court noted that the defendants opposed the plaintiff’s initial motion for summary judgment on three grounds, two of which concerned whether the plaintiff was similarly situated to Ione and Lower Lake for purposes of the plaintiff’s constitutional and APA arguments. Specifically, “the defendants argue[d] that the Department ha[d] not treated like cases differently because by their very nature, federal acknowledgment decisions require highly fact-specific determinations,” and “claim[ed] that [the plaintiff] was not treated differently than similarly situated petitioners because groups demonstrating or alleging characteristics similar to [the plaintiff] are regularly required to proceed through the federal acknowledgment process.
The Court rejected both of these arguments. It dismissed the defendants’ “hand- waving reference to ‘highly fact-specific determinations,’” which, in the Court’s estimation, “[did] not free the defendants” of their obligation to justify the decision to treat the plaintiff differently from Ione and Lower Lake based on the administrative
9-86 record for the plaintiff’s petition. Further, the Court found the argument “that groups such as [the plaintiff] have been regularly and repeatedly required to submit Part 83 petitions” insufficient “to refute [the plaintiff’s] claim that the Department has treated it differently from similarly situated tribal petitioners without sufficient justification.
The Court further noted in a footnote that the defendants “obliquely” provided a “basis for distinguishing [the plaintiff] and Lower Lake in their reply to [the plaintiff’s] opposition to their cross-motion for summary judgment,” but also found this argument wanting. Specifically, the Court explained that:
First, and most obviously, [the defendants’ argument] pertain[ed] only to a difference between [the plaintiff] and one of the tribes with whom it [was] claiming to be similarly situated. The defendants [did] not assert any “highly fact-specific determination[]” that would explain why [the plaintiff] is not similarly situated to Ione in such a way as to require a reasoned explanation of the Department’s disparate actions. Second, the Department [did] not contend, here or in the administrative record, that it required [the plaintiff] and not Lower Lake to undergo the Part 83 procedure because the latter, unlike the former, had received land in trust and had participated in an election.
Having rejected all of the defendants’ arguments on the issue of similarity of circumstances, the Court proceeded to find that “the Department . . . ha[d] never provided a clear and coherent explanation for its disparate treatment of [the plaintiff] when compared with Ione and Lower Lake,” nor had it ever “articulated the standards that guided its decision to require [the plaintiff] to submit a petition and documentation under Part 83 while allowing other tribes to bypass the formal tribal recognition procedure altogether.” Because there was “virtually nothing” in the administrative record that would “allow the Court to determine whether [the Department’s] judgment . . . reflect[ed] reasoned decisionmaking,” the Court concluded that it was “necessary to remand [the] case to allow the Department to supplement the administrative record in this regard.
In other words, the Court determined in its prior memorandum opinion that the defendants’ arguments to the effect that the plaintiff was not similarly situated to Ione and Lower Lake were without merit, and remanded the case to the Department so that the Department could explain why it treated the plaintiff differently than other, similarly situated tribes. The necessary implication of both conclusions is that the Court found the plaintiff to be similarly situated to Ione and Lower Lake.
… Here, the Department’s explanation and the defendants’ arguments in defense of that explanation and in support of summary judgment in their favor would appear to run afoul of the law of the case established in this Court’s prior memorandum opinion. The Court concluded, implicitly if not explicitly, that the plaintiff is similarly situated to Ione and Lower Lake, and remanded the case to the Department for the sole purpose of ascertaining a reason as to why the plaintiff was treated differently. Yet, the defendants do not even acknowledge that their arguments are inconsistent with the law-of-the-case, let alone provide a “compelling reason to depart” from it.
9-87
The defendants’ insouciance regarding the law-of-the-case is particularly troubling because they appear to rely at least in part on administrative records for Ione and Lower Lake that were not considered when the Department initially considered the plaintiff’s petition for recognition. This tactic harkens back to the defendants’ reply memorandum in support of their initial cross-motion for summary judgment, where they argued “that because the full body of administrative records regarding Ione and Lower Lake [was] not before the Court, [the plaintiff] [could not] establish a violation of the Equal Protection Clause or the APA simply by alleging that it ha[d] been treated differently than those tribes.
The Court rejected that argument, explaining that “[w]hat matter[ed] . . . [was] whether the Department sufficiently justified in the administrative record for [the plaintiff’s] tribal petition its decision to treat [the plaintiff] differently from Ione and Lower Lake.
The Court remanded this case to the Department so it could explain why it treated similarly situated tribes differently, not so that it could construct post-hoc arguments as to whether the tribes were similarly situated in the first place. It certainly did not remand the case so that the Department could re-open the record, weigh facts that it had never previously considered, and arrive at a conclusion vis-à-vis the similarity of the plaintiff’s situation to those of Ione and Lower Lake that it had never reached before. The Court would therefore be well within its discretion to reject the defendants’ arguments outright, grant the plaintiff summary judgment with respect to its equal protection claim, and bring this case to a close. [Emphasis added]
Based upon the failure of the BIA and Justice Department to respond to the Judge Walton’s Court Order, the Tribe is now waiting for this Court to remand a final order back to the Department of Interior to have Muwekma restored and placed back onto the list of Federally Recognized Tribes once again. When this is accomplished this year, it will be 103 years after the Tribe obtained its Federally Recognized status and will once again be eligible for funding, services and finally a land base that will help the ensuing generations of Muwekma children to maintain their rich Indian identity and heritage, as well as establishing equal standing with the other Acknowledged tribes in the United States.
9-88 MUWEKMA OHLONE TRIBE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH STANFORD UNIVERSITY
The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe has had a very fruitful relationship with Stanford University since the mid-1980s. In 1988, Mr. Colin C. Hampson (Winnebago Tribe) who was finishing up his law degree at Stanford requested of the Muwekma Tribal leadership a name for the Native American residence/theme house in the Tribe’s aboriginal Chocheño language. The final name that was chosen was Muwekma-Tah-Ruk meaning “House of the People” (Figure 9-20).
Figure 9-20: Rosemary Cambra and Colin Hampson at Muwekma-Tah-Ruk
Also during this time period in 1988 the Muwekma Tribe requested the repatriation of 550 burials held at the Stanford Museum. Due to the 1989 earthquake damage to the building and the retirement of Archaeology Professor, Bert Gerow, the Muwekma Tribal leadership with support from the larger Costanoan community and the Native American Heritage Commission sought the return of these ancestral burials. Between 1989 and 1991 Stanford agreed to return those 550 ancestral burials back to the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe for repatriation.
The decision made by Stanford University’s administration rippled around the world in and that decision lent support to the passage of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (PL 101-601) in 1990.
The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe sought proposals from the scientific community for further research prior to reburial. Only San Jose State University responded and submitted in a request to conduct additional research. Dr. Robert Jurmain, Physical Anthropologist, Department of Anthropology and his graduate students worked for a period over one year conducting complete
9-89 skeletal inventories and assessing pathologies that affected the Stanford side of site CA-ALA- 329. In 1991 these ancestral remains were all reburied in the East Bay at Coyote Hills (Figures 9-21 – 9-22)
Figure 9-21: Stanford University Repatriates 550 Burials to Muwekma Tribe
9-90
Figure 9-22: Reburial of Ancestral Ohlone Human Remains at Coyote Hills
In 1995 as the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe was seeking reaffirmation as a Federally Recognized Tribe, then Provost of Stanford University, Condoleezza Rice, wrote a letter to Holly Reckord, Chief, Branch of Acknowledgment and Research, Bureau of Indians Affairs, welcoming her to the campus for a workshop on Federal Recognition and informing the Bureau about the relationship between the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe and Stanford University (Figure 9-23).
9-91
Figure 9-23: Letter to Holly Reckord from Condoleezza Rice, Stanford Provost
9-92 On May 30, 2009 the Native American Faculty, Staff and Students were joined by the Muwekma Tribal leadership and members celebrating the 20th anniversary of the naming of the Native American Theme House to Muwekma Tah-Ruk (Figures 9-24 – 9-25).
Figure 9-24: Muwekma-Tah-Ruk Anniversary Celebration 2009
Figure 9-25: Faculty, Staff, Students and Muwekma at Anniversary Celebration
9-93 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area has moved both its legal history and efforts seeking reaffirmation as Federally Recognized tribe almost to full circle, thus completing its century-long journey since the Tribe first became Federally Acknowledged through the Congressional Homeless Indian Acts beginning in 1906.
Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites as well as the many other archaeological projects that the Tribe has worked on have also served as important “bridges” to the Tribe’s long historical and pre-contact ancestral past. This archaeological work has been exceedingly important and meaningful to the Tribal membership by providing a forum -- in the form of the present study and its evolving ethnohistorical ties to the Tribe’s larger territory -- thus allowing the Muwekma Tribe to finally have a voice in telling part of its story after being completely disenfranchised for so many decades by public agencies and policy makers (Figures 9-26 – 9- 28).
This present ethnohistory study has provided ethnographic, ethnohistoric and legal background information about the ancestral Muwekma Ohlone Indians – the aboriginal and historic tribal people of the greater circum-San Francisco Bay region -- in both a historic and contemporary context. Furthermore, this chapter was structured using contemporary anthropological and historical frameworks with two major research goals in mind:
1) to present herein, ethnohistoric and historic information that addresses the biological and cultural continuation of the aboriginal Muwekma Ohlone Tribal people from the San Francisco Bay region and thus identifying and discussing those “vital” cultural linkages between the living people and their ancestors and ancestral sites, and;
2) to bring forward an interpretive understanding about the lifeways of the ancestral Ohlone people who were buried at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites, and bring closure to this project with the reburial honoring ceremony of these people by placing them back into the earth, within the original cemetery site from which they were laid to rest by their people between 1650 and 1750 years ago.
All twenty-nine individuals will be respectfully re-interred by the Tribe back into the warep (the earth) where hopefully they will never again be disturbed by future development.
As stated in the introduction of this report the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe and the contributors to this report want to honor Muwekma Tribal Member Susanne Rodriguez by dedicating this report to her memory and in her honor for the many years of service to the Tribe as the Tribal Archaeological Liaison to Stanford University on the various archaeological projects conducted on Stanford lands.
9-94
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Cultural Campout Camp Muwekma 2001
Cedar Group Campsites Del Valle Regional Park, Livermore, CA June 17-24, 2001
Photo taken at the “BIG FEAST BBQ” – June 23, 2001
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 9-26: Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Campout and Big Feast 2001
9-95 MUWEKMA OHLONE TRIBE ČOČENYO HIŠMET TUUXI ŠAWWENIKMA - CHOCHENYO CHRISTMAS CHOIR 2005
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Figure 9-27: Muwekma Christmas Choir in Front of Mission San Jose
9-96 MUWEKMA OHLONE TRIBE ANNUAL CHRISTMAS PARTY & HOLIDAY GATHERIN Stanford University, December 10, 2005
Figure 9-28: Muwekma Christmas Gathering at Stanford University 2005
9-97 Muwekma OhloneOhlone TribeTribe Of The San Francisco Bay Area
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area 2009
Figure 9-29: Muwekma Ohlone Tribe
9-98 Chapter 10 "What Must It Have Been Like!" Critical Considerations of Pre-Contact Ohlone Cosmology as Interpreted Through Central California Ethnohistory by Les Field and Alan Leventhal with translations and cultural interpretations by Dolores Galvan Lameira, Rosemary Cambra, Hank Alvarez, and Sheila Guzman Schmidt
"The analysis of ritual behavior is thus archaeology's major contribution to the study of past religions'.
(David Hurst Thomas 1989:503)
INTRODUCTION
This section on reconstructing ritual behaviors as viewed from the mortuary complex from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 represents a revisitation and a reworking of analysis conducted on another Middle Period cemetery site CA-SCL-732 (Three Wolves Site - Kaphan Húunikma) located along the west side of Coyote Creek in south San Jose (Cambra et al. 1996). Although there were no formal animal burials recovered at CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263, nonetheless we thought it important to “revisit” and present this interpretive perspective within this final report.
ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY AND THE DIRECT HISTORICAL APPROACH TO INTERPRETING ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
Patti Jo Watson in her discussion on analogy in ethnohistorical reasoning in ethnoarchaeology suggested that:
Ethnoarchaeologists, like all other archaeologists, operate with the basic assumption that there is a real past, about which we can attain real knowledge by means of inference based upon archaeological and historical records (in Gould and Watson 1982:356)
Furthermore, she described two overriding goals for the sub-discipline of ethnoarchaeology:
1) to generate explanatory hypotheses for specific items or patterns recovered archaeologically ..., and
2) to derive theories and broad law-like generalizations about relationships between human behavior on the one hand, and material culture resulting from that behavior on the other (Watson in Gould and Watson 1982:356).
For the purposes of this study, the center stage for the application of ethnohistorical and ethnoarchaeological method and theory centers around the mortuary complex at Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263 influenced by work
10-1 conducted by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe at the Three Wolves Site (Kaphan Húunikma) CA- SCL-732 both Middle Period sites and their symbolic interrelationship with pre-contact Ohlonean cosmology, religion, ritual, and myth.
David H. Thomas (1989) wrote the following perspective on "mortuary practices as ritual behavior" by stating that:
Archaeologists are most familiar with critical ritual behavior through evidence of human mortuary practices. In fact, cultural anthropologists rely heavily on burial practices in reconstructing the origins of religion.
... Religion consists of three interrelated aspects: a set of rituals, rationalized by myth, designed to mobilize supernatural powers for the purpose of achieving (or presenting) transformation of state in humans and nature. Of these three elements -- ritual, myth, and transformation of state -- ritual emerges as the primary factor. This is an important fact for archaeology, as ritual is most closely related to material culture and, as such, is the most conspicuously represented element in the archaeological record (1989:504, 533).
Based upon the limited research design developed by OFCS for this project, one of the goals of this study is to employ two methodological strategies that attempts to explain the placement of selected animal body parts with the human burials associated with the Middle Period cemetery at Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. These two methodological strategies include: 1) the use of ethnohistoric analogies as a bridge between the ethnographic record, cosmological world views, and rituals of the Ohlone and other central Native California tribal groups and the archaeological record; and 2) through the process of ethnographic analogy, postulate hypotheses explaining some of the funerary patterns observed at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (such as the placement of animal body parts with human burials), which recently has been independently tested and discussed by archaeologists within the San Francisco Bay region (see Cambra et al. 1996; Bellifemine 1997; Pastron and Bellifemine 2007 and Jones 2010). These goals will be accomplished by using an ethnoarchaeological approach to interpret the archaeological record and mortuary complex at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites.
Another goal of this study involves the Muwekma Ohlone co-authors in becoming reacquainted with the cosmological folklore of their direct ancestors which was recorded by John P. Harrington. In reading, translating and interpreting possible meanings of several of the stories told to Harrington by Maria de los Angeles Colos and José Guzman, the Muwekma Ohlone contributors are afforded the opportunity to metaphorically exclaim "what it must have been like!" which was the interjection Maria de los Angeles Colos professed during the telling of one mythic narrative recorded by J. P. Harrington (see the Kaknú Tale presented below).
The great challenge (as alluded to above) in addressing the mortuary patterns identified at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites from an anthropological and ethnoarchaeological perspective is the work of linking ethnographic and ethnohistorical data to the human remains, artifact assemblages and other features uncovered from the ground. In the case
10-2 of the Muwekma Ohlone peoples, as it will be elaborated upon, this task is made much more difficult by the limited amount of information about the San Francisco Bay Ohlone cultures and people at the time of contact with Europeans, and the lack of detailed ethnography about the post-contact Ohlone peoples until the early decades of this century.
In keeping with the goals cited above, an attempt within this study will be made to link several complex analytic processes. This process includes discussions about pre-contact Ohlone cosmology through a focus upon one of the most intriguing aspects of the excavated materials -- the discovery amidst human remains the ritual selection of skeletal elements from such animals as wolf, coyote, deer, elk, sea otter, California sea lion, red-tail hawk, red-shouldered hawk, golden eagle and lesser snow goose. By ritual, we mean the deliberate interral of deceased animals or their body parts, often (but not always) accompanied by non-perishable grave goods, such as shell beads and ornaments, and other symbols of status (e.g., exotic materials) used in central California cultural systems, or in this specific case, the placement of animal parts in conjunction with the human burials.
In the case of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites, the antiquity of the human and animal remains uncovered makes a strong argument for a long history of sociocultural complexity among central California Native peoples, a time-depth which has been generally discounted by both older and more recent archaeological analysis (e.g., see Bard and Busby 1984; Samuelson and Self 1995 for their generalities on Ohlonean culture).
The analysis of pre-contact Ohlone cosmology in this chapter represents an excursion into the interpretation of ritual animal burials and their body parts and in particular of the sources which provide a varied basis for interpreting pre-contact cosmology. An intrinsic part of discussing animal symbolism in pre-contact Ohlone cosmology is the critical evaluation of the sources from which information about central Californian Native cosmology derives.
Professional ethnographers made their way into communities of Native people living in the San Francisco Bay Area some eighty to one hundred years after the region had been incorporated into and decimated by the Spanish Empire. That process irrevocably altered the ecological, sociocultural and spiritual-religious environments where Ohlone-speaking peoples and their neighbors lived. Ethnographic materials about Ohlone-speaking peoples reflect the profound dislocations caused by Spanish colonialism, Mexican, and later American occupations of what is now the State of California. All three powers acted to eradicate pre-contact Native spiritual-religious systems. Relevant information about the cosmologies of neighboring peoples who inhabited the Central Valley and Sierra Nevada foothills comes from areas which had not been as severely impacted by Europeans until the American occupation.
In all cases, the information about the cosmologies of the Native peoples of central California cannot be said to represent the pre-contact world but rather different ethnographers' understandings of a particular moment in time during the forced transformation of Native peoples and their cultural systems. The descriptive and analytic frameworks of early ethnographers were imbued in part with the evolutionist criteria and ideologies pervasive in social science during the late nineteenth and early
10-3 twentieth centuries against which Native Californians were always considered primitives and far less complex than tribal groups elsewhere in North America (Leventhal, Field, Alvarez, and Cambra 1994).
The ethnographic literature utilized herein is by no means an exhaustive review of all written sources but a sampling of what we consider relevant. Many of the authors of this body of literature were skilled ethnographers, some of whom (particularly John P. Harrington, an ethnolinguist from the Bureau of American Ethnology) displayed an awareness of ethnographic complexity relevant to contemporary anthropological concerns. These sources are therefore heavily relied upon. At the same time we critically assess Harrington's work among the descendants of pre-contact East and South Bay Ohlone (Verona Band) peoples who were interviewed during the 1920s and '30s, while living in the Niles, Sunol, Newark, Livermore and Pleasanton areas. The same process will include the works of other twentieth century anthropologists who interviewed central Californian Native peoples. By utilizing regional ethnohistoric and ethnographic data, an attempt to underline the links between the peoples of this greater central California region will be made across time and space.
This study also addresses the very real rupture in cultural memory that separates the contemporary Muwekma Ohlone tribal members from the world-view of both their distant and more recent ancestors. While the structures of kinship and family life sustained Ohlone identity into the late twentieth century, making the current tribal revitalization possible, Ohlone languages and much of the dynamics of indigenous Ohlone world-view ceased to be transmitted from one generation to the next. The fact that this rupture occurred during this century rather than immediately or soon after missionization or the admission of California into the United States, bespeaks of two intertwined phenomena. On the one hand, the vitality of Ohlone language and culture which persisted for more than one hundred years following the trauma of missionization, fluorescing in the Verona Band (Alisal and Niles Rancherias) revival which Harrington (1921-1934), Gifford (1926, 1927 and 1955), Kelly (1978, 1991) as others described, highlights the persistence of Ohlone cultural memory.
On the other hand, the reality of the rupture of cultural memory underscores the ultimate effectiveness of colonial domination (such as racial inequality and assimilationist policies) in undermining the wellsprings of Ohlone identity. Thus, the conclusion contextualizes the historical traumas that separate contemporary Ohlones from their past as well as the persistence of cultural memory as recorded by Harrington during this century. These comments aim to illuminate the relationships between contemporary tribal revitalization, archaeological excavation, and the work of interpretation.
The aim of this chapter is not to arrive at decisive or even partial conclusions, but rather a critical discourse about what can be said about Ohlone cosmology and cultural systems, the cultural-symbolic significance of ritual animal burial associations in those systems, and the transformation of those systems following the entry of European peoples into what is now California.
10-4 A PROPOSED HYPOTHESIS CONCERNING RITUAL ANIMAL BURIALS
As discussed elsewhere in this report, body portions of the following animals were found in the graves of particular individuals: deer, elk, wolf, coyote, sea otter, California sea lion, red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk, eagle and lesser snow goose.
References to animal relationships in Ohlone and other central California tribal cosmologies can be classified into three categories in order to help in the possible interpretation of the ritual burial of portions of animals recovered from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. These animal categories are as follows:
1) animals (as well as plants, supernatural beings, and (in some cases) geographical features and places (Davis 1992) as the totems used by pre-contact Native kin-groups, such as moieties, clans, lineages, families, etc. (see Gifford 1916a, 1916b, 1917; Kroeber 1925; Goldschmidt 1948; and others);
2) animals (and other beings in some cases) as the personal spirit allies, or "dream helpers" (1978) for individuals, shamans and non-shamans alike, who successfully conducted vision-quests and other rites-of-passage rituals;
3) animals of the present as formally identified and represented sacred deity-like figures who, according to narratives told by pre-conquest central California Natives, had been people in animal form during a remote antiquity; they had lived and conversed much like human beings, and maintained relationships, including kinship, with human beings (Kroeber 1907).
At this point it must be emphasized that the documents from which current knowledge about these aspects of Native cosmology derive refer to Ohlone and other central Californian cultures during the past century. To suppose that Ohlone culture or any culture has remained so unchanging that ethnohistoric sources can straightforwardly explain two thousand to fourteen hundred year old archaeological remains and mortuary patterns is ludicrous. Instead, the position taken here is that cultural continuities in the histories of the Ohlone and other central Californian peoples are testimonies to both the long history of social, cultural, and ritual complexity in the region, and the resilience of these societies under the impact of European and Euro-American conquest. “The truth” about ritual animal burials and/or their body parts is therefore not the goal of this chapter. This study is rather an informed discussion that favors the hypothesis that animals in Native California cosmology acted as totems and helpers for particular kin-groups.
Totemism, in the present view, formed one aspect of a socially, economically, and linguistically complex pre-contact Native California. As argued elsewhere (Bean and Blackburn 1976), the territories of pre-contact Native Californian were multilingual regions integrated by shared and variably manifested symbols and rituals, as well as monetary and trading systems. Integration between peoples was accomplished by ties of marriage and kinship, or by ideologies derivative of kinship. Human territories intersected and partially overlapped with the territories of animals, also conceived of as peoples because of their role in sacred narratives (see category 3 above).
10-5 Relationships of alliance (and sometimes of hostility) between human and animal peoples were also created and maintained through kinship. Human villages acted as the spaces where all of these kinship ties were ritually enacted and renewed, and human cemeteries functioned as the spaces where kinship between and among human and animal peoples were cemented through the burial of the dead (see Blackburn 1976).
EVALUATING SOURCE MATERIALS FOR INTERPRETING RITUAL ANIMAL BURIALS
Two very important sources for this work of interpretation rely on diametrically opposed models for understanding social relations and cultural change in the Ohlone peoples’ histories. On the one hand, Richard Levy's (1978) entry on “Costanoans” in the Handbook of North American Indians uses languages to determine the sociocultural boundaries between Ohlone peoples. Levy’s model is impermeable to historical changes, migrations, and shifts between and among Ohlone and neighboring peoples speaking the same, similar, and radically different languages. Levy’s assertion that speakers of Ohlone languages themselves used language differences to mark the sociocultural borders that divided them into bounded political units lacks ethnographic evidence (see Milliken 1983, 1991). Despite his own demonstration of significant borrowing of words between Ohlone speakers and neighboring Yokut, Miwok, Salinan, and Esselen speaking peoples before contact with Europeans, Levy concluded that “[a]nother profound change involved the commingling of the Costanoans with peoples of differing linguistic and cultural background during the mission period (1978:486).” This conclusion limits the depth of Levy’s representation of Ohlone cultures.
Focused upon interpretation of archaeological sites found in the north Central Valley, the area of ethnographically documented Ohlone (see Milliken 1994) and Yokuts-speaking peoples, Heizer and Hewes’ (1940) exploration of animal ceremonialism in pre-contact central California contrasts with Levy’s. Written nearly forty years earlier, the authors explicitly criticized models of Native Californian history which presuppose a “simple, uniform culture assumed to have persisted in essentially the same form from earliest times to the present day... the background against which ethnographic culture was presented” (1940:587). Instead, Heizer and Hewes described significant cultural transitions demonstrated in the archaeological record. Implicit in these authors’ representation of pre-contact societies is a model of political alliance and bounding of political units based on kinship. That in turn, informs their reading of the presence of ritually buried animals in pre-contact graves.
In assessing the other important sources utilized in this study, it is useful to differentiate between other primary sources (e.g., Gifford and Merriam), which are based upon fieldwork carried out early this century with central Californian peoples, and interpretive writers (e.g., Gayton and Applegate) who amassed primary data gathered by others from which they made broad descriptive and analytic points. Gifford’s unpublished “Yokuts Moieties” (1915) and “Central Miwok Shamans” (1914) are rough fieldnotes of narratives recorded from conversations with reflective, articulate individuals among these central Californian peoples.
Among the Chuckchansi Yokuts who lived on the north shore of the San Joaquin river (Madera County), Gifford interviewed Dick Neal, Levi Graham, Frank Banjo, Chicago Dick, Mary Jones, and
10-6 Susan Georgely, all of varying ages; among the Gashowu Yokuts of the south side of the San Joaquin river (Fresno County), Gifford found only one informant, the elderly Ellen Murphy; among the Tachi Yokuts, who lived at the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley (north shore of Tulare Lake), Gifford conversed with George Miguel, Sam Thomas and Mary Fernando, all elderly. Among the Miwok people dwelling in the Sierra foothills of Tuolumne County, Gifford’s informants were an older couple, Tom and Susie Williams. The tone of his notes preserves the grammar, syntax, and construction of these clearly bilingual individuals. In keeping with the anthropological disciplinary conventions of the time, Gifford cloaked his own presence in these interviews, and thus his relationship with each person remains hidden from view. Merriam’s notes (1967), describing Joe Guzman and the other people living at Alisal, are similarly detached. Nonetheless, the richness of the materials each anthropologist recorded reveals the importance Native “informants” attached to their dialogues with the anthropologists.
Anna Gayton’s “Areal Affiliations of California Folktales” (1935) attempts to draw broad generalizations across large regions of what is now California once inhabited by linguistically, socially, and culturally diverse peoples. Such works are potentially rich maps of Californian cultures that could inform this inquiry into Ohlone cosmology. Gayton utilized Krueger’s division of California into three “culture areas”: northwestern, southern and central. She sketched the common characteristics of each region according to the presence or absence of traits such as creation myths, culture heroes, and particular narratives about animals and other natural and supernatural forces. Her main point appears to have been that characteristics of the Californian culture areas are distributed beyond the current borders of the state, so that the cultures of northwestern California are actually closely related to the cultures of the Pacific Northwest, and so on (also see Goldschmidt 1951 for an independent perspective). At the same time, she found that the central Californian nations, including the Costanoans (a.k.a. Ohlone) were “aloof” from the influences of surrounding regions. Her judgment upon the Ohlone and other central California peoples seems hasty; these peoples were among the most heavily impacted by missionization. It might have been more accurate to write that she did not know what relationships may or may not have existed between them and their neighbors to the north, south and east rather than to dismiss such relationships as insignificant (also see Kroeber 1925, Gayton 1930, 1936 and DuBois 1939 treatment about the 1870 religious revitalization at Pleasanton). As with Levy, Gayton’s generalizations lack a sense of history and cultural change. Without a sense of the movement of ideas, especially ideas about cosmology, the way ideas changed within and between areas, or the development of particular ideas and their dynamics, Gayton represented pre-contact spiritual systems as static at the point when Europeans arrived. This is a conventional anthropological characterization of indigenous peoples that Eric Wolf (1982) has called “people without history”.
While Applegate’s (1978) analysis of the dream-helper complex is a much more contemporary, and for this study, more useful assessment of a widespread religious feature among Californian cultures, his discussion also drew boundaries around “culture areas” in Native California. Applegate uncritically accepted the linguistic, religious and social boundaries, parameters, and definitions anthropologists have been drawing around California Indian peoples for decades.
His description of the rigid boundaries between areas of California where the Kuksu religion was practiced (north and north-central) versus areas where the dream-helper complex dominated (south-central and south) resembles European preoccupations and experiences with religious
10-7 boundaries, as in the historical borders between Christendom and Islam. Using language to define sociocultural groups, in a manner identical to Levy, Applegate then reified those borders with religious differences, even when his own data demonstrate a gradient, not a boundary (for example, the presence of dream-helpers in native cosmologies decreases gradually from south to north). The notion of religious boundaries as defined by Europeans and Euro-Americans is probably neither an adequate nor an accurate model for understanding the distribution of cultural and cosmological traits in Native California.
John P. Harrington’s notes are an enormous, mostly unpublished, archival resource that comprises the single largest source of information concerned with the descendants of the pre-contact Ohlone peoples. Harrington’s obsession with preserving disappearing California Indian languages, his use of idiosyncratic orthographies and abbreviations, and his ongoing disputes with other anthropologists (particularly Alfred Kroeber) about vocabularies and linguistic structures all played a key role in shaping his research agenda and the ethnographic information he recorded. Using information from Harrington’s notes is thus anything but unproblematic, but recent anthropological introspection may help to recover the rich content of the Harrington materials.
In the last two decades, anthropologists have increasingly explored the relationship between “researcher” and informant: how social, political, and economic forces shape unequal relations of power between academics and the individuals constructed as “objects of study” (Leventhal et al. 1992). Much of the reflexive turn in anthropology has been highly critical in nature, stressing the need to re-order unequal relations of power to render anthropologists more responsible to their “informants” in order to make the anthropologists' intentions towards and representations of ethnographic "data" more apparent to informants and readers alike.
Sarris (1993), playing out themes that Clifford (1988) and Marcus and Fischer (1986) have elaborated upon, has recently described a dialogic approach to interpreting anthropologists’ work with Native American informants, particularly ethnographic texts which are constructed around life-history interviews the anthropologist has conducted. Sarris critically interrogates one such text, Elizabeth Colson’s Autobiographies of Three Pomo Women (1974 [1954]). Colson claimed to represent the Pomo world-view through the words of the Native informants themselves, even as her anthropologist’s hand in selecting particular parts of life-histories to include or exclude, and in editing and re-wording the “raw” interviews, remains mostly obscured from readers’ consideration. Sarris, himself partly of Kasha Pomo and Coast Miwok descent, wanted to read Colson’s work to understand how the Pomo women decided what to tell Colson and how they strategically shaped their words to cloak confidential information about Pomo culture, and how, in turn, Colson re-shaped them. He understands that there is no single “true” version of the Pomo women’s words (much less their thoughts), but an infinitely mutable series of readings and re-readings of Colson’s representation of her dialogues with the three women.
Ultimately, however, by calling attention to this complexity, Sarris re-establishes the humanity of the women as complexly motivated individuals in the face of anthropological objectification, by showing how they negotiated their relationship with the ethnographer, choosing how and what to reveal. The nature of anthropological truth after Sarris’ exercise
10-8 appears multi-faceted and enmeshed in the relations of power at both the individual and social levels.
Interestingly, Harrington was not insensitive to the dialogic nature of ethnography. Peppered throughout his voluminous word-lists and discourses concerning pronunciation and proper orthography, readers find short anecdotes, sequences of related conversational expressions, songs, and longer narratives. In the case of the South and East Bay Muwekma Ohlone people. Harrington conducted his interviews with several individuals, José (Joe) Guzman and Maria de los Angeles (Angela) Colos, Francisca Guzman, Susanna (Sus.) Nichols and Catherina Peralta Marine (one of José Guzman’s granddaughters then married to Lucas Marine) all of whom lived at one time at Alisal Rancheria and surrounding towns (Gifford 1926, 1927; Harrington 1921-1934; Field et al.1992, 2007; Davis 1994). Born near the town of Dublin, José Guzman came from mixed Central Valley Yokut families from Lacquisamne (or Julpun) and Tamcan villages long allied through kinship, trade and religious rituals with the East Bay Ohlones (Figure 10-1). One of his wives, Francisca Nonessi Guzman (Sheila Guzman Schmidt’s great-grandmother), however, was descended from Jalquin and Karquin Ohlones. Thus it is hardly surprising that José Guzman lived at both the Alisal and Niles Rancherias, which during this period was inhabited by a mixture of inter-married and culturally syncretic central Californian peoples speaking different Yokut, Miwok and Ohlone dialects, a situation that also reflected pre-contact social relations (see Field, Leventhal, Cambra, and Sanchez 1992 and 2007). Maria de los Angeles Colos whom Harrington regarded as his main linguistic consultant, was a Chocheño Ohlone-speaking Indian, born on the Bernal Rancho in the Santa Teresa Hills (at prehistoric site CA-SCL-125) located in south San Jose, who spent most of her life in the East Bay.
10-9
Figure 10-1: José Guzman with Granddaughter Marjory Guzman, August 1934, Niles (photograph by C. Hart Merriam)
Harrington’s awareness of the key role the ethnographer plays as editor and shaper of the dialogues upon which ethnographic texts are based is evident in the excerpt from his notes obtained while visiting the Muwekma Ohlone/Verona Band residing within the Pleasanton/Niles region of Alameda County (see below). In the actual transcription, readers can note the admixtures of English and Ohlone words in a basically Californio Spanish text, which appears more faithful to the speech of Harrington’s consultants than his own remembered text, which is primarily in English.
By recounting two different versions of Joe Guzman’s narrative, Harrington enables readers to appreciate the role of the ethnographer in shaping our view of native cosmology. At the same time, the access Harrington has afforded to Guzman’s words allows the reader to begin to appreciate how animals could appear in the Ohlone world-view of the early twentieth century, a world-view in which bees and wasps were heavily anthropomorphized as they engaged in the outraged feeling that led them to discuss and plan their revenge on the marauding human.
10-10 In Harrington’s version of the story, taken from his memory, he reconstructs Guzman’s sprawling narrative to fit western conventions -- where to begin a story and where to end it, how to describe the progression of events, how to introduce characters, and so forth. Moreover, Harrington’s first version deleted the dialogic aspects of the actual story-telling -- Angela’s comments, José’s demonstrations, and Harrington’s own comments and interjections. While in the first version Harrington’s hand is omnipotent but invisible, he is truly present as a participant in the second version. It is both Harrington’s acknowledgment of what an anthropologist’s mind does to Native narratives, and his appreciation for recording and representing the dialogues out of which such narratives emerge that makes this excerpt so valuable -- in addition, of course to the window Guzman’s story opens into the complex, multi-layered, and above all, intimate relationship between animal and human peoples that was still shaping Ohlone world-view early this century. Harrington’s notes thus enable us to approach such relationships between humans and animals in Ohlone culture as dialogue, keeping in mind the assumption that this world-view maintained historical links to pre-contact religious systems.
“Story by José Guzman (This first version is the erroneous one written from memory)”
A man used to go to an avispa nest (in the ground) and stamp and sing and take all the larvae. And go to another and do the same and also to jicote nests and do the same. He brought them and honey home and thus sustained his wife and two children. The avispas and jicotes were already acabandose, only old ones were left.
So they met and decided to dig a big hole so as to trap this man who was acabando them. They worked and worked, and they are great workers, and dug a great pit, and when pretty large made it still larger, and then covered it over so as to conceal it (evidently like a N.M. deer pitfall). And the man fell in. They told him he was ending them, that only they few old ones were left, that could not let him do that and go free. They ate all the meat off of him, leaving only bones and sinews, and in his breast heart and lungs, so that he would stay alive. Then they brought fine feather down (putr ca Angela says) and filled out his form with that so he had form of full body, but was of course light, like animal (non-human) pues. Then they told him to go home, have wood brought and dance.
He jumped out of the pit and went home going far at each step, sort of jumping along, he was so light. He told his plight to his wife and two children and told her to gather wood. Along in the light he danced and toward morning he rose up on high and tronó (there was a single clap like thunder and he exploded) and vanished. That was the end of him (Harrington 1921: reel 37:466-467).
"This is the good version taken down from José’s dictation:"
He told the people to gather wood, that he was to sweat and dance the last time. He started to dance (Inf. nesc. [doesn’t know] at what hours of the night) and in the early morning he rose up and se reventó into wind.
10-11 He was feeding the two children (nesc whether male or female). He was feeding his family by getting honey and larvae thus. He would reach the home of avispas and stamped two or three times and then the avispas empezaron a cantar inside and he was glad. “Que hay mucha gente,” decia, “hay muchos aqui, esta bueno.” And he killed the viejos with humo and took the honey and gozando of them. And the jicote, he killed with palo one by one as they came out until they were killed (José saw people kill jicotes thus but saw them kill avispas with humo). Rubbed dry estafiate between hands into bolas (size of potato) (Inf. showed how by gestures). Lighting these, they smoked well and had fans made by attaching gavilan tail to a palito seven inches long (as manguito) to use as abanico. The opening of the nest of avispas is one inch across. Put bola inside and lit it and lit it and fanned. Called estafiate hiƒen in Ind., Angela says.
Cuando ya se enfadaron las avispas and jicotes began to echar menos their young ones and their adults, for the man killed them not leaving one alive, and began to juntarse. “Como vamos hacer?” Le tenemos que agarrar, logramos, tiene que venir con nosotros. “Se empezaron a juntar de onde quiera para hacer onde iban a agarrarlo, onde iban a poner la trampa,” trabajaban de dia y de noche, dicen, para hacer el olio. When they finished le dijeron el patron: Y acabamos. Entonces le dijeron a dos, son mandaderos, son parditos, muy feitos, les decian coyote a esos, were like criados (these trabajadorcitos were medio pardos while the others were black). They were looking (as they had been told by the chief to see if venia aquel, el maton eses).
“Pongan cuidado cuando venga, vengan (Uds.) pronto,” he told those two trabajadores el. En la maῆana los cazaba el -- ese muton did y luego miraron que venia andando. The two at once entered and reported to the Capt. that he came ya. Then a certain few others (not all the rest and not the two trabajadores) kept going out and entrando, going out and entrando to make a show so as to attract the attention of the killer. Capt. told them avispas to go out and in this while the jicotes kept inside (all those not killed from far parts had gathered there and had been digging the pit).
When the man saw them he came contento and they were also contentos for they saw him coming.
Luego que llegó, luego le tiro dos patadas a la casa, y luego se fue, se sambutió. y luego lo agararon adentro, luego le dijeron “Ya venitis, lo estabamos esperando.” Luego le pusieron un tendido “Sientate alli!” entre todo el animalero. What must it have been like! [emphasis added] Angela ejaculates, and the jicotes all cantando hmmmmm. Cantando aquellos aquí. Luego empezaron a preguntar, “Tu sabes que estás matandonos? No podemos cria hijos.” Que iba a decir, el? Entonces le dijeron: Tienes que venir con nosotros ahora aquí con nosotros vas a venir. Pus que tenía a decir” Tenia que ir. Luego dijeron á nosotros y empezaron a trabajar, empezaron a comer, le sacaban toda la carne, le dejaron puros huesos y cuero no más, lo limpiaron toda la carne.
10-12
Acabaron a limpiarlo, decían a los otros: anden, traen pluma y metanle todo onde habia carne, metando alli. Toda la carne sacaron, no dejaron ni un pedacito adentro. “Te vas á ir,” luego que acabaron a limpiarle y echar pluma. Te vas á ir, go tell your family, á to gente, a todos digas que ya no vas á vivir mas, despídete and tell them que ya no te van a mirar mas. He did so and he go there and told them to gather wood. He was dancing and others too, and in the morning he told them: Ya me voy. He brincó para arriba, ya no pensaba, he was puras plumas. Dijo que ya era tiempo de irse, tenia que ir, se le llego el tiempo.
Se le llego el tiempo de entregar la vida. No mas brincó para arriba y tronó, se reventó pues, ya muerto seria, tirando los huesos por alli, yo no sé, pero el se reventó (Harrington 1921:reel 37:468-471).
Translation2:
He told the people to gather wood, that he was to sweat and dance the last time. He started to dance ([José] does not know at what hours of the night), and in the morning he rose up and exploded into the wind.
He was feeding the two children (does not know whether male or female). He was feeding his family by getting honey and larvae thus. He would reach the home of the bees and stamped two or three times and then the bees started to buzz and sing inside the hive and he was happy. “There are plenty of folks in here,” he said, “there are plenty, and that's good.” And then he killed the old ones with smoke, and took the honey, enjoying what he got from them. And the queen bee, he killed with a stick, one by one as they came out, until they were killed. (José saw people kill queen bees thus, but saw them kill the other bees with smoke. He rubbed dry estafiate between his hands into balls [size of potato]. [He showed how by gestures]). Lighting these, they smoked well, and had fans made by attaching a hawk’s tail to a stick seven inches long, as a handle, to use as a fan. The opening of the bees’ nest is one inch across. Put the ball inside it and lit it and lit it and fanned. They called estafiate hiƒen in the Indian language, Angela says.
When the bees had got already good and angry, and the queen bees had begun to miss their young ones and their adults, for the man killed them not leaving one alive, they began to swarm. “What are we going to do? We have to seize him, we must succeed, he must come with us!” So they began to swarm where they planned to grab him, where they were going to place the trap, and they worked night and day, they say, to make the hole. When they finished they told their Master: we will do away with him. So they told two, who were messengers, they were dark, very ugly, they called them coyotes, they were like servants (these drone bees were pretty dark while the others were black). They were looking as they had been told to do by their Captain, to see if the man had come, that bully, the bee killer.
10-13 “Take care when you come, come back soon,” their chief told the two drones. In the morning they hunted for the man, the bee killer, and then they saw him coming, walking along. The two at once entered the hive and reported to the Captain, that the man was coming soon. Then a certain few others (not all the rest and not the two drones) kept going out and entering, going out and entering, to make a show to attract the attention of the killer. Their Captain told them bees to go out and during this while the queen bees kept inside (all those not killed from far parts had gathered there and had been digging the pit).
When the man saw them, he came happily, and they were also happy for they saw him coming.
Then he arrived, then he kicked the hive two times, and then he went ahead, he plunged in. And then they grabbed him inside, then they said to him “He has come, we’ve been waiting for you!” Then they put a chair out for him, shouting “Sit here!” amongst all the insects. What must it have been like! Angela ejaculates, and the queen bees all buzzing hmmmmm. Buzzing like that here. Then they began to question him: “Do you know that you've been killing us? We can’t raise our children anymore.” What was he to say? Then they said to him: “You must come with us now, with us now you are going to come.” What could he say? He had to go. Then they said to us, then they began to work, they began to eat, they stripped off all his flesh, they left him just bones and skin, they cleaned off all the flesh.
They finished cleaning him off, they said to the others: “Go, bring feathers, and put it where there had been flesh; put it there.” All of the flesh they took off, they didn’t leave a single bit inside. “You will go now,” they said to him, after they finished cleaning him up, and putting on the feathers. “Go, and tell your family, to your people go now, and tell them you are not going to live anymore, hurry up, tell them they will not see you anymore.” He did so, and he went there and told them to gather wood. He was dancing and the others too, and in the morning he told them: “now I'm going.” He jumped up, he wasn't thinking, he was pure feathers. He said now was the time to leave, he had to go, the time had come.
The time had come to leave this life. He did nothing more than jump up and bang! he exploded; then he was dead, his bones thrown about -- I don't know, he exploded.
THE KINSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN AND ANIMAL PEOPLES
In the article mentioned above, Heizer and Hewes concluded that:
“... the Central California animal burials which we have been discussing are, in all probability, reflections of special status of one sort or another. An emphasis on certain animals in the moiety system and as eponyms of the lineages easily might have led to their requiring, under particular circumstances, mortuary treatment resembling that accorded humans” (1940:602).
10-14 This passage suggests that ritual animal burials and the placement of body parts with deceased people reflect the affiliation of particular animals with specific human kin groups in the relationship of totemism. To contextualize Heizer and Hewes’ hypothesis in the interpretation of the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] cemetery excavated by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe, information on pre- and post-contact Ohlone kinship systems is needed. Unfortunately, there is only a thin and somewhat contradictory literature available. Using an argument based on the similarities in their kinship terminologies, Levy described the Costanoan kinship system as similar to the Salinan, Chumash, and other more southern coastal peoples, which had households organized around large, patrilineal extended families. He also suggested that “[t]he Costanoan were grouped in clans and divided into deer and bear moieties,” and cites Harrington as a source for that information. In his “Culture Element Distributions XIX: Central California Coast” (1942),
Harrington reported moieties for “Southern Costanoans” (the San Juan Bautista, Gilroy and Hollister peoples, whose descendants have regrouped as the Amah-Mutsun Ohlone Tribe), but was non- committal about the presence of moieties among “Northern Costanoans,” (i.e., the people of the San Francisco Bay region). His list of traits for “Northern Costanoan” kinship systems is slender indeed: he found that hereditary chieftainships and the chief’s property were most often transmitted from father to son, but not infrequently they passed from brother to sister or father to daughter.
This study proceeds with the assumption that deer-bear moieties, or something parallel to that binary system (e.g., land-water) existed for all of the Ohlone-speaking peoples (see Harrington 1942; Bennyhoff 1977; Bean and Vane 1978; Ortiz 1994b), and also employ Gifford’s (1915) description of moieties among Central Valley Yokuts in order to construct a useful model of how the moiety system connected humans with animals. In his fieldwork, Gifford found land and water moieties for all the Yokut and Miwok-speaking people with whom he worked (see also Kroeber 1925:455 for the Miwok, and Kelly 1978, 1991 for a similar moiety structure among the Coast Miwok on the Marin Peninsula).
Each moiety featured not one but clusters, or better put, family trees, of totem animals of varying cultural significance. An individual’s totem animal depended upon his/her social, economic and ritual status. For the Yokuts, the land (Yokut: toxelyuwic; Miwok: tunuk) moiety was “the eagle and bear side,” and also the “west side” and “downstream” people; the water moiety was “the coyote side,” the “east side,” the “upstream” people. A land person of high rank might have bear or bald eagle for her/his totem, while the totem of an individual of lower status could be jackrabbit, fox, crow, California jay, roadrunner, raven, beaver, antelope, or wildcat. Similarly for the water (Yokut: nutuwic; Miwok: kikua) people, among whom high status persons claimed coyote or prairie falcon as their totem, others might be affiliated with deer, different owl species, skunk, different hawk species, or various water-dwelling creatures, California partridge, or turkey vultures. Each moiety was responsible for redeeming its totem animals captured or killed by the other moiety, and then for burying those animals with the proper respect and ceremony.
From this description, it can be deduced how a varied number of totem animals might end up in the graves of humans or be ritually interred in their own graves. Gifford made clear that a person’s totem animal had nothing to do with the spirit familiars, or dream helpers as Applegate has denominated them, with whom shamans and other individuals might ally through visions. For example, a nutuwic shaman might have a grizzly bear dream helper, and even transform
10-15 him/herself into a bear. Applegate painted a much more complex picture of the relationship between dream helpers and totem animals in his regional study of the dream helper in south- central and central coastal California. Animal dream helpers, in Applegate’s discussion, are the First People of California Native peoples’ narratives. When “real” time began, according to these narratives, the First People became animals, yet they continued to exist as deity-like beings in mythic time, which continued, encapsulated in and parallel to “real” time. These same animals, who were and continue to be the First People remembered in stories, are also totem animals. Merriam (1967) confirmed these relationships, writing that the Miwok of the Cosumnes River believed that “all people were once animals... a boy at puberty goes to the woods and wanders about ... By and by, when asleep, he sees (or dreams he sees) the animal he came from and that animal feeds him then and throughout his life” (1967:359).
Applegate contended that there is an overlap between the totem animals corresponding to particular kin groups and the different dream helpers with whom individuals ally through visions. And, in fact, an individual behaves in much the same way towards his/her totem and her/his dream helper, never killing or eating the flesh of either. Nevertheless, Applegate cited important differences between the two types of animal beings in Native cosmology. Totem animals formed a part of social knowledge, and are inherited mostly, but not always, patrilineally throughout California. They were linked to broadly understood and fixed political, ceremonial, and professional rights and duties derived from the precedents established by each totem animal in First People narratives.
By contrast, Applegate described the dream helper as a much more personal, indeed deeply private, matter, operating under far less formalized relationships, and subject to a great deal of individual variation. Again, Applegate illustrated how the two cosmological concepts were twined about one another, citing examples of south-central Native peoples, such as the Tachi Yokuts, among whom individuals were more likely to ally with a dream helper that were part of the moiety's animal family tree. For other peoples, such as the Wukchumni Yokuts, those who were Bear dancers must also have had Bear for a totem and a dream helper. Finally, for the Chumash, the chiefs of the canoemen’s guild (Tomol) had to claim peregrine falcon for both totem and dream helper.
Applegate’s analysis leaves open the possibility that ritually buried animals might have had significance as the dream helpers of individuals with whom they were buried, even though he stressed that most people never revealed the identity of their dream helpers during their lives. The possibility seemed most salient for shamans, who were described by Gifford (1914) among the Central Miwok. In conversations with Gifford, Susie and Tom Williams, detailed the varieties of shamans and their special powers and abilities, speaking pointedly about the kinship between shamans and their animal allies who seem to be both their dream helpers and totems. However, the American occupation of the territories of the Sierra Miwoks disrupted kin networks, the socialization of children, and the transmission of complex oral traditions and ceremonies between generations. These circumstances could easily have led to a blurring of the distinctions between dream helper and totem for early twentieth century Miwok shamans. Nevertheless, Tom Williams made clear, in no uncertain terms, that his cousin, a rattlesnake shaman (wakilmê), would bleed from the nose and declaim “my friend got killed,” if someone nearby killed a rattlesnake (1914:26).
10-16
Thus, again we are confronted by the human and animal remains that lay buried for thousands of years before the Muwekma archaeologists discovered and exposed them. The ethnographic accounts cited above provide a framework for the meaning of ritual animal burials as related to a kin- based totemism, while these sources, at the same time, underline the transformation of these complex pre-contact cosmological and social systems. To tie this knot ever more tightly, this section presents another narrative, this one about Kaknú3, the prairie falcon culture hero, recorded by Harrington in 1921 from Angela Colos. In this story, the alliances between humans and animal peoples are set in a time that seems more recent than the time of the First People, but features a malevolent being, the wíwe(c), with whom humans only feign alliance.
"Kaknú Tale"
The small pintito gavilan that mata patos and cosas grandes, pajaros grandes is called kaknú. Es muy mentado ese gavilan, not everybody can shoot it. The gavilan fought with the cuerpo de piedra called wíwe(c). He was a hombre cuerpo de piedra. He was woundable only in his neck above breastbone and ombligo. The kaknú shot once at each of these places and killed him. The peñascos of all the earth are the stones that went from his body when killed (now the whites call them peñascos). The kaknú is the encantado in all the mundo.
Se estaban reventandose in all directions.
The lord of the earth under the earth (the cuerpo de piedra) had two criados negros under the earth and when he killed a person he gave the blood to these two to drink. The kaknú was liviano with the bow, a fine peleador. . . after killing the wíwe(c) he.. .
The people after he killed him, the people kneeling asked him what he wanted them to do and he said for him to stay there. [Ind.s had two kinds of arrows - poison pointed (just touch the point to you and you die)]
He went down to the lowest dueño in the earth.
At last he married and she turned water and is the water -- water was her body. He la regaño and she said she did not like it that he treated her so strong. And he mojado told her que ells tenia que volverse agua. Hasta ahora es agua. Al ultimo cuando ya no quiso pelear mas con nadie he turned into a form like the paloma and entered debajo de la tierra -- he made earth reventar y sambutió. Siempre con un arco. He dived down. He had lots of people down there.
The kaknú dove into the sweathouse through the smokehole (la ventana en medio del techo) when he embocó the two jarazos but not a wing was injured. Then after killing he took the two criados negros by the legs and swung their brains against the post of the temescal, and the temescal and wíwe(c) and the criados burnt up together and the kaknú left.
10-17 They were negros de la sangre que comían, no mas pura sangre comfan. They were not sons, they were only esclavos, criados, that he had for the purpose of commanding. There were many people there too. But he left them all -- only killed the three. He had been a feared man, quien lo iba matar, tenia cuerpo de piedra.
Only young children did not enter sweathouse. Men and women did. Se le araba el resuello with the calor de la lumbre.
Wíwe(c) killed all the people that reached his home, and the negros drank the blood. Puro huesamento there -- from the people he had eaten. Kaknú said he would see how he fared there, and he killed him and the two criados. But he did not kill the other people there. He told them que se ve vieron bien.
When kaknú wanted to sambutir, anywhere, he was no mas doblaba las alas (gesture of shrugging shoulders) and he entered anywhere out of sight.
He llegó con el dueño de la sal ([Ch] ‘awé∫ = sal, kaknú named it thus). The name of the dueño de la sal was hi wi∫ and kaknú killed him.
Se murio se quedo alli reventandose - - all the lomas etc. flew asunder.
Cuerpo de piedra had two criados negros. Kaknú was a tall lean man, wíwe(c) was a short stout man. After killing, kaknú agarró the wíwe(c)'s wife, nesc. where wíwe(c) lived. People that reached there never returned. Por eso, kaknú said he would see if they would eat his body too -- they'll not eat me! Dueño de la sal lived in another part.
Coyote his abuelo.
And there he saw Doña Vibora, a careciaba and she said no le dentara.
He asked her con que mataba: Looking into the face en que esa mujer, he acted as if she was of no consequence. “Con que matas?” looking into her face. He took her arm and tras! she mordío him and he died. They burnt the body and under the earth.
Says there are songs for killing but forgets them. It is a long song -- every jarazo -- there were five jarazos and the fifth pierced his throat, and then seizing all the rest of the arrows in the quiver he plunged them with his hand into wíwe(c)'s ombligo. Wíwe(c) perdío la rancheria thus, perdío la vida. Inf. nesc. then sings. Cada jarazo tiene un canto -- kalcmi mienta wíwe(c) and wíwe(c) mienta kaknú. As kaknú shouts at wíwe(c) “Me va matar el kaknú” “Me va matar el wíwe(c).” Each has song that mentions name of other.
10-18 When kaknú entered the smokehole, the people were all standing like estacas looking on. Wíwe(c) told them to add fuel so kaknú would get burnt, but instead they pulled the fire down. The people were under wíwe(c), but they were friends of kaknú really. It was the other people who arrived whom he ate.
Ay was the vida que tenia wíwe(c) -- en el tragadero and the ombligo. Each home -- shot. He made a groaning sound (Harrington 1921:reel 36:614-621).
Translation:
The small speckled hawk that kills ducks and bigger things, bigger birds, is called kaknú. He is very famous, this hawk, and not everybody can shoot it. The hawk fought with the body of stone called wíwe(c). He was a man whose body was made of stone. He was woundable only in his neck above the breastbone and in his navel. The kaknú shot once at each of these places and killed him. The rocky crags of all the earth are the stones that went from his body when he was killed (now the whites call them peñascos). The kaknú is the most enchanted bird in the world.
He was bursting out in all directions.
The lord of the earth under the earth (the body of stone) had two black creatures under the earth, and when he killed a person he gave the blood to these two to drink. The kaknú was handy with the bow, a fine hunter. . . after killing the wíwe(c) he . . .
The people after he killed him, the people kneeling asked him what he wanted them to do and he said for him to stay there.
(Indians had two kinds of arrows - poison pointed: just touch the point to you and you die.)
He went down to the lowest owner of the earth.
At last he married and she turned into water and is the water -- water was her body. He fooled her and she did not like it that he treated her so strong. And he wet her and told her that she had to turn back into water. Until this day, she is water.
At last, when he no longer wanted to fight any more with anybody, he turned into a form like the pigeon and he entered under the earth - he made the earth burst and he jumped. Always with a bow. He dived down. He had lots of people down there.
The kaknú dove into the sweathouse through the smokehole (the window in the middle of the roof) when he was hit by the two arrows, but not a wing was injured. Then after killing, he took the two black creatures by the legs and swung their brains against the post of the sweathouse, and the sweathouse lodge and the wíwe(c) and the critters burnt up together and the kaknú left.
10-19 They were black from the blood they ate, just pure blood is what they ate. They were not sons, they were only slaves, creatures, that he had for the purpose of commanding. There were many people there too. But he left them all -- only killed the three. He had been a feared man, the one he had killed, who had the body of stone.
Only the young children did not enter the sweathouse. Men and women did. They made themselves pant from the heat of the fire.
Wíwe(c) killed all the people that reached his home, and the black ones drank the blood. It was all bones there, from the people he had eaten. Kaknú said he would see how he fared there, and he killed him and the two critters, but he did not kill the other people there. He told them that it was clear that they looked just fine.
When kaknú wanted to jump anywhere, he did no more than pull in his wings, (makes gesture of shrugging shoulders) and he entered anywhere out of sight.
He arrived where the owner of salt lived ([Chi] ‘ = al, kaknú named it thus). The name of the owner of salt was hi wi∫ and kaknú killed him.
He died and stayed there bursting apart -- all the hills etc. flew asunder.
The body of stone had two black creatures. Kaknú was a tall lean man, wíwe(c) was a short stout man. After killing, kaknú captured the wíwe(c)'s wife (Angela doesn't know where wíwe(c) lived). People that reached there never returned. Because of this, kaknú said he would see if they would eat his body too -- they'll not eat me! The owner of salt lived in another part.
Coyote was his grandfather.
And there he saw Mrs. Rattlesnake, coiled up and she said I won't bite.
He asked her how she killed: Looking into the face of this woman, he acted as if she was of no consequence. “With what do you kill?” looking into her face. He took her arm and so then she bit him and he died. They burnt the body and under the earth.
Says there are songs for killing but forgets them. It is a long song -- every arrow -- there were five arrows and the fifth pierced his throat, and then seizing all the rest of the arrows in the quiver he plunged them with his hand into wíwe(c)'s navel. Wíwe(c) lost his place, lost his life. Angela doesn't know, then sings. Every arrow has a song -- kaknú is lying to wíwe(c) and wíwe(c) is lying to kaknú. As kaknú shouts at wíwe(c) “I am going to kill the kaknú” “I am going to kill the wíwe(c).” Each has a song that mentions the name of other.
When kaknú entered the smokehouse, the people were all standing like sticks in the ground, looking on. Wíwe(c) told them to add fuel so kaknú would get burnt, but instead they pulled the fire down. The people were under wíwe(c), but they were friends of kaknú really. It was the other people who arrived whom he ate.
10-20
So that was the life that wíwe(c) had - in the throat and the navel. Each home -- shot. He made a groaning sound.
A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF THE RUPTURE OF OHLONE CULTURAL MEMORY IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT
The narratives that Harrington recorded from José Guzman and Angela Colos reveal that well into the twentieth century Ohlone descendants told stories about humans and animals that formed part of an indigenous world-view. To what extent that world-view was historically related to mission- period and pre-Hispanic indigenous cosmology is a theme that has been touched upon in this study repeatedly. Ohlone cultural memory was ultimately disrupted in the mid-twentieth century, such that contemporary descendants do not tell these stories anymore, or speak the indigenous languages in which they were originally expressed. Can we assess how the Spanish colonization of coastal California contributed to the disruption of cultural memory prior to and following the loss of the East Bay rancherias’ (e.g., Alisal, del Mocho, Niles, Sunol, San Lorenzo)? By using the backdrop of brief comparisons with the Spanish colonization of New Mexico, another northern frontier of the Spanish Empire where indigenous peoples have not experienced such severe disruption, and the Russian colonization of the coastal region (southern Pomo and Coast Miwok) north of the Ohlone region, where the cultural memory of indigenous peoples experienced a different dynamic of transformative loss, we can attempt a preliminary assessment.
Spain moved into California (AD 1769) very late in its imperial history, even though Spanish mariners had reconnoitered the coast in the late 16th century. The accession of the Bourbon dynasty towards the end of the 18th century revived imperial ambitions and the need to compete with British and Russian territorial ambitions in western North America (Weber 1992). The colonial occupation of California occurred primarily as a military-geopolitical venture, intended to hold the line on the Spanish Pacific frontier through the establishment of presidios at San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, and San Francisco that made California “secure” from the other competing powers Secondarily, the Spanish needed to control the native populations, a task secured by the Franciscans, whose missions did so at the cost of almost obliterating those populations (Rawls 1984; Hurtado 1988; and Monroy 1990).
To control indigenous populations and render their missions productive in the European sense, late 18th century Spanish missionization was obliged to destroy the productive, distributive, and ecological features of aboriginal Ohlone political economy, all of which were alien to the Spaniards (Leventhal, Field, Cambra and Alvarez 1994). The missions were, in fact, highly successful economic ventures that produced significant agricultural surpluses, which were only partly consumed by the relatively few Spanish settlers and mostly exported back to Mexico (Weber 1992). That success hinged upon the wholesale transformation of the coastal ecology of California which, working hand in hand with the violent destruction of Native economies, polities, and cosmologies, rendered any return to indigenous lifeways virtually impossible (see Milliken 1991 for an alternative perspective). Given this colonial regime, indigenous cultural revivals were unlikely. But such a revival did occur, based upon the meager economic base of seasonal ranch jobs on the estates of the Hispanic Californios. As discussed elsewhere, Alisal provided a land base for the revival of Ohlone cultural memory into this century (Field,
10-21 Leventhal, Cambra and Sanchez 1992; Davis 1992; Davis, Stewart, and Hitchcock 1994; Leventhal, Field, Alvarez and Cambra 1994). When the fragile economic base of Alisal tottered, and the land base folded, the processes initiated by Spanish missionization came to fruition, and cultural memory fragmented. Nevertheless, even the loss of Alisal and Niles Rancherias could not destroy the indigenous social structure maintained by relations of kin, which sustained Ohlone identity until the tribal revitalization of the late twentieth century.
The contrasting case of the Spanish colonization of New Mexico is instructive in underscoring the processes which led to the fragmentation of Ohlone cultural memory. New Mexico fell under Spanish imperial domination much earlier, during the first decades of the 17th century, and was spurred on less by imperial geopolitics than by the expulsion of the Moors from the Spanish homeland in Iberia a century earlier and the Spanish conquest of the fabulously wealthy and sophisticated Aztec Empire (see Gutierrez 1991). The Spaniards re-enacted the experience of both of these historical events in New Mexico, both on the level of real and symbolic conquests (ibid.). The colonial venture in New Mexico failed to attract large numbers of colonists, and the Franciscans became the dominant force, asserting power even over the military. In New Mexico, however, the Franciscans confronted indigenous civilizations whose features fell within the parameters of European comprehension: the peoples who became known as the Pueblos farmed and lived in recognizable towns. Their towns may have been both too densely populated and too distant from one another for Franciscan tastes, and their agriculture may have looked unfamiliar or primitive, but the Franciscans did not attempt to completely alienate the Pueblos from their lands and way of life, as they did later with California natives. When the Franciscans’ efforts to convert the Pueblos to Catholicism and annihilate their traditional religions overstepped the boundaries of Pueblo patience, the Pueblos revolted and expelled the Spaniards from their towns and territories, many of which were still largely intact.
After the Spaniards reconquered New Mexico in the late 17th century, Franciscan missionary effort and control was for the most part discredited, and the Empire recognized limited but significant Pueblo rights over their lands and political autonomy (Weber 1992). This is not to say that the Pueblo did not suffer from constant depredations by the Spaniards, Mexicans, and ultimately the Americans against these limited rights and especially against their religions; nevertheless, the Pueblos have successfully struggled to maintain control over their homelands. Their success, which has provided a continuous base from which to transmit cultural memory, contrasts with the experience of the Californian native peoples, and seems intricately related to a certain level of comprehension Europeans and Euro-Americans have displayed towards the fundamental outlines of Pueblo culture as a form of civilization.
Comparing the colonial experience of the Ohlones to that of the Pomo peoples in the region just north of San Francisco, reveals very different outcomes of the encounter between Europeans and Native Californian civilizations, even though both of these civilizations were fundamentally alien in the eyes of all Europeans. In the early years of the 19th century, the Russian Empire, whose main North American locus of operations was located in the Aleutian Islands and southeast Alaska, established an area of control in the territories of speakers of Kashaya Pomo and Coast Miwok languages, in what is now Sonoma County. Like the Spaniards, the Russians were engaged in an imperial geo-political game in California, as well as exploiting a region of fertile soils and sea
10-22 mammal furs (i.e., sea otter) in order to produce agricultural surpluses for export to the more important Alaskan colonies (analogous to the Spaniards to the south).
The Russians established Fort Ross on the Sonoma Coast in the heart of the lands of the Kashaya Pomo. The Kashaya and people from other Pomo nations and neighboring Coast Miwok tribes were obliged at gunpoint to build the fort and to till its agricultural estates (Sarris 1993; also see Lightfoot 2005). However, the Russians neither forcibly converted the Kashayas and their neighbors to the Orthodox Church, nor did they attempt to subvert and destroy Native social structures, symbolic systems, and languages. The effect of the Russians on the environment was mostly limited to the greater region immediately surrounding Fort Ross, rather than, as with the Spanish, spread over huge regions transformed by European-introduced grasses and livestock. While Sarris describes the labor tribute the Russians exacted from Kashaya as “virtually slavery,” with the exception of the Aleuts, the Russians neither trafficked in human property, nor did they seek to control every aspect of their Native laborers’ lives. As a result of the very different regime the Pomos experienced under Russian imperialism, these Native peoples maintained a much stronger grip upon land, language, and material culture than any of the missionized Indians, including the Ohlone. The sustained assault on Kashaya and other Pomo cultures took place some decades later, after California’s admission to the United States, when all indigenous peoples in the state endured a period of genocidal policies pursued by the federal and state governments. The Pomos became reservation Indians, subjected to the various attempts by local and national authorities to annihilate their sociocultural heritage, which ultimately resulted in the corrosive social pathologies of alcoholism, fragmented families, and economic marginalization.
By the time the Pomo nations and other native Californians were delivered into the hands of the BIA and other governmental bureaucracies intent upon extinguishing indigenous peoples in California (Dorrington 1927; Stewart 1978; Slagle 1996), the Ohlone (Costanoan), declared “extinct for all practical purposes” by Kroeber (1925:464) and nearly everyone who came after him, had already been left, for dead, i.e., as politically inconsequential, invisible and marginalized by the bureaucrats. They were therefore completely disenfranchised on the one hand, but on the other did not endure the agony of the reservation system. Thus, the colonial histories of the Ohlone peoples and the Pomo peoples have taken very different trajectories of cultural memory. Pomo cultural memory is both more intact, and operates under the rubric of federal recognition of tribal status; it is therefore laden with the pain of reservation life, and might be symbolized, as Sarris has so eloquently described, by the Pomo basket, a cultural artifact still produced by Pomo women, greatly esteemed by the White art world, even while the Pomo basket makers live in poverty and cultural oppression. Ohlone cultural memory might be seen as a basket that has been hidden, whose contents have been robbed, and for which the art of manufacture has been stolen; yet this basket is also a living entity, symbolizing the continuity of Ohlone identity that survived Spanish and American colonialism. Through the revitalization movement associated with the struggle for federal acknowledgment, the Ohlone basket and the secrets of its making are being re-filled with the symbols, language and world-view uncovered by the Ohlone descendants themselves through archaeology and the archives of their recent ancestors at Alisal. This study, co-authored by the descendants of the surviving lineages from the East Bay rancherias, forms a part of the process of refilling the Muwekma Ohlone basket.
10-23 CONCLUSIONS
The research goals of this study included several interwoven aspects of Ohlonean prehistory and culture that allowed for the development of an analytical framework through the use of central Californian cosmological and ethnohistorical data as analogies for the interpretation of the ritual animal-related mortuary patterns identified at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. The development of this analytical framework also included: 1) an understanding of how moiety systems were structured amongst the better documented neighboring Miwok and Yokuts peoples to the east of the study area; 2) a critical review of the cosmological and symbolic relationships between humans and animals from the central Native California tribal regions; 3) the specific employment and presentation of Ohlonean ethnographic stories as told by Muwekma elders to J. P. Harrington during the 1920s that addresses the complex interrelationship between humans and animals; 4) the translation and interpretations of these Ohlonean stories by the co-authoring descendants of the Muwekma elders; and 5) the understanding of the cultural, social and political dynamics that affected the cultural memory of the Ohlonean people in contrast to the Kashaya people to the north and the Pueblo cultures of the Southwest.
Given the results of these research goals, complex aspects of Ohlonean and neighboring central California tribal social organization, cosmology and symbolism have been presented as ethnographic analogs in order to offer possible explanation for the placement of ritual selected animal body parts associated with human remains at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites.
Kroeber (1925), in his monumental work on the California Indians provided some additional details regarding the alignment of various animals, birds, fish, insects, plants, natural phenomena, and ceremonial objects within the totemic structure of the Miwoks. His interpretive treatment aligning the various named animals, birds, insects, plants, fish, natural phenomena and ceremonial objects to either the Land Side or Water Side moiety, serves as possible direct symbolic analogs for the animal-related mortuary pattern encountered at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites (Table 10-1). Furthermore, given the understanding that at the time when fieldwork was conducted amongst the Miwok people during the early part to this century, their culture, and therefore, the intactness of their social and cosmological universe had also been enraptured by the impacts of colonialism. Nonetheless, even from the remnant of their “cultural memory” about their aboriginal past, a very cosmologically complex image emerges from Kroeber’s structured alignment of these Miwok moiety symbols. The following table presents the data obtain from Kroeber's (1925:455) list of Miwok moiety animals, birds, fish, insects, plants, natural phenomena and ceremonial objects.
10-24 Table 10-1 Miwok Moiety Alignments and Symbols
Land Side Water Side Land Side Water Side Bear Deer Katydid Bee Puma (Mt. Lion) Antelope Caterpillar Wild Cat Cocoon Dog Coyote Butterfly Fox Snail Raccoon Beaver Haliotis, and other Tree Squirrel Otter shells and bead money Badger Jack rabbit Sugar pine Jimson weed Eagle Black oak White Oak Condor Buzzard Pine nuts Vetch Raven Manzanita Oak gall Magpie Tobacco Wild cabbage Hawk Falcon (probably) Tule Chicken hawk Salmonberry Great owl Burrowing owl (and other) (and other) Blue jay Meadow lark (plants) (plants) Woodpecker Killdeer Yellow-hammer Hummingbird Sky Cloud Goldfinch Kingbird Sun, sunshine, Rain Creeper Bluebird sunrise Fog Dove Stars Water, lake Quail Night Ice Goose Fire Mud Swan Earth Lightning Crane Salt Rock Jacksnipe Sand Kingfisher, and no doubt other water Bows, arrows, quiver Nose ornament of shell birds (probably) Lizard Frog Drum Salamander Ear plug Feather apron Water snake Feather headdress Football Turtle Gambling bones Salmon, and various other fishes Yellow-Jacket Ant
Note: those moiety symbols highlighted in bold were also found in mortuary contexts at the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. Those symbols highlighted in bold and are italicized are found in the Muwekma stories.
10-25 In conclusion, this study attempts to go beyond the mere description and listing of animal remains recovered from mortuary context. While other studies have merely alluded to possible generalized “ceremonial”, “ritual” or “religious” uses of artifacts or activities at archaeological sites (e.g., see Cartier et al.1993; Samuelson and Self 1995 and others), as well as the fact that many of these studies have also ignored that the human remains recovered from respective Bay Area sites are the result of ritualized activities that centered around formal cemeteries, this project has attempted to interweave a host of complex processes that cross-cut archaeological, ethnohistoric, and ethnographic boundaries. Furthermore, the thrust of this analysis, which focused on critical considerations of pre-contact Ohlonean cosmology as interpreted through central California ethnohistory and the use of ethnohistorical method and theory, attempted to operationalize aspects of complex pre-contact Native California ritual systems as inferred from both the ethnohistoric record and the mortuary complex recovered from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. This analytical process was in conformance with what D. H. Thomas has argued for, that “such ethnoarchaeological inquiry provides the arguments necessary to bridge the gap between observable archaeological contexts and nonobservable systemic contexts” (1989:171).
End Notes
1) Merriam was the first to use the expression “Ohlonean” languages, which Levy (1978), using Kroeber's (1925) suggestions, embellished into a seven branch Ohlone language tree. In this study, we do not view language as a defining feature of pre-contact Native Californian cultures, but rather as one of several important factors underlying regionalization and the integration of regions before the arrival of Europeans.
2) On October 10, 1986, Muwekma Elder Dolores Sanchez read over and offered a translation to the above Guzman stories (video tape on file Muwekma Tribal office). As part of the review process of these stories and the translation offered by Dolores Sanchez in 1986, at a tribal gathering a few days after New Year's 1995, Muwekma Elders Dottie Galvan Lameira, Concha Rodriguez and Hank Alvarez, along with family members, also worked on these translations.
3) Mission record research conducted by Milliken demonstrates that the Kaknú (Cacnu) name or stem was given to both males and females from Chochenyo-speaking Ohlone tribes of the East Bay Chocheño and South and West Bay Tamien-speaking Ohlone tribal groups of the Santa Clara Valley as personal names [see Table 10-2 below (from Ortiz 1994a:108; Table 4.1)].
10-26
Table 10-2 Dialectical Stems Based Upon the Root “Cacnu”
NAME SEX TRIBE LANGUAGE MISSION BAPTISM NO. Cacnu F Tuibun Ohlonean San Jose 1044 Cacnum F Tuibun Ohlonean San Jose 631 Cacnusce M Tuibun Ohlonean San Jose 438 Cacnute F Ssaoam Ohlonean San Jose 1315 Cacnuse M Patlam(village) Ohlonean San Jose 767 Cacnuse F Huiciun Ohlonean San Francisco 1610 Cacnumtole M Yrgin Ohlonean San Jose 857 Cacnute F Jalquin Ohlonean San Francisco 2383 Cacnu F Jalquin Ohlonean San Francisco 2308 10-27 Cacnumaye F JalguinfTatcan Ohlonean/Bay Miwok San Francisco 2361
10-27 Cacnutole M Tatcan Bay Miwok San Jose 1601 Cacnumaye F Tatcan Bay Miwok San Francisco 3016 Cacnumai F Saclan Bay Miwok San Francisco 1735 Cacnumaie F Saclan Bay Miwok San Francisco 1539 Cacnumaie F Saclan By Miwok San Francisco 1574 Cacnute F Saclan Bay Miwok San Francisco 1570 Cacnucche M Saclan Bay Miwok San Francisco 1553 Cacnumtole M Saclan Bay Miwok San Francisco 1556 Cacnucia M Saclan Bay Miwok San Francisco 1531 Cacnu M Volvon Bay Miwok San Francisco 3149 Cacnu F Volvon Bay Miwok San Francisco 3361 Cacumute F San Antonio Ohlonean Santa Clara 1615 Cacurum F Santa Agueda Ohlonean Santa Clara 1758 Cacunusi M Santa Agueda Ohlonean Santa Clara 2793 Cacunuese M San Bernardino Ohlonean Santa Clara 2296
After Ortiz 1994a
SYMBOLIC MEANINGS AS DERIVED FROM CENTRAL CALIFORNIA INDIAN SACRED NARRATIVES: A VIEW FROM ONE OF THE NORTHEASTERN MAIDU CREATION STORIES -- DEATH -SACRED SPACE, AND SACRED FOOD
THE CREATION (MAIDU) (as told by Hánc’ibyjim (Tom Young) in 1902), Genesee, Plumas County) Roland Dixon, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xvii, 39, No. I (from Tales of the North American Indians by Stith Thompson, 1966:24-30)
In the beginning there was no sun, no moon, no stars. All was dark, and everywhere there was only water. A raft came floating on the water. It came from the north, and in it were two persons, — Turtle and Father-of-the-Secret-Society. The stream flowed very rapidly. Then from the sky a rope of feathers, was let down, and down it came Earth-Initiate. When he reached the end of the rope, he tied it to the bow of the raft, and stepped in. His face was covered and was never seen, but his body shone like the sun. He sat down, and for a long time said nothing.
At last Turtle said, "Where do you come from?" and Earth-Initiate answered, "I come from above." Then Turtle said, "Brother, can you not make for me some good dry land, so that I may sometimes come up out of the water?" Then he asked another time, "Are there going to be any people in the world?" Earth-Initiate thought awhile, then said, "Yes." Turtle asked, "How long before you are going to make people?" Earth-Initiate replied, "I don't know. You want to have some dry land: well, how am I going to get any earth to make it of?"
Turtle answered, "If you will tie a rock about my left arm, I'll dive for some." Earth-Initiate did as Turtle asked, and then, reaching around, took the end of a rope from somewhere, and tied it to Turtle. When Earth-Initiate came to the raft, there was no rope there: he just reached out and found one. Turtle said, "If the rope is not long enough, I'll jerk it once, and you must haul me up; if it is long enough, I'll give two jerks, and then you must pull me up quickly, as I shall have all the earth that I can carry." Just as Turtle went over the side of the boat, Father-of-the-Secret- Society began to shout loudly.
Turtle was gone a long time. He was gone six years; and when he came up, he was covered with green slime, he had been down so long. When he reached the top of the water, the only earth he had was a very little under his nails: the rest had all washed away. Earth-Initiate took with his right hand a stone knife from under his left armpit, and carefully scraped the earth out from under Turtle's nails. He put the earth in the palm of his hand, and rolled it about till it was round; it was as large as a small pebble. He laid it on the stern of the raft. By and by he went to look at it: it had not grown at all. The third time that he went to look at it, it had grown so that it could be spanned by the arms. The fourth time he looked, it was as big as the world, the raft was aground, and all around were mountains as far as he could see. The raft came ashore at Ta′doikö, and the place can be seen to-day.
When the raft had come to land, Turtle said, “I can’t stay in the dark all the time. Can’t you make a light, so that I can see?” Earth-Initiate replied, “Let us get out of the raft, and then we will see what we can do.” So all three got out. Then Earth-Initiate said, “Look that way, to the east! I am going to tell my sister to come up.”
10-28
Then it began to grow light, and day began to break; then Father-of-the-Secret-Society began to shout loudly, and the sun came up. Turtle said, “Which way is the sun going to travel?” Earth- Initiate answered, “I’ll tell her to go this way, and go down there.”
After the sun went down, Father-of-the-Secret-Society began to cry and shout again, and it grew very dark. Earth-Initiate said, "I'll tell my brother to come up." Then the moon rose. Then Earth- Initiate asked Turtle and Father-of-the-Secret-Society, "How do you like it?" and they both answered, "It is very good." Then Turtle asked, "Is that all you are going to do for us?" and Earth-Initiate answered, "No, I am going to do more yet." Then he called the stars each by its name, and they came out. When this was done, Turtle asked, "Now what shall we do?" Earth- Initiate replied, "Wait, and I'll show you." Then he made a tree grow at Ta′doikö, — the tree called Hu′kīmtsa; and Earth-Initiate and Turtle and Father-of-the-Secret-Society sat in its shade for two days. The tree was very large, and had twelve different kinds of acorns growing on it.
After they had sat for two days under the tree, they all went off to see the world that Earth- Initiate had made. They started at sunrise, and were back by sunset. Earth-Initiate traveled so fast that all they could see was a ball of fire flashing about under the ground and the water. While they were gone, Coyote and his dog Rattlesnake came up out of the ground. It is said that Coyote could see Earth-Initiate's face. When Earth-Initiate and the others came back, they found Coyote at Ta′doikö. All five of them then built huts for themselves, and lived there at Ta′doikö, but no one could go inside of Earth-Initiate's house. Soon after the travelers came back, Earth-Initiate called the birds from the air, and made the trees and then the animals. He took some mud, and of this made first a deer; after that, he made all the other animals. Sometimes Turtle would say, "That does not look well: can't you make it some other way?"
Some time after this, Earth-Initiate and Coyote were at Marysville Buttes. Earth-Initiate said, “I am going to make people.” In the middle of the afternoon he began for he had returned to Ta′doikö. He took dark red earth, mixed it with water, and made two figures, -- one a man, and one a woman. He laid the man on his right side, and the woman on his left, inside his house. Then he lay down himself, flat on his back, with his arms stretched out. He lay thus and sweated all the afternoon and night. Early in the morning the woman began to tickle him in the side. He kept very still, did not laugh. By and by he got up, thrust a piece of pitch-wood into the ground, and fire burst out. The two people were very white. No one to-day is as white as they were. Their eyes were pink, their hair was black, their teeth shone brightly, and they were very handsome. It is said that Earth-Initiate did not finish the hands of the people, as he did not know how it would be best to do it. Coyote saw the people, and suggested that they ought to have hands like his. Earth-Initiate said, “No, their hands shall be like mine.” The he finished them. When Coyote asked why their hands were to be like that, Earth-Initiate answered, “So that, if they are chased by bears, they can climb trees.” This first man was called Ku′ksū; and the woman, Morning Star Woman.
When Coyote had seen the two people, he asked Earth-Initiate how he had made them. When he was told, he thought, "That is not difficult. I'll do it myself." He did just as Earth-Initiate had told him, but could not help laughing, when, early in the morning, the woman poked him in the ribs.
10-29
As a result of his failing to keep still, the people were glass-eyed. Earth-Initiate said, "I told you not to laugh," but Coyote declared he had not. This was the first lie.
By and by there came to be a good many people. Earth-Initiate had wanted to have everything comfortable and easy for people, so that none of them should have to work. All fruits were easy to obtain, no one was ever to get sick and die. As the people grew numerous, Earth-Initiate did not come as often as formerly, he only came to see Ku′ksū in the night. One night he said to him, "Tomorrow morning you must go to the little lake near here. Take all the people with you. I'll make you a very old man before you get to the lake." So in the morning Ku′ksū collected all the people, and went to the lake. By the time he had reached it, he was a very old man. He fell into the lake, and sank down out of sight. Pretty soon the ground began to shake, the waves overflowed the shore, and there was a great roaring under the water, like thunder. By and by Ku′ksū came up out of the water, but young again, just like a young, man. Then Earth-Initiate came and spoke to the people, and said, "If you do as I tell you, everything will be well. When any of you grow old, so old that you cannot walk, come to this lake, or get some one to bring you here. You must then go down into the water as you have seen Ku′ksū do, and you will come out young again." When he had said this, he went away. He left in the night, and went up above.
All this time food had been easy to get, as Earth-Initiate had wished. The women set out baskets at night, and in the morning they found them full of food, all ready to eat, and lukewarm. One day Coyote came along. He asked the people how they lived, and they told him that all they had to do was to eat and sleep. Coyote replied, "That is no way to do: I can show you something better." Then he told them how he and Earth-Initiate had had a discussion before men had been made; how Earth-Initiate wanted everything easy, and that there should be no sickness or death, but how he had thought it would be better to have people work, get sick, and die. He said, "We'll have a burning." The people did not know what he meant; but Coyote said, "I'11 show you. It is better to have a burning, for then the widows can be free." So he took all the baskets and things that the people had, hung them up on poles, made everything all ready. When all was prepared, Coyote said, "At this time you must always have games." So he fixed the moon during which these games were to be played.
Coyote told them to start the games with a foot-race, and every one got ready to run. Ku′ksū did not come, however. He sat in his hut alone, and was sad, for he knew what was going to occur. Just at this moment Rattlesnake came to Ku′ksū, and said, "What shall we do now? Everything is spoiled!" Ku′ksū did not answer, so Rattlesnake said, "Well, I'll do what I think is best." Then he went out and along the course that the racers were to go over, and hid himself, leaving his head just sticking out of a hole. By this time all the racers had started, and among them Coyote's son. He was Coyote's only child, and was very quick. He soon began to outstrip all the runners, and was in the lead. As he passed the spot where Rattlesnake had hidden himself, however, Rattlesnake raised his head and bit the boy in the ankle. In a minute the boy was dead.
Coyote was dancing about the home-stake. He was very happy, and was shouting at his son and praising him. When Rattlesnake bit the boy, and he fell dead, every one laughed at Coyote, and said, "Your son has fallen down, and is so ashamed that he does not dare to get up." Coyote said, "No, that is not it. He is dead." This was the first death. The people, however, did not understand, and picked the boy up, and brought him to Coyote. Then Coyote began to cry, and every one did
10-30
the same. These were the first tears. Then Coyote took his son's body and carried it to the lake of which Earth-Initiate had told them, and threw the body in. But there was no noise, and nothing happened, and the body drifted about for four days on the surface, like a log.
On the fifth day Coyote took four sacks of beads and brought them to Ku′ksū, begging him to restore his son to life. Ku′ksū did not answer. For five days Coyote begged, then Ku′ksū came out of his house bringing all his bead and bear-skins, and calling to all the people to come and watch him. He laid the body on a bear-skin, dressed it, and wrapped it up carefully. Then he dug a grave, put the body into it, and covered it up. Then he told the people, "From now on, this is what you must do. This is the way you must do till the world shall be made over."
About a year after this, in the spring, all was changed. Up to this time everybody spoke the same language. The people were having a burning, everything was ready for the next day, when in the night everybody suddenly began to speak a different language. Each man and his wife, however, spoke the same. Earth-Initiate had come in the night to Ku′ksū, and had told him about it all, and given him instructions for the next day. So, when morning came, Ku′ksū called all the people together, for he was able to speak all the languages. He told them each the names of the different animals, etc., in their languages, taught them how to cook and to hunt, gave them all their laws, and set the time for all their dances and festivals. Then he called each tribe by name, and sent them off in different directions, telling them where they were to live." He sent the warriors to the north, the singers to the west, the flute-players to the east, and the dancers to the south. So all the people went away, and left Ku'ksū and his wife alone at Ta’doikö. By and by his wife went away, leaving in the night, and going first to Marysville Buttes. Ku′ksū stayed a little while longer, and then he also left. He too went to the Buttes, went into the spirit house, and sat down on the south side. He found Coyote's son there, sitting on the north side. The door was on the west.
Coyote had been trying to find out where Ku′ksū had gone, and where his own son had gone, and at last found the tracks, and followed them to the spirit house. Here he saw Ku′ksū and his son, the latter eating spirit food. Coyote wanted to go in, but Ku′ksū said, "No, wait there. You have just what you wanted, it is your own fault. Every man will now have all kinds of troubles and accidents, will have to work to get his food, and will die and be buried. This must go on till the time is out, and Earth-Initiate comes again, and everything will be made over. You must go home, and tell all the people that you have seen your son, that he is not dead." Coyote said he would go, but that he was hungry, and wanted some of the food. Ku′ksū replied, "You cannot eat that. Only ghosts may eat that food." Then Coyote went, away and told all the people, "I saw my son and Ku′ksū, and he told me to kill myself." So he climbed up to the top of a tall tree, jumped off, and was killed. Then he went to the spirit house, thinking he could now have some of the food; but there was no one there, nothing at all, and so he went out, and walked away to the west," and was never seen again. Ku’ksū and Coyote's son, however, had gone up above.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this Final Report attempts to go beyond the mere description and listing of animal remains recovered from mortuary context. While other studies have merely alluded to possible generalized “ceremonial”, “ritual” or “religious” uses of artifacts or activities at archaeological
10-31
sites (e.g., see Cartier et al.1993; Samuelson and Self 1995 and others), as well as the fact that many of these studies have also ignored that the human remains recovered from respective Bay Area sites are the result of ritualized activities that centered around formal cemeteries, this project has attempted to interweave a host of complex processes that cross-cut archaeological, ethnohistoric, and ethnographic boundaries. Furthermore, the thrust of this analysis, which focused on critical considerations of pre-contact Ohlonean cosmology as interpreted through central California ethnohistory and sacred narratives and the use of ethnohistorical method and theory, attempted to operationalize aspects of complex pre-contact Native California ritual systems as inferred from both the ethnohistoric record and the mortuary complex recovered from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites. The placement of animal burials and animal parts in association with human burials serve as metaphors of precontact Ohlonean cosmology and sacred space and time as can be gleaned from central California narratives. Although limited in scope, this analytical process was in conformance with what D. H. Thomas has argued for, that “such ethnoarchaeological inquiry provides the arguments necessary to bridge the gap between observable archaeological contexts and nonobservable systemic contexts” (1989:171).
10-32 Chapter 11: Reburial of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe’s Ancestral Remains from the Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Site by Rosemary Cambra, Alan Leventhal, Charlene Nijmeh, Norma Sanchez, and Diane DiGiuseppe
At the time of the release of this Final Report, the Muwekma Ohlone Tribal leadership and Stanford University representatives have not yet agreed to a place or date for the reburial of the ancestral remains and associated grave regalia.
When such an agreement is finalized, representatives from Stanford University will be invited to participate in the reburial honoring ceremony conducted by the Tribe. Sacred Land/Reburial forms will be used to formally document the event and the location will be noted with the use of a GPS device and plotted onto a map. These Sacred Land/Reburial forms will then be sent to the Native American Heritage Commission for their Sacred Land Survey Files and copies issued to Stanford University and the Northwest Information Center at Sonoma State University.
The Muwekma Ohlone Tribe desires that the reburial of our ancestral remains occur in a location as close to the aboriginal cemetery so that these ancestors can find their way back to the earth where they were originally laid to rest over 1500 years ago.
Aho!
11-1 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Alsop III, Fred J. 2001 Birds of North America. Doling Kindersley Limited
Ambrose, S.H. and Norr, L. 1993 Experimental Evidence for the Relationship of the Carbon Isotope Ratios of Whole Diet and Dietary Protein to Those of Bone Collagen and Carbonate. In Prehistoric Human Bone: Archaeology at the Molecular Level, edited by J. B. Lambert and G. Grupe, pp. 1-37. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Anderson, M. Kat 2006 Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of California’s Natural Resources. University of California Press. Berkeley.
Anderson, S., Bankier, A.T., Barrel, B.G., DeBulin, M.H.L., Coulson, A.R., Drouin, J., Eperon, I.C., Nierlich, D.P., Roe, B.A., Sanger, F., Schreier, P.H., Smith, A.H., Staden, R., and Young, I.G. 1981 Sequence and Organization of the Human Mitochondrial Genome. Nature 290:457- 465.
Applegate, Richard B. 1978 ?Atishwin: The Dream Helper in South-Central California. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers No. 13. Edited by Lowell J. Bean and Thomas Blackburn. Ballena Press.
Arbuckle, Clyde 1968 Santa Clara County Ranchos. Harlan-Young Press. San Jose.
Arroyo de la Cuesta, Felipe 1976 Reply to the Interrogatory of 1812 from Mission San Juan Bautista. May 1, 1814. In As the Padres Saw Them: California Indian Life and Customs as Reported by the Franciscan Missionaries, 1813-1815. Edited by Maynard Geiger and Clement Meighan. Santa Barbara Archives, Santa Barbara.
Bancroft, Hubert H. 1874 History of California, Seven Volumes. San Francisco: The History Company.
1886 History of California, Volumes II, III and IV. This History Company. San Francisco.
Barrantes, R., Smouse, P.E., Mohrenweiser, H.W., Gershowitz, H., Azofeifa, J., Arias, T.D., and Neel, J.V. 1990 Microevolution in Lower Central America: Genetic Characterization of the Chibcha- Speaking Groups of Costa Rica and Panama, and a Consensus Taxonomy Based on Genetic and Linguistic Affinity. American Journal of Human Genetics 46:63-84.
R-1 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Bartelink, E.J. 2006 Resource Intensification in Pre-Contact Central California: A Bioarchaeological Perspective on Diet and Health Patterns among Hunter-gatherers from the Lower Sacramento Valley and San Francisco Bay. Doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX
2009a Paleo-Dietary Reconstruction at CA-SCL-869: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Analysis of Four Human Burials. In Final Report on the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program Conducted on a Portion of a Middle Period Ohlone Indian Cemetery, Katwáš Ketneyma Waréeptak (The Four Matriarchs Site) CA-SCL-869, Located at 5912 Cahalan Avenue, Fire Station # 12, San Jose, Santa Clara County, California. Report Prepared for the City of San Jose, Department of Public Works by Ohlone Family Consulting Services: Alan Leventhal, Diane DiGiuseppe, Melynda Atwood, David Grant, Rosemary Cambra, Charlene Nijmeh, Monica V. Arellano, Susanne Rodriguez, Sheila Guzman-Schmidt, Gloria E. Gomez, Norma Sanchez, and Stella D’Oro; pp. 9-1 to 9-6.
2009b Late Holocene Dietary Change in the San Francisco Bay Area: Stable Isotope Evidence for an Expansion in Diet Breadth. California Archaeology 1(2):227-252.
Basgall, M.E. 1987 Resource Intensification Among Hunter-Gatherers: Acorn Economies in Prehistoric California. In Research in Economic Anthropology, edited by B. L. Isaac, pp. 21-52. vol. 9. JAI Press, Greenwich, Connecticut.
Bass, W.M. 1995 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual. 4th Edition, Missouri Archaeological Society, Inc.
Bates, Craig D. 1982 Feathered Regalia of Central California: Wealth and Power. Occasional Papers of the Redding Museum No. 2. Redding.
Baumhoff, M.A. 1963 Ecological Determinants of Aboriginal California Populations. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 49(2):155-235.
Bean, Lowell J. 1975 Power and Its Applications in Native California. Journal of California Anthropology 2(1):25-33.
1976 Social Organization in Native California. In, Native Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective, L. J. Bean and T. C. Blackburn, eds., pp. 99-123. Ballena Press. Socorro.
R-2 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1978 Social Organization. In California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 673-682. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, William C. Strutevant, general editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
1992 Indians of California: Diverse and Complex Peoples. In California History, edited by Richard Orsi and Lowell Bean, pp. 302-322. Fall 1992. Vol.LXXI No.3.
Bean, Lowell J. and Blackburn, Thomas, eds. 1976 Native Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective. Socorro: Ballena Press.
Bean, Lowell J. and King, Thomas, eds. 1974 ?Antap: California Indian Political and Economic Organization. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers 2. Ramona.
Bean, Lowell J. and Lawton, Harry 1976 Some Explanations for the Rise of Cultural Complexity in Native California with Comments on Proto-Agriculture and Agriculture. In Native Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective. pp. 19-48. Lowell Bean and Thomas Blackburn, eds. Ballena Press. Menlo Park.
Bean, Lowell J. and Vane, Sylvia B. 1978 Cults and Their Transformations. In Handbook of North American Indians, pp 37-57, Vol. 8, California, ed. by Robert F. Heizer, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.,
Beasley, M.M. 2008 Dietary Trends of the Ellis Landing Site (CA-CCO-295): Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Analysis of Prehistoric Human Remains from a San Francisco Bay Area Shellmound. M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico.
Beaton, J.M. 1991 Extensification and Intensification in Central California Prehistory. Antiquity 65(249):946-952.
Beeler, Madison S. 1961 Northern Costanoan. International Journal of American Linguistics. 27:191-197.
Bellifemine, Viviana 1997 Mortuary Variability in Prehistoric Central California: A Statistical Study of the Yukisma Site, CA-SCL-38. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Social Sciences Program, San Jose State University, San Jose, California.
R-3 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Bennyhoff, James A. 1977 Ethnogeography of the Plains Miwok. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis Publication 5. University of California, Davis.
Bennyhoff, James A. and Hughes, Richard 1987 Shell Bead and Ornament Exchange Networks Between California and the Western Great Basin. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. 64(2):79-175.
Bibby, Brian 1993 Still Going: Bill Franklin and the Revival of Miwuk Traditions. In News for Native California. Summer, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 21-36.
Binford, Lewis R. 1962 Archaeology as Anthropology. American Antiquity 28 (2):217-225.
1971 Mortuary Practices: Their Study and Their Potential. In Approaches to the Social Dimensions of Mortuary Practices, J. A. Brown (editor). Memoir No. 25, Society for American Archaeology. Washington, DC.
1982 The Archaeology of Place. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1(1) 5-31.
Blackburn, Thomas 1976 Ceremonial Integration and Social Interaction in Aboriginal California. In Native Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective, Lowell J. Bean and Thomas C. Blackburn, eds. Ballena Press. Socorro, New Mexico.
Bocek, Barbara R. 1984 Ethnobotany of Costanoan Indians, California, Based on Collections by John P. Harrington. Economic Botany 38:240-255.
Bolnick D.A. and Smith D.G. 2003 Unexpected Patterns of Mitochondrial DNA Variation Among Native Americans from the Southeastern United States. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 122:336-354.
Bolton, Herbert E. (Editor) 1911 Expedition to San Francisco Bay in 1770: Diary of Pedro Fages. Academy of Pacific Coast History Publications 2(3): 141-159.
1926 Historical Memoirs of New California by Fray Francisco Palou, O.F.M. 4 vols. University of California Press. Berkeley, California.
1927 Fray Juan Crespi, Missionary Explorer on the Pacific Coast, 1769-1774. University of California Press. Berkeley, California.
R-4 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1930 Anza's California Expeditions. 5 volumes. University of California Press. Berkeley, California.
Book of Funerals at Mission San Jose 1859-1908 Funeral Records on file at the Mission San Jose, Fremont, California.
Breschini, Gary, Haversat, T., and Erlandson, J. 1984 California Radiocarbon Dates, 3rd Edition. Coyote Press. Salinas.
Broek, J.O.M 1932 The Santa Clara Valley, California: A Study in Landscape Changes. Utrecht.
Broughton, J.M. 1994 Declines in Mammalian Foraging Efficiency During the Late Holocene, San Francisco Bay, California. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 13(4):371-401.
1999 Resource Depression and Intensification During the Late Holocene, San Francisco Bay. University of California Publications: Anthropological Records 32. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Brown, Alan K. 1975 Pomponio's World. The San Francisco Westerners Argonaut, Number 6.
1994 The European Contact of 1772 and Some Later Documentation. In The Ohlone: Past and Present Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region, edited by Lowell Bean. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers No. 42.
Brown, M.D., Hosseini, S.H., Torroni, A., Bandelt, H-J., Allen, J.C., Schurr, T.G., Scozzari, R., Cruciani, F., and Wallace, D.C. 1998 MtDNA Haplogroup X: An Ancient Link between Europe/Western Asia and North America? American Journal of Human Genetics 63:1852-1861.
Brown, W.M., George, Jr., M., and Wilson, A.C. 1979 Rapid Evolution of Animal Mitochondrial DNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 74:1967-1971.
Buikstra J.E., Ubelaker, D.H. 1994 1994 Standards: For Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series No. 44. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archaeological Survey.
Cambra, Rosemary, Leventhal, Alan, Jones, Laura, Hammett, J., Field, Les, and Sanchez, N. 1996 Archaeological Investigations at Kaphan Umux (Three Wolves) Site, CA-SCL-732: A Middle Period Prehistoric Cemetery on Coyote Creek in Southern San Jose, Santa Clara County, California. On File at the Northwest Information Center, Sonoma, State University, Rohnert Park, Ca.
R-5 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Carlyle, S.W., Parr, R.L., Hayes, M.G., and O'Rourke, D.H. 2000 Context of Maternal Lineages in the Greater Southwest. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113:85-101.
Cartier, Robert 1990 Archaeological Excavations at CA-SCL-6W The Lick Mill Boulevard Site. Report Prepared for the City of Santa Clara.
Cartier, Robert, Bass, Jason, and Ortman, Scott 1993 The Archaeology of the Guadalupe Corridor. Santa Clara County Archaeological Society. Santa Clara, California.
Castillo, Ed 1978 The Impact of Euro-American Exploration and Settlement. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8 California. Pp. 99-127. Robert F. Heizer, ed., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Los Angeles.
Chandler-Ezell, K., Pearsall, D., and Zeidler, J. 2006 Root and Tuber Phytoliths and Starch Grains Document Manioc (Manihot esculenta), Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), and Lleren (Calathea sp.) at the Real Alto Site, Ecuador. Economic Botany 60(12):103-120.
Chartkoff, Joseph L. and Chartkoff, Kerry K. 1983 Excavations at the Patrick Site (4-Butte-1). In, The Archaeology of Two Northern California Sites. Monograph 22, Institute of Archaeology. University of California, Los Angeles.
1984 The Archaeology of California. Stanford University Press, Stanford.
Clark, J. C. 1970 Geological map of the Southwestern Santa Cruz Mountains, California. U.S.G.S. open file map, San Francisco.
Clifford, James 1988 The Predicament of Culture. Harvard University Press. Cambridge.
Coberly, Mary B. 1973 The Archaeology of the Ryan Mound, Site Ala-329, a Central California Coastal Village Site. University of Northern Colorado, Museum of Anthropology, Occasional Publications in Anthropology and Archaeology Series 4.
Coil, J., Korstanje, M.A., Archer, S., and Hastorf, C. 2003 Laboratory Goals and Considerations for Multiple Microfossil Extraction in Archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science 30(8):991-1008.
R-6 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Colson, Elizabeth 1974 The Autobiographies of Three Pomo Women. University of California Archaeological Research Facility. Berkeley.
Cook, S.F. 1943 The Conflict Between the California Indians and White Civilization. Ibero- Americana, Vol. 21. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1957 The Aboriginal Population of Alameda and Contra Costa Counties, California. University of California Anthropological Records 16(4):131-156. Berkeley.
1960 Colonial Expeditions to the Interior of California: Central Valley, 1800- 1820.University of California Anthropological Records 16(6):239-292. Berkeley.
1976a The Conflict Between the California Indian and White Civilization. University of California Press. Berkeley.
1976b The Population of the California Indians, 1769-1970. University of California Press. Berkeley.
Coon, C.S. 1971 The hunting peoples. Atlantic Monthly Press, Little, Brown and Company. Boston and Toronto.
Crespi, Juan 1769-1774 {see Bolton, Herbert 1927 above)
Curtin, Jeremiah 1884 Linguistic Field Notes: California. Recording the Indian languages spoken at Niles and Pleasanton, California. [Filed under “Yukian”] ms #1456. National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
Curtis, Edward S. 1907-1930 The North American Indian. [California 1924] Norwood Press.
Davis, Lee 1992 Mt. Diablo: Captain of Central California. Paper presented at the Scholar's Conference: The Ohlone Indians of the Bay Area: a Continuing Tradition, C.E. Smith Museum of Anthropology, Cal State University, Hayward. Nov. 14, 1992.
Davis, Lee, Stewart, Suzanne, and Hitchcock, Richard 1994 Native American History of the Los Vaqueros Project Area, Alameda and Contra Costa Counties, California. Report prepared for the Contra Costa Waster District, Concord, Ca.
R-7 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
DeNiro, M.J. and Epstein, S. 1978 Influence of Diet on Distribution of Carbon Isotopes in Animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 42(5):495-506.
Derbeneva, O.A., Sukernik, R.I., Volodko, N.V., Hosseini, S.H., Lott, M.T., and Wallace, D.C. 2002 Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in the Aleuts of the Commander Islands and its Implications for the Genetic History of Beringia. American Journal of Human Genetics 71:415-421.
Dietz, Stephen A., Hildebrandt, W., and Jones, T. 1988 Archaeological Investigations at Elkhorn Slough: Ca-Mnt-229. A Middle Period Site on the Central California Coast.
DiGiuseppe, D.M. 2009 Assessing Forearm Fractures from Eight Prehistoric California Populations. Master’s Thesis: San Jose State University.
Dixon, R.B. 1905a "The Northern Maidu". New York: American Museum of Natural History Bulletin 17: 119-346.
1905b "Maidu Myth". New York: American Museum of Natural History Bulletin 17(39), No.1. In Tales of the North American Indians, ed. By Stith Thompson, 1929 [1966]: 24-30. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
Dobyns, Henry F. 1966 Estimating Aboriginal American Population: an Appraisal of Techniques with a New Hemispheric Estimate. Current Anthropology 7:395-416; 440-444.
Don, R.H., Cox, P.T., Wainwright, B.J., Baker, K., and Mattick, J.S. 1991 Touchdown PCR to Circumvent Spurious Priming during Gene Amplification. Nucleic Acids Research 19:4008.
Dorrington, Lafayette A. 1927 Report to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, June 23, 1927. Roseberg Files, RG 75: the 1907-1939 Bureau of Indian Affairs Classified Files. National Archives, Washington, D.C.
1930 Letter from Sacramento Superintendent L. A. Dorrington to Indian Commissioner Rhoads dated April 30, 1930. Roseberg Files, RG 75: the 1907-1939 Bureau of Indian Affairs Classified Files. National Archives, Washington, D.C.
Driver, H.E. 1961 Indians of North America. Chicago. University of Chicago Press.
R-8 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
DuBois, Cora A. 1939 The 1870 Ghost Dance. University of California Anthropological Records. 3(1):1- 151. Berkeley.
Echo-Hawk, Roger C. 1996 Requote by Roger C. Echo-Hawk in Society for American Archaeology 11(4). In California Indians and Archaeology A Special Report, Ray Moisa and Malcolm Margolin, eds. Printed by News for Native California. Berkeley.
Elsasser, Albert B. 1978a Development of Regional Prehistoric Cultures. In Handbook of North American Indians, Pp 37-57, Vol. 8, California, ed. by Robert F. Heizer, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.
1978b Basketry. In Handbook of North American Indians, Pp 37-57, Vol. 8, California, ed. by Robert F. Heizer, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.
1986 Part I: Review of the Prehistory of the Santa Clara Valley Region, California. Coyote Press Archives of California Prehistory Number 7.
Eshleman, J.A. 2002a Mitochondrial DNA and Prehistoric Population Movements in Western North America. Dissertation, University of California, Davis.
2002b Analysis of Ancient and Modern Mtdna Sequence Variability from California's Central Valley. Dissertation, University of California, Davis.
Eshleman, J.A., Malhi, R.S., Johnson, J.R., Kaestle, F.A, Lorenz, J., and Smith, D.G. 2004 Mitochondrial DNA and Prehistoric Settlements: Native Migrations on the Western Edge of North America. Human Biology 76:55-75.
Eshleman, J.A., Malhi, R.S., and Smith, D.G. 2003 Mitochondrial DNA Studies of Native Americans: Conceptions and Misconceptions of the Population Prehistory of the Americas. Evolutionary Anthropology 12:7-18.
Fages, Pedro 1911 Expedition to San Francisco Bay in 1770: Diary of Pedro Fages. Herbert E. Bolton, ed. Publications of the Academy of Pacific Coast History 2(3): 141-159. Berkeley, California.
1937 A Historic, Political, and Natural Description of California, by Pedro Fages, Soldier of Spain [1775]. Translated by Herbert I. Priestley. Berkeley: University of California Press. (Reprinted: Ballena Press, Ramona, Calif., 1972).
R-9 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Federal Census 1900 (Twelfth Census/Indian Population Census Washington and Murray Townships, Alameda County, California), 1910 (Thirteenth Census/ Indian Population Census Pleasanton Township, Alameda County, California), 1920 (Fourteenth Census, Alameda and Santa Clara Counties), 1930 (Fifteenth Census, Alameda, Contra Costa, and Santa Clara Counties)
Field, Les, Leventhal, Alan, Sanchez, Dolores, and Cambra, Rosemary 1992 A Contemporary Ohlone Tribal Revitalization Movement: A Perspective from the Muwekma Ohlone Indians of the San Francisco Bay. In California History: Indians of California Vol. LXXI (3) Fall. California Historical Society. San Francisco.
2004 A Contemporary Ohlone Tribal Revitalization Movement: A Perspective from the Muwekma Ohlone Indians of the San Francisco Bay. In Archaeological Investigations at CA-SCL-690, Tamien Station. Mark Hylkema, editor. Caltrans, District 4.
2007 A Contemporary Ohlone Tribal Revitalization Movement: A Perspective from the Muwekma Ohlone Indians of the San Francisco Bay. In Santa Clara Valley Prehistory: Archaeological Investigations at CA-SCL-690, Tamien Station. Mark Hylkema, editor. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis Publication No. 15.
Font, Pedro 1930 Font's Complete Diary of the Second Anza Expedition. Vol. 4 of Anza's California Expeditions. H. Bolton, ed. University of California Press. Berkeley.
Forbes, Jack 1969 Native Americans of California and Nevada: A Handbook. Naturegraph Publishers. Healdsberg, California.
Forster, P., Harding, R., Torroni, A., and Bandelt, H-J. 1996 Origin and Evolution of Native American MtDNA Variation: A Reappraisal. American Journal of Human Genetics 59:935-945.
Fox, C., Juan, J., and Albert, R. 1996 Phytolith Analysis on Dental Calculus, Enamel Surface, and Burial Soil: Information about Diet and Paleoenvironment. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 101:101-113.
Fredrickson, David A. 1968 Archaeological Investigation at CCo-30 near Alamo Contra Costa County, California.
1973 Early Cultures of the North Coast Ranges, California. PhD. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California at Davis.
R-10 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1974 Social Change in Prehistory: A Central California Example. In ?Antap: California Indian Political and Economic Organization., Edited by L. J. Bean and T. F. King. Ballena Press. Ramona Press Anthropological Papers 2:57-73.
Fried, Morton 1967 The Evolution of Political Society. Random House. New York.
Fried, M.N. and Fried, M. H. 1980 Transitions: Four Rituals in Eight Cultures. Penguin Books
Fry, B. 2006 Stable Isotope Ecology. Springer Science, New York.
Galindo, Nasario 1959 Early Days at Mission Santa Clara. California Historical Society Quarterly 38(2):101-111 [1883].
Galloway, A. 1999 Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd.
Galvan, P. Michael 1968 People of the West: The Ohlone Story. The Indian Historian 1(2):9-13.
Galvin, John 1971 The First Spanish Entry into San Francisco Bay, 1775. Howell Books. S.F.
Gayton, Anna H. 1930a Yokuts and Mono Chiefs and Shamans. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 24(8): 361-420. Berkeley.
1930b The Ghost Dance of 1870 in South Central California. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 28(3):57-82. Berkeley.
1935 Areal Affiliation of California Folktales. American Anthropologist 37(4):582-599.
1936 Estudillo Among the Yokuts: 1819. In Essays in Anthropology, Presented to A. L. Kroeber in Celebration of his Sixtieth Birthday. Edited by Robert H. Lowie, pp. 67- 85. University of California Press. Berkeley.
1945 Yokuts and Western Mono Social Organization. American Anthropologist 47(3): 409-426. 1948 Yokuts and Western Mono Ethnography. University of California Anthropological Records 10(1-2): 1-302. Berkeley.
R-11 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Geiger, Maynard and Meighan, Clement 1976 As the Padres Saw Them : California Indian Life and Customs as Reported by the Franciscan Missionaries, 1813-1815. Santa Barbara Mission Archive Library,Glendale, Calif.
Genoves, Santiago 1967 Proportionality of the Long Bones and their Relation to Stature among Mesoamericans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 26: 67-78.
Gerow, Bert A. with Force, Roland 1968 An Analysis of the University Village Complex with a Reappraisal of Central California Archaeology. Stanford Press.
Gifford, Edwin W. 1914 Central Miwok Shamans. Unpublished Fieldnotes. Ethnological Documents Collection, University Archives, University of California, Berkeley. CU-23.1 No. 179.
1915 Yokuts Moieties. Unpublished Fieldnotes. Ethnological Documents Collection, University Archives, University of California, Berkeley. CU-23.1 no. 178.
1916a Miwok Moieties. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 12(4):139-194. Berkeley.
1916b Dichotomous Social Organization in South Central California. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 11(5):291-296. Berkeley.
1917 Miwok Myths. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 12(8):283-338. Berkeley.
1926 Miwok Cults. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 18(3):391-408. Berkeley.
1927 Southern Maidu Religious Ceremonies. American Anthropologist 29(3):214-257.
1940 California Bone Artifacts. University of California Anthropological Records 3(2):153-237. Berkeley.
1944 Miwok Lineages. American Anthropologist 46 (3):376-381.
1947 Californian Shell Artifacts. University of California Anthropological Records 9 (1). Berkeley.
1955 Central Miwok Ceremonies. University of California Anthropological Records 14(4):261-318. Berkeley.
R-12 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Gilbert, B. Miles. 1980 Mammalian Osteology. B. Miles Gilbert, Laramie
Gilbert, B. Miles, Martin, Larry D., and Savage, Howard G. 1996 Avian Osteology, Missouri Archaeological Society, Inc.
Giles, R.E., Blanc, H., Cann, H.M., and Wallace, D.C. 1980 Maternal Inheritance of Human Mitochondrial DNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 77:6715-6719.
Goldschmidt, Walter 1948 Social Organization in Native California and the Origin of Clans. American Anthropologist 50(3):444-456.
1951 Nomlaki Ethnography. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 42(4): 303-443. Berkeley.
Gonzalez-Oliver, A., Marquez-Morfin, L., Jimenez, J.C., and Torre-Blanco, A. 2001 Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DNA Lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116:230-235.
Gould, Richard A. and Watson, Patti Jo 1982 A Dialogue of Meaning and Use of Analogy in Ethnoarchaeological Reasoning. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1:355-381.
Grady, Diane L., Latham, Kate A., and Andrushko, Valerie A. 2001 Archaeological Investigations at CA-SCL-674, the Rubino Site San Jose, Santa Clara County, California. Vol. II Human Skeletal Biology of CA-SCL-674. Coyote Press Archives of California Prehistory, No. 50.
Grauer, A.L. and Roberts, C.A. 1996 Paleoepidemiology, Healing, and Possible Treatment of Trauma in the Medieval Cemetery Population of St. Helen-on-the-Walls, York, England. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 100:531-544.
Gray, Nicholas 1855 Map No. 234ND, 747. On file Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. Published in Draft Report of Archaeological Test Excavations of CA-ALA-60 Located on Route 580, Castro Valley, Alameda County ,California, George R. Miller, ed. 1980. California State University at Hayward.
Griffin, Mark C. 2007 Laboratory Manual for Human Osteology and Forensic Anthropology. San Francisco State University. San Francisco.
R-13 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Groza, Randall G. 2002 AMS Chronology for Central California Olivella Shell Beads. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Anthropology, San Francisco State University.
Gutierrez, Ramon 1991 When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away. Stanford Press.
Hall, Frederic 1871 The History of San José and Surroundings : with Biographical Sketches of Early Settlers. San Francisco : A.L. Bancroft and Co.
Hammett, Julia E. 1991 The Ecology of Sedentary Societies Without California: Paleoethnobotanical Indicators from Native California. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill.
Hanni, C., Brousseau, T., Laudet, V., and Stehelin, D. 1995 Isopropanol Precipitation Removes PCR Inhibitors from Ancient Bone Extracts. Nucleic Acids Research 23:881-882.
Harrington, John P. 1921-1939 Manuscript Field Notes on Costanoan: Chochenyo, Mutsun and Rumsen Linguistics available on microfilm at San Jose State University Library. Kraus International Publications. New York.
1930 Twenty-Seven Wax Cylinder Songs/Recordings of Jose Guzman. Recorded March 14- 15, 1930 at Pleasanton. Cylinder Nos.1307-1333. Federal Cylinder Project Library of Congress, American Folklife Center, Archive of Folk Culture, Washington, DC.
1933 Report of Fieldwork on Indians of Monterey and San Bernardino Counties. In 49th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the Years 1931-1932, pp. 2- 3. Washington D. C.
1942 Culture Element Distributions, XIX: Central California Coast. University of California Anthropological Records 7(1):1-46. Berkeley.
Heizer, Robert F. 1949 The Archaeology of Central California I: The Early Horizon. University of California Anthropological Records 12(1):1-84.
1952 California Indian Linguistic Records: The Mission Indian Vocabularies of Alphonse Pinart. University of California Anthropological Records 15(1):1-84.
1971 Census of Non-reservation California Indians, 1905-1906. R. F. Heizer, editor, Miscellaneous Publications of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility. Berkeley.
R-14 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1972 The Eighteen Unratified Treaties of 1851-1852 Between the California Indians and the United States Government. University of California Archaeological Research Facility. Berkeley.
1974 The Costanoan Indians. Local History Studies volume 18. California History Center, DeAnza College. Cupertino, California.
1978a Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 8: California, W. C. Sturtevant, General Editor. Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C.
1978b Trade and Trails. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8:690-693, California. R. F. Heizer, ed. Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C.
1979 Federal Concern about Conditions of California Indians, 1853-1913: Eight Documents. Ballena Press Publications in Archaeology, Ethnology and History Number 13. Menlo Park, California.
Heizer, Robert F. and Elsasser, Albert B. 1980 The Natural World of the California Indians. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Heizer, Robert F. and Hewes, Gordon 1940 Animal Ceremonialism in Central California in the Light of Archaeology. : American Anthropologist 42:587-603
Heizer, Robert F. and Treganza, Adan E. 1949 Mines and Quarries of the Indians of California. Sacramento: California Journal of Mines and Geology 40(3):291-359
Hershkovitz, I., Latimer, B., Dutour, O., Jellema, L.M., Wish-Baratz, S., Rothschild, C., and Rothschild, B.M. 1997 Why do We Fail in Aging the Skull from the Sagittal Suture? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 103(3):393-399.
Hester, T.R. 1978 "Salinan". In, R. F. Heizer, ed. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 8, California. Washington D.C. Smithsonian Institution.
Hildebrandt, William R. 1983 Archaeological Research of the Southern Santa Clara Valley Project. Report on file with Caltrans, District 04, San Francisco.
R-15 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Hildebrandt, William and Swenson, Laureen 1983 Environmental Setting and Site Catchment Analysis. In Final Report, Archaeological Research of the Southern Santa Clara Valley Project, edited by William Hildebrandt, pp. 1-35 to 1-57. Report on file Caltrans, District 4, San Francisco.
History of Washington Township 1904 Women's Research Committee on Washington Township, History of Washington Township. Compiled and Written by: The Country Club of Washington Township Research Committee, 1904. Second Edition 1950.
Holterman, Jack 1970 The Revolt of Estanislao. The Indian Historian 3(1):43-54.
Hoopes, Chad 1975 Domesticate or Exterminate. Redwood Coast Publications.
Horai, S., Kondo, R., Nakagawa-Hattori, Y., Hayashi, S., Sonoda, S., and Tajima, K. 1993 Peopling of the Americas, Founded by Four Major Lineages of Mitochondrial DNA. Molecular Biology and Evolution 10:23-47.
Höss, M., and Pääbo, S. 1993 DNA Extraction from Pleistocene Bones by a Silica-Based Purification Methods. Nucleic Acids Research 21.
Hughes, Richard E. and Milliken, Randall 2007 Prehistoric Material Conveyance. In: California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture and Complexity. Edited by Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar. AltaMira Press.
Hurtado, Albert L. 1988 Indian Survival on the California Frontier. Yale University Press, New Haven.
Hylkema, Mark 1991 Prehistoric Native American Adaptations Along the Central California Coast of San Mateo and Santa Cruz Counties. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, San Jose State University, California.
1995 Archaeological Investigations at the Third Location of Mission Santa Clara DeAsis: The Murguiá Mission, 1781-1818 (CA-SCL-30/H). Report prepared for Caltrans District 4, Oakland, California.
2004 Archaeological Investigations at Tamien Station: Site CA-SCL-690 edited by Mark Hylkema. Caltrans District 4, Oakland, California.
R-16 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
2007 Santa Clara Valley Prehistory: Archaeological Investigations at CA-SCL-690, Tamien Station. Mark Hylkema, editor. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis Publication No. 15.
Iscan, M.Y., Loth S.R., and Wright R. 1984 Age Estimation from the Rib by Phase Analysis: White Males. Journal of Forensic Sciences 29(4):1094-1104.
1985 Age Estimation from the Rib by Phase Analysis: White Females. Journal of Forensic Sciences 30(3):853-863.
Jackson, Robert 1992 Patterns of Demographic Change in Alta California Missions: The Case of Santa Ines. In California History: Indians of California Volume LXXI (3) Fall. California Historical Society. San Francisco.
James, Steven R. and Graziani, Susan 1975 California Indian Warfare. Contributions of the California Research Facility, Ethnographic Interpretations: No. 12-13. University of California, Berkeley.
Jenkins, James 1923 Annual Report of the Reno Agency, James Jenkins, Superintendent. RG 75, Reno Indian Annual Narrative and Statistical Reports 1912-1924. Box 6; Folder “[Annual Narrative Reports 1923 Reno Indian Agency]” pp. 1-31.: National Archives, Washington, D.C.
Johnson, J.R. and Lorenz, J.G. 2006 Genetics, Linguistics, and Prehistoric Migrations: An Analysis of California Indian Mitochondrial DNA Lineages. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 26:31-62.
Jones, Barbara Lee 2010 Mythic Implications of Faunal Assemblages from Three Ohlone Sites. Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, San Francisco State University, California.
Jones, Laura 2009 Personal communication
Jones, T.L. and Raab, L.M. (editors) 2004 Prehistoric California: Archaeology and the Myth of Paradise. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Judd, M.A. 2008 The Parry Problem. Journal of Archaeological Science 35:1658-1666.
R-17 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Jurmain, R.D. 1990 Paleoepidemiological of a Central California Prehistoric Population from CA-ALA- 329: Degenerative Disease. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 83:83-94.
1991 Paleoepidemiology of Trauma in a Prehistoric Central California Population. In Ortner D.J., Aufderhide A. C., editors. Human Paleopathology Current Synthesis and Future Options. Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press p. 241-248.
1993 Paleodemography and Paleopathology. In: Cartier R, Bass J, Ortman S, editiors. The Archaeology of the Guadalupe Corridor. For: The Santa Clara County Archaeological Society, Santa Clara, California.
Jurmain, R., Bartelink E.J., Leventhal A., Bellifemine V., Nechayev, I., Atwood, M., and DiGiuseppe D. 2009 Paleoepidemiological Patterns of Interpersonal Aggression in a Prehistoric Central California Population from CA-ALA-329. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139(4):462-473.
Kaestle, F.A. 1998 Molecular Evidence for Prehistoric Native American Population Movement: The Numic Expansion. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Davis.
Kaestle, F.A., and Smith, D.G. 2001 Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic Expansion. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115:1-12.
Kelly, Isabel. T. 1932 Ethnographic Field Notes on the Coast Miwok Indians. Manuscript. On file at the Bancroft Library. University of California. Berkeley.
1978 Coast Miwok. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8: 414-425, California. Edited by R. F. Heizer. Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C.
1991 Interviews with Tom Smith and Maria Copa: Ethnographic Notes on the Coast Miwok Indians of Marin and Southern Sonoma Counties, California. Edited by Mary Collier and Sylvia Thalman. MAPOM Occasional Papers Number 6.
Kelley, M.A. 1979 Parturition and Pelvic Changes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51:541- 546.
Kellner, C. and Schoeninger, M.J. 2008. A Simple Carbon Isotope Model for Reconstructing Prehistoric Human Diet. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 133:1112-1127.
R-18 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Kelman, L.M., and Kelman, Z. 1999 The Use of Ancient DNA in Paleontological Studies. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19:8-20.
Kelsey, C.E. 1906 Report of the Special Agent for California Indians. Printed by Carlisle Indian School. National Archives, Washington D.C.
1971 Census of Non-reservation California Indians, 1905-1906. Robert F. Heizer, ed. Miscellaneous Publications of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility. Berkeley.
Kemp, B.M., Monroe, C., and Smith, D.G. 2006 Repeat Silica Extraction: A Simple Technique for the Removal of PCR Inhibitors from DNA Extracts. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:1680-1689.
Kemp, B.M., Resendez, A., Roman Berrelleza, A.R., Malhi, R.S., and Smith, D.G. (Forthcoming) An Analysis of Ancient Aztec mtDNA from Tlatelcoc: Pre-Columbian Relations and the Spread of Uto-Aztecan. In DM Reed (ed.): Biomolecular Archaeology: Genetic Approaches to the Past. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University.
Kemp, B.M., and Smith, D.G. 2005 Use of Bleach to Eliminate Contaminating DNA from the Surfaces of Bones and Teeth. Forensic Science International154:53-61.
Key, J.A. and Conwell, H.E. 1942 The Management of Fractures, Dislocations and Sprains. St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company.
King, Chester D. 1974 Northern Santa Clara Ethnography. In Environmental Impact Report, San Felipe Water Distribution System, Archaeological Resources by T. King and G. Berg: Appendix I. Report prepared for Santa Clara Valley Water District.
1976 Chumash Inter-Village Economic Exchange. In Native Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective Lowell J. Bean and Thomas C. Blackburn (editors). Ramona: Ballena Press.
1977 Matalan Ethnohistory. In Final Report of Archaeological Test Excavations for Construction of Freeway 04-SCl-101 Post Miles 17.2/29.4. by S.A. Dietz. Chapter IV. Report prepared by Archaeological Consulting and Research Services for Caltrans, District 04, San Francisco.
R-19 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1978a The Historic Indian Settlements of San Jose. In Archaeological Investigations at CA- SCL-128: The Holiday Inn Site by J. C. Winter, ed. Chapter XI. Report prepared for the Redevelopment Agency, City of San Jose.
1978b Almaden Valley Ethnogeography. In The Archaeological Mitigation of 4-SCl-132 Alamitos Creek, San Jose, CA. Robert Cartier, editor. Report on file City of San Jose.
1990 Evolution of a Chumash Society. Garland Press. New York.
1994 Central Ohlone Ethnohistory. In The Ohlone: Past and Present Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region edited by Lowell Bean. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers No. 42.
King, Linda B. 1982 Medea Creek Cemetery: Late Inland Chumash Patterns of Social Organization, Exchange and Warfare. Unpublished PhD. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angles.
King, Thomas. F. 1970 The Dead at Tiburon. Northwest California Archaeological Society, Occasional Papers 2.
1974 The Evolution of Status Ascription Around San Francisco Bay. In ?Antap: California Indian Political and Economic Organization edited by L. J. Bean and T. F. King. Pp. 35-54. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers 2.
Kolman, C.J. and Bermingham, E. 1997 Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA Diversity in the Choco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama. Genetics 147:1289-1302.
Kolman, C.J., Bermingham, E., Cooke, R., Ward, R.H., Arias, T.D., and Guionneau-Sinclair, F. 1995 Reduced mtDNA diversity in the Ngobe Amerinds of Panama. Genetics 140:275-283.
Kroeber, Alfred L. 1904 The Languages of the Coast of California South of San Francisco. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 2(2):29-80. Berkeley.
1907 Indian Myths of South Central California. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 4(4):167-250. Berkeley.
1908 A Mission Record of the California Indians. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 8(1):1-27. Berkeley.
R-20 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1910 The Chumash and Costanoan Languages. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 9:237-271. Berkeley.
1925 Handbook of the Indians of California. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 78. Washington.
1932 The Patwin and Their Neighbors. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 29(4):253-423. Berkeley.
1939 Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 38:1-240. Berkeley.
1962 The Nature of Land-Holding Groups in Aboriginal California, pp. 19-58 in Two Papers on the Aboriginal Ethnography of California. D. H. Hymes and R. Heizer, eds. University of California Archaeological Survey Reports No. 56. Berkeley.
Krogman, W.M. and Iscan, M.Y. 1986 The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Illinois.
Lalueza-Fox, C. 1996 Analysis of Ancient Mitochondrial DNA from Extinct Aborigines from Tierra del Fuego-Patagonia. Ancient Biomolecules 1:43-54.
Lalueza-Fox, C., Gilbert, M.T.P., Martinez-Fuentes, A.J., Calafell, F., and Bertranpetit, J. 2003 Mitochondrial DNA from Pre-Columbian Ciboneys from Cuba and the Prehistoric Colonization of the Caribbean. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 121:97- 108.
Lalueza-Fox, C., Luna, Calderon F., Calafell, F., Morera, B., and Bertranpetit, J. 2001 MtDNA from Extinct Tainos and the Peopling of the Caribbean. Annals of Human Genetics 65:137-151.
Langsdorff, George H. von 1968 Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of the World During the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806, and 1807 (1813-1814). 2 vols. (Bibliotheca Australiana 41) Da Capo Press. New York.
Latta, Frank 1949 Handbook of Yokuts Indians. Kern County Museum. Bakersfield.
Lentfer, C. and Boyd, W. 2000 Simultaneous Extraction of Phytoliths, Pollen, and Spores from Sediments. Journal of Archaeological Science 27(5):363-372.
R-21 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Leventhal, Alan M. 1993 A Reinterpretation of Some Bay Area Shellmound Sites: A View from the Mortuary Complex at Ca-Ala-329, the Ryan Mound. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Social Sciences, San Jose State University.
1988 Analysis of the 1983 Flaked Stone and Ground Stone Assemblage from the Scott's Valley Site: CA-SCR-177. In, The Scott's Valley Site Report 1983 and 1987. R. Cartier ed.
Leventhal, Alan, Cambra, R., Miranda, A., Mondragon, J., Slagle, A., and Zwierlein, I. 1992 Anthropology -- A Continued Process of Colonialism or California Indians Are Still Only Objects of Study. Paper presented in the Ohlone Symposium, at the Southwestern Anthropological Association 63rd Annual Meeting. Berkeley, California.
Leventhal, Alan, Escobar, Lorraine, Alvarez, Hank, Lameira, Dottie, Sanchez, Dolores, Sanchez, Enos, Sanchez, Robert Sr., and Thompson, Lawrence Sr. 1995 Historical and Genealogical Information on the Muwekma Ohlone Lineages that Descend from the Aboriginal Tribes of the Greater San Francisco Bay and from the Historic Indian Rancherias that Comprised the Verona Band. Documents submitted to the Branch of Acknowledgment and Research, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior. Washington, D.C.
Leventhal, Alan, Field, Les, Alvarez, Henry, and Cambra, Rosemary 1994 The Ohlone: Back From Extinction. In The Ohlone: Past and Present Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region, edited by Lowell Bean. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers No. 42.
Leventhal, A. M., Cambra, R., and Sanchez, N. 1987 Final Report of the Archaeological Recovery Program of a Portion of Prehistoric Site: CA-ALA-479, Union City, California. Report on file at the Northwest Information Center, Sonoma State University.
Leventhal, A. M., Cambra, R., and Ananian, B. 1988 Subsurface Archaeological Test Excavations and Soils Report on Prehistoric Site: CA-SCL-343, Lands of Oyama, San Jose, California. Report on file at Ohlone Families Consulting Services, San Jose, California.
Leventhal, A. M., Cambra, R., Sanchez, N., and Domenech, B. 1988 Final Report on the Archaeological Data Recovery Program on the Southern Portion of Prehistoric Site: CA-SCL-581, Lands of Oki, San Jose, California. Report on file at the Northwest Information Center, Sonoma State University.
R-22 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Leventhal, Alan M. and Seitz, G. 1989 Experimental Archaeology Mortar Replication Study: Description and Analysis. In Results of the General Development Plan Archaeological Test Excavation Conducted at CA-MNT-185/H. California Parks and Recreation, Sacramento.
Leventhal, Alan M., Seitz, G., and Hylkema, M. 1986 A Report on Biface Manufacturing Stages from Site: CA-SMA-218, Año Nuevo, the Harris collection. Paper presented at the Society for California Archaeology Annual Meetings. Santa Rosa, Ca. March 28.
Levy, Richard 1976 Costanoan Internal Relationships. Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility, Department of Anthropology, University of California. Berkeley.
1978 Costanoan. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, California, edited by Robert F. Heizer, pp. 485-495. Smithsonian Institution. Washington.
Lewis, Henry T. 1973 Patterns of Indian Burning in California: Ecology and Ethnohistory. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers 1:1-101. Ramona, California.
Lightfoot, Kent G. 2007 Indians, Missionaries, and Merchants. University of California Press. Berkeley.
Lindahl, T. 1993 Instability and Decay of the Primary Structure of DNA. Nature (London) 362:709- 715.
Lipps, Oscar H. 1930 Letter from Sacramento Superintendent Oscar Lipps to Assistant Indian Commissioner J. Scattergood dated June 30, 1931. Roseberg Files, RG 75: the 1907- 1939 Bureau of Indian Affairs Classified Files. National Archives, Washington, D.C.
Loeb, Edwin M. 1932 Western Kuksu Cult. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 33(1):1-137. Berkeley
1933 Eastern Kuksu Cult. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 33(2):139-232. Berkeley
Lorenz, J.G. and Smith, D.G. 1996 Distribution of Four Founding mtDNA Haplogroups among Native North Americans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 101:307-323.
R-23 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Lorenz, J.G. and Smith, D.G. 1997 Distribution of Sequence Variation in the mtDNA Control Region of Native North Americans. Human Biology 69:749-776.
Lovejoy, C.O. and Heiple, K.G. 1981 The Analysis of Fractures in Skeletal Populations with an Example from the Libben Site, Ottowa County, Ohio. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 55:529-541.
Lovejoy, C.O., Meindi, R.S., Pryzbeck, T.R., and Mensforth, R.P. 1985 Chronological Metamorphosis of the Auricular Surface of the Ilium: A New Method for the Determination of Adult Skeletal Age at Death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68:15-26.
Luby, Edward 1991 Social Organization and Symbolism at the Patterson Mound Site, CA-ALA-328, Alameda County, California. California Anthropologist 18(2):45-52.
Maddox, Deborah 1996 Letter to Rosemary Cambra, Chairwoman of the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Regarding Formal Determination of “Previous Unambiguous Federal Recognition” under 25 CFR 83.8. Letter dated May 24, 1996. On file Muwekma Tribal Office and Department of Interior, BIA, Office of Federal Acknowledgment, Washington, DC.
Malhi, R.S. 2001 Investigating Prehistoric Population Movements in North America with Ancient and Modern DNA. Dissertation, University of California, Davis.
Malhi, R.S., Breece, K.E., Shook, B.A.S, Kaestle, F.A., Chatters, J.C., Hackenberger, S., and Smith, D.G. 2004 Patterns of mtDNA Diversity in Northwestern North America. Human Biology 76:33- 54.
Malhi, R.S., Eshleman, J.A., Greenberg, J.A., Weiss, D.A., Schultz Shook, B.A., Kaestle, F.A., Lorenz, J.G., Kemp, B.M., Johnson, J.R., and Smith, D.G. 2002 The structure of Diversity within New World Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups: Implications for the Prehistory of North America. American Journal of Human Genetics 70:905-919.
Malhi, R.S., Mortenson, H.M., Eshleman, J.A., Kemp, B.M., Lorenz, J.G., Kaestle, F.A., Johnson, J.R., Gorodezky, C., and Smith, D.G. 2003 Native American mtDNA Prehistory in the American Southwest. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 120:108-124.
Marcus, George E. and Fischer, Michael M. J. 1986 Anthropology as Cultural Critique. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.
R-24 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Marine, Dario 1965 Marine Family History Notes: Interview with Dario Marine about the Ohlone Cemetery. Notes transcribed by Philip Galvan. On file at the Muwekma Tribal office, San Jose, California
Mason, J. Alden 1912 The Ethnology of the Salinan Indians. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 10(4): 97-240. Berkeley.
1916 The Mutsun Dialect of Costanoan Based on the Vocabulary of de la Cuesta. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 11(7): 399-472. Berkeley.
1918 The Language of the Salinan Indians. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 14(1):1-154. Berkeley.
Matthiesen, Diana G. and Guruswami-Naidu, Raj B. 1979 A Preliminary Report on Bird and Mammal Remains from CA-SCl-300 and CA-SCl- 302. In the Archaeological Resources of the Wade Ranch by Robert Cartier, Principal, pp.110-141. Report prepared for the City of San Jose.
Mayfield, D.W. 1978 Ecology of the Pre-Spanish San Francisco Bay Area. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Department of Geography, San Francisco State University.
1980 Ecology of a Discovered Land. Pacific Discovery 33(5): 12-20. California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco.
Mays, S.A. 1996 Age-Dependent Cortical Bone Loss in a Medieval Population. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 6:144-154.
McCarthy, Francis C. 1958 History of Mission San Jose, California 1797-1835. Academy Library Guild. Fresno.
Merbs, C.F. 1983 Patterns of Activity Induced Pathology in a Canadian Inuit Population. National Museum of Man Mercury Series. Archaeological Survey of Canada Paper No. 119. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.
Merriam, C. Hart 1902-1930 Mewuk (Sierra Miwok) and Miwok (Plains Miwok) Tribes and Villages. Manuscript on file at the University of California, Bancroft Library, C. Hart Merriam Collection. Berkeley.
1934 Photographs of Jose Guzman, Niles and Morrison Canyon, 1934.
R-25 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1955 Studies of California Indians. Edited by the Staff of the Department of Anthropology of the University of California. University of California Press.
1967 Ethnographic Notes on California Indian Tribes, III: Central California Indian Tribes, Robert Heizer, ed. University of California Archaeological Survey Reports 68(3). Berkeley.
Merriwether, D.A., Clark, A.G., Ballinger, S.W., Schurr, T.G., Soodyall, H., Jenkins, T., Sherry, S.T., and Wallace, D.C. 1991 The Structure of Human Mitochondrial DNA Variation. Journal of Molecular Evolution 33:543-555.
Merriwether, D.A. and Ferrell, R.E. 1996 The Four Founding Lineage Hypothesis for the New World: A Critical Reevaluation. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 5:241-246.
Milliken, Randall T. 1978 Ethnohistory of the Lower Napa Valley. In Report of Archaeological Excavations at the River Glen Site (CA-NAP-261), pp. 2.1-2.43, Thomas Jackson, editor. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco District
1982 An Ethnographic Study of the Clayton area, contra Costa County, California. In Cultural Resource Evaluation of Keller Ranch, Clayton, California, by Miley Holman and Matthew Clarke.
1983 The Spatial Organization of Human Population On Central California's San Francisco Peninsula at the Spanish Arrival. Unpublished Master's thesis, Interdisciplinary Studies: Cultural Resources Management Sonoma State University.
1990 Ethnogeography and Ethnohistory of the Big Sur District, California State Park System During the 1770-1810 Time Period. Report submitted to the Department of Parks and recreation, Sacramento, Ca.
1991 An Ethnohistory of the Indian People of the San Francisco Bay Area from 1770-1810. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.
1993 Historic Overview of the San Felipe Sink Area (Part 1) and Native Peoples (Part 2). Chapters in Archaeological Test Excavations at Fourteen Sites Along Highways 101 and 152, Santa Clara and San Benito Counties, California, Vol., 2: History, Ethnohistory, and Historic Archaeology. Far Western Anthropological Research Group. Report submitted to Caltrans District 4, Oakland.
1994 The Costanoan-Yokuts Language Boundary in the Contact Period. In The Ohlone: Past and Present Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region, edited by Lowell Bean. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers No. 42.
R-26 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1995 A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal culture in the San Francisco Bay Area 1769-1810. Menlo Park: Ballena Press.
2004 The Ohlone People of the Santa Clara Valley in the 1770s. In Archaeological Investigations at CA-SCL-690, Tamien Station. Mark Hylkema, editor. Caltrans, District 4.
2007 The Ohlone People of the Santa Clara Valley in the 1770s. In Santa Clara Valley Prehistory: Archaeological Investigations at CA-SCL-690, Tamien Station. Mark Hylkema, editor. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis Publication No. 15.
2008 Native Americans at Mission San Jose. Malki-Ballena Press. Banning. Ca.
Milliken, R. T., Leventhal, Alan, and Cambra, Rosemary 1987 Interpretive Recommendations and Background Report for the Coyote Hills Museum. Submitted to the East Bay regional Park District, Oakland.
Milliken, Randall, Fitzgerald, Richard T., Hylkema, Mark G., Groza, Randy, Origer, Tom, Bieling, David G., Leventhal, Alan, Wiberg, Randy S., Gottsfield, Andrew, Gillette, Donna, Bellifemine, Viviana, Strother, Eric, Cartier, Robert, and Fredrickson, David A. 2007 Punctuated Culture Change in the San Francisco Bay Area. In: California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture and Complexity. Edited by Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar. AltaMira Press.
Mission San Jose Baptismal Records 1797-1859 Mission San Jose Libro de Bautismos. Archives of the Archdiocese of San Francisco, Mountain View, California.
Mittler, D. and Sheridan, S. 1994 Accuracy of Sex Determination Using Morphological Traits of the Human Pelvis. Journal of Forensic Science 39(4):1047-1056.
Molnar, S. 1971 Human Tooth Wear, Tooth Function, and Cultural Variability. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 34:175-190.
Monroe, Cara, Leventhal, Alan, Cambra, Rosemary and Kemp, Brian 2009 Ancient Human DNA Analysis from CA-SCL-287/CA-SMA-263 Burials: New Insights Regarding California Prehistory. Paper presented at the Society for California Archaeology Meetings. Fresno, Ca. March.
Monroy, Douglas 1990 Thrown Among Strangers. University of California Press, Berkeley.
R-27 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Moratto, Michael J. 1984 California Archaeology. Academic Press, New York.
Olsen, Nancy, Leventhal, Alan and Cambra, Rosemary 1985 A Brief Ethnohistory and Genealogy of the Muwekma Mission San Jose and Pleasanton Rancheria Ohlone Families. In Results of an Archaeological Testing Program at CA-ALA-343, edited by Jeff Hall. Report on file, Department of Anthropology, San Jose State University. San Jose.
Olsen, Stanley J. 1973 Mammal Remains From Archeological Sites, Part 1 Southeastern and Southwestern United States. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, 56 (1)
Olsen, William H. and Wilson, Norman L. 1964 The Salvage Archaeology of the Bear Creek Site (SJO-112): A Terminal Central California Early Horizon Site. Sacramento Anthropological Society. Paper # 1.
Ortiz, Beverly 1994a Chochenyo and Rumsen Narrative: A Comparison. In The Ohlone: Past and Present Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region edited by Lowell Bean. Ballena Press Anthropological Papers No. 42.
1994b Sacred Geography of the Los Vaqueros Project Area. Native American History of the Los Vaqueros Project Area, Alameda and Contra Costa Counties, California. Report prepared for the Contra Costa Waster District, Concord, CA.
Pääbo, S. 1990 Amplifying Ancient DNA. In MA Innis (ed.): PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 159-166.
Parr, R.L., Carlyle, S.W., and O'Rourke, D.H. 1996 Ancient DNA Analysis of Fremont Amerindians of the Great Salt Lake Wetlands. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 99:507-518.
Pastron, Allen and Bellifemine, Viviana 2007 Archaeological Investigations at CA-SCL-674, the Rubino Site, San Jose, Santa Clara County, California. Archives of California Prehistory, No. 54. Coyote Press.
Phillips, G.H. 1981 The Enduring Struggle: Indians in California History. Boyd and Fraser. San Francisco.
Pierce, L.K.C. 1983 Analysis of Osteological Material from CA-SCL-327. Report Prepared for Archaeological Resource Management, San Jose.
R-28 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1984 A Comparison of the Involvement of Degenerative Joint Disease Between an Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Skeleton Series. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
1996 Analysis of the Human Osteological Remains. In R. Cartier (ed.) The Hiller Site: CA- SMA-160. Archaeological Resource Management, San Jose.
Piperno, D. 2004 Phytoliths: A Comprehensive Guide for Archaeologists and Paleoecologists. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Piperno, D., Holst, I., and Wessel-Beaver, L. 2002 Evidence for the Control of Phytolith Formation in Cucurbita Fruits by the Hard Rind (Hr) Genetic Locus: Archaeological and Ecological Implications. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99(16): 10923-10928.
Pombo, Richard W. 2005 Letter dated June 30, 2005 from Congressman Richard Pombo, Chairman of the House Resources Committee to Secretary of Interior Gale A. Norton requesting settlement opportunities with the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe relative to the Tribe’s lawsuit against the DOI. Letter on file Muwekma Tribal Office and DOI, Washington, DC.
Potter, A. 2005 The Genetic Affinities of the Prehistoric People of San Clemente Island, California: An Analysis of Ancient DNA. Ph.D., University of Oregon.
Powell, John W. 1877 Linguistics. In Appendix to Stephen Powers, Tribes of California. Contributions to North American Ethnography 3:439-613 Washington: U.S. Geographical and Sociological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region.
Powers, Stephen 1877 Tribes of California. Contributions to North American Ethnography 3. Washington: U.S. Geographical and Sociological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region.
Price, H., Arrigoni, A., Price, J., Strother, E., and Allan, J. 2006 Archaeological Investigations at CA-CCO-309, Rossmoor Basin, Contra Costa County, California. By: William Self Associates. For: The County of Contra Costa Department of Public Works, Martinez, California.
Ragir, S. 1972 The Early Horizon in Central California Prehistory. Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility 15. University of California Press, Berkeley.
R-29 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Rappaport, Joanne 1990 The Politics of Memory: Native Historical Interpretations in the Colombian Andes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rawls, James J. 1986 Indians of California: The Changing Image. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Reese, Elena, Holson, John, Ballard, Hannah, Bartoy, Kevin, Bever, Michael, McFarlane, William, St. Clair, Michelle, Hager, Lori, Jones, Kari, Jackson, Thomas L., and Shantry, Kate 2006 Draft Report on the Data Recovery Excavations and Monitoring Report for the Stanford Shopping Center, Stanford West Apartments and Sandhill Roadway, Sandhill Corridor Project, Stanford, California. Prepared for: City of Palo Alto, Palo Alto, California, and Stanford Management Company, Menlo Park. (2006 and 2009)
Robbins, Chandler S., Bruun, Bertel, and Zim, Herbert S. 1983 A Guide to Field Identification, Birds of North America, Western Publishing Company, Inc. Racine
Roop, William C. 1976 Adaptation on Ben Lomond Mountain: excavations at CA-SCR-20. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Department of Anthropology, San Francisco State University.
Rosen, A. and Weiner, S. 1994 Identifying Ancient Irrigation: a New Method Using Opaline Phytoliths from Emmer Wheat. Journal of Archaeological Science 21(1):125-132.
Salomon, Frank 1981 Weavers of Odavalo. In Peoples and Cultures of Native South America. Daniel Gross, ed., pp. 463-492. New York: Natural History Press.
Sandoval, John nd A Century of Mission San Jose in the East Bay. Hayward Historical Society, No. 12.
Samuelson, Ann E. and Self, William 1995 Archaeological testing Report Site CA-SCL-12Tasman Corridor Light Rail Project, Santa Clara, California. Vol.1 Results and Recommendations. Report prepared for Woodward-Clyde Consultants for the Santa Clara County Transportation Agency.
Sarris, Greg 1993 Keeping Slug Woman Alive. University of California Press. Berkeley
Sawyer, Eugene T. 1922 History of Santa Clara County, California. Historic Record Company. Los Angeles, California.
R-30 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Schenck, W.E. and Dawson, E.J. 1929 Archaeology of the northern San Joaquin Valley. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. 25(4)
Scheuer, L. and Black, S. 2004 The Juvenile Skeleton. Elsevier Academic Press: London.
Schmid, Elisabeth 1972 Atlas of Animal Bones. Elsevier Publishing Co., Amsterdam-London-New York.
Schoeller, D.A. 1999 Isotope Fractionation: Why Aren't We What We Eat? Journal of Archaeological Science 26(6):667-673.
Schoeninger, M.J., Deniro, M.J. and Tauber, H. 1983 15N/14N Ratios of Bone-Collagen Reflect Marine and Terrestrial Components of Prehistoric Human Diet. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 60(2):252.
Schonewald-Cox, Christine M., Bayless, Jonathan W., and Schonewald, Jaqueline 1985 Studied Geographic Patterns of Phenetic Variation Using Morphometric Analysis of Cranial Characters, Journal of Mammalogy, 66(1) 63-74
Schultz, B.A., Malhi, R.S., and Smith, D.G. 2001 Examining the Proto-Algonkian Migration: Analysis of MtDNA. In JD Nichols (ed.): Papers of the 32nd Algonquian Conference. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.
Schurr, T.G. 2004 The Peopling of the New World: Perspectives from Molecular Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology 33:551-583.
Schurr, T.G., Ballinger, S.W., Gan, Y-Y., Hodge, J.A., Merriwether, D.A., Lawrence, D.N., Knowler, W.C., Weiss, K.M., and Wallace, D.C. 1990 Amerindian Mitochondrial DNAs Have Rare Asian Mutations at High Frequencies, Suggesting They Derived from Four Primary Maternal Lineages. American Journal of Human Genetics 46:613-623.
Schwarcz, H.P. and Schoeninger, M.J. 1991 Stable Isotope Analyses in Human Nutritional Ecology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 34:283-321.
Schwartz, J.H. 2007 Skeleton Keys: An Introduction to Human Skeletal Morphology, Development, and Analysis, 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press: New York.
R-31 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Scott, E.C. 1979 Dental Wear Scoring Technique. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51:213-218.
Service, Elman 1962 Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective. New York: Random House.
1975 Origins of the State and Civilization: The Process of Cultural Evolution. New York: Norton.
1978 Profiles in Ethnology. Harper and Row Company. New York.
Shanks, Ralph and Shanks, Lisa Woo 2006 Indian Baskets of Central California: Art, Culture and History. Costaño Books/MAPOM Publication Number 8.
Sharsmith, Helen K. 1982 Flora of the Mount Hamilton Range of California. California Native Plant Society Special Publication Number 6. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Shields, G.F., Schmeichen, A.M., Frazier, B.L., Redd, A., Voevoda, M.I., Reed, J.K., and Ward, R.H. 1993 MtDNA Sequences Suggest a Recent Evolutionary Divergence for Beringian and Northern North American Populations. American Journal of Human Genetics 53:549-562.
Simons, D.D. 1992 Prehistoric Mammal Exploitation in the San Francisco Bay Area. In Essays on the Prehistory of Maritime California, edited by Terry Jones, Center for Archaeological Research at Davis, No. 10, Davis, California, pp.73-103.
Skowronek. R.K. and Graham, M.A. 2004 Discovering Santa Clara University’s Prehistoric Past: CA-SCL-755. Research Manuscript Series on the Cultural and Natural History of Santa Clara. Department of Anthropology and Sociology at Santa Clara University: Santa Clara.
Slagle, Allogan, Leventhal, Alan, Field, Les, and Hampton, Neil 1995 The Muwekma Tribe of Costanoan/Ohlone Indians: Petition for Status Clarification, or Federal Acknowledgment. Prepared for Submission to the United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. On file with the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe and Branch of Acknowledgment and Research, BIA. Washington, D.C.
R-32 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Slagle, Allogan, with assistance by Alan Leventhal 1996 Unfinished Justice II: A Study of Common and Particular California Indian Historical Factors and Conditions.. Report submitted to the Advisory Council on California Indian Policy, Sacramento. (Report to be forwarded to US Congress as mandated under HR 2144).
Smith, B.H. 1984 Patterns of Molar Wear in Hunter-Gatherers and Agriculturalists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 63:39-59.
Smith, D.G., Malhi, R.S., Eshleman, J., Lorenz, J.G., and Kaestle, F.A. 1999 Distribution of mtDNA Haplogroup X among Native North Americans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 110:271-284.
Smith, Emma 1923. Recollections of a Pioneer Mother Mary Ann Harlan Smith. In, Grizzly Bear May 1923 [History of George Harlan. Ms #852]. Oakland Public Library California Room.
Soil Survey: Santa Clara Area, California 1958 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. Series 1941, No. 17.
Spier, Robert F.G. 1978 "Foothill Yokuts". In, R.F. Heizer, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8, California. Washington, D.C., Smithsonian Institution.
St. Clair, Michelle 2006 Section 6.4 Invertebrate Faunal Remains. In, Draft Report on the Data Recovery Excavations and Monitoring Report for the Stanford Shopping Center, Stanford West Apartments and Sandhill Roadway, Sandhill Corridor Project, Stanford, California. Prepared for: City of Palo Alto, Palo Alto, California, and Stanford Management Company, Menlo Park.
Stewart, Omar 1978 Litigation and Its Effects. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8:705-712, California. R. F. Heizer, editor Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C.
Stoffle, Richard, Halmo, David, Olmsted, John, and Evans, Michael 1990 Native American Cultural Resources at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. Ann Arbor.
Stone, A.C. and Stoneking, M. 1993 Ancient DNA from a Pre-Columbian Amerindian Population. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 92:463-471.
R-33 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Stone, A.C. and Stoneking, M. 1996 Genetic Analysis of an 8000 Year-Old Native American Skeleton. Ancient Biomolecules 1:83-87.
Stone, A.C. and Stoneking, M. 1998 MtDNA Analysis of a Prehistoric Oneota Population: Implications for the Peopling of the New World. American Journal of Human Genetics 62:1153-1170.
Suchey, J.M., Brooks, S.T., and Katz, D. 1988 Instruction for use of the Suchey-Brooks System for Age Determination of the Female os pubis. Instructional Materials Accompanying Female Pubic Symphyseal Models of the Suchey-Brooks System. Distributed by FRANCE CASTING (Diane France, 2190 West Drake Road, Suite 259, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526).
Thomas, David H. 1970 Archaeology's Operational Imperative: Great Basin Projectile Points as a Test Case. University of California Archaeological Survey Annual Repot 12. Los Angeles
1989 Archaeology. Second Edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New York
Thompson, Stith 1966 Tales of the North American Indians. Indiana University Press. Bloomington.
Thompson and West 1876 Historical Atlas Map of Santa Clara County. Thompson and West. San Francisco.
Tieszen, L.L. and Fagre, T. 1993 Effect of Diet Quality and Composition on the Isotopic Composition of Respiratory CO2, Bone Collagen, Bioapatite, and Soft Tissues. In Prehistoric Human Bone: Archaeology at the Molecular Level, edited by J. B. Lambert and G. Grupe, pp. 121- 155. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Timbrook, Jan, Johnson, John R., and Earle, David D. 1982 Vegetation Burning by the Chumash. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 4(2):162-186.
Torrence, R. and Barton, H. 2006 Ancient Starch Research. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.
Torroni, A., Chen, Y-S., Semino, O., Silvana, A., Santachiara, B., Scott, C.R., Lott, M.T., Winter, M., and Wallace, D.C. 1994 MtDNA and Y-Chromosome Polymorphisms in Four Native American Populations from Southern Mexico. American Journal of Human Genetics 54:303-318.
Torroni, A., Schurr, T.G., Cabell, M.F., Brown, M.D., Neel, J.V., Larsen, M., Smith, D.G., Vullo, C.M., and Wallace, D.C.
R-34 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
1993 Asian Affinities and Continental Radiation of the Four Founding Native American mtDNAs. American Journal of Human Genetics 53:563-590.
Torroni, A., Schurr, T.G., Yang, C-C., Szathmary, E.J.E., Williams, R.C., Schanfield, M.S., Troup, G.A., Knowler, W.C., Lawrence, D.N., Weiss, K.M., and Wallace, D.C. 1992 Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates that the Amerind and the Nadene Populations were Founded by Two Independent Migrations. Genetics 130:153-162.
Ubelaker, Douglas 1978 Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis and Interpretation. Chicago: Aldine.
Urbina, Richardo (Justice) 2000-2002 Introduction of his Memorandum Opinion Granting the Plaintiff’s Motion to Amend the Court’s Order (July 28, 2000) and Memorandum Order Denying the Defendants’ to Alter or Amend the Court’s Orders (June 11, 2002). Muwekma Ohlone Tribe v. Bruce Babbitt, Secretary of Interior, et. al.. U.S. District Court, Washington, DC.
Valente, Nancy 2006 Section 6.2 Vertebrate Remains. In, Draft Report on the Data Recovery Excavations and Monitoring Report for the Stanford Shopping Center, Stanford West Apartments and Sandhill Roadway, Sandhill Corridor Project, Stanford, California. Prepared for: City of Palo Alto, Palo Alto, California, and Stanford Management Company, Menlo Park.
Vayda, Andrew P. 1967 Pomo Trade Feasts. In Tribal and Peasant Economies: Readings in Economic Anthropology; pp. 494-500. Edited by George Dalton, Published for the American Museum of Natural History. The Natural History Press. Garden City, New York.
Verkuilen, P.E. 2009 Spinal Abnormalities Rarely Cause Base Problems (www.spine-health.com), 9/20/09.
Walker, P.L. 1989 Cranial Injuries as Evidence of Violence in Prehistoric Southern California. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 80(3):313-323.
Walkinsaw, Robert 1852 Statement of Petitioner Robert Walkinsaw, March 23, 1852. Land Case 410 ND. On file at the Bancroft Library, University of California. Berkeley.
Wallace, Edith 1978 Sexual Status and Role Differences. In Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 8, pp. 690-693, California. Robert F. Heizer, editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
R-35 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Walton, Reginald B. (Justice) 2006 U.S. District Court Justice, Reginald B. Walton in Muwekma Ohlone Tribe, v. Dirk Kempthorne, Secretary of the Interior, et al., Civil Action No. 03-1231 (RBW). September 21, 2006. U.S. District Court, Washington, DC.
Weber, David J. 1992 The Spanish Frontier in North America. Yale University Press. New Haven.
Weigel, Lawrence E. 1993 Prehistoric Burning in Northwestern California. In There Grows a Green Tree: Papers in Honor of David A. Fredrickson, pp. 237-241. Center for Archaeological Research at Davis Publication No. 11.
Weir, Walter W. and Storie, R. Earl 1947 Soils of Santa Clara County, California. University of California, College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experimental Station, Berkeley, California.
Weiss, D.A. 2001 Mitochondrial DNA Diversity among Native Americans from the Southeastern United States. American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement 163.
Wiberg, Randy Scott 1984 The Santa Rita Village Mortuary Complex: Evidence and Implications of a Meganos Intrusion. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, San Francisco State University.
Wilson, Glen B. 2004 Obsidian Hydration Values: A Listing of the Obsidian Hydration Determinations Made at the San Jose State University Hydration Laboratory. Coyote Press Archives of California Prehistory. Number 52.
Winter, Joseph C. 1978a Archaeological Investigations at Ca-SCl-128: The Holiday Inn Site. Report prepared for the Redevelopment Agency of the City of San Jose.
1978b Tamien: 6000 Years in an American City. Report to the City of San Jose Redevelopment Agency. San Jose.
Wohlgemuth, E. 1996 Resource Intensification in Prehistoric Central California: Evidence from Archaeobotanical Data. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 18(1):81-103.
Wolf, Eric 1982 Europe and the People Without History. University of California Press. Berkeley.
R-36 REFERENCES CITED: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263
Wood, M.W. 1883 History of Alameda County, California. Published by M. W. Wood, Oakland.
Wrischnik, L.A., Higuchi, R.G., Stoneking, M., and Erlich, H.A. 1987 Length Mutations in Human Mitochondrial DNA: Direct Sequencing of Enzymatically Amplified DNA. Nucleic Acids Research 529-542. www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Brant's _Cormorant_.html
R-37 Final Report on the Burial and Archaeological Data Recovery Program Conducted on a Portion of a Middle Period Ohlone Indian Cemetery, Yuki Kutsuimi Šaatoš Inūxw [Sand Hill Road] Sites: CA-SCL-287 and CA-SMA-263, Stanford University, California (Volume II)
Report Prepared for Stanford University
Prepared by: Alan Leventhal, Diane DiGiuseppe, Melynda Atwood, David Grant, Susan Morley, Rosemary Cambra, Dr. Les Field, Charlene Nijmeh, Monica V. Arellano, Susanne Rodriguez, Sheila Guzman-Schmidt, Gloria E. Gomez, and Norma Sanchez
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area Ohlone Families Consulting Services
With Contributions by Dr. Brian Kemp and Cara Monroe, Department of Anthropology, WSU, Pullman Dr. Eric Bartelink, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico Jean Geary, Department of Biology, San Jose State University
January 2010
APPENDIX A
HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORIES OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 00-1 Date 7/10/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics lf. femoral head vertical – 42.5 mm, no other metrics possible due to fragmentation of skeleton
rt. ulna length ~236 mm (reconstructed and missing the styloid process on distal end)
Sex (criteria used) Female = based on Bass’s Human Osteology Manual, the vertical diameter indicates
this individual is female and small portion of greater sciatic appears wide
Age (criteria used) Adult over 45 = based on suture obliteration, slight OA on some elements, and
auricular surface analysis Phase 6-7
Condition of Skeleton Fair to poor condition; volume is poor; many fragments with ante-mortem and post-
mortem damage
Cranium C(36) = calvarium is fairly complete including left frontal and parts of both parietals; F(10)
temporal both right and left; F(6) parietal; occipital fragments and several indeterminate
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose 1 - molar In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum F(1)
Indeterminate
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature F(3) – ilium, ischium F(2) acetabulum F(8)
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-1 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-1
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) C(1) – 12th No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X I(1) X Scapula I(3) I(3) F(4)
Humerus I(2) C(3) X Femur C(1) C(3) F(1)
Radius F(1) I(3) X Patella X X X
Ulna I(2) C(3) X Tibia I(2) C(1) X
Fibula X C(5) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X C(1) X
Lunate X C(1) X Talus X C(1) X
Triquetral X C(1) X Cuboid X C(1) X
Pisiform X X X Navicular F(1) C(1) X
Grt. Mult. X X F(1) 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X I(1) X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform I(1) I(1) X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 C(1) C(1) X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X C(1) X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 C(1) C(1) X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 C(1) C(1) X
Phalanges: Hand 2 Foot 14
Indeterminate 10 upper limb fragments indeterminate; 11 foot fragments indeterminate; one bag with
fragments weighting 150.4 grams
Additional Notes elements do appear precleaned, though still have matrix adhered; foot phalanges are
adhered together KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-2 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-1
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 00-1 Date: 7/10/07
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X wide?
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) X X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface Phase 6 X
Osteoarthritis yes* X
Comments Age (45+) based on auricular surface portion present (Phase 6 to 7 = 45-59), though damage to surface restricts a more inclusive age range than over 45. Surface appears dense with active margins and irregular topography. Cranial suture for the calvarium are obliterated,may indicate older individual, though some studies seem to indicate that this is a poor aging technique, *bone volume is very poor, may indicate osteoarthritis. Sexing is based on small portion of the greater sciatic notch that appears wide
A-3 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-1
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM X RM2 X
1 RM X RM1 X
2 RP X RP2 X
1 RP X RP1 X
● RC X RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 X
2 LP X LP2 X
1 LM X LM1 X
2 LM X LM2 X
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease:
1. mandibular molars = attrition (7/8) with heavy hypercementosis and severe calculus on the buccal
possibly the second or third molar, side indeterminate
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-4 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-1
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X X Mand. Condyle X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) 0 0 Proximal Humerus 0 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus X 0 Proximal Ulna X 0-1 Proximal Radius X X Total Joint Score X 0-1 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna X 0 Distal Radius X X Carpals X 0 Total Joint Score X 0 Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X X Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges 0 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
A-5 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-1
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 0-1 X
Proximal Femur 0 x 0 x
Total Joint Score 0-1 0
Notes: both femurs have matrix covering most of the head, but there is no lipping on the left
femoral head margin
KNEE
Distal Femur X X
Proximal Tibia X X
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X X
Distal Fibula X 0
Tarsals X 1 x
Total Joint Score X 1
Notes: both calcaneus and talus have slight lipping where they articulate
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X x X x
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes: to much damage to proximal articular surface to indicate any lipping
A-6 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-1
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length rt = 29.4 mm, lf = 32.0 mm
A-7 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-1
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth (rt) 55.0 mm Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: maximum diameter at midshaft Humerus: minimum diameter at midshaft Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length @ nutrient foramen Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth Ulna: maximum length (rt) ~236 mm
A-8 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 00-2 Date 7/11/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics Rt. femur length = 418 mm; rt. tibia length = 342 mm; max. femoral head = 44.89 mm
Sex (criteria used) Male = metric measurements indicate possible male, but prominent nuchal crest, robust mastoid process, thick/rounded supra-orbital margin, robust glabella & prominent mental eminence; narrow sciatic arch
Age (criteria used) 45+ = full fusion; advanced spinal OA; 6-8 dental attrition scores; significant closure of
cranial sutures; pacchionian depressions in cranial vault; phase 7 per Lovejoy ’85 (50-59) on auricular
surface
Condition of Skeleton 75% present; fragmentary but good bone condition
Cranium C = frontal complete, left and right temporal complete, left and right parietal complete;
occipital complete, 1maxilla (see notes); zygomatic (see notes); right stirrup ear bone
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) 2possible (R) 2possible
Mandible C(2) = all teeth in situ
Teeth Permanent-Loose see dental sheet In-situ 14 – see dental sheet
Deciduous-Loose In-situ
Hyoid C (2 = 1 horn & 1 body) Sternum F (2 = manubrium)
Vertebrae: Cervical C1= C(4); C2= C(1); C3= C(1); C4= C(1), C5= C(1); C6= C(1); C7= C(1)
Thoracic T1=I(2); T2=F(1); T3=F(1); T4=C(2); T5=C(2); T6=C(2); T9=I(1); T10=I(1); T11=C(1); T12= C(1)
Lumbar 3L1 = I; L2 = I; L3 = C; L4 = C, L5 = C; all fragmentary
Sacrum C(2)
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature C(3) C(6) X
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-9 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-2
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 6 (R) 4 No. Incomplete 29
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X C(1) X Scapula I(3) C(2) X
Humerus C(3) C(2) X Femur C(3) C(1) X
Radius C(2) X X Patella X C(1) X
Ulna C(1) F(1) X Tibia C(2) C(1) X
Fibula C(1) C(2) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus C(1) C(1) X
Lunate X X X Talus C(1) C(1) X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid C(1) C(1) X
Pisiform X X X Navicular C(1) C(1) X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform C(1) C(1) X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform C(1) C(1) X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform C(1) C(1) X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 C(1) C(1) X
MC 2 X C(1) X MT 2 C(1) C(1) X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 C(1) C(1) X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 C(1) C(1) X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 C(1) C(1) X
Phalanges: Hand C(1 prox), C(3 medial), C(1 term) Foot C(10 prox), C(4 medial), C(3 terminal)4
Indeterminate fragment bag = 2.5 oz.
Additional Notes 1maxilla from B.00-3 matches cranial from 00-2; 2too fragmentary to determine; 3there is a
6th lumbar (may be same individual or another); 42 extra prox foot phalanges; few elements from second individual, extra right zygomatic, unknown bone frag in isolate box – confirmed is faunal
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d A-10 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-2
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood
Burial: 00-2 Date: 7/11/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low * *
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped * *
Foramen large or small * *
Acetabulum large or small large X
Sciatic Notch close or wide close X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present * X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings robust X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) large X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin round X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent prom. X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection massive X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface X X
Osteoarthritis severe/spinal X
Comments *too fractured
35+ Male = see inventory sheet for sex portion
A-11 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-2
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM X RM2 7
1 RM X RM1 7
2 RP X RP2 6
1 RP X RP1 5
● RC X RC● 6
2 RI X RI2 8
1 RI X RI1 8
1 LI X LI1 8
2 LI X LI2 7
● LC X LC● 6
1 LP X LP1 6
2 LP X LP2 6
1 LM X LM1 7
2 LM X LM2 7
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease: slight periodontal disease
1. upper molars = severe attrition (8); upper incisor = severe attrition (8); half occlusal surface fractured
off both post mortem
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-12 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-2
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
rt. distal humerus remodeling begins 110 mm from fracture etiology?
distal end to end of distal humerus,
hypertrophic and porous bone
rt. prox. ulna remodeling with hypertrophic and fracture etiology?
lf. ilium retro-auricular surface; bone is very muscle pull? Myolitis ossificans?
robust, rough may be age related change
(Phase 7 in ageing per Lovejoy
’85 = 50-59)
cranial vault depressions on inner portion of vault age-related pathology
probably Pacchionian depressions
lf. ilium penetrating wound on dorsal surface trauma
inner crater is 5.5 mm X 2.3 mm and
outer is 7.5mm X 6.5 mm
(compare to burial from CA-Ala-329)
Notes
A-13 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-2
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa 0 0 Mand. Condyle 0 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X 1 * Proximal Humerus X 1 * Total Joint Score X 1 Notes: * joint fractured, may be more severe, but not higher than “2”
ELBOW Distal Humerus X X * Proximal Ulna 1 X * Proximal Radius 1 X * Total Joint Score 1 X Notes: * rt distal humerus exhibits remodeling from 110 mm up from the distal end, bone is hyper- trophic & porous; probable fracture etiology; prox ulna also has hypertrophic & porous bone on lateral margin along radial notch WRIST Distal Ulna 0 X Distal Radius 0-1 X Carpals X X Total Joint Score 0-1 X Notes: HAND Proximal Metacarpals X X Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges 0 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
A-14 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-2
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 0 0
Proximal Femur 0 0
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur X 1
Proximal Tibia 0 1
Proximal Fibula X 1
Total Joint Score 0 1
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia 1 1-2
Distal Fibula 2 1
Tarsals 1 1
Total Joint Score 1-2 1-2
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals 1 0
Distal Metacarpals 0 0
Phalanges 1 1
Total Joint Score 1 0
Notes:
A-15 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-2
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet 3 1 1 0 0 C2 dens 3 1 1 1 1 1 C3 1 2 1 1 1 1 C4 2 2 1 1 1 1 C5 2 3 1 1 1 0 C6 3 3 1 1 1 1 C7 2 2 1 X X 0 C indet. T1 1 1 1 1 1 X T2 X X 0 1 1 X T3 X X 1 1 1 X T4 X X 0 0 0 0 T5 1 1 1 1 1 1 T6 1 1 1 0 0 0 T7 X X X X X X T8 X X X X X X T9 X X 1 1 1 1 T10 3 X X 2 2 1 T11 3 X 1 1 1 1 T12 1 1 1 1 1 1 T indet. L1 0 0 ** 0 0 0 0 L2 0 1 X 0 0 0 L3 1 X 0 X 0 0 L4 3 1 1 1 1 1 L5 3 X X X 1 1 L6 3 2 1 X 1 1 Sacrum: upper body = 1; up apo joint; lf = 1 & rt = 1, S-1 joint; rt = x & lf = 2
Notes: * T11 inferior facet has hypotrophic bone above facet but lytic action on facet ** most very fragmented, 6th lumbar = same individual or from 2nd individual
A-16 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-2
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-17 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-2
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: maximum diameter at midshaft Humerus: minimum diameter at midshaft Radius: maximum Length (lf) 239 mm Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 11.9 mm Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 13.5 mm Ulna: maximum length (lf) 258 mm Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter (lf) 13.1 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter (lf) 16.3 mm Ulna: physiological length (lf) 227.0 mm Os Coxae: iliac breadth (lf) 151.2 mm Femur: maximum head diameter (rt) 44.0 mm Femur: epicondylar breadth (rt) 78.3 mm Femur: maximum length (rt) 418.0 mm Femur: anterior-posterior subtronchanteria diameter (rt) 25.1 mm Femur: medial-lateral subtrochanteric diameter (rt) 31.1 mm Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 28.6 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 26.0 mm Tibia: length (lf) 413 mm Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth (lf) 76.0 mm Tibia: maximum distal epiphyseal breadth (lf) 47.4 mm Tibia: maximum diameter at the nutrient foramen (lf) 35.0 mm Tibia: medial-lateral diameter @ the nutrient foramen (lf) 24.3 mm Fibula: length (rt) 336 mm Fibula: maximum diameter at midshaft (rt) 17.7 mm Calcaneus: maximum length (lf) 75.4 mm Calcaneus: middle breadth (lf) 40.4 mm
A-18 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 00-3 Date 7/11/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics epicondyle of right humerus is 55.0 mm
Sex (criteria used) possibly Male = based on shape of mandible with square mental eminence and
gonial angle straighter and large maxilla and mandible teeth, nuchal crest – robust, supra orbital margin -
rounded, mastoid process - robust
Age (criteria used) Adult 17-23 = due to wear on teeth, all epiphyses fused and rib phase between 1 and 2
(Iscan 1993-male)
Condition of Skeleton cortex of part visible is good to fair; volume good to fair, 25% of skeleton present,
covered in matrix mostly, very fragmented, only one MT is not broken
Cranium C(21) = I(5) frontal plus (1) zygomatic arch, I(1) occipital, I(4) parietal (both sides); C(1) rt.
temporal, C(1) maxilla, F(8) indeterminate; good condition, covered in matrix
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible C(2) = missing ascending ramus on left side, teeth all in-situ
Teeth Permanent-Loose C(1) = LI2 In-situ C(13) upper
C(11) lower
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum I(1) = manuibrium only
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature I(1) - pubis X F(3)
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium A-19 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-3
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete F(17) – 2 sternal ends
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X C(2) X Scapula X X X
Humerus C(2) C(3) X Femur C(2) C(3) X
Radius C(2) X X Patella I(1) C(1) X
Ulna C(3) C(1) X Tibia I(2) C(3) X
Fibula I(4) C(4) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular C(1) X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate C(1) X X Talus X X X
Triquetral C(1) X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X C(1) Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform C(1) X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 C(1) X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 C(1) I(1) X MT 5 I(1) X X
Phalanges: Hand 14 Foot 2
Indeterminate 8 indet frags of long bones; one bag of fragments weight 216.5 grams; 2 indet hand elements
3 upper limb indet elements
Additional Notes 8 cerithedea California fragments; 3 other unidentifiable shells; extra maxilla with this burial
including right zygomatic and partial orbit – in-situ teeth (see extra dental sheet) – not precleaned burial KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-20 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-3
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 00-3 Date: 7/11/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings robust X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) large X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin round X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection yes X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis Phase 1 X
Auricular Surface X X
Osteoarthritis X X
Ribs Phase 1-2
Comments based on cranium – appears to be male adult over 18, rib phase identified as between 1 to 2:
The sternal ends have slight billowing with the beginning of a V-shaped appearance in the center, the edges
are thick and smooth with slight scalloping or wavy rim with rounded edges (Iscan 1993 for Males)
A-21 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-3
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM 1 RM3 2 C
2 RM 2 RM2 4
1 RM 6 RM1 6
2 RP 5 RP2 X
1 RP 5 RP1 X
● RC 3 RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI 4 SSS RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 4
2 LI X LI2 4
● LC 2 LC● 4
1 LP 4 LP1 4
2 LP 4 LP2 5
1 LM 6 LM1 6
2 LM 5 LM2 4
3 LM 2 LM3 2
Periodontal Disease: small buildup on RM2, RI1 of maxilla; no calculi on mandible – no periodontal
disease present on either
Note: besides wear on teeth, no other abscesses or pathology noted on maxilla or mandible; possible
young individual due to wear on teeth
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-22 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-3
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES – Extra Maxilla from Second Individual
Burial 00-3A
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM 4 RM3 X
2 RM 6 CAL, C RM2 X
1 RM 8 A – buccal, lingual, CAL RM1 X
2 RP 6 CAL RP2 X
1 RP 6 CAL RP1 X
● RC 6 CAL RC● X
2 RI 6 CAL RI2 X
1 RI 7 foramen enlarged between RI1 X
1 LI 7 these two LI1 X
2 LI 6 LI2 X
● LC 6 LC● X
1 LP 6 LP1 X
2 LP 8 LP2 X
1 LM X A LM1 X
2 LM 8 C, CAL, A – apical through LM2 X
3 LM 5 CAL LM3 X
Periodontal Disease:
LM1 is missing due to possible abscess between the LM1 and LM2, Slight palatine torus present. Rotated and displaced lingually RPM1 behind RC● and RPM2.
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-23 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-3
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X 0 x Mand. Condyle X 0 x Total Joint Score X 0 Notes: no obvious lipping – covered in matrix and mandibular condyle has post mortem damage
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus X X Proximal Ulna X X Proximal Radius X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna X X Distal Radius X X Carpals X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X X Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
A-24 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-3
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum X X
Proximal Femur X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur X 0
Proximal Tibia X 0
Proximal Fibula X 0
Total Joint Score X 0
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X X
Distal Fibula X X
Tarsals X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals 0 X
Distal Metacarpals 0 X
Phalanges 0 X
Total Joint Score 0 X
Notes:
A-25 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-3
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length 27.3 mm Chin height (lf) 33.2 mm Height of mandibular body (lf) 30.5 mm Breadth of the mandibular body (lf) 11.4 mm Minimum ramus breadth 36.8 mm Maximum ramus breadth 44.1 mm Maximum ramus height 64.0 mm Mandibular length 98.8 mm Mandibular angle 107°
A-26 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 00-3
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft (rt) 9.5 mm Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft (rt) 9.6 mm Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth 55.0 mm Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 19.2 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 17.1 mm Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 11.4 mm Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 12.9 mm Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 14.2 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 13.3 mm Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length @ nutrient foramen Femur: anterior-posterior subtronchanteria diameter (rt) 26.5 mm Femur: medial-lateral subtrochanteric diameter (rt) 24.7 mm Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 26.7 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 23.3 mm Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth
A-27 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 01-1 Date 7/11/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics rt. femur length measures 193 mm
Sex (criteria used) Indeterminate - subadult
Age (criteria used) subadult 3-5 years old = based on sequence of eruption by Ubelaker 5 years ± 16 mos: and based on femur length from Ubelaker 2.5-3.5 years
Condition of Skeleton good condition of cortex, volume good, ~25% present, mostly fragments with few
long bones over 2/3 present
Cranium I(9) = I(2) occipital; I(1) rt. temporal; F(6) indeterminate
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible F(1) = part of right side with two teeth present
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ RM1, RM2 (in the crypt)
Hyoid X Sternum F(1) = manubrium
Vertebrae: Cervical C(1), I(3) = C1 is complete, 3 incomplete neural arches
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate F(6) neural arches; C(3) centrums
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X F(1)
Ischium X X X
A-28 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-1
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 6 (1 is 1st rib) (R) 2 (1 is 1st rib) No. Incomplete F(9)
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle C(1) C(1) X Scapula C(1) F(1) X
Humerus X X X Femur F(1) C(3) F(3)dis epip
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia C(3) C(1) X
Fibula F(2) F(2) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate F(34)
Additional Notes was pre-cleaned
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-29 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-1
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 01-1 Date: 7/11/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) X no
Long bone fusion X no
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface X X
Osteoarthritis X X
Comments subadult = 3 -5 years. From sequence of eruption by Ubelaker 5 years ± 16 mos and 2.5-3.5
based on femur length from Ubelaker
A-30 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-1
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM X RM2 X
1 RM X RM1 1
2 RP X RP2 X
1 RP X RP1 X
● RC X RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 X
2 LP X LP2 X
1 LM X LM1 X
2 LM X LM2 X
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease: none
Note: no other teeth present, the RM2 is in the crypt and visible
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-31 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-1
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length 17.1 mm
A-32 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-1
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft 5.1 mm Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft 3.9 mm Scapula: breadth 50.1 mm Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: maximum diameter at midshaft Humerus: minimum diameter at midshaft Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length (rt) 193 mm Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth Tibia: maximum length (lf) 156 mm
A-33 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 01-2 Date 7/15/05 Recorder Atwood
Metrics no elements available
Sex (criteria used) probable Female = fractured os coxae but small portion of greater sciatic notch shows it beginning to widen and a preauricular sulcus associated only with females is present. The cranial elements show both male and possible female characteristics. (see sex determination sheet)
Age (criteria used) Adult 30-39 = complete fusion, teeth in good condition with little dentin exposed on 3rd
molars (younger adult), OA on 6th lumbar only (younger adult)
Condition of Skeleton poor, very fragmentary, 40% complete
Cranium C(4) – minimal suture closure (Standards ’94); frontal, lf zygomatic, lf and rt parietal, lf temporal,
75% occipital are fused; rt temporal and maxilla are complete but fractured off cranium
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible C(1)
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ C(20) = both upper and lower
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum I(1)
Vertebrae: Cervical F(4) = vert bodies (2 in isolate bag for EW, F(1) – inferior apo facet
Thoracic T1-6 = F(6 – neural arches, 4 – up apo facets, 3 – transverse proc), T7 = C(1), T8 C(1),
T9 = C(1), T10 = C(1), T11 = C(1), T12 = C(1)
Lumbar L1 = C(1), L2 = C(1), L3 = C(1), L4 = C(5), L5 = C(1), L6 = C(2)
Sacrum F(3)
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature I(1) - ilium F(1) - ilium F(2)
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium A-34 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-2
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 12(1 = 1st rib) (R) 10(1 = 1st rib) No. Incomplete 20
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle C(1) X X Scapula I(13) F(4) X
Humerus C(1) F(1)-shaft F(1)-head Femur I(5) X X
Radius C(2) F(1)-shaft X Patella X X X
Ulna C(2) F(1)-prox epip X Tibia F(5) X F(1)-shaft
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X C(1) X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X C(1) X Talus X X X
Triquetral C(1) X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate C(1) C(1) X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 C(1) X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand 2 (1=mid, 1-terminal) Foot X
Indeterminate X
Additional Notes lf ulna to EW for poss osteomyelitis/cloacae, empty bags from soil samples of this burial
are in box; 1 faunal phalanx in box; EW = L6 possible same individual; frag bag weighs 157 grams KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-35 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-2
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood
Burial: 01-2 Date: 7/15/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X wide?
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X yes
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings robust X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) large X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X slightly
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent promin X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection squarish ramus slanted
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis absent X
Auricular Surface Phase 3-4 X
Osteoarthritis X none
Comments Female? – 25-35 = has minimal cranial suture fusion, 3rd molars have only moderate attrition,
No osteoarthritis except for L6. Auricular surface Phase 3-4 (age 30-39), no billowing present to indicate younger adult. The left os coxae appears to have a pre-auricular sulcus (score 3 or 4 in standards) which is generally associated with females, small portion of greater sciatic notch could be beginning of wide opening? .
A-36 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-2
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 4
2 RM 6 RM2 6
1 RM 7 RM1 6 C on mesial RM1, but RP2 not
2 RP X RP2 6 involved
1 RP 6 C = on mesial surface RP1 6
● RC X RC● X
2 RI 7 RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI 5 poss C on lingual surface LI2 X
● LC 6 LC● X
1 LP 6 LP1 6
2 LP 6 LP2 6
1 LM 7 LM1 6
2 LM 6 LM2 6
3 LM X LM3 5 2 sm C on occlusal surface
Periodontal Disease: none seen
Less than significant attrition on 3rd molar indicates younger adult – 25-35?
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-37 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-2
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
lf ulna cloaca with smooth borders on possible indication of osteo-
anterior surface of distal ulnar shaft; mylitis (EW – healed cloaca
dense hypotrophic bone growth can’t say definitely osteomyelitis)
caused enlarged shaft
x-ray taken indicates an oblique healed fracture – oblique fracture
fracture type type indicates accidental etiology
cervical body porosity not diagnostic
thoracic – T9 inferior left apophyseal facet has not diagnostic
indentation with no indication of same
issue on the superior facet of the T10
lf tibia hypertrophic bone growth on the possible ligament ossification
posterior surface
rt and lf ilium retroauricular area exhibits osteophy- enlarged muscle attachment,
tosis along the posterior iliac crest so from extensive flexion, adduction,
that it is lipped and porotic and lateral rotation of hips
Notes
A-38 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-2
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa 0 0 Mand. Condyle X 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X 0 Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X 0 Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus 0 X Proximal Ulna 0 0 Proximal Radius 0 X Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna 1 * X Distal Radius 1 X Carpals 0 X Total Joint Score 1 X Notes: * ulna has 1 possible cloaca at distal end of shaft – etiology healed fracture, shaft is enlarged with hypotrophic bone growth that is dense; possible osteomylitis HAND Proximal Metacarpals 0 * X Distal Metacarpals 0 * 0 Phalanges 0 X Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes: *MC1 only
A-39 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-2
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum X X
Proximal Femur X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur 0 X
Proximal Tibia 0 X
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score 0 X
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia 0 X
Distal Fibula X X
Tarsals X X
Total Joint Score 0 X
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X X
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
A-40 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-2
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens X X X X X X C3 X X (1) X X X X (1,2) C4 X X X X X X C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X X X X X T2 X X X X X X T3 X X X X X X T4 X X X X X X T5 X X X X X X T6 X X X X X X T7 0 0 0 0 0 0 T8 0 0 0 0 0 0 T9 0 0 0 0 0 0 (3) T10 0 0 0 0 0 0 T11 0 0 0 0 0 0 T12 0 0 0 0 0 0 T indet. L1 1 1 1 X 0 0 (4) L2 0 0 1 0 1 X (4) L3 0 0 0 0 X 0 (4) L4 0 0 0 0 0 X (4) L5 0 1 0 0 1 X (4) L6 3 3 0 0 0 X (4) Sacrum: S1 body scores = 2
Notes: 1. from C3 to T6 too fragmentary to score; 2. 2 cervical bodies to EW, both with abnormal hypertrophic bone growth; 3. inferior apo facet (L) has depression, but no corresponding pathology on T8 L upper apo facet – to EW; 4. to EW to verify L1-L6
A-41 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-2
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length 178 mm Maximum cranial breadth 134 mm Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length 111 mm Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height 139 mm Biauricular breadth 122 mm Maxillo-alveolar breadth 62.5 mm Maxillo-Alveolar length 52.0 mm Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Interorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Frontal chord 115 mm Paietal chord 99.6 mm Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length 30.5 mm Chin height 33.1 mm Height of the mandibular body 31.9 mm Bigonial width Minimum ramus breadth 104.7 mm Maximum ramus height 32.8 mm Mandibular length 60 mm
A-42 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-2
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 12.5 mm Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 7.9 mm Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 19.1 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 20.1 mm Radius: maximum length (lf) 225 mm Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 10.4 mm Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 15.9 mm Ulna: maximum length (lf) 241 mm Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 11.1 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 13.7 mm Os Coxae: iliac breadth (lf) 152 mm Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 23.6 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 24.6 mm Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth (lf) 67.5 mm
A-43 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 01-3 Date 7/12/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics lf femur length equals 111 mm (note femur has been taped together in one place to make it
complete), right ulna measures 79.5 mm
Sex (criteria used) indeterminate
Age (criteria used) subadult – estimated 0.5-1.5 years = based on metric measurement of femur that falls
in the range of 92.5-161.0 mm and right ulna that indicates age range NB – 0.5 years from Ubelaker’s
criteria
Condition of Skeleton fairly good condition, volume fair, ~25% of skeleton present; most elements are
fairly complete but difficult to side due to size and no landmarks
Cranium I(43) = F(5) occipital, F(6) lf parietal, F(7) rt parietal, F(1) temporal, F(25) indeterminate;
cranial elements in good condition, separated along sutures
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose In-situ
Deciduous-Loose 1 incisor of unknown location In-situ X
in alveolus
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic 2 complete neural arches
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate I(7) neural arches, I(7) centrum
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature
Immature: Pubis C(1) X X
Ilium C(1) X F(2)
Ischium X C(1) X
A-44 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-3
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 2 (R) 1 No. Incomplete 1
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle C(1) X X Scapula C(1) C(1) X
Humerus X X F(1) Femur I(1) X X
Radius X C(2) X Patella X X X
Ulna X C(1) X Tibia X X F(2)
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate F(1) long bone; I(8) epiphyses; C(4) hand or foot MC or MT’s and 2 phalanges; F(20) unknown elements
Additional Notes abalone shell found in association; no evidence of pathology or trauma; on the incisor there is a dark band on the enamel half way from root & occlusal surface that may indicate nutrition (not hypoplasia) KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-45 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-3
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-46 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-3
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length (lf) 54.7 mm Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft Scapula: breadth (rt.) 35.1 mm Scapula: height (rt.) 42.9 mm Scapula: breadth (lf.) 34.7 mm Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: maximum diameter at midshaft Humerus: minimum diameter at midshaft Ulna: maximum length (rt) 79.5 mm Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length @ nutrient foramen Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth
A-47 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 01-4 Date 7/12/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics rt femur length is 458 mm (reconstructed) and rt femoral head diameter is 44.7 mm
Sex (criteria used) Probably Male = nuchal crest, femoral head (Bass); rounded supraorbital
margin
Age (criteria used) Adult 30-39 = all long bones fused, moderate OA is on the rt proximal ulna and radius.
And possibly Phase 3-4 on the auricular surface fragment at the apical margin.
Condition of Skeleton fair to poor condition; all elements are covered in caliche matrix that will not come off
without using picks. Most of lower limbs present but fragment, both forearms present but fragmented
Cranium C(15) = I(1) frontal; I(6) both parietals; I(1) occipital; F(7) indeterminate; covered in caliche,
most breaks are post-mortem
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose In-situ
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature F(4)-pubis, ilium X F(2)
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-48 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-4
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus C(2) X F(1) Femur C(8) C(3) X
Radius C(3) C(2) X Patella X C(1) X
Ulna C(2) C(2) X Tibia F(3) C(4) F(3)
Fibula F(3) C(5) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus C(1) C(1) X
Lunate X X X Talus C(1) C(1) X
Triquetral X C(1) X Cuboid X C(1) X
Pisiform X X X Navicular F(1) C(1) X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X C(1) X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform C(1) C(1) X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X C(1) X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 C(1) I(1) X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 I(1) C(2) X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X C(3) X
MC 4 X C(1) X MT 4 C(1) C(2) X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 I(1) C(5) X
Phalanges: Hand 2 Foot 13
Indeterminate F(3) hand elements, 2 carpals and 2 MC indet; F(24) long bones; one bag of fragments
weighs = 78 grams
Additional Notes skeletal elements have caliche on them, most loose dirt has been removed, may have been pre-cleaned KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-49 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-4
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 01-4 Date: 7/12/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings slightly robust X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin round X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) X X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface Phase 3-4 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Comments Sex: possibly male from examination of cranial elements, also metric measurements indicate possibly male based on Bass’s criteria.
Age: examination of the small fragment of the auricular surface appears to be Phase 3-4 (30-40). Under a magnifying lens, there are striations visible and slight apical changes, the surface appears granular, closest match to the 35 year old photo in Standards (1994). A-50 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-4
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
rt radius moderate lipping on the medial margin possibly caused by trauma, such
of the radial head as muscle pull or fall; no evidence
of any fractures to this element
rt ulna moderate lipping on the radial is associated with the radial head,
notch and hypertrophic bone growth same diagnosis; cannot tell which
on the coronoid distal process margin element received the trauma
Notes
A-51 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-4
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X X Mand. Condyle X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus X X Proximal Ulna X 2 * Proximal Radius X 2 Total Joint Score X 2 Notes: * looks like secondary pathology possibly caused by trauma to the area, it is not contra- lateral WRIST Distal Ulna X X Distal Radius 1 * X Carpals X X Total Joint Score 1 X Notes: * slight hypertrophy bone growth along the anterior margin, not seen on the opposite side
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X X Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
A-52 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-4
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum X X
Proximal Femur X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur X X
Proximal Tibia X X
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X X
Distal Fibula X X
Tarsals 1 * 1 *
Total Joint Score 1 1
Notes: * articular surfaces well defined on the rt calcaneus and right talus where they meet, lipping
slight; similar diagnosis on left calcaneus
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X X
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
A-53 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-4
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-54 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 01-4
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 22.8 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 20.6 mm Radius: maximum length (reconstructed) (rt) 246 mm Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 12.2 mm Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 16.0 mm Ulna: maximum length (rt) Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 18.5 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 17.4 mm Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 30.0 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 29.3 mm Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at nutrient foramen (rt) 38.1 mm Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at nutrient foramen (rt) 24.8 mm Calcaneus: maximum length (rt) 76.8 mm Calcaneus: middle breadth (rt) 42.3 mm
A-55 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-5 Date 7/15/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics indeterminate
Sex (criteria used) indeterminate
Age (criteria used) indeterminate
Condition of Skeleton poor, very fragmented, only long bone fragments (tibia, fibula, and possibly others)
Cranium X
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose In-situ
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X X
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-56 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-5
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur X X X
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X F(1)
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate long bone fragment bag (tibia, fibula and possibly others) weights 264 grams
Additional Notes one bag of soil with bone slivers weights 284 grams
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-57 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SMA-263 Burial No. 04-6 Date 8/9/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics no elements available
Sex (criteria used) Male = determined by robust nuchal crest and large mastoid process
Age (criteria used) Young Adult 18+ = determined by eruption of the RM3 and attrition of occlusal surface
Condition of Skeleton except for the cranium and the cervical vertebrae that is in good condition, all the rest of the post-cranium is in poor condition and extremely fragmented to the point it is unidentifiable
Cranium I(39) = C(5) occipital, C(13) rt parietal, C(9) lf parietal, C(1) rt temporal, C(1) lf temporal, F(5) temporal, F(3) frontal, F(1) indeterminate, F(1) maxilla
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible I(5)
Teeth Permanent-Loose 18 – both maxilla and mandible In-situ 2 - mandible
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical C(5) = C1, C2, C3, C4, C5(4); F(2) = spinous process; F(1) = body
Thoracic F(3) = transverse process; F(2) = facet
Lumbar F(2) = bodies; F(6) facets
Sacrum F(5)
Indeterminate F(3)
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X F(9)
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-58 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SMA-263 Burial: 04-6
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete F(17)
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle F(1) X F(1) Scapula F(3) X F(3)
Humerus X X F(3) Femur F(2) X F(8)
Radius F(1) X F(2) Patella X X X
Ulna X X F(2) Tibia X X X1
Fibula F(1) X F(3)
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate C(1) X X Talus X X F(1)
Triquetral C(1) X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate C(1) X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate C(1) X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 I(2) X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X C(2) X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 I(1) X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 I(1) X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand C(8), F(11) Foot C(7)
Indeterminate F(5) long bones; frag bag of indet not wet screened = 141 grams, shell & bone frags after wet screening = 101 grams, bone fragments after wet screen = 267 grams
Additional Notes burnt bone, several dozen shells, lithics, faunal, faunal bone tools (3), redwood, shell beads; 1. in foil bag tibial fragments are located, they are extremely friable & if removed will disintegrate KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-59 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SMA-263 Burial: 04-6
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-6 Date: 8/9/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings robust X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) large X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion X X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface X X
Osteoarthritis X X
Comments little to examine for ageing, only attrition and RM3 eruption
96° for the gonial angle of the right ascending ramus and 61 mm in height using mandibulometer - male
attribute
A-60 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SMA-263 Burial: 04-6
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM 2 C RM3 1
2 RM 3 RM2 3
1 RM 4 CAL = slight RM1 X
2 RP X RP2 4 CAL = slight
1 RP 3 CAL = slight RP1 3 CAL = slight
● RC X RC● 3 CAL = moderate
2 RI 2 CAL = heavy RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 3 CAL = moderate
2 LI X LI2 3 CAL = moderate
● LC 2 CAL = moderate LC● X
1 LP 3 CAL = slight LP1 X
2 LP 4 LP2 X
1 LM 5 CAL = moderate LM1 5 CAL = slight
2 LM 4 LM2 4
3 LM X LM3 1 CAL = slight
Periodontal Disease:
Note = only two teeth in-situ
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-61 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SMA-263 Burial: 04-6
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
cranium porous activity on the two parietals unknown etiology = possibly
and occipital; represented by many anemia (?)
small holes; actual porosity covers
most of the elements represented by
the cranium (EW = porotic
hyperostosis)
Notes
A-62 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SMA-263 Burial: 04-6
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet 0 0 0 0 0 C2 dens 0 0 0 0 0 0 C3 0 0 0 0 0 0 C4 0 0 0 0 0 0 C5 0 0 X 0 X 0 C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X * X X X X * T2 X X X X X X T3 X X X X X X T4 X X X X X X T5 X X X X X X T6 X X X X X X T7 X X X X X X T8 X X X X X X T9 X X X X X X T10 X X X X X X T11 X X X X X X T12 X X X X X X T indet. L1 X X X X X X L2 X X X X X X L3 X X X X X X L4 X X X X X X L5 X X X X X X L indet. Sacrum: F(6) indet. For OA
Notes: the thoracic and lumbar are in fragments and indeterminate for OA
A-63 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SMA-263 Burial: 04-6
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-64 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SMA-263 Burial: 04-6
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: maximum diameter at midshaft Humerus: minimum diameter at midshaft Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length @ nutrient foramen Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth
A-65 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SMA-263 Burial: 04-6
ADDITIONAL NOTES This burial was not pre-cleaned prior to this analysis; each bag and element is still attached to dirt clods. Most of the bone is bound in the center of the dirt matrix, as well as bone mixed with the dirt, shells are also mixed in. Because a rather complete cranium was found in this burial as well as the
C1, C2 and other complete cervical, we suspected that some of the shells may actually be shell beads. In the start of removing dirt from the bone with a dental pick, the shells were breaking or disintegrating when touched. A. Leventhal suggested a new methodology for this specimen.
We are wet screening all of the dirt found in the boxes to release the bones and shell from the matrix with the least amount of damage. The process in the lab for wet screening is to use a strainer in a tub or bucket of water and leave them to soak for awhile. This removes the dirt and minimizes damage to elements. Once matrix has fallen to the bottom of tub, the strainer is turned upside down on a paper towel to dry.
Next, the surface of the water is checked for floating seeds or seed pods that will be removed for storage. Once the water is checked, then it is dumped down an outside drain and the tub is rinsed and the process repeated.
Due to the fragile condition of some of the bones in the hard dirt matrix, they have been left in the soil and have been placed back in the box. The concern is that the cancellous bone will disintegrate when placed in the water.
A-66 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-7 Date 7/13/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics rt femoral head = 45.1 mm
Sex (criteria used) possibly Male = based on morphology of cranium following 1994 Standards and metric
measurements following Bass criteria
Age (criteria used) Adult 25+ = criteria is based on bone fusion and teeth eruption and attrition
Condition of Skeleton very fragmented, though the cortex is fair and the bone volume is good;
Approximately 50% present
Cranium C(60) = C(1) lf parietal; F rt parietal; C(3) temporals; I(1) occipital; I(1) frontal; I(2) maxilla;
C(1) zygomatic arch, C(2) zygomatic; calvarium found in mortar that is complete; lf asc ramus still articulated to the mandibular fossa by matrix; bag of fragments Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible I(2)
Teeth Permanent-Loose 7 teeth – 1 broken in half In-situ 3
Deciduous-Loose In-situ
Hyoid X Sternum F(1) distal body
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic F(7) neural arch, F(2) body, F(1) spinous process
Lumbar F(6) articular facets
Sacrum X
Indeterminate F(15) bodies, F(2) spinous process
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X F(11) – 3 acetabulum, 1 ilium
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-67 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-7
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 1 (R) 1 No. Incomplete F(28)
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X F(2)
Humerus I(4) F(2) F(5) Femur C(7) C(6) F(2)
Radius X F(1) F(3) Patella X C(1) X
Ulna C(4) F(1) X Tibia I(3) I(6) F(6)
Fibula F(1) F(1) F(3)
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 C(1) X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand 2 Foot 3
Indeterminate F(4) MC; F(25) lower limb; F(6) upper limb; F(16) indeterminate; bag of frags = 269 grams
I(1) MC distal end
Additional Notes found in ass. with burial are faunal bones (small and large), clam shells, red and green chert, charcoal, burnt wood, cinnabar, glass and nail KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-68 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-7
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-7 Date: 7/13/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings robust X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) large X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection massive X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface X X
Osteoarthritis X X
Comments possibly male due to morphology of the cranium, estimated age as adult over 25 years
Due to fusion and eruption LM3, and no OA on skeleton
A-69 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-7
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM 6 CAL (buccal) RM2 6
1 RM 6 C, CAL (buccal) RM1 6
2 RP X RP2 5 C (occlusal)
1 RP X RP1 X
● RC 6 RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 X
2 LP X LP2 X
1 LM 6 CAL (buccal) LM1 X
2 LM 6 C LM2 X
3 LM 4 LM3 X
Periodontal Disease:
NOTE: have additional upper molar that is broken in half (only have half)
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-70 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-7
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa 0 X Mand. Condyle 0 X Total Joint Score 0 X Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus 0 0 Proximal Ulna 0 X Proximal Radius X X Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna X X Distal Radius X X Carpals X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals 0 X Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges X X Total Joint Score 0 X Notes: Overall: All elements that are present are fractures and difficult to determine OA. It does not appear to have any OA though.
A-71 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-7
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum X X
Proximal Femur 0 0
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur 0 0
Proximal Tibia 0 0
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia 0 0
Distal Fibula 0 0
Tarsals X X
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X X
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
A-72 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-7
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens X X X X X X C3 X X X X X X C4 X X X X X X C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X X X X X T2 X X X X X X T3 X X X X X X T4 X X X X X X T5 X X X X X X T6 X X X X X X T7 X X X X X X T8 X X X X X X T9 X X X X X X T10 X X X X X X T11 X X X X X X T12 X X X X X X T indet. L1 X X X X X X L2 X X X X X X L3 X X X X X X L4 X X X X X X L5 X X X X X X L indet. Sacrum: X
Notes: 2 vertebral body fragments have moderate OA score 2. The rest of the vertebral column is to fractured to score or identify specific vertebra
A-73 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-7
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length (rt) 36.9 mm Maximum Ramus Breadth (lf) 48.3 mm Chin Height 35.2 mm Height of the Mandibular Body 32.5 mm Breadth of the mandibular body 11.9 mm
A-74 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-7
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 22.2 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 19.4 mm Femur: maximum head diameter (rt) 45.1 mm Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length @ nutrient foramen Femur: anterior-posterior subtrochanteric diameter (rt) 27.4 mm Femur: medial-lateral subtrochanteric diameter (rt) 31.2 mm Femur: anterior-posterior midshaft diameter (rt) 29.0 mm Femur: medial-lateral midshaft diameter (rt) 26.1 mm Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth
A-75 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-7
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Rodent gnawing on the anterior right tibia measures 130 mm in length also gnawing on left humerus
A-76 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-8 Date 7/15/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics lf humerus length = 299 mm (11-3/4”); lf humeral head vertical diameter = 44.02 mm and transverse
diameter = 42.93 mm
Sex (criteria used) male = cranial supraorbital margin and mental eminence appear Male, but fragmentary and ascending ramus is short & slanted like Female; humeral measures are indet,
Age (criteria used) Adult, (26-39) = all dentin erupted except RM3, which is impacted, auricular surface (4), medial clavicle fused, severe OA in lower spine, moderate to severe dental attrition, sternal rib = Phase 4
Condition of Skeleton fair, fragmentary, poor bone quality and volume
Cranium F = frontal C(5), maxilla F(1 right side only), zygomatic F(1 rt only fused to rt maxilla), temporal
F(1 lf side), parietal F(9), occipital F(7), unidentified F(11)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible F(2) rt side only
Teeth Permanent-Loose 1 medial maxillary incisor (no wear In-situ 15 both maxilla and mandible
probably not this individuals)
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum F(4)
Vertebrae: Cervical C1=F(2), C2=C(1), C3-C7 = 1 is C(1), F(5 lf neural arches, 2 rt neural arches, 1 body frag)
Thoracic T1=C(1), T2=C(1), T10=F(1), T11=I(1), T12=F(1), T3-T9=F(2 bodies, 8 neural arches & 1
transverse process)
Lumbar L4=F(1), L5=(F1), L1-L5=F(5 rt upper apo facets/neural arches, 4 lf up. apo facets/neural
arches, 3 inferior apo faces/neural arches
Sacrum F(5)
Indeterminate F(5)
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature F(5) F(2) F(18)
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium A-77 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-8
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 6 (R) 1 No. Incomplete 63
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle C(2) F(1) X Scapula I(3) F(5) F(24)
Humerus C(2) I(3) X Femur C(5) C(4) *
Radius C(3) C(5) X Patella X X X
Ulna C(4) C(3) X Tibia C(2) F(6) *
Fibula I(3) F(4) *
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus C(1) X X
Lunate X C(1) X Talus C(1) X X
Triquetral C(1) X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. C(1) X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate C(1) C(1) X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X C(1) X MT 1 X X **
MC 2 X C(1) X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X C(2) X MT 5 X C(1) X
Phalanges: Hand Prox C(4), Med C(6), Dist C(5), F(2) Foot Prox C(3) = C(1) for each
Indeterminate
Additional Notes 3 bags of burial associated with shell = 3 stone matates, 2 mortars, 2 bags flaked stone
(e.g., chert); 4 faunal bones, frag bag weights 198 grams,1 faunal bone vert frag, 2 shells (put in shell & faunal bag) “see additional notes page regarding asterisk comments”
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d A-78 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-8
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood
Burial: 04-8 Date: 7/15/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide close X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings robust X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin round X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent promin X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection massive X
Ascending Ramus short/slanted or long/vertical X short/slant
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface Phase 4 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Rib – sternal end Phase 4
Comments Possibly male: crania appears to have male characteristics except ascending ramus is female. Humeral head measurements are indeterminate and little os coxae, fragmented (reconstruction shows the greater sciatic notch quite narrow). Age 32+ = severe OA in lower spine, medial clavicle well fused, severe dental attrition. Sternal rib analysis indicates Phase 4 (26-32). A-79 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-8
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM 0 impacted RM3 X
2 RM 7 RM2 6
1 RM 7-8 (1) RM1 6
2 RP 7 RP2 6
1 RP 7 RP1 5
● RC 6 RC● 6
2 RI 7 RI2 6
1 RI 7 RI1 8
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 X
2 LP X LP2 X
1 LM X LM1 X
2 LM X LM2 X
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease: Severe periodontitis on both maxilla and mandible
1. abscess runs thru maxilla with drainage on labial & buccal sides
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-80 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-8
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa 0 X Mand. Condyle X 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) 0 0 Proximal Humerus 0 X Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus 0 0 Proximal Ulna 0 0 Proximal Radius 0 X Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna 0 X Distal Radius 0 0 Carpals 0 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X 0 Distal Metacarpals X 0 Phalanges 0-1 0-1 Total Joint Score 0-1 0 Notes:
A-81 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-8
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 0 0
Proximal Femur 0 X
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur 1 1
Proximal Tibia 1-2 1-2
Proximal Fibula 0 0
Total Joint Score 1 1
Notes: both knees show mild OA
ANKLE
Distal Tibia 0 1
Distal Fibula X X
Tarsals 0-1 X
Total Joint Score 0 1
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X 0 *
Distal Metacarpals X 0 *
Phalanges X 0
Total Joint Score X 0
Notes: * only right MT5 present
A-82 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-8
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet 0 0 X 0 X C2 dens 0 X 0 0 0 0 C3 1 1 -- X X 0 0 C4 X X * X X X X * C5 X X * X X X X * C6 X X * X X X X * C7 X X * X X X X * C indet. T1 X 1 0 0 0 X T2 1 1 0 0 0 0 T3 X X ** X X X X ** T4 X X ** X X X X ** T5 X X ** X X X X ** T6 X X ** X X X X ** T7 X X ** X X X X ** T8 X X ** X X X X ** T9 X X ** X X X X ** T10 X 3 X X X X T11 2 1 0 0 X X T12 1 2 X X X X T indet. L1 X X *** X X X X *** L2 X X *** X X X X *** L3 X X *** X X X X *** L4 3 X X X X X *** L5 3 2 X X X X *** L indet. Sacrum: Score 3 on superior S1
Notes: -- C3-C7, indeterminate * fragmented bodies and neural arches, too fragmented to score ** fragmented bodies and neural arches, too fragmented to score *** superior and inferior apophyseal facets score 0 or 1 when present
A-83 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-8
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Maxillo-alveolar breadth Maxillo-Alveolar length Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Interorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Frontal chord Paietal chord Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length Chin height 36.9 mm Height of the mandibular body 33.7 mm Breadth of the mandibular body 9.4 mm Minimum ramus breadth 34.1 mm Maximum ramus breadth Maximum ramus height 56 mm Mandibular length 103 mm Mandibular angle 123°
A-84 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-8
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length (lf) 144.3 mm Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 10.4 mm Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 12.0 mm Humerus: maximum length (lf) 298 mm Humerus: epicondylar breadth 62.7 mm Humerus: vertical diameter of head 44.2 mm Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 20.7 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 19.7 mm Radius: maximum length (lf) 238 mm Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 11.7 mm Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 14.2 mm Ulna: maximum length (lf) 261 mm Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 14.3 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 14.2 mm Os Coxae: iliac breadth (lf) Femur: maximum head diameter (rt) ~44.1 mm Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 34.0 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 27.0 mm Tibia: maximum length (lf) 352 mm Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth 76.1 mm Tibia: maximum distal epiphyseal breadth (lf) Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at the nutrient foramen 34.6 mm Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at the nutrient foramen 23.0 mm Calcaneus: maximum length 75.5 mm Calcaneus: middle breadth 42.2 mm
A-85 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-8
ADDITIONAL NOTES
2 people present in this burial 04-8A
* extra medial maxilla incisor; 4 frags of long bone shafts (femur, tibia & fibula) – second individual
** one MT, shaft and distal end only
Additional artifacts with burial
1 faunal bone vert frag
2 small shell fragments found with ribs put in shell bag,
A-86 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-9 Date 7/18/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics rt femoral head maximum diameter = 39.1 mm
Sex (criteria used) Female = cranial morphologies are indet; os coxae reconstructed, gracile skeleton
with non-robust muscle markers and female per femoral head measurements (Bass)
Age (criteria used) Adult, (33-46) = all teeth erupted, bones fused, mild OA (but very fragmented, no vert
bodies) severe attrition, fragmented auricular surface, no pubes, sternal rib = Phase 5 (33-46)
Condition of Skeleton poor, very fragmented, 60% present, bone quality and cortex adversely affected by extensive fracturing
Cranium C but very fragmented = Maxilla C(2), zygomatic C(2), frontal C(15), temporal C(3), sphenoid
F(1), occipital I(2), parietal C(15)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible C(2) = fractured with half thru midline/mental eminence
Teeth Permanent-Loose molar no attrition, maxilla and mand In-situ 17 teeth maxilla and mandible
too fx’d to see where it goes, 2 incisors peg tooth between RM1 & RM2
Deciduous-Loose & 1 canine In-situ
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical C2 = C(3) and C3-C7 = F(2)
Thoracic X
Lumbar L1-L5 = F(11) – neural arch and superior and inferior apo. facet fragments
Sacrum F(1) = S1 body and right superior apo facet
Indeterminate F(4) = 2 body fragments and 2 neural arch frags
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature I(6) F(11) X
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-87 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-9
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) 1 No. Incomplete 1
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X F(1) Scapula F(1) F(1) X
Humerus C(3) F(2) F(1) Femur C(5) I(4) X
Radius X F(1) X Patella X X X
Ulna C(2) F(1) X Tibia C(4) C(3) X
Fibula F(3) C(4) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X F(2) X
Lunate X X X Talus X C(1) X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand C(3) = 2 medial & 1 distal Foot C(1) = rt prox 1st phalanx
Indeterminate X
Additional Notes 2 bags shell; 2 bags lithics; 1 bag faunal bone; frag bag = 99.4 grams
Rt maxilla to EW to look at peg tooth (EW possible sinusitis in maxilla) KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-88 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-9
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood
Burial: 04-9 Date: 7/18/09
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X wide
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X yes
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X small
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X small
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X no
Auricular Surface Phase 3-4 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Rib – sternal end Phase 5
Comments Female = very fragmented but upper lipping around auricular surface, possibly *Phase
3 or 4 (30’s), all teeth erupted, bones fused, mild OA seen (but very fragmented and no vert bodies), severe attrition, no pubes, sternal rib indicates Phase 5 (33-46), Female = gracile with non-robust muscle markers, female femoral head measurements, os coxae reconstructed with greater sciatic notch very wide, cranial morphology primarily indet, but on female side A-89 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-9
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM 7 RM2 7
1 1 RM 8 *root , RM abscess RM1 7 A, roots exposed
2 RP X A RP2 X
1 RP 8 RP1 8
● RC 7 RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 7
2 LI X LI2 6
● LC 6 LC● X A/U = well healed A/M loss
1 LP 8 LP1 8
2 LP 8 LP2 8
1 LM 8 A, roots exposed LM1 7
2 LM 7 LM2 7
3 LM 1 ** LM3 X
Periodontal Disease: severe periodontal disease
* This tooth is the distal ligual root of the RM1, note that the abscess is between the RPM2 and the RM1 and
is probably related to the RPM2 and incorporated the RM1 secondarily.
**tooth was replaced in maxilla and glued. There is no wear on the occlusal surface
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-90 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-9
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X X Mand. Condyle X 0 Total Joint Score X 0 Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus 0 X Proximal Ulna 0 X Proximal Radius X X Total Joint Score 0 X Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna 1 X Distal Radius X X Carpals X X Total Joint Score 1 X Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X X Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges 1 1 Total Joint Score 1 1 Notes:
A-91 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-9
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 0-1 0-1
Proximal Femur X 0
Total Joint Score 0-1 0
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur X * X
Proximal Tibia X * X
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes: * too fractured
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X * 1
Distal Fibula X 0
Tarsals X 1
Total Joint Score X 1
Notes: * too fractured
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X X
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges X 1
Total Joint Score X 1
Notes:
A-92 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-9
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens 1 X * 1 1 0 0 * C3 X X X X X X C4 X X X X X X C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X ** X X X X ** T2 X X X X X X T3 X X X X X X T4 X X X X X X T5 X X X X X X T6 X X X X X X T7 X X X X X X T8 X X X X X X T9 X X X X X X T10 X X X X X X T11 X X X X X X T12 X X X X X X T indet. L1 X X *** X X X X **** L2 X X X X X X L3 X X X X X X L4 X X X X X X L5 X X X X X X L indet. Sacrum: X
Notes: * only C2 present ** no thoracic present *** no bodies present **** apophyseal facets coded from 1 to 2 though precise Lumbar identification indeterminate
A-93 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-9
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Maxillo-alveolar breadth Maxillo-Alveolar length Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Interorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Frontal chord Paietal chord Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length 38.7 mm Chin height 33.8 mm Height of the mandibular body 31.4 mm Breadth of the mandibular body 13.2 mm Bigonial width 94.9 mm Minimum ramus breadth 35.9 mm Maximum ramus breadth Maximum ramus height Mandibular length 86.0 mm Mandibular angle 116°
A-94 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-9
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth (lf) ~48.7 mm Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 17.9 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 17.6 mm Radius: maximum length Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft Ulna: maximum length (lf) Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 11.8 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) * Sacrum: maximum transverse diameter of base 46.3 mm Os Coxae: iliac breadth (lf) 139.4 mm Femur: maximum head diameter (rt) 39.1 mm Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 24.1 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 26.7 mm Tibia: maximum length (rt) Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth Tibia: maximum distal epiphyseal breadth 42.3 mm Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) 39.9 mm Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) 21.3 mm Fibula: maximum diameter at midshaft 15.5 mm
* rodent gnawing on interosseous crest – no measurement possible
A-95 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-10 Date 7/20/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics too fragmented for any measurements for sexing proposes
Sex (criteria used) probable Male = large and robust muscle markers, straight ascending ramus, robust mental eminence
Age (criteria used) Adult 30+ = all bones fused, all teeth erupted, severe OA on cervical vertebral bodies, severe attrition; auricular surface partially present – Phase 5 (40-44) – note though only small portion does not provide an accurate interpretation
Condition of Skeleton very poor,30% present very fragmented; upper right portion of the burial was exposed to firing that may be related to pre-internment pit fires then cremation
Cranium F(73) = very fragmented
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible C(2)
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ 11 teeth - mandible
Deciduous-Loose In-situ
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical C3-C7 = I(1) body and lf neural arch and 2 fragments of neural arch
Thoracic T2-T8 = I(1) and F(1) transverse process
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate F(1) = neural arch fragment
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature F(1) - ilium F(1) - pubis F(4) – ilium frags
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-96 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-10
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula F(1) X X
Humerus I(2) F(1)* X Femur C(7) I(3)* X
Radius F(1) X X Patella X X X
Ulna F(2) X X Tibia I(6) I(7) X
Fibula F(1) I(4) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X C(2) X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate X
Additional Notes * upper right portion of the burial was exposed to firing that may be related to pre-internment pit fires then cremation; 2 bags associated lithics and shell; 1 faunal bone (fish) in bag; frag bag = 168 grams
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d A-97 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-10
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood
Burial: 04-10 Date: 7/20/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis yes X
Auricular Surface Phase 5 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Comments see inventory sheet = probably Male, 30+
Note that left auricular surface is probably Phase 5 based on no transverse organization and surface is granular, retroauricular surface appears rough. But, only small portion of the superior demiface is present and damaged. Pubic symphysis inferior margin present, but not diagnostic
A-98 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-10
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 7
2 RM X RM2 7
1 RM X RM1 6
2 RP X RP2 6
1 RP X RP1 7
● RC X RC● 6
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 7
2 LP X LP2 6
1 LM X LM1 7
2 LM X LM2 7
3 LM X LM3 7
Periodontal Disease: severe periodontal disease
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-99 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-10
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X X Mand. Condyle X 0-1 Total Joint Score X 0-1 Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus X X Proximal Ulna X X Proximal Radius X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna X X Distal Radius X X Carpals X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X X Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
A-100 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-10
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum X X
Proximal Femur 0 X *
Total Joint Score 0 X
Notes: * too fragmented and cremated
KNEE
Distal Femur X X
Proximal Tibia X X
Proximal Fibula X 1
Total Joint Score X 1
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia 0 X
Distal Fibula X X
Tarsals X X
Total Joint Score 0 X
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X 0
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges X X
Total Joint Score X 0
Notes:
A-101 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-10
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens X X X X X X C3 2 3 * X X 1 X * C4 X X X X X X C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X X X X X T2 X X ** 0 0 1 1 ** T3 X X X X X X T4 X X X X X X T5 X X X X X X T6 X X X X X X T7 X X X X X X T8 X X X X X X T9 X X X X X X T10 X X X X X X T11 X X X X X X T12 X X X X X X T indet. L1 X X X X X X L2 X X *** X X X X L3 X X X X X X L4 X X X X X X L5 X X X X X X L indet. Sacrum: X
Notes: * only 1 fragmented C3-C7 is scorable ** only 1 fragmented T2-T8 is scorable *** no lumbar available
A-102 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-10
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length Chin height 35.2 mm Height of the mandibular body 33.8 mm Breadth of the mandibular body 13.1 mm Bigonial width 112.5 mm Bicondylar breadth ~134.4 mm Minimum ramus breadth 34.5 mm Maximum ramus breadth Maximum ramus height 65.0 mm Mandibular length 78.0 mm Mandibular angle 115.5°
A-103 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-10
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth (lf) Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 23.6 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 21.6 mm Radius: maximum length Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft Ulna: maximum length (lf) Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) Sacrum: maximum transverse diameter of base Os Coxae: iliac breadth (lf) Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 26.2 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 29.8 mm Tibia: maximum length (rt) Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth Tibia: maximum distal epiphyseal breadth Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) 38.3 mm Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) 26.2 mm Fibula: maximum diameter at midshaft (rt) 18.7 mm
A-104 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-11 Date 7/24/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics no elements available for metric measurement
Sex (criteria used) indeterminate, subadult
Age (criteria used) sub-adult 3-7 years = based on size of cranium with sutures still unfused and the shape and size of femur metaphysis; also, vertebra (thoracic) was fused between centrum and neural arch (BASS)
Condition of Skeleton cranium in fair condition fragments relatively large. Rest of skeleton is extremely fragmented. Only few elements in upper body are diagnostic. Less than 25% of skeleton present and is mostly cranial
Cranium I(21) = left parietal C(5), rt parietal I(5), occipital I(4), indeterminate F(7); cranium cortex in good condition, covered in matrix, was partially reconstructed
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose In-situ
Deciduous-Loose 1 – dRi1 In-situ
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic 1 – C(4), 1 – I(1) centrum
Lumbar X
Sacrum F(1)
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-105 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-11
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 1 (R) X No. Incomplete 2
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula I(3) X X
Humerus X X F(3) Femur X I(1) X
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate F(31) long bones
Additional Notes shells, rusted metal, charcoal found in association with burial 04-11; 2 crab claws, 2 faunal bones. There are few elements that could have any pathologies, but examination of those elements show no pathology, element much to fragmented also to see any slight pathologies KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-106 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-11
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-11 Date: 7/24/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) X X
Long bone fusion X no
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface X X
Osteoarthritis X X
Comments The neural arch is fused to the centrum, but the proximal femur is unfused, as is the scapula
A-107 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-11
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM X RM2 X
1 RM X RM1 X
2 RP X RP2 X
1 RP X RP1 X
● RC X RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI 4 RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 X
2 LP X LP2 X
1 LM X LM1 X
2 LM X LM2 X
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease:
NOTE: 1 loose tooth found with cranium, moderate wear with root intact for deciduous tooth, no
other pathologies present
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-108 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-11
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-109 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-11
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: maximum diameter at midshaft Humerus: minimum diameter at midshaft Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length @ nutrient foramen Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth
A-110 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-12 Date 7/25/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics rt radial length = 230 mm, rt ulna length = 249 mm
Sex (criteria used) Female = ascending mandibular ramus is short and slanted, wide sciatic notch, preauricular sulcus present
Age (criteria used) 45-49 = auricular surface is phase 6 or higher, osteoarthritis, ante-mortem molar loss with advanced resorption, high dental attrition
Condition of Skeleton poor, very fragmented but good one quality, 50% present, possible osteoporosis: very light weight
Cranium I = lf temporal C(1), lf parietal I(1), parietal F(5), sphenoid F(3), frontal F(3), occipital C(8), lf zygomatic C(1), rt zygomatic F(1), maxilla F(2), cranial fragments (10)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible F(3) = lf mandible and frags of right mandibular condyle
Teeth Permanent-Loose 4 = 1 canine, 1 incisor, 1 molar, In-situ X
1 poss molar or premolar frag
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid I(1) – body only Sternum C(3)
Vertebrae: Cervical C3-C7 = C(1)
Thoracic T1=C(1), T2=C(1), T3-T8= C(1), C(2), F(1), C(1), F(1), C(3); T9-T11=2 bodies; T12=F(1);
F(2)= transverse process
Lumbar L1-L5 = 3 complete neural arches with inf & sup apo facets, 1 rt neural arch w/ fragmented
body, and 1 lf superior apo facet and 1 body
Sacrum F(12)
Indeterminate F(13)
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature C(5) – ilium X X
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-111 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-12
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 10 – C 1st rib (R) 5 – F 1st rib No. Incomplete 21
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle I(1) C(1) X Scapula F(2) F(2) F(1)
Humerus C(1)* C(3)* X Femur C(5)** F(4) X
Radius C(2) C(3) X Patella X C(1) X
Ulna C(2) C(2) X Tibia X F(4) F(1)
Fibula X X F(2)
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate C(1) X X Talus X X X
Triquetral C(1) X X Cuboid F(1) X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X C(1) X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X C(1) X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 C(1) I(1) X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X C(1) X MT 5 C(2) X X
Phalanges: Hand C(11) = 4 prox, 4 mid, 3 dist Foot X
Indeterminate 1 unidentified long bone fragment, associated faunal
Additional Notes * both missing humeral heads; ** femoral head missing; rodent gnawing on rt tibial shaft, 1 bag lithics, 1 bag shell, 1 bag faunal, frag bag = 199 gr. possible mortar frag found with burial; one foil packet of charcoal (sample removed L. Jones 10/18/05)
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d A-112 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-12
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood
Burial: 04-12 Date: 7/25/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X wide
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X present
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X no
Auricular Surface Phase 6 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Comments Female = ascending mandibular ramus is short and slanted, wide sciatic notch, preauricular sulcus present
45-49 = auricular surface is phase 6 or higher, osteoarthritis, ante-mortem molar loss with advanced
resorption, high dental attrition
A-113 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-12
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM X RM2 X
1 RM X RM1 X
2 RP X RP2 X
1 RP X RP1 X
● RC X RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 X
2 LP X LP2 X
1 LM X LM1 X
2 LM X LM2 X
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease: Severe periodontitis on left mandible; antemortem loss of LM3 or LM2 (healing at
time of death)
Complete molar (possible 2nd individual) has 4 small cavities in center of occlusal surface
Premolar/molar fragment appears cut thru
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-114 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-12
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
Proximal intermediate OA score up to 3 on proximal & trauma etiology or age-related
and terminal distal ends of phalanges not seen in OA…?
phalanges wrist and hands
Notes
A-115 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-12
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa 1-2 X Mand. Condyle 2 X Total Joint Score 2 X Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus 1 1 Proximal Ulna 1 1 Proximal Radius 1 1 Total Joint Score 1 1 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna 1 1 Distal Radius 0 0 Carpals 0-1 1 Total Joint Score 0-1 1 Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X 1 Distal Metacarpals X 0 Phalanges 1-2 1-3 * Total Joint Score 1-2 1 Notes: * distal proximal phalanges and proximal intermediate phalanges score 3s: possible trauma etiology
A-116 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-12
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 2 X
Proximal Femur X X
Total Joint Score 2 X
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur 1-2 1
Proximal Tibia X 1
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score 1-2 1
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X X
Distal Fibula X X
Tarsals 1 X
Total Joint Score 1 X
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals 0 X
Distal Metacarpals 1 X
Phalanges X X
Total Joint Score 0-1 X
Notes:
A-117 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-12
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens X X X X X X C3 2 1 * 1 X 1 1 * C4 X X X X X X C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 0 0 ** 0 0 0 0 *** T2 0 1 0 0 1 1 *** T3 0 1 0 1 1 1 *** T4 1 1 0 1 1 1 *** T5 X X X X 1 1 T6 X X X X 1 1 *** T7 X X 0 0 0 0 T8 1 1 0 0 1 1 T9 2 1 X X X X T10 1 1 X X X X T11 X X X X X X T12 X X 2 X 2 2 T indet. L1 X X **** X 1 2 2 L2 X X X 1 1 1 L3 X X 2 X 2 2 L4 3 X X 2 X 1 L5 3 3 X X X X L indet. Sacrum: X
Notes: * only 1 C3-C7 present ** see inventory sheet *** rt apophyseal facets are larger than left one, but no trauma seen **** 4 neural arches and 2 fragmented bodies
A-118 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-12
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length Chin height Height of the mandibular body Breadth of the mandibular body Bigonial width Bicondylar breadth Minimum ramus breadth Maximum ramus breadth Maximum ramus height 56.0 mm Mandibular length Mandibular angle 113.0°
A-119 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-12
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 7.9 mm Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 9.7 mm Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 19.4 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 18.2 mm Radius: maximum length – reconstructed (rt) 229.0 mm Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 10.4 mm Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 13.9 mm Ulna: maximum length – reconstructed (rt) 248.0 mm Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 14.7 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 12.8 mm Sacrum: maximum transverse diameter of base Os Coxae: iliac breadth – reconstructed (lf) 155.0 mm Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 24.1 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 25.9 mm Tibia: maximum length (rt) Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth Tibia: maximum distal epiphyseal breadth Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) Fibula: maximum diameter at midshaft
A-120 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-13 Date 7/24/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics left femoral head diameter = 37.3 mm
Sex (criteria used) Female = wide greater sciatic notch (lf), small metric measurement of femoral head
(Bass)
Age (criteria used) Adult 40-49 = eruption of third molars and all long bones fused and no OA visible on elements that are not badly fragmented. Attrition of third molars is moderate, little dentin showing
Condition of Skeleton cortex good, volume fair, ~20% of skeleton present, all elements are fragmented
Cranium F(5) = 5 fragments of maxilla (only portion of cranium that is present)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible C(5)
Teeth Permanent-Loose 16 = 11 identified (2 mand, 9 max) In-situ 12 – 10 mandible, 2 maxilla
and 5 unident
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature I(1) I(2) F(3)
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-121 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete 5
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle I(1) X X Scapula I(1) X X
Humerus F(2) X X Femur C(3) I(2) X
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X I(1) X Tibia C(6) I(7) X
Fibula F(2) X F(2)
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate F(2) upper limb diaphysis, F(7) lower limb diaphysis; fragment bag weighs 59.2 grams
Additional Notes several large mammal elements that include os coxa, thoracic vertebra and ribs; two pieces of worked chert; shells; 2 crab claws; 1 mono mortar, burial appear to be pre-cleaned of matrix rodent gnawing on several elements – lf humerus, both tibii and lf fibula KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-122 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-13 Date: 7/24/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X wide
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X present
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface Phase 5-6 X
Osteoarthritis X X
Comments Sex determined from greater sciatic notch morphology, small metric measurements (Bass)
Age based on dental eruption, wear, fusion of long bones, lack of OA and auricular surface
Auricular surface between Phase 5 and 6 (40-49)
A-123 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM 3 CAL RM3 3 CAL
2 RM 5 CAL RM2 5 CAL
1 RM 6 CAL RM1 X
2 RP 5 CAL RP2 X
1 RP X RP1 X
● RC X RC● X
2 RI X RI2 3 CAL
1 RI X RI1 3 CAL, W
1 LI 4 CAL, SS LI1 2 CAL
2 LI 3 CAL, chipped LI2 2 CAL, W
● LC 3 CAL LC● 2 CAL
1 LP 3 CAL LP1 3 CAL
2 LP 4 CAL LP2 3
1 LM 6 CAL LM1 5
2 LM 5 CAL LM2 4 CAL
3 LM X LM3 3 CAL
Periodontal Disease: No periodontal disease is visible on the alveolar bone that is present around the teeth
NOTE: 5 loose indeterminate teeth present, all have stage 3-4 scoring, 4 appear to be premolars based on
size, shape and wear pattern, but this skeleton already has 5 premolars identified. This may indicate
extra tooth from another individual.
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-124 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
DENTAL/PERIODONTAL PATHOLOGIES – ADDITIONAL NOTES
-- It is possible that one of the premolars could be the LM3, but size appears to small and occlusal
surface shape is wrong. There is moderate calculus buildup on the buccal surface for 2 of the indeterminate
-- There are no abscesses in the bone or caries present on any of the teeth
-- Front incisors of mandible show crowding causing the RI1 to be pushed forward with the RI2 and LI1
to be pushed slightly behind the RI1
A-125 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
lf ilium slight lipping around edges score 1 slight OA
rt ilium boney buildup on medial surface, unknown etiology - trauma
posterior to auricular surface
Notes
A-126 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X X Mand. Condyle X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) 0 X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score 0 X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus X X Proximal Ulna X 0-1 Proximal Radius X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna X X Distal Radius X X Carpals X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X X Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
A-127 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 0 1
Proximal Femur 0 X
Total Joint Score 0 1
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur X 0
Proximal Tibia 0 0
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X X
Distal Fibula X X
Tarsals X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X X
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
A-128 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length Chin height 32.4 mm Height of the mandibular body 31.3 mm Breadth of the mandibular body 9.5 mm Bigonial width Bicondylar breadth Minimum ramus breadth 34.7 mm Maximum ramus breadth Maximum ramus height Mandibular length Mandibular angle
A-129 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 10.4 mm Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 7.9 mm Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 17.3 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 13.6 mm Femur: maximum head diameter (lf) 37.3 mm Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length @ nutrient foramen Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 21.2 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 20.9 mm Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at nutrient foramen (lf) 28.1 mm Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at nutrient foramen (lf) 19.8 mm
A-130 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-13
ADDITIONAL NOTES
-- rt tibia = gnawing marks on diaphysis caused from rodent or faunal post-mortem intrusion
-- lf tibia = gnawing marks on proximal diaphysis caused from rodent or faunal post mortem intrusion
-- lf fibula = gnaw marks on diaphysis on anterior and posterior surfaces caused by rodent or faunal post-mortem intrusion
-- lf humerus = gnaw marks on proximal diaphysis caused by rodent or faunal post-mortem intrusion
A-131 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-14 Date 7/28/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics nothing complete
Sex (criteria used) indeterminate = 20% skeleton, no os coxae present, is very fragmented and over 20% present, femoral and humeral heads missing or fractured
Age (criteria used) Adult 30+ = no auricular surface, no pubes, crania fractured and little present (20%) severe attrition in teeth present
Condition of Skeleton poor, very fragmented – 20% present, poor bone volume due to post-mortem fractures and probable older age
Cranium F = frontal C(5); sphenoid F(1), rt zygomatic C(1), temporal F(3); vault all covered in caliche so impossible to identify F(36)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible F(4) = lf mandible condyle frag, lf coronoid process frag, 1 mental eminence frag, 1 rt body frag
Teeth Permanent-Loose lower incisor score 6 In-situ RM2 (score 7), LP1 (score 8)
Deciduous-Loose X1 In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical F(1) rt neural arch of atlas, F(1) frag with sup & inf apo facets
Thoracic F(1) transverse process
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate F(1) neural arch with inf facet; (cervical or thoracic?)
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X F(1) acetabulum
Immature: Pubis X1 X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-132 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-14
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 1 - 1st rib (R) 1 No. Incomplete 10
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle I(2) X X Scapula F(1) X F(3)1
Humerus F(3) F(4) F(1) hum head Femur F(3) X F(12)
Radius I(3) F(3) X Patella X X X
Ulna F(3) F(1) F(4) Tibia F(2) X F(3)
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X F(1)2 MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand 2 mid, 1 F prox, 2 F dist epip Foot X
Indeterminate
Additional Notes 1. see additional notes page for subadult isolate elements ID’d burial 04-14A; 2. indet prox
MC epip; 1 lithic frag (no evidence of mortar): 223 long X 162 wide X 102 mm depth poss slight mortar (cont.) KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-133 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-14
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood
Burial: 04-14 Date: 7/28/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface X X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Comments Indeterminate sex = no useful elements present
Age = adult, 30+, severe dental attrition
A-134 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-14
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM X RM2 7
1 RM X RM1 X
2 RP X RP2 X
1 RP X RP1 X
● RC X RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 8
2 LP X LP2 X
1 LM X LM1 X
2 LM X LM2 X
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease: Too fractured to see periodontitis (only 2 mandible body fragments)
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-135 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-14
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X X Mand. Condyle X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus X 1 Proximal Ulna X X Proximal Radius X X Total Joint Score X 1 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna X X Distal Radius X X Carpals X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X X Distal Metacarpals 0 X Phalanges 1 X Total Joint Score 0-1 X Notes:
A-136 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-14
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-137 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-14
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 9.5 mm Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 10.6 mm Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 19.0 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 17.1 mm Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length @ nutrient foramen Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth
A-138 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-14
ADDITIONAL NOTES
-- poss faunal bone or neonate thoracic body (to EW --- EW determined faunal bone)
-- 1 bag lithics/wood, 1 bag shell, 1 bag faunal, 1 fragment bag weights = 271.4 grams
Second Individual – Subadult Burial 04-14A
1. 2 fragments of subadult scapula that form one piece of scapular body, no pathology or disease seen on fragments
2. 1 molar, probably permanent/adult molar that had not erupted (no wear on occlusal surface) if
M1, individual was 5 years ± 16 months; if M2, individual was 8-9 years ± 24 months per growth
chart in Standards (1994) book (root is missing, may be fractured or in growth process); is definitely
not part of burial 04-14 since the two teeth are scored at 8.
3. 1 dental enamel fragment, unknown tooth, possible deciduous enamel due to milky white color
4. 1 rt subadult pubis, no trauma or disease seen, aged from 5-10 years old due to size and billowing of pubic symphysis
A-139 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-15 Date 7/25/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics right humeral head vertical diameter = 37.41 mm, width 34.54 mm
Sex (criteria used) female = based only on metric measurement (Bass criteria) and gracile size of elements
Age (criteria used) 33-46 = based on severe OA of lumbar vertebrae and poor trabecular bone volume, see additional comments on sex and age determination form
Condition of Skeleton poor condition with poor volume, ~40 of skeleton present, extremely fragmented, nothing complete
Cranium I(34) – occipital F(5), rt parietal F(7), lf parietal F(3), indeterminate F(18)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose 2 – both have scores of 8 where In-situ
occlusal surface is the root, indet teeth
Deciduous-Loose In-situ
Hyoid X Sternum F(1)
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar I(4) bodies; F(5) inf. apo facets; F(2) sup facets
Sacrum F(12); I(1) S1, I(5)
Indeterminate F(6) bodies; F(2) spinous process
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature I(7) X F(14)
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-140 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 5 (R) 2 No. Incomplete 27
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X I(2) X Scapula F(6) I(4) F(1)
Humerus C(1) C(2) X Femur I(4) I(5) F(9)
Radius C(4) C(3) X Patella I(1) X X
Ulna I(2) C(2) X Tibia F(3) X F(3)
Fibula F(1) I(1) F(6)
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus C(1) F(1) X
Triquetral X X F(1) Cuboid X X F(1)
Pisiform X X X Navicular C(1) I(1) X
Grt. Mult. X C(1) X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X C(1) X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform I(1) C(1) X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 I(1) F(1) X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand 4 Foot 7
Indeterminate F(12) upper limb diaphysis; F(44) lower limb diaphysis; F(3) indet long bone; bag of frags weigh = 247.9 grams
Additional Notes burial was precleaned; lithics, shells, and faunal bones found in ass. with burial 04-15; found
1 shaped olivella bead, using Bennyhoff & Hughes shell bead, identified as C3 split oval (cont.) KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-141 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-15 Date: 7/25/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface Phase 4-5 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Sternal Rib Phase 5
Comments metric measurements of humeral head indicates this individual possible female from small size = 37.41 height x 34.54 mm width. All elements appear gracile, small apparent stature, though no elements for assessing actual stature available, visual determination only. Finally, find OA in the lumbar vertebrae that is more common in women at this severity (age estimate info - see additional sheet)
A-142 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM X RM2 X
1 RM X RM1 X
2 RP X RP2 X
1 RP X RP1 X
● RC X RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 X
2 LP X LP2 X
1 LM X LM1 X
2 LM X LM2 X
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease:
COMMENTS: Have two loose teeth that score 8. Both are indeterminate, they are either incisor or
canine teeth. One has only a slight amount of enamel showing. There is no other
pathologies present on these teeth.
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-143 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
Cranium – by On inside of cranium on the occipital Possibly the outer depression is lambdoidal suture near suture appears a pacchionian actually to the pacchionian dep. right side depression, generally these appear on and caused by age. Other
the parietals and not occipital. On the possibility is that the outer depres
outer margin above the pacchionian is caused by trauma and the
depression is a small depression. Pacchionian dep is actually part
Due to fragmentation hard to tell if is of that trauma.
actual depression. The edges around
depression are easily felt, but are
smooth appear healed if actual trauma
lf prox femur Hypertrophic bone growth on medial/ Secondary OA caused by trauma
posterior margin of the greater possibly. OA could be primary
trochanter pathology due to age of individual
lf distal femur extreme hyperthropic bone growth on indeterminate cause for amount
lateral condyle around complete of OA, possibly secondary to
margin with the most on the lateral traumatic event
phalanges see the degenerative joint disease indeterminate cause for the
lower peripheral skeleton for severity of OA seen on the
complete description of lesion phalanges. Possibly this
corresponds to the OA seen in lf.
femur and may indicate trauma to
the left side of body or broken or
fractured phalanges
A-144 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
PATHOLOGIES (continued)
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
rt distal fibula reactive bone activity on distal end slight amount of periostitis that
of diaphysis above epiphysis on appears to be healing. Trauma
medial surface. Bone looks Not possible to determine if
vascular, measures 44 mm in length contra-lateral, other element not
present
fibula, diaphysis reactive bone activity on one end slight periostitis – secondary
missing connecting piece to see if trauma
there is further extent of reactivity
fibula, diaphysis gnawing marks rodent or faunal post-mortem
intrusion
Notes
The vertebrae, os coxa, femoral heads and sacrum cortex show surfaces that are grandular and porous
with poor bone volume probably due to age of individual and osterporosis. Fragmentation of remains or
missing elements make bilateral observations unavailable.
A-145 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X X Mand. Condyle X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) 1 1 Proximal Humerus X 1 Total Joint Score 1 1 Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus X 1 Proximal Ulna 0-1 1 Proximal Radius 0-1 X Total Joint Score 0-1 1 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna 0 0 Distal Radius 0-1 0-1 Carpals X 0 Total Joint Score 0-1 0-1 Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals 0 X Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges 0 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
A-146 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 0 1
Proximal Femur 0 * X
Total Joint Score 0 1
Notes: The femoral head is fragmented but part there shows no OA, but the greater trochanter next to it appears to have hypertrophic bone growth on the medial/posterior edge = 1
KNEE
Distal Femur 3 * X
Proximal Tibia 3 * X
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score 3 X
Notes: Extreme hypertrophic bone growth on lateral condyle on both margins. Tibia condyle frag’d but portion available has hypertrophic bone growth on anterio/lateral margin
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X X
Distal Fibula X 0 *
Tarsals 1-2 * X
Total Joint Score 1-2 0
Notes: Not enough of distal fibula to tell if OA exists. Due to fragmentation difficult to determine exact score; see lipping on both talus and navicular
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X X
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges 4 * 3 *
Total Joint Score 4 X
Notes: two phalanges have extreme hypertrophic bone growth, both are mid-phalanges of the 2nd to
4th. They appear bilateral, though could be same foot, most likely left due to severity of OA in femur and tarsals. They both are extremely mushroomed at the distal head with one showing eburnation on the outer margin, lateral/planter. The other phalanges proximal ends score 2
A-147 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens X X X X X X C3 X X X X X X C4 X X X X X X C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X X X X X T2 X X X X X X T3 X X X X X X T4 X X X X X X T5 X X X X X X T6 X X X X X X T7 X X X X X X T8 X X X X X X T9 X X X X X X T10 X X X X X X T11 X X X X X X T12 X X X X X X T indet. L1 X X X X X X L2 X X X X X X L indet. 2 X * X X X X * L indet. 2 X * X X X X * L indet. 3 2 * X X X X * L indet. 3 2 * X X X X * Sacrum: Score 3 on the S1 body, score 3 on the S5 superior margin
Notes: Body = first two have moderate lipping on superior margin, other two have severe to extreme lipping. Note that one body probably had eburnation, but due to condition of bones no longer visible. All bodies are extremely porous and grandular and volume is very light. Facets = due to fragmentation can not determine amount of OA
A-148 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-149 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: sagittal diameter at midshaft Clavicle: vertical diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: maximum diameter at midshaft Humerus: minimum diameter at midshaft Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length @ nutrient foramen Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth
A-150 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-15
ADDITIONAL NOTES
-- olivella bead measures 10.0 length, 9.3 width, curvature 3.2, perforation 2.1 mm, dated this to
Early Period to Middle/Late Period Transition or 700-900 AD using Scheme B1
-- ageing estimated as older adult 33-46 (possibly). Criteria for estimate is severity of OA in lumbar
and sacrum, plus the development of pacchionian depressions on internal surface of cranium
(see pathology sheet for additional comments). Also note the light volume of vertebral bodies
that may indicate osteoporosis and cranial sutures are well fused and in some areas obliterated,
though this may not be age related. Sternal rib assessment indicates Phase 5 (33-46).
Also note that there is a small portion of the auricular surface present on both left and right sides of
os coxae. On the left auricular assessment is between Phases 4-5 (35-44) though it is noted that the
left auricular has a lot of post-mortem damage or erosion to most of the surface though there is an un-
damaged portion at the apex that was used for diagnosis
-- From Grosa’s study, it is estimated that this bead may be associated with Ala-328 bead analysis
that places the dates from 210 BC – 420 AD, Early Middle Period. Though Groza analyzed two
beads (C3) from Ala-42 with Middle/Late Transition dates at 1050 to 11--. From Alan: Generally
West Bay burials have older dates than the East Bay burials that Grosa analyzed, especially in
relation to Ala-42 that is more inland. He thinks that the SCL-287 site that is along the East Bay
coast. This bead then maybe older than Bennyhoff’s criteria suggests. Also, with the two different
dates developed from Grosa’s study, it may indicate the reemergence of styles from the two
different distinct time periods. A return to the old style.
A-151 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-16 Date 7/28/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics no elements complete
Sex (criteria used) indeterminate = no sexing elements present or complete
Age (criteria used) Adult = due to size, robusticity, ante-mortem loss of RP1, RP2, RM1 – resorption advanced
Condition of Skeleton poor, <5% complete, few elements only
Cranium X
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible F(1) = rt body with lower chin/mental eminence
Teeth Permanent-Loose RC•, RP1 (score 8 on both) In-situ rt canine root visible in socket (RC•)
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar F(1) = lf superior apophyseal facet (no OA)
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X F(1) ischium X
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-152 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-16
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 1 (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur X X X
Radius X X F(1) shaft Patella X X X
Ulna X X F(2) shaft Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate F(1) = cremated bone, blue-white tinge on outer cortex of faunal frag & C(1) faunal foot phalanx that’s been cremated (both to EW)
Additional Notes 1 bag shell and lithic, 1 bag faunal bone (not cremated) = 157 grams, and 1 frag bag = 39 g
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-153 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-16
ADDITIONAL NOTES
Extra bag labeled CA-SCL-287, Hole 3 – Central Eastside Human isolate, 8/12/04, tooth 8, south of B.16
-- faunal remains in bag: 2 (1 is unidentified and 1 is foot phalanx = 89.6 mm long, 42.4 mm wide,
38.2 mm deep
-- human remains in bag: C(1) upper molar with score 6 attrition, no cavities, 3 complete roots
and F(1) lf acetabulum / ilium fragment and F(11) unidentified fragments
(EW agreed that bones that she looked at are faunal)
-- Though several faunal elements show signs of burning, there is no evidence of burning on the
human elements.
A-154 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-17/18 Date 8/4/06 Recorder Atwood/DiGiuseppe
Metrics distal humerus (rt) = 55.2 mm
Sex (criteria used) Female = based on morphology of the subpubic angle that is wide, lf pubis is female
(see pathology sheet)
Age (criteria used) Adult 40-50 = based on auricular surface between Phase 5 and 6 and the pubic symphy at Phase 6. Note the pubic symphysis (lf) has evidence of trauma on the ventral surface. Rt pubis missing can’t check for bilateral similarity.
Condition of Skeleton The cortex of the skeleton is fair and bone volume fair-poor, 85% of skeleton present.
Mostly fragmented with only hand and feet elements complete
Cranium C(54) = frontal I(23), occipital C(5), rt temporal C(2), lf temporal C(3), lf parietal C(7), rt parietal
I(3), parietal F(3), temporal F(7), indeterminate F(1)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible F(2) = mandibular condyles only
Teeth Permanent-Loose 17 both maxilla and mandible In-situ 4 - maxilla
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical F(10) = inf. and sup. articular surface fragments
Thoracic F(6) = spinous process, transverse process fragments
Lumbar F(10) = parts of neural arch with inf or sup articular facets, 2 bodies
Sacrum F(3)
Indeterminate F(9) = parts of neural arches
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature I(8) F(2) F(7)
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-155 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 2 (R) 4 (2 sternal,2 vert) No. Incomplete F(32)
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X F(1) X Scapula F(1) F(2) X
Humerus I(4)1 F(1) F(2) Femur C(10) C(8) F(3)
Radius F(2) F(1) F(4) Patella X C(1) X
Ulna F(2)1 C(4) X Tibia F(6) C(7) X
Fibula C(4) C(4) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular C(1) X X Calcaneus C(1) C(1) X
Lunate C(1) X X Talus C(1) C(3) X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid C(1) X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular C(1) X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X C(1) X
Lsr. Mult. C(1) X X 2nd Cuneiform C(1) C(1) X
Capitate C(1) C(1) X 3rd Cuneiform C(1) C(1) X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 F(1) C(1) X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 C(1) C(1) X
MC 3 X I(1) X MT 3 C(1) I(1) X
MC 4 X C(1) X MT 4 C(1) I(1) X
MC 5 X C(1) X MT 5 C(1) I(1) X
Phalanges: Hand 7C prox, 4C mid, 2C dis2 Foot 8C prox (inc. L&R 1st phal), 2C mid, 1 dis
Indeterminate frag bag of – 297.5
Additional Notes 1. frag’d humeral trochlea has ulnar trochlear notch fused to it with dirt/clay 2. F(1) dist epip of prox phalanx, F(1) prox epip of prox phalanx; 3. 5 MC dist epip, 2 MC diaphyseal frags, & 1 diap & dist epip
(See additional notes page)
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d A-156 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood/DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-17/18 Date: 8/4/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X U shaped
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X wide
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X present
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings robust X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X small
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis Phase 6 X
Auricular Surface Phase 5-6 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Sternal Rib Phase 5
Comments Sexing: except for the robust nuchal crest, all other elements morphology suggests female.
The robust nuchal crest could be more prominent due to age of individual
Ageing: all indications of determinants suggest individual 40-50 years old (Suchy-Brooks for pubis and
Ubelaker for auricular surface criteria used); sternal rib assessment indicates Phase 5 (33-46)
A-157 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM 5 fracture on occlusal RM3 X
2 RM 6 RM2 6
1 RM X RM1 7
2 RP 6 RP2 6 (enamel fractures)
1 RP 6 RP1 6 CAL
● RC 5 CAL RC● 5 CAL
2 RI 5 CAL RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 5 CAL
1 LI X LI1 4
2 LI X LI2 5
● LC 6 LC● X
1 LP 6 LP1 6 CAL
2 LP 6 p/m fx at TMJ LP2 6
1 LM 8 LM1 7 CAL, fx on occlusal
2 LM X LM2 X
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease:
NOTE: 17 teeth are loose, 4 teeth in-situ in small portion of maxilla, or a little alveolar portion still adhered.
Even that in-situ is fragmented
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-158 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
Prox foot phalanx plantar section missing, but hypo- trauma?
trophic bone growth seen on dorsal
& lateral edges; also, frag of prox.
intermediate phalanx fused (dirt keep-
ing them together?) to distal
epiphyses of prox phalanx
distal lf femur on both posterior condyles on super. No diagnosis suggested for this,
margin, has circular impressions. They possibly due to OA or age of
look like facets. individual
distal rt femur on the lateral condyle on posterior No diagnosis
superior portion has circular impres-
sion similar to the lf femur in position
and shape
crania – parietal & cranial depression that covers the trauma
occipital rt and lf parietal and occipital,
measures 64.4 length x 45.6 mm width
Notes
A-159 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
PATHOLOGIES - continued
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
Lf pubis (fractured off ventral face evinces a lot of hypo- trauma; muscle pull
of os coxae trophic bone growth on medial
superior edge & medial-inferior edge
**Note that the left preauricular sulcus
is quiet pronounced and there are two
depressions that pull forward
Rt ulna possible fracture, noted that styloid trauma - fracture
process is in unusual position, twisted
from posterior to medial margin, need
to x-ray to determine if bone has spiral
or other break based on ligament
malalignment
Notes
A-160 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa 0 * 0 Mand. Condyle 0 * 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes: *The fossa is fractured and difficult to diagnose, the condyle shows no lipping, but one edge almost looks polished SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus X 0 Proximal Ulna X 1 * Proximal Radius 0 0 Total Joint Score 0 0-1 Notes: *rt ulna radial notch has lipping on distal margin
WRIST Distal Ulna X 1 Distal Radius 0 * X Carpals 0-1 * 0-1 * Total Joint Score 0-1 0-1 Notes: *lf distal radius margins damaged post-mortem, lf navicular shows defined margins around facet, same with rt capitate. This could be due to typical ageing instead of OA; lipping is almost non- existent, is more defining of unes. HAND Proximal Metacarpals X 1 Distal Metacarpals 0 0 Phalanges 0 2 * Total Joint Score 0 2 Notes: *The distal phalanges (2) have hypertrophic bone growth on the end of diaphysis next to the proximal facet.
A-161 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 0 * 0
Proximal Femur 0 * 0
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes: *acetabulum is fractured around margins, determining OA difficult. Only fragments of
proximal femurs available.
KNEE
Distal Femur 1 * 0
Proximal Tibia x 0
Proximal Fibula 1 1
Total Joint Score 1 1
Notes: *Lf femur – lipping on medial condyle of intercondylar fossa
ANKLE
Distal Tibia x 1
Distal Fibula x 0
Tarsals 1 * 2 *
Total Joint Score 1 1-2
Notes: *Rt. calcaneus distal facet; lf calcaneus distal facet, as well as the talus, navicular and
cuboid having lipping
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals 1 1
Distal Metacarpals 0 1 *
Phalanges 0 1 *
Total Joint Score 1 1
Notes: *The 1st MT distal end, note has little fragment adhered by matrix. 1st rt hallux proximal end.
A-162 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens X X X X X X C indet. 1 X * X X X X C indet. X X 1 X X X * C indet. X X 1 X X X * C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X X X X X T2 X X X X X X T3 X X X X X X T4 X X X X X X T5 X X X X X X T6 X X X X X X T7 X X X X X X T8 X X X X X X T9 X X X X X X T10 X X X X X X T11 X X X X X X T12 X X X X X X T indet. L indet. X X X 2 1 1 * L indet. X X X 2 X X * L indet. X X 1 X 1 X * L indet. 2 1 * X X X X L indet. 2 0 * X X X X L indet. X X X X X X Sacrum: Score 1 on the Ala (side indet.). The body shows wear, but no other facets diagnostic
Notes: For all analysis of facets and bodies, exact position in vertebral column unknown. For the cervical inter joints, position indeterminate, use superior regardless. Lumbar inter joints are determinate for position.
NOTE: That everything is fragmented only diagnostic pieces analyzed for OA
A-163 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length 28.8 mm
A-164 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 21.1 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 20.2 mm Radius: maximum length – reconstructed Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft Ulna: maximum length – reconstructed (rt) 239 mm Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 13.8 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 15.1 mm Sacrum: maximum transverse diameter of base Os Coxae: iliac breadth – reconstructed Femur: maximum head diameter Femur: epicondylar breadth (lf) 76.7 mm Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 26.9 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 24.5 mm Tibia: maximum length (rt) Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth (rt) 70.5 mm Tibia: maximum distal epiphyseal breadth Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) Fibula: maximum diameter at midshaft Calcaneus: maximum length (lf) 71.7 mm Calcaneus: minimum length (lf) 39.5 mm
A-165 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-17/18
ADDITIONAL NOTES
-- Boxes 17 & 17/18 were determined to be one individual (each box had fragments that matched
frags in other box; no obvious differences in sex, size, robusticity between them, some matched
perfectly)
-- one bag lithics, 1 bag faunal bone, 1 bag vegetation, 1 bag shell, 6 bags soil with shell fragments
-- lf distal humerus and proximal ulna fragments are welded together from post-mortem damage that
has crushed these two together and appears as one. It is impossible to separate, but does not
appear to be fused ante-mortem.
-- lf distal femur has a circular impression located on the posterior superior edge of medial condyle
-- rt 1st and 2nd cuneiform are welded together by matrix post-mortem
A-166 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-19 Date 7/26/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics no elements to take measurements
Sex (criteria used) indeterminate
Age (criteria used) 20-29 = based on fusion of the iliac crest that unites between 16-23 years. This specimens rt. ilium is not completely fused and a missing section of epiphysis shows billowing on the ilium, some fusion complete though. The distal left ulna is completely fused with no fusion line apparent – occurs between 17-20. The auricular surface phase = 2
Condition of Skeleton bone condition of cortex fair, bone volume fair, fragmented skeleton, no complete elements, less than 20% of skeleton present
Cranium X
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic F(2) = articular surfaces
Lumbar F(3) = 2 inferior articular surfaces, 1 superior facet
Sacrum F(1) = S5
Indeterminate F(1) spinous process
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X C(3) F(1)
Ischium X X X
A-167 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-19
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete F(10)
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur I(3) F(2) F(4)
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna F(1) X X Tibia F(4) F(3) F(7)
Fibula F(3) F(4) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X F(1)
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 I(2) X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X I(1) X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X F(1) MT 4 X X F(1)
MC 5 X X F(1) MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand 2 Foot 2
Indeterminate F(2) distal MC’s; F(29) lower limb diaphysis; bag of fragments = 75.1 grams
Additional Notes faunal bones; shells; burial was precleaned; there is no pathology associated with this skeleton. Due to young age, no OA is visible on any elements, also only few elements available for diagnosis KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-168 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-19
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-19 Date: 7/26/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) X X
Long bone fusion yes no
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface Phase 2 X
Osteoarthritis X X
Comments No - Iliac crest not completely fused, post-mortem breakage broke off portion of epiphysis and shows billowing under at metaphysic, but is fused at the anterior superior iliac spine portion. According to
Bass fusion becomes complete between 16-23 years of age. Yes – the distal left ulna is completely fused with no fusion line (17-20) so appears to be over 20 years old. Auricular surface assessed as Phase 2 (25-29)
A-169 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-20 Date 7/29/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics rt ulna length = 242; rt femur length = 369; rt femoral head max diameter = 41.5 mm; rt femoral distal condyle maximum = 75.36 mm
Sex (criteria used) Male = narrow sciatic notch, V-shaped subpubic angle, large mastoid process, prominent supraorbital ridge, max femoral head prob. Female but has slight P/M damage
Age (criteria used) 20-30 years = little OA, Phase 1 or 2 for auricular surface, no teeth for attrition, long bone fusion complete but medial clavicles absent, sternal ends: Phase 3 or 4 (24-30 yr)
Condition of Skeleton good, good bone volume and good cortex, fragmented but 70% present
Cranium I(32) = rt temporal C(4), rt zygomatic C(1), occipital F(3), lf parietal C(5), rt parietal F(3), frontal I(11)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible F(2) = rt mandibular ascending ramus (condyle fractured off)
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum F(2) Vertebrae: Cervical F(4) neural arches; F(2) transverse process; F(1) body Thoracic F(4) transverse processes; F(3) sup apo facets; F(5) spinous processes; F(2) body frags with rt sup apo facets; T7=F(1); T8=F(1); T9=C(1); T10=C(1); T11=C(4); T12=F(1) Lumbar F(2) transverse processes; F(3) spinous proc.; F(3) rt sup apo facets; F(3) lf sup apo facets; F(2) rt inf apo facets; F(3) lf inf apo facets; F(1) spinous process with rt & lf inf apo facets; F(2) body & lf sup apo facet; F(1) body frag and rt sup apo facet; C(4) L1-L4 Sacrum F(18) Indeterminate F(15) bodies Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT Mature I(7) I(8) F(5) Immature: Pubis Ilium Ischium
A-170 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site CA-SCL-287 Burial 04-20
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 7-stern recon (R) 3-stern recon No. Incomplete F(7) w/sternal end & F(33)
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X F(1) Scapula X F(5) X
Humerus F(1) I(6) X Femur F(5) C(1) X
Radius X I(3) X Patella C(1) C(1) X
Ulna F(2) C(3) X Tibia F(4) C(3) X
Fibula C(3) C(3) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X C(1) X Calcaneus C(1) C(1) X
Lunate X C(1) X Talus C(1) C(1) X
Triquetral X C(1) X Cuboid C(2) X X
Pisiform X C(1) X Navicular C(1) C(2) X
Grt. Mult. X C(1) X 1st Cuneiform C(1) X X
Lsr. Mult. X C(1) X 2nd Cuneiform C(1) X X
Capitate X C(1) X 3rd Cuneiform C(1) X X
Hamate X C(1) X Sesamoid Bone X X C(1)
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X C(1) X MT 1 C(1) X X
MC 2 X C(1) X MT 2 C(1) X X
MC 3 X C(1) X MT 3 C(1) X X
MC 4 X C(1) X MT 4 C(1) X X
MC 5 X C(1) X MT 5 C(2) X X
Phalanges: Hand C(4) prox, C(4) mid, C(5) distal Foot C(6) prox, C(1) mid, C(2) distal
Indeterminate X
Additional Notes mortar associated (see artifact sketch sheet); 2 bags of shell, 1 bag faunal bone, 1 bag lithics, shell pendant; frag bag 113 grams, frag of jasper or Franciscan chert; note in box = “2 foil packets of charcoal sample removed by L Jones 10/18/05.
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d A-171 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site CA-SCL-287 Burial 04-20
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood
Burial: 04-20 Date: 7/29/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low high X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped V-shape X
Foramen large or small large X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide close X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present absent X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) large X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent promin X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) X X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis * X
Auricular Surface Phase 1 or 2 X
Osteoarthritis X X
Sternal Ribs Phase 3 or 4 X
Comments Male = 20-30 years
*Mostly fractured off but billowing seen on left pubis fragment
A-172 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site CA-SCL-287 Burial 04-20
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
T9, T10, T11 lf inferior small depression on superior border individual variation? No evidence
apophyseal facets of left inferior apophyseal facets, no of trauma or infection
corresponding lesion on left superior
apo. facets
intermediate hand hypertrophic bone growth (still coarse trauma, no other hand elements
phalange & porous) on side of shaft, starting present show evidence of trauma
mid-shaft & ending at distal epiphysis or hypertrophic or lytic bone
where fractured off. Growth is restrict- (EW to check - - - EW states
ed to posterior aspect of shaft cause unknown)
parietal and frontal drying, cracking, dark discoloration environmental exposure or
endocrania on inner crania disease related (EW to check - - -
EW states cracking from environ-
mental causes, p/m)
Notes
A-173 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site CA-SCL-287 Burial 04-20
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X 0 Mand. Condyle X X Total Joint Score X 0 Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) 0 0 Proximal Humerus X 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus 0 0 Proximal Ulna 0 0 Proximal Radius X 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna 0 0 Distal Radius X X Carpals X 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals X 0 Distal Metacarpals X * 0 Phalanges 0 * 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes: * See pathology sheet re: 1C intermediate phalanx
A-174 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site CA-SCL-287 Burial 04-20
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 0 0
Proximal Femur 0 0
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur 0 0
Proximal Tibia 0 0
Proximal Fibula 0 0
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia 0 0
Distal Fibula 0 0
Tarsals 0 0
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals 0 X
Distal Metacarpals 0 X
Phalanges 0 0
Total Joint Score 0 0
Notes:
A-175 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site CA-SCL-287 Burial 04-20
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens X X X X X X C3 X X X X X X C4 X X X X X X C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X * X X X X T2 X X * X X X X T3 X X * X X X X T4 X X * X X X X T5 X X * X X X X T6 X X * X X X X T7 0 0 X X X X T8 0 0 X X X X T9 0 0 X 0 0 0 T10 0 0 0 0 0 0 T11 0 0 0 0 1 1 T12 X X X X 1 1 T indet. L1 X X ** X X X X L2 X X ** X X X X L3 X X ** X X X X L4 X X ** X X X X L5 X X ** X X X X L indet. Sacrum:
Notes: All body frags scored “0” except 2 that scored “1” = F(14) No cervical present *all apo frags score 0, no bodies & lf inf apo facets have depressions but no trauma etiology = individual variation, no infection either **all lumbar body and apo facets score ) or 1, but all frags, specific lumbar indeterminate
A-176 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site CA-SCL-287 Burial 04-20
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length 31.1 mm
A-177 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site CA-SCL-287 Burial 04-20
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth (rt) 59.3 mm Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 20.0 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 21.2 mm Radius: maximum length 242.0 mm Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 11.0 mm Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 14.6 mm Ulna: maximum length (rt) Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 14.9 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 14.7 mm Os Coxae: iliac breadth Os Coxae: pubis length (rt) 76.5 mm Os Coxae: Ischium length (rt) 70.9 mm Femur: maximum head diameter 41.5 mm Femur: epicondylar breadth 75.4 mm Femur: maximum length 369 mm Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 24.9 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 25.2 mm Tibia: maximum length Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth (rt) 69.8 mm Tibia: maximum distal epiphyseal breadth (rt) 42.5 mm Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) 31.1 mm Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) 22.6 mm Fibula: maximum length (lf) 301.0 mm Fibula: maximum diameter at midshaft 15.8 mm Calcaneus: maximum length (lf) 60.6 mm Calcaneus: middle breadth (lf) 38.9 mm
A-178 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site CA-SCL-287 Burial 04-20
ADDITIONAL NOTES
-- Crania to EW – endocrania parietal 7 frontal show wear and cracking environmental exposure or
disease?
A-179 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-21 Date 7/30/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics rt humeral head vertical = 37.5 mm, breadth = 36.2 mm; distal rt humerus breadth = 53.1 mm; distal
lf humerus breadth = 52.7 mm; femoral head diameter = 41.1 mm
Sex (criteria used) Female = based on wider greater sciatic notch, small nuchal crest (Ubelaker), metric measurements (Bass) and preauricular sulcus
Age (criteria used) older Adult (45-59) based on severe OA in vertebral column, all elements fused and examination of partial auricular surface
Condition of Skeleton bone cortex good, bone volume fair; 50% of skeleton present, very fragmented
Cranium C(44) and many small uncounted fragments = C(6) occipital, C(6) rt parietal, C(5) lf parietal,
C(2) rt temporal, C(4) rt temporal, I(10) frontal, C(7) sphenoid, F(4) temporal, frags weight = 29.8 grams
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible I(7)
Teeth Permanent-Loose 3 = so worn can’t identify In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical I(1) C1; I(1) C2
Thoracic C(5) bodies, I(6) bodies, I(7) neural arches, F(10) articular surfaces, F(3) spinous process,
F(5) transverse process
Lumbar I(4) bodies, F(5) bodies, I(3) neural arches, F(10) articular surfaces
Sacrum F(2)
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature F(1) C(2) F(6)
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-180 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-21
Ribs: No. Complete (L) I(7) (R) I(11) No. Incomplete F(61)
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle I(1) I(1) X Scapula F(2) C(8) X
Humerus I(2) C(3) X Femur F(2) I(2) F(5)
Radius X X F(1) Patella X X X
Ulna I(2) I(2) Tibia F(2) F(4) F(1)
Fibula I(4) F(2) X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular C(1) X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate C(1) X X Talus X X X
Triquetral C(1) X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform C(1) X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. C(1) X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate C(1) X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate C(1) X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 I(1) X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 I(1) X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X I(1) X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand 2 Foot 1
Indeterminate F(1) distal MC, F(15) long bones, F(1) upper limb bone; bag of frags = 183 grams
Additional Notes 2 burned bone fragments, shells, lithics, faunal bones, 1 possible polished and shaped to point faunal bone, burial pre-cleaned, note that possibly have a 13th rib for the left side measures len = 50.5 KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-181 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-21
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-21 Date: 7/30/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small medium* medium*
Sciatic Notch close or wide X wide
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X present
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X gracile
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X small
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X small
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) yes X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface Phase 6-7 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Sternal Rib Phase 6
Comments *acetabulum has OA which has enlarged outer margin, **mental eminence judged by small frag
Age = (45-59) older individual based on granular face of auricular surface = Phase 6-7, severity of OA in
lumbar region resorption of alveolar where molars would have been plus 3 teeth that score 8, sternal rib
assessed as Phase 6 (43-58), due to plaque-like deposit in pit, irregular walls, and porosity.
A-182 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-21
DENTAL PATHOLOGIES
TOOTH WEAR
wear other pathologies wear other pathologies
Upper: Lower:
3 RM X RM3 X
2 RM X RM2 X
1 RM X RM1 X
2 RP X RP2 X
1 RP X RP1 X
● RC X RC● X
2 RI X RI2 X
1 RI X RI1 X
1 LI X LI1 X
2 LI X LI2 X
● LC X LC● X
1 LP X LP1 X
2 LP X LP2 X
1 LM X LM1 X
2 LM X LM2 X
3 LM X LM3 X
Periodontal Disease:
NOTE: 3 loose teeth from indeterminate location, 1 canine = 8, incisor = 8, 1 premolar = 8 (the
premolar’s root has some bone still attached)
The mandible shows resorption around back, posterior margin on the right side
KEY: X = absent CAL = calculi XU = absent/unerupter HY = hypoplasis A/U = ante-mortem tooth loss DM = dental modification F = fragmentary (non-diagnostic) CAR = carabelli’s cusp C = caries W = winging A = abscesses SSS = single shovel-shaped PSI = peg shaped incisors DSS = double shovel-shaped
A-183 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-21
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
rt clavicle hypertrophic bone growth on anterior definitely OA
medial margin of the sternal articular
surface. Bone curls back acutely to
the anterior surface
lf clavicle apparent twisting and bone thickening trauma – most clavicle fractures
due to healed fracture – not possible are associated with falls or
to tell length of callus due to complete accidental causation
healing of fracture
rt. scapula surface of anterior lateral margin of possible muscle pull since the rt
acromium process is roughened and clavicle has severe OA at sternal
lipped end - presence of OA on scapula
rt. femur lipping found around greater slight OA
trochanter
rt clavicle gnaw marks on posterior surface of rodent intrusion
rt fibula clavicle measuring 30.8 mm from
lf fibula broken en to furthest extent of marks.
Slight rodent gnaw marks on the
posterior margin of diaphysis of fibula,
slight gnaw marks on the superior/
anterior margin of diaphysis of fibula
Notes
A-184 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-21
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa 1 0 Mand. Condyle 0 0 Total Joint Score 1 0 Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X 0-1 Proximal Humerus X 0-1 Total Joint Score X 0-1 Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus 0 1 Proximal Ulna 0 X Proximal Radius X X Total Joint Score 0 1 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna 3 3 Distal Radius X X Carpals 1 X Total Joint Score 3 3 Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals 0 0 Distal Metacarpals X X Phalanges 0 0 Total Joint Score 0 0 Notes:
A-185 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-21
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 2 X
Proximal Femur X X
Total Joint Score 2 X
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur X X
Proximal Tibia X X
Proximal Fibula 0 X
Total Joint Score 0 X
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X X
Distal Fibula 0 X
Tarsals X X
Total Joint Score 0 X
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X X
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges 0 X
Total Joint Score 0 X
Notes:
A-186 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-21
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet 1 1 1 1 1 C2 dens 2 2 1 1 X X C3 X X X X X X C4 X X X X X X C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X X X X X T2 X X X X X X T3 X X X X X X T4 X X X X X X T5 X X X X X X T6 X X X X X X T7 X X 0 X 1 1 T indet. 0 1 ** X 0 1 1 T indet. 0 0 0 X 1 1 T indet. 1 0 X 0 1 1 T indet. 1 1 X X 1 2 T 12 X X 0 0 1 2 T indet. 1 1 L1 3 2 ** X X X X L2 1 3 X X X X L3 3 2 X X X X L4 X X X X X X L5 3 3 X X X X L indet. Sacrum: Not diagnostic for OA on facets (missing) element does have lipping on surfaces
Notes: *C2 has bone spicules on the anterior right margin of dens process, the inferior bone has two boney spicules on the anterior of both sides. **All thoracic bodies were examined if 2/3 of body present. Lumbar bodies scored if ½ present, based on size of lumbar bodies, determination of position given. Thoracic joints considered if three articular surfaces provided. Note T12 is an accurate designation of the neural arch, all the rest are indeterminate
A-187 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-21
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-188 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-21
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 8.84 mm Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 10.5 mm Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth (rt) 53.1 mm Humerus: vertical diameter of head (rt) 37.5 mm Humerus: breadth diameter of head (rt) 36.2 mm Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 16.2 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 21.6 mm Radius: maximum length Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft Ulna: maximum length Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft Os Coxae: iliac breadth Os Coxae: pubis length Os Coxae: Ischium length (rt) 67.8 mm Femur: maximum head diameter 41.1 mm Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 25.8 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 27.5 mm Tibia: maximum length Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth (rt) Tibia: maximum distal epiphyseal breadth (rt) Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) 28.6 mm Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) 20.9 mm Fibula: maximum length (lf) Fibula: maximum diameter at midshaft Calcaneus: maximum length Calcaneus: middle breadth
.
A-189 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-22A Date 8/8/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics lf humeral head vertical diameter = 38.7 mm, rt ulna length = 241 mm, lf radius length = 218 mm
Sex (criteria used) Female = per supraorbital areas, pubic symphysis, subpubic angle, pre-auricular sulcus, wide sciatic notch and humeral head measurements
Age (criteria used) Adult, 30-40 = long bone fusion, OA, Phase 3-4 auricular surfaces (30-40),
Phase 5 pubic symphysis (25-83), sternal ribs Phase 4-5 (24-46)
Condition of Skeleton fair, 60% present, good bone quality / cortex and volume
Cranium I = frontal I(7), rt temporal C(4), lf and rt parietals C(1), occipital F(4)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum I(2)
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic F(30) = 12 neural arches, 10 bodies, 2 transverse processes, 4 sup. apo. facet, 2 inf apo facet
Lumbar L1=C(2), L2=C(1), L3=C(1), L4=C(1), L5=C(2)
Sacrum F(3)
Indeterminate F(16)
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature C(3) I(2) ilium X
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-190 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22A
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 8 (R) 6 No. Incomplete F(56) & F(12) = sternal ends
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula C(4) I(6) F(8)
Humerus C(2) C(3) X Femur I(2) X X
Radius C(2) C(4) X Patella X C(1) X
Ulna C(3) C(2) X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular C(1) X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate C(1) X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X C(1) X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X C(1) X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. C(1) C(1) X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. C(1) X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate C(1) X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X C(1) X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 C(1) C(1) X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 C(1) C(1) X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X C(1) X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X C(1) X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand C(6) prox, C(3) mid, C(2) dist Foot C(1) prox
Indeterminate X
Additional Notes frag bag = 35 g, 1 bag historic materials (abode?), pacchionian depressions in parietal,
Note in box “2 foil packets of charcoal samples removed L. Jones 10/18/05, 1 bag lithics/shell/faunal KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-191 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22A
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: Atwood
Burial: 04-22A Date: 8/8/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X low
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X U-shape
Foramen large or small X
Acetabulum large or small X small
Sciatic Notch close or wide X wide
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X present
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X sharp
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X small
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) X X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis Phase 5 X
Auricular Surface Phase 3-4 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Sternal Ribs Phase 4-5
Comments Female = supraorbital areas, pubic symphysis, subpubic angle, pre-auricular sulcus, wide sciatic notch, and humeral head measurements of 38.7 mm. Age based on phase of public symphysis (25-
83), auricular surface.(30-39) and sternal ribs (24-46) based on narrow U-shape, walls thinning, edges begin- ning to flare on one of the sternal ribs, no regular scalloping (probably due to erosion, and density good
A-192 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22A
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
left parietal 4 small lesions on inner-table of pacchionian depressions or
parietals towards coronal suture infection? Age related possibly
Notes
A-193 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22A
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X X Mand. Condyle X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) 0 0-1 Proximal Humerus 0 X Total Joint Score 0 0-1 Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus 0-1 0-1 Proximal Ulna 1 1 Proximal Radius 0 0 Total Joint Score 1 0-1 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna 1 0 Distal Radius 1 0 Carpals 1 1 Total Joint Score 1 0 Notes:
HAND Proximal Metacarpals 1 1 Distal Metacarpals 1 1 Phalanges 1 1 Total Joint Score 1 1 Notes:
A-194 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22A
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 1 0
Proximal Femur 0 X
Total Joint Score 0-1 0
Notes:
KNEE
Distal Femur X X
Proximal Tibia X X
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X X
Distal Fibula X X
Tarsals X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals X X
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges 1 X
Total Joint Score 1 X
Notes:
A-195 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22A
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens X X X X X X C3 X X X X X X C4 X X X X X X C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T1 X X * X X X X T2 X X X X X X T3 X X X X X X T4 X X X X X X T5 X X X X X X T6 X X X X X X T7 X X X X X X T8 X X X X X X T9 X X X X X X T10 X X X X X X T11 X X X X X X T12 X X X X X X T indet. L1 2 1 1 1 0-1 X L2 2 1 1 X 2 2 L3 1 2 1-2 1-2 1 1 L4 3 2 1 1 1 1 L5 1 1 1-2 1 X 1 L indet. Sacrum:
Notes: * thoracic bodies = 1 or 2, sup. apo. facets = 0-1, inf. Apo. facets = 0-1
A-196 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22A
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-197 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22A
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Humerus: maximum length (lf) 286 mm Humerus: epicondylar breadth (lf) 50.5 mm Humerus: vertical diameter of head (lf) 38.7 mm Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 18.4 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 18.2 mm Radius: maximum length (lf) 218 mm Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 11.7 mm Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 10.5 mm Ulna: maximum length (rt) 241 mm Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 11.5 mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 12.9 mm Os Coxae: iliac breadth (rt) 140 mm Os Coxae: pubis length (lf) 88.6 mm Os Coxae: Ischium length (lf) 70.3 mm Os Coxae: height (lf) 181 mm Femur: maximum head diameter 39.6 mm Femur: epicondylar breadth Femur: maximum length Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 23.5 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 24.8 mm
A-198 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22A
ADDITIONAL NOTES
-- small unidentified bone to EW (EW = non-human)
-- Very small sternal foramen in the distal portion of the body. Positioning is quite unusual since
documentation indicates that the foramen usually appears between the third and fourth pieces of the
body. The foramen appears to be between the fifth and sixth segments. It measures height 3.52
x 3.34 width with smooth edges on the anterior (ventral) side with a depressed or pushed in
appearance on the posterior (dorsal) side.
A-199 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-22B Date 8/8/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics lf femoral head = 40.3 mm, femur bicondylar width = 71.1 mm
Sex (criteria used) Female = based on femur measurements (Bass) and morphology of greater sciatic notch that is wide
Age (criteria used) Older Adult 50-60 = based on amount of OA at score 3 in lumbar vertebrae and all fused elements. Auricular face is estimated at Phase 8 making this individual 60+
Condition of Skeleton bone cortex is fair, volume is poor, 40% of skeleton is present in fragmented state, though many elements are complete in several pieces
Cranium X
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum C(3)
Vertebrae: Cervical C(2) = both are either C3-C7, C1 and C2 not present
Thoracic C(5) = T11, T12 both present; F(8) bodies; F(3) neural arch; F(8) facets
Lumbar C(1) = either it is L1-L4, not L5; F(6) bodies; F(4) neural arch; F(2) facets
Sacrum C(18) = very fragmented; part of S5 distal end, 1 coccygeal present (C)
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature C(7) I(6) X
Immature: Pubis
Ilium
Ischium
A-200 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22B
Ribs: No. Complete (L) 2 stern, 6 vert (R) 6 vert No. Incomplete F(64)
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X F(10)
Humerus C(2) C(6) X Femur C(3) X X
Radius C(2) C(3) X Patella C(1) X X
Ulna C(2) C(3) X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular C(1) C(1) X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate C(1) C(1) X Talus X X X
Triquetral C(1) X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform C(1) X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X C(1) X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. C(1) C(1) X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate C(1) X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate C(1) C(1) X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 C(1) X X
MC 5 C(1) X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand 4 = C(2), I(2) Foot X
Indeterminate bag of fragments = 68 grams
Additional Notes Was associated with B04-22A, shell, lithic and faunal bone also found in association.
Historical material includes adobe and redwood, one piece burned wood. KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-201 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22B
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-22B Date: 8/8/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X small
Sciatic Notch close or wide X wide
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X present
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings X X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) X X
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) X X
Long bone fusion yes X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface Phase 8 X
Osteoarthritis yes X
Sternal Rib Phase 6
Comments Sexing: all indications are female, including metric measurements mentioned on skeletal inventory sheet
Ageing: using the auricular surface and the 94 Standards definition by Ubelaker, this individual is between
50-60. The lumbar scores 3 with OA on the bodies. Sternal rib (43-58) walls thin with sharp edges and irregular rim, sharp point project from rim. Bone thin and brittle. A-202 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22B
PATHOLOGIES
Element Involved Description of Lesion Differential Diagnosis
lf patella hypertrophic bone or spur on the myolitis ossificans – trauma
anterior superior margin possibly
lf patella lipping on the posterior facet scores OA
2 all around margin
lf ilium severe OA on the auricular surface OA
and the retro-auricular surface
represented by additional hyper-
tropic bone
lf ulna fractured, healed; x-ray indicates trauma, poss intentional etiology
transverse fracture in distal 1/3
Notes
A-203 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22B
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – UPPER PERIPHERAL SKELETON Left Notes Right Notes TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT Glenoid Fossa X X Mand. Condyle X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
SHOULDER Scapula (Glenoid) X X Proximal Humerus X X Total Joint Score X X Notes:
ELBOW Distal Humerus 1 1 Proximal Ulna 1 1 Proximal Radius 1 X Total Joint Score 1 1 Notes:
WRIST Distal Ulna 0 0 Distal Radius 0 1 Carpals 2 * 1-2 * Total Joint Score 1 1-2 Notes: * navicular on rt has stage 2 lipping on distal margin, others on rt side have stage 1 lipping. Navicular on left has stage 2 lipping similar to right side HAND Proximal Metacarpals X 0 * Distal Metacarpals X 0 Phalanges X 0 Total Joint Score X 0 Notes: p/m damage makes the MC5 on rt difficult to diagnosis
A-204 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22B
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE – LOWER PERIPHERAL SKELETON
HIP Left Notes Right Notes
Acetabulum 2 1 *
Proximal Femur 0 * X
Total Joint Score 2 1
Notes: p/m damage only partial of acetabulum; femoral head with p/m damage
KNEE
Distal Femur 1 X
Proximal Tibia X X
Proximal Fibula X X
Total Joint Score 1 X
Notes:
ANKLE
Distal Tibia X X
Distal Fibula X X
Tarsals X X
Total Joint Score X X
Notes:
FOOT
Proximal Metacarpals 1 X
Distal Metacarpals X X
Phalanges X X
Total Joint Score 1 X
Notes:
A-205 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22B
DEGENERATIVE SPINAL DISEASE
BODY INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES SUPERIOR INFERIOR NOTES L R L R C1 dens facet X X X X X C2 dens X X X X X X C3 1 1 1 1 1 1 C4 2 1 X 1 X 1 C5 X X X X X X C6 X X X X X X C7 X X X X X X C indet. T indet. 0 1 * 0 0 1 1 * T indet. 1 2 * 0 0 1 1 * T indet. 1 1 * 1 0 1 1 * T indet. 2 2 * X X X X T indet. 2 2 * X X X X T indet. 0 X * X X X X T indet. X X X X X X T indet. 1 2 0 0 1 1 T indet. 2 1 1 1 1 1 T10 2 2 1 0 2 2 ** T11 2 1 1 1 X X T12 2 1 1 X 1 1 T indet. L indet. X X X X X X L indet. 1 0 c 2 X 2 X c L indet. 1 1 a 1 X X 1 b L indet. 2 2 a 3 X 3 X b L indet. 2 2 a 2 2 2 2 b L indet. 3 2 2 1 2 X Sacrum: X Notes: *Body frags and facet frags of T1-T9 combined to fit paper, indeterminate positions. **T10 superior rt facet worn p/m, cannot diagnosis. Lumbar: lf indef. Is only complete lumbar present, is L3 or L4, but not L5, body is very light, may have osteoporosis. a) bodies only, b) facets only, c) partial body and facets together.
A-206 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22B
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length
A-207 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22B
CRANIAL AND POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Clavicle: maximum length Clavicle: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft Clavicle: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft Humerus: maximum length Humerus: epicondylar breadth Humerus: vertical diameter of head Humerus: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 20.0 mm Humerus: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 18.1 mm Radius: maximum length Radius: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 10.9 mm Radius: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 15.1 mm Ulna: maximum length 234 mm (rt); 227 (lf) mm Ulna: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (rt) 12.0 mm (rt); 12.7 (lf) mm Ulna: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (rt) 14.8 mm (rt); 14.8 (lf) mm Os Coxae: iliac breadth (lf) 149 mm Os Coxae: pubis length Os Coxae: Ischium length Femur: maximum head diameter (lf) 40.3 mm Femur: epicondylar breadth 71.1 mm Femur: maximum length (lf) 412 mm Femur: anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft (lf) 26.9 mm Femur: medial-lateral diameter at midshaft (lf) 24.7 mm Tibia: maximum length Tibia: maximum proximal epiphyseal breadth (rt) Tibia: maximum distal epiphyseal breadth (rt) Tibia: anterior-posterior diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) Tibia: medial-lateral diameter at the nutrient foramen (rt) Fibula: maximum length (lf) Fibula: maximum diameter at midshaft Calcaneus: maximum length Calcaneus: middle breadth
A-208 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-22B
ADDITIONAL NOTES
-- Note that the acetabulum on the left os coxae has an unusual shape, there is reactivity apparent on
the internal surface. Photos taken of the surface to help provide diagnostic information
A-209 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 04-23 Date 8/10/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics no elements
Sex (criteria used) Male possibly = robust nuchal crest indicates male, mastoid process is medium, though the zygomatic arch extents behind the process
Age (criteria used) Indeterminate = only crania, no teeth, cranial sutures show minimal closure (score 1), possibly young individual, 16+?
Condition of Skeleton good bone volume, good bone quality, crania only
Cranium I(24) = occipital I(1), lf parietal I(5), rt parietal I(3), lf temporal C(1), rt temporal C(2); no pathology or infectious disease present, indeterminate fragments (12)
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X X
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-210 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-23
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur X X X
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate X
Additional Notes 1 bag bone fragments, 1 bag lithics, 1 bag shell and faunal, tooth, & 1 bag unmarked burial number with shell fragments, lithics and 2 bone fragments, no pathologies or infectious disease seen KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-211 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-23
SEXING DETERMINATION
Site: CA-SCL-287 Recorder: DiGiuseppe
Burial: 04-22B Date: 8/8/06
Pelvis: Male Female
Symphysis high or low X X
Sub-pubic Angle V or U shaped X X
Foramen large or small X X
Acetabulum large or small X X
Sciatic Notch close or wide X X
Prearicular Sulcus absent or present X X
Skull:
Nuchal Crest robust, muscle markings robust X
Mastoid Process size (large or small) med. med.
Supraorbital Margin rounded or sharp margin X X
Supraorbital Ridge glabella none or prominent X X
Mental Eminence none to massive projection X X
AGEING DETERMINATION
Yes No
Dental (all erupted) X X
Long bone fusion X
Pubic symphysis X X
Auricular Surface X
Osteoarthritis X
Sternal Rib
Comments Possibly male due to robust nuchal crest and medium mastoid process, though the
zygomatic arch line appears to extent beyond the mastoid process, possibly indicating a more robust size
A-212 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-23
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT RECORDING FORM: ADULT REMAINS
CRANIAL MEASUREMENTS:
Maximum cranial length Maximum cranial breadth Bizygomatic diameter Crania base length Basion-prosthion length Basion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Upper facial height Minimum frontal breadth Upper facial breadth Nasal breadth Biorbital breadth Intraorbital breadth Orbital breadth Orbital height Foramen magnum max length Foramen magnum max brdth Mastoid length 16.5 mm
A-213 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 04-23
ADDITIONAL NOTES
A-214 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SMA-263 Burial No. 04-24 Date 8/14/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics none possible
Sex (criteria used) Indeterminate = very fragmented
Age (criteria used) Indeterminate = very fragmented
Condition of Skeleton poor, very fragmentary, no elements are diagnostic
Cranium F = bag of cranial fragments = 68.5 grams
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X X
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-215 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SMA-263 Burial: 04-24
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur X X X
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate unidentified long bone fragment bag = 105 grams
Additional Notes cobble of indurate sandstone in box (no evidence of usage or surfaces), 1 bag lithics
(chert), 1 bag vegetation, 1 frag bag = 333 grams, remodeled chuck of Franciscan chert breccia, 1 manuport, and 1 killed mortar (see artifact sketch sheet) KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-216 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. 4th Fairway Date 8/14/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics X
Sex (criteria used) X
Age (criteria used) X
Condition of Skeleton fragments only
Cranium F(1) frontal
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X X
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-217 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: 4th Fairway
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X F(1) Femur X X X
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate foil wrapped bone dust with soil, 2 indeterminate fragments; frag bag = 98 grams; from isolate box dated 2003/2004, F(3) indeterminate & 1 piece of wood
Additional Notes faunal bones, bone awl tool
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-218 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. G1&G2 – isolates Date 8/16/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics X
Sex (criteria used) X
Age (criteria used) X
Condition of Skeleton X
Cranium F(4) indeterminate
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose 3 indeterminate, 1 lower molar In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X X
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-219 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: G1 & G2 isolates
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur X X X
Radius X X F(1) Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X F(1
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals:
MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate Fragment bag = 24 grams
Additional Notes shell, faunal fragment
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-220 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. G3 & Tee 3 Date 8/16/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics X
Sex (criteria used) X
Age (criteria used) X
Condition of Skeleton X
Cranium F(1) indeterminate from the Tee 3 north east corner
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X X
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-221 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: G3 & Tee 3
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur X X X
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand 1 from G3 unit Foot X
Indeterminate X
Additional Notes X
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-222 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No Hole 3, Near B14&19 Date 8/16/06 Recorder DiGiuseppe
Metrics X
Sex (criteria used) X
Age (criteria used) X
Condition of Skeleton X
Cranium F(11) indeterminate, found near burials 14 and 19 at Holes
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X X
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-223 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: Hole 3 near B14&19
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur X X X
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate F(1) tarsal found near burial 19, hole 3; frag bag = 21 grams near burial 14&19, hole 3
Additional Notes X
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-224 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. Hole 3, Central Eastside Date 8/16/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics no elements
Sex (criteria used) Indeterminate
Age (criteria used) Indeterminate
Condition of Skeleton poor
Cranium F(3) indeterminate from CA-SCL-287 with no location provided
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X X
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-225 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: Hole 3, Central Eastside
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur X X F(5)
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X F(1) Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X F(1)
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate F(7) long bones; F(9) miscellaneous
Additional Notes 1 bag soil with human bone fragments = 46 grams, 1 shell fragment, 1 piece of lithic
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-226 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. Hole 3 Date 8/16/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics none available
Sex (criteria used) Indeterminate
Age (criteria used) Indeterminate
Condition of Skeleton good cortex and volume
Cranium X
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical X
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X X
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-227 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial: Hole 3
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur X X F(2)
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X F(2)
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X X MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate X
Additional Notes X
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-228 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES HUMAN SKELETAL INVENTORY
Site CA-SCL-287 Burial No. Hole 3, east of B7 Date 8/16/06 Recorder Atwood
Metrics none available
Sex (criteria used) probably Male = supraorbital margin and ridge appear male
Age (criteria used) indeterminate
Condition of Skeleton good cortex and volume
Cranium F(19) = I(8) frontal, F(2) parietal, F(1) occipital, F(1) temporal
Cribra Orbitalia: (L) X (R) X
Mandible X
Teeth Permanent-Loose X In-situ X
Deciduous-Loose X In-situ X
Hyoid X Sternum X
Vertebrae: Cervical F(1)
Thoracic X
Lumbar X
Sacrum X
Indeterminate X
Os Coxae: LEFT RIGHT INDT
Mature X X F(4)
Immature: Pubis X X X
Ilium X X X
Ischium X X X
A-229 OHLONE FAMILIES CONSULTING SERVICES Site: CA-SCL-287 Burial:
Ribs: No. Complete (L) X (R) X No. Incomplete X
LEFT RIGHT INDT LEFT RIGHT INDT
Clavicle X X X Scapula X X X
Humerus X X X Femur F(1) X X
Radius X X X Patella X X X
Ulna X X X Tibia X X X
Fibula X X X
Carpals: Tarsals: Navicular X X X Calcaneus X X X
Lunate X X X Talus X X X
Triquetral X X X Cuboid X X X
Pisiform X X X Navicular X X X
Grt. Mult. X X X 1st Cuneiform X X X
Lsr. Mult. X X X 2nd Cuneiform X X X
Capitate X X X 3rd Cuneiform X X X
Hamate X X X
Metacarpals: Metatarsals: MC 1 X X F(1) MT 1 X X X
MC 2 X X X MT 2 X X X
MC 3 X X X MT 3 X X X
MC 4 X X X MT 4 X X X
MC 5 X X X MT 5 X X X
Phalanges: Hand X Foot X
Indeterminate X
Additional Notes X
KEY: C (1) = complete (2/3 of element with articulating surfaces) I (1) = incomplete (less than 2/3 of element but more than 1/3 with articulating surface) F (1) = fragmentary (less than 1/3 of element or shafts only) X = absent Ribs = complete indicates that the vertebral end is present as well as completely present. If element is complete but in pieces, indicate thus: C (3) for number of pieces If epiphyses present on subadult’s long bone indicate thus: p Femur C (1) d
A-230
APPENDIX B
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES AND FAUNAL ELEMENTS BY BURIAL DISTRIBUTION OF AVES AND MAMMALIA BY RECOVERY CONTEXT
Burial # #01-200-3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20-b 21 22A 23 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Mammalia
Odocoilus hemionus 3131 1212 1 63 1 3 3
Cervus e. nannodes 21 1272
Cervus e. roosevelti 11
Cervus e. ssp. 1 artiodactyl 1 1 2
Canis lupus 1
Canis latrans 1
Canis sp. 1
Enhydra lutris 11 1 1
Zalophus californianus 1
Aves
Chen caerulescens caerulescens 1
Buteo lineatus 1
Buteo jamaiscens 1
Aquila chrysaetos 1 APPENDIX B Distribution of Species and Faunal Elements by Burial
Species Burial/Specimen Ref. # Skeletal Element
Odocoileus hemionus #6-18 antler (Black-Tailed Deer) #6-19 hyoid #6-24 femur #7-10 tibia #8-31 rib 7 #8-32 T-7 #8-33 long bone #9-16 maxillary #12-17 humerus #13-11 rib 8 #14-15 ecto + meso cuneiform #15-15 metacarpal fragment #15-16 metacarpel fragment (juv) #17-18 lone bone #20-10 ulna #20-11 scapula #20-12 scapula 20-14 femur #20-15 ischium #20-17 tibia #21-11 cannon bone #21-12 vertebrae #21-14 antler #22A-10 T-7 #32-2 rib #32-3 antler #32-4 femur #36-1 ilium #36-2 pubis #36-3 long bone
Cervus elephas nannodes #6-15 tibia (Tule Elk) #6-27 tibia #8-30 T-2 #12-15 T-7 #13-12 T-8 #13-19 rib7 #16-11 T-13 #16-12 T-11 #16-13 L-3 #16-14 T-12 #16-15 T-10 #16-16 rib 10 #16-17 vertebrae frag. #17/18-15 rib 6 #17/18-17 cannon bone frag
B-2 APPENDIX B Distribution of Species and Faunal Elements by Burial
Species Species Skeletal Element Cervus e. roosevelti #13-10 innominate (Roosevelt Elk/Wapati) #33-2 manubrium
Cervus e. ssp. #14-16 scaphoid (Elk) artiodactyla #17-6 long bone frag. (Even-Toed Ungulates: Deer, etc.) #12-16 long bone frag #14-17 long bone frag #14-18 long bone frag
Enhydra lutris #3-12 rib 11 (Sea Otter) #6-23 T-2 #12-19 L-6 #30-1 rib 11
Zalophus californianus #01-2-10 phalanx (California Sea Lion) #6-25 phalanx
Canis lupus #6-20 mandible frag. (Wolf) Canis latrans #23-10 (tooth) canine 1 (Coyote) Canis sp. #7-11 (tooth) canine root (Canid family): dogs, coyotes, etc.) AVES
Chen caerulescens caerulescens # 00-3-10 tarsometatarsus Lesser Snow Goose
Buteo lineatus #31-6 ulna Red-shouldered Hawk Buteo jamaiscensis #9-15 1st phalnax Red-tailed Hawk Aquila chrysaetos #17/18-16 radius (Golden Eagle)
B-3
APPENDIX C
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG APPENDIX C ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 00-1 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 00-1 Note: The following materials were not available for full analysis for this study Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 00-1-1 Lithic Cortical flakes, Red Franciscan chert. Wt. 22 grams (wt. includes primary and thinning flakes) 00-1-2 Lithic Cortical flakes, Green Franciscan chert. Wt. 29 grams (wt. includes primary and thinning flakes) 00-1-3 Lithic Primary flakes, Green Franciscan chert. 00-1-4 Lithic Thinning flakes, Green Franciscan chert. 00-1-5 Lithic 1 Modified flake, Red Franciscan chert. 00-1-6 Lithic Primary flakes, Monterey chert. Wt. 5g 00-1-7 Lithic Pressure flake, White Franciscan chert (Chalcedony?). Wt. < 1g. 00-1-8 Lithic Quartz crystal fragment. Wt. < 1g. 00-1-9 Clay Baked clay fragments. Wt. 8g. 00-1-10 Work Bone Polished bone tool fragment from a large mammal (32mm x 13 mm) Wt. 6g. 00-1-11 Faunal Large mammal bone, burnt. Wt. 6g. 00-1-12 Faunal Large mammal bone, unburnt. Wt. 10 grams 00-1-13 Faunal 1 Fish vertebra, unburnt. Wt. < 1g. 00-1-14 Faunal Bird long bone fragments, unburnt, <1 gram 00-1-15 Faunal 8 Squirrel bone fragments, unburnt, 8 grams 00-1-16 Faunal – Marine Crab claw; Wt. 3 grams 00-1-17 Worked Bone 3 polished large mammal long bone fragments 00-1-18 Shell Cerithidea ca.; wt. 200 grams 00-1-19 Shell Mytilus edulis and Mytilus californicus 00-1-20 Shell Ostrea lurida 00-1-21 Lithic 1 piece obsidian 00-1-22 Lithic Primary flakes, red Franciscan chert 00-1-23 Lithic Thinning flakes, red Franciscan chert 00-1-24 Lithic Several percussion flakes of Monterey chert 00-1-25 Lithic Thermally spalled flake of Monterey banded chert
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 00-2 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 00-2
C-1 Note: The following materials were not available for full analysis for this study Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 00-2-1 Lithic 2 Cortical flakes, Red Franciscan chert. 00-2-2 Lithic 1 Utilized flake, Red Franciscan chert. 00-2-3 Lithic 3 Primary flakes, Red Franciscan chert. 00-2-4 Lithic 1 Shatter Red Franciscan chert. 00-2-5 Lithic 1 Thinning flake, Red Franciscan chert. 00-2-6 Lithic 1 Pressure flake, Red Franciscan chert. 00-2-7 Lithic 2 Cortical flakes, Green Franciscan chert. 00-2-8 Lithic 1 Utilized flake, Green Franciscan chert. 00-2-9 Lithic 3 Primary flakes, Green Franciscan chert. 00-2-10 Lithic 2 flake fragments, Green Franciscan chert. 00-2-11 Lithic 1 Primary flake, Monterey chert. 00-2-12 Lithic 1 shatter, Monterey chert. 00-2-13 Lithic 1 Utilized cortical flake, white Franciscan chert (Chalcedony?). Wt. 10 g. 00-2-14 Faunal 1 Odocoileus h. phalanx, unburnt. 00-2-15 Shell Cerithidea ca., wt. 115 grams (or 102 grams) 00-216 Shell Mytilus edulis 00-2-17 Shell Ostrea lurida 00-2-18 Lithic 1 thinning flake, red Franciscan chert
C-2 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 00-3 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 00-3 Note: Some of the following materials were not available for full analysis for this study Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 00-3-1 Shell 8 Cerithidea; wt. 1.5 grams 00-3-2 Shell 3 Ostrea lurida; wt 1.2 grams 00-3-3 Shell 1 Mytilus edulis; wt 0.4 grams 00-3-4 Lithic 1 Shatter, Red Franciscan chert; wt. 4.5 grams. 00-3-5 Lithic 1 Cortical flake, Green Franciscan chert. cortical flake and primary flakes, Wt. 7 grams) 00-3-6 Lithic 3 Primary flakes, Green Franciscan chert. 00-3-7 Lithic 1 Shatter, White Franciscan chert. (Chalcedony?) 00-3-8 Lithic 1 Cortical flake, Monterey chert shatter and cortical flake Wt. 8 grams 00-3-9 Lithic 3 flake fragments, Monterey chert, Wt. 4 grams. 00-3-10 Faunal/Bird 1 left midshaft tarsometatarsus, Chen caerulescens caerulescens Lesser Snow Goose 00-3-11 Faunal/Mammal 1 rib (unidentified species) 00-3-12 Faunal/Mammal 1 distal rib fragment 11th? Enhydra lutris Sea Otter 00-3-13 Faunal/Mammal 1 metapodial, Cervus nannodes, Wt. 33 grams 00-3-14 Shell 2 Haliotis rufescens pendant fragments? Wt. <1 g. 00-3-15 Faunal Long bone fragments, Cervus nannodes, Wt 42 g. 00-3-16 Faunal, Marine Unburnt crab claws 00-3-17 Faunal, Marine Crab claw (8 grams) 00-3-18 Lithic Rock Thermally affected rocks (top of rock feature 106.5 cm x 118 cm)
C-3 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 01-1 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 01-1 Note: The following materials were not available for full analysis for this study Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 01-1-1 Lithic – thinning flake Obsidian; bulbar length 11.0 mm x width 18.7 mm x thickness 4.4 mm; Wt. 0.8 g ? 01-1-2 Shell Cerithidea; wt. 222 grams 01-1-3 Shell Ostrea lurida 01-1-4 Lithic 3 Cortical flakes, Red Franciscan chert. 01-1-5 Lithic 4 Cortical flakes, Green Franciscan chert. 01-1-6 Lithic 1 Cortical flake, White Franciscan chert. 01-1-7 Lithic 3 Utilized primary flakes, Green Franciscan chert. 01-1-8 Lithic 7 Primary flakes, Red Franciscan chert. 01-1-9 Lithic 11 Primary flakes, Green Franciscan chert. 01-1-10 Lithic 2 Primary flakes, White Franciscan chert. 01-1-11 Lithic 1 Assayed Pebble, Red Franciscan chert. 01-1-12 Lithic Shatter, Red Franciscan chert. Wt.4 grams 01-1-13 Lithic Shatter, Green Franciscan chert. Wt. 3 grams 01-1-14 Lithic Shatter, Monterey chert. Wt. 3 grams 01-1-15 Lithic 2 Pressure flakes, Monterey chert. 01-1-16 Lithic 6 Primary flakes, Monterey chert. 01-1-17 Lithic 6 Thinning flakes, Monterey chert. 01-1-18 Lithic 2 Thermal spalls, Monterey chert. 01-1-19 Lithic 2 Modified flakes, Red Franciscan chert. 01-1-20 Lithic 1 Modified flake, Green Franciscan chert. 01-1-21 Lithic 1 Exhausted core, Green Franciscan chert. Wt. 18g 01-1-22 Lithic 1 Quartz crystal fragment, < 1g. 01-1-23 Lithic 1 flake frag., Red Franciscan chert, with ocher. 01-1-24 Work bone Polished bone tool fragment from a large mammal. 01-1-25 Faunal Large, medium and small mammal 01-1-26 Faunal Bird 01-1-27 Faunal Fish vertebrae 01-1-28 Marine Faunal 12 Crab claws wt. 12g. 01-1-29 Lithic 10 Obsidian flakes, 6 Napa, 4 Casa Diablo/BH 01-1-30 Lithic 6 mortar fragments 01-1-31 Shell Mytilus spp 01-1-32 Shell Haliotis rufescens (<1 gram) 01-1-33 Shell Saddle and spire-lopped Olivella biplicata
C-4 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 01-2 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 01-2 Note: The following materials were not available for full analysis for this study Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 01-2-1 Shell Bead Olivella Bead Type F1 01-2-2 Worked Bone Bone awl tip 01-2-3 Graphite Polished graphite (pendant?) fragment 01-2-4 Worked Bone ? Cut bird bone 01-2-5 Faunal 1 Tarsal, Cervus elaphus nannodes, burnt. 01-2-6 Lithic Chert flakes 01-2-7 Lithic 2 obsidian flakes 01-2-8 Faunal Fragment of mammal bone 01-2-9 Faunal Crab claw (7 grams) 01-2-10 Faunal/Sea Mammal 1 phalanx, Zalophus californianus California sea lion 01-2-11 Shell Burnt Cerithidea ca, wt. 9 grams 01-2-12 Shell Cerithidea ca, wt. 249 grams 01-2-13 Shell Haliotis rufescens (<1 gram)
C-5 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 01-3 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 01-3 Note: The following materials were not available for full analysis for this study Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 01-3-1 Shell 2 Mytilus edulis; wt. 0.5 grams ? 01-3-2 Lithic Obsidian pressure flake. Wt. 0.1g 01-3-3 Shell (Ornament?) 1 Haliotis rufescens fragment 01-3-4 Worked Bone Bone awl tip 01-3-5 Shell Bead 3 Olivella Bead Type B3j spire-ground barrel, 5 mm x 5 mm 01-3-6 Shell Bead 1 Olivella Bead Type F2b saddle bead, 4 mm x 3.5 mm 01-3-7 Lithic Chert flakes 01-3-8 Shell Cerithidea (23 grams) 01-3-9 Clay Baked clay 01-3-10 Ochre Red Ochre 1 inch square 01-3-11 Cobbles River cobbles, sandstone 01-3-12 Lithics 7 obsidian flakes 01-3-13 Shell Ostrea lurida
C-6 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 01-4 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 01-4 Note: The following materials were not available for full analysis for this study Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 01-4-1 Shell Bead 3 Olivella Type B3j beads 01-4-2 Lithic 1 Bladelet Red Franciscan chert 01-4-3 Lithic 1 Thinning flake, Monterey chert 01-4-4 Faunal 1 Bird bone fragments 01-4-5 Shell (Ornament?) 1 Haliotis rufescens fragment 01-4-6 Worked bone 1 bone awl fragment, polished 01-4-7 Lithic 3 obsidian flakes 01-4-8 Faunal – Marine Crab claw (9 grams) 01-4-9 Faunal – Marine Burnt crab claws (4 grams) 01-4-10 Shell Ostrea lurida 01-4-11 Shell Burnt Cerithidea spp (7 grams) 01-4-12 Shell Cerithidea spp (208 grams) 01-4-13 Shell Mytilus spp 01-4-14 Miscellaneous Burnt clay 01-4-15 Miscellaneous Vitrified clay 01-4-16 Miscellaneous Burnt bone with residue of red ocher
C-7 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-5 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-5
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-5-1 --- --n/a-
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SMA-263 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-6 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-6
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-6-1 Shell 100 Cerithidea; wt. 43.4 grams 04-6-2 Shell 235 + 40 frags of Ostrea lurida; wt. 67.8 grams 04-6-3 Shell 6 Mytilus edulis; wt. 1.8 grams 04-6-4 Shell 2 Penitella sp. (Boring Clam); wt. 0.2 grams 04-6-5 Shell 1 unidentified clam; wt. 0.6 grams 04-6-6 Shell Beads 35 Olivella shell beads type F3a; plus 16 frags. 04-6-7 Lithic – primary flake 1 Green Franciscan chert; wt. 3.1 grams
C-8
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SMA-263 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-6 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-6 (continued) 04-6-8 Worked Bone 1 Hair pin; found in the cranium area; in 2 pieces, reconstructed, bi-pointed lenticular; from the point to the midpoint on one end measures 55.1mm and there is a remnant of a black mastic (glue); length 181 mm x width 10.0 mm x thickness 6.1 mm; wt. 9.4 grams 04-6-9 Worked Bone 1 Hair pin; found in the cranial area; in multiple pieces, with 3 reconstructed; displays some slight evidence of black mastic on one tip (possibly decorated); length 152 mm x width 8.1 mm x thickness 4.9 mm; wt. 5.6 grams 04-6-10 Lithic – cortical flake 1 Red Franciscan chert; wt. 0.2 grams 04-6-11 Lithic – primary flake 1 Green Franciscan chert; wt. 1.3 grams 04-6-12 Lithic – cortical flake 1 Yellow Franciscan chert; wt. 5.1 grams 04-6-13 Faunal 1 burnt faunal fragment; wt. 0.6 grams 04-6-14 Not assigned 04-6-15 Faunal/Mammal 1 right distal tibia (frag), immature Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-6-16 Human 1st or 2nd rib fragment 04-6-17 Not assigned 04-6-18 Faunal/Mammal 1 antler fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black- tailed deer 04-6-19 Faunal/Mammal 1 hyoid, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-6-20 Faunal/Mammal 1 mandible fragment (right), Canis lupus, Wolf 04-6-21 Faunal/Mammal 1 vertebral articular facet (unidentified species) 04-6-22 Faunal/Mammal 1 long bone fragment, (unidentified species) 04-6-23 Faunal/Mammal 1 T2 vertebra, right anterior frag., transverse facet and partial body, Enhydra lutris, Sea Otter 04-6-24 Faunal/Mammal 1 femur head fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-6-25 Faunal/Sea Mammal 1 phalanx, Zalophus californianus California sea lion 04-6-26 Faunal/Mammal Burnt bone, unidentified species 04-6-27 Faunal/Mammal 1 right proximal tibia frag., Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk
C-9 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-7 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-7
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-7-1 Shell 1 Ostrea lurida; wt. 2.7 grams 04-7-2 n/a 04-7-3 Lithics Assayed Pebble 1 Assayed pebble of Monterey chert/siltstone; length 37.1 mm x width 32.0 mm x thickness 14.5 mm; wt. 20.8 grams 04-7-4 Lithics shatter 1 Shatter – red Franciscan chert; thermally shattered; length 35.5 mm x width 26.2 mm x thickness 18.5 mm; wt. 14.6 grams 04-7-5 Unmodified cobble 1 Thermally affected cobble fragment of sandstone and has blackening and red oxidation, possible cooking stone fragment; wt. 54.7 grams 04-7-6 Lithics Boulder mortar 1 Large unmodified egg-shaped indurated (greywacke) sandstone boulder mortar found over the cranium with the cranium found inside the well; max. axial length 37.8 cm x equatorial width 31.7 cm x thickness 23.3 cm; outside diameter of well 22.7 x ~23.9; 20.3 x 21.3 inside well diameter; depth (chord) 111.3 mm; wt. 65 lbs. 04-7-7 Soil Associated with mortar 04-7-8 – 04-7-9 Not assigned 04-7-10 Faunal/Mammal 1 tibia fragment, with possible cut marks, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-7-11 Faunal/Mammal 1 canine tooth root, Canis sp., possibly wolf 04-7-12 Faunal/Mammal 1 long bone fragment, artiodactyl 04-7-13 Faunal/Mammal 7 fragmented bones, possibly rabbit
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-8 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-8
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-8-1 Shell 81 Cerithidea; wt. 48.8 grams 04-8-2 Shell 130 Ostrea lurida; wt. 72.1 grams
C-10 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-8 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-8 (continued) 04-8-3 Shell 6 Mytilus edulis; wt. 1.0 grams 04-8-4 Shell 1 Tivela stultorum, Pismo Clam; wt. 18.0 grams 04-8-5 Faunal 7 faunal fragments; burnt and unburnt; 1 calcined; wt. 3.6 grams 04-8-6 Lithic – cortical flake 1 Red Franciscan chert; wt. 2.8 grams 04-8-7 Lithic – primary flake 5 Red Franciscan chert; wt. 14.1 grams 04-8-8 Lithic – primary flake 2 Green Franciscan chert; wt. 6.6 grams 04-8-9 Lithic – utilized flake 1 Red Franciscan chert; bulbar length = 28.4 x width 28.6, thickness 4.49 mm; wt 3.6 grams • EU1 = 19.3 mm on the right lateral edge ventral view; is concave and exhibits unifacial nibbling and nicking; pristine edge angle (PEA) = 43° to 45° and the Damaged Edge Angle (DEA) = 64° to 66° • EU2 = 15.1 mm length on the right distal ventral view; is continuation of EU1 on different edge, it is straight to slightly convex, has unifacial nibbling; PEA = 40° to 43° and DEA = 52° to 55° • EU3 = 11.9 mm on the left distal edge ventral view; is straight and slightly ungulating, exhibits slight retouch and unifacial nibbling; PEA = 40° to 42° and DEA = 48° to 50° • EU4 = 10.0 mm on the upper left lateral edge ventral view; is straight to slightly concaved, exhibits unifacial nibbling; PEA = 41° to 42° and DEA = 46° to 47° • Flake is made on a primary expanding flake 04-08-10 Shell 4 Penitella sp. (Boring Clam); wt. 0.4 grams 04-08-11 Faunal/Marine 19 Cancer claws; wt. 1.4 grams 04-08-12 Lithic – Core fragment 1 red Franciscan chert core fragment; length 32.9 x width 32.3 x thickness 25.6 mm; wt. 32.3 grams 04-08-13 Lithic Modified flake 1 Modified flake of green Franciscan chert; bulbar length=24.1 mm x 35.1mm x 12.8 mm; wt. 12.8 grams; modification on the distal edge ventral view 04-08-14 Lithic Resharpening 1 Obsidian resharpening flake; bulbar length = flake 11.1 mm x 21.5 mm x 4.2 mm; wt. 0.6 grams 04-08-15 Lithic – primary flake 1 Gray Franciscan chert; wt. 2.2 grams
C-11 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-8 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-8 (continued) 04-08-16 Lithic – thinning flake 1 Green Franciscan chert; 0.4 grams 04-08-17 Lithic – primary flakes 3 Monterey chert; wt. 16.2 grams 04-08-18 Charcoal for speciation 04-08-19 Cobble mortar 1 Unshaped shallow cobble mortar of sandstone; 137.2 mm x 107.7 mm x 52.9 mm; pecked area/well diameter is 58.1 mm x 60.2 mm; depth of chord=7.9 mm; wt. 1.3 kilograms 04-08-20 Pestle fragment 1 Unshaped pestle of sandstone; proximal end has been broken; caliche on the surface; 145.3 mm x 73.5 mm x 44.0 mm; worked distal end is 59.9 mm x 28.0 mm; wt. 800 grams 04-08-21 Cobble mortar 1 Intact shallow cobble mortar of sandstone; it is worked/unifacially pecked; length 133.5 mm x width 117.6 mm x thickness 73.1 mm; well diameter is length 84.3 x width 75.8 mm x depth (chord) 20.1 mm; wt. 1300 grams. 04-08-22 Pecked cobble 1 A unifacially pecked cobble fragment of sandstone; cobble has been split along its axis; length 153.1 mm x width 58.1 mm x thickness 65.4 mm; wt. 730 grams 04-08-23 Pestle fragment 1 unshaped short pestle fragment of sandstone; the body broken by heavy equipment; length 130.9 mm x width 74.2 mm x thickness 67.7 mm; distal end work diameter is 73.0 mm x 70.7 mm; wt. 830 grams 04-08-24 Lithic – thinning flakes 3 Obsidian; wt. 1.0 grams 04-08-25– Not assigned 04-8-29 04-8-30 Faunal/Mammal 1 2nd Thoracic vertebra frag,, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-8-31 Faunal/Mammal 1 right 7th rib fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-8-32 Faunal/Mammal 1 7th Thoracic vertebra body fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-8-33 Faunal/Mammal 1 long bone fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer
C-12 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-9 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-9
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-9-1 Shell 82 Cerithidea; wt. 46.7 grams 04-9-2 Shell 112 Ostrea lurida; wt. 35.3 grams 04-9-3 Shell 9 Mytilus edulis; wt. 2.1 grams 04-9-4 Faunal/Marine 1 Cancer claw (sp. ?); wt. 0.2 grams 04-9-5 Faunal 2 burnt faunal fragments, artiodactyl; wt. 0.7 grams 04-9-6 Lithic – pressure flake 1 Obsidian flake; wt. 0.2 grams 04-9-7 Shell 2 Penitella sp. (Boring Clam); wt. 0.2 grams 04-9-8 Shell 1 Balanus (barnacle); wt. 0.1 grams 04-9-9 Lithic – primary flakes 7 primary flakes, Monterey chert; wt. 12.3 grams 04-9-10 Lithic – primary flakes 2 red Franciscan chert; wt. 2.9 grams 04-9-11 Lithic – cortical flake 1 yellow Franciscan chert; wt. 12.7 grams 04-9-12 Lithic – thinning flakes 2 obsidian; wt. 0.2 grams 04-9-13 – 9-14 Not assigned 04-9-15 Faunal/Mammal 1 complete 1st phalanx, Buteo jamaicensis, Red- Tailed Hawk 04-9-16 Faunal/Mammal 1 skull fragment, left maxillary, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-9-17 Faunal/Mammal 1 long bone fragment, unidentified species 04-9-18 Faunal/Mammal 17 bone fragments, unidentified species 04-9-19 Faunal/Mammal 5 small mammal bone frags., squirrel or gopher? 04-9-20 Faunal/Mammal 1 abraded carpal, unidentified species
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-10 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-10
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-10-1 Shell 3 Cerithidea; wt. 1.6 grams 04-10-2 Shell 4 Ostrea lurida; wt. 13.6 grams 04-10-3 Faunal – marine 3 Cancer claws; wt. 0.7 grams
C-13 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-10 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-10 (continued)
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks
04-10-4 Lithic – primary flake 1 white chert fragment; wt. 0.6 grams 04-10-5 Modified cobble/ 1 Split and modified cobble of sandstone with a chopper sharp chopper like edge; exhibits flake scars, has some caliche deposit on one face; length 131.0 mm x width 102.8 mm x thickness 30.1 mm; edge length 122.1 mm; wt. 392.4 grams 04-10-6 Lithic – Biface Fragment with possible impact fracture of obsidian; impact fracture appears to be a lipped fracture, perpendicular to the axial length; length 19.2 mm x width 15.5 mm x thickness 7.7 mm; wt. 2.4 grams 04-10-7 Lithic – primary flakes 4 red Franciscan chert; wt. 21.2 grams 04-10-8 Lithic – primary flake 1 green Franciscan chert; wt. 7.1 grams 04-10-9 Not assigned 04-10-10 Faunal/Mammal 1 vertebra, possibly squirrel
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-11 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-11
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-11-1 Shell 18 Cerithidea; wt. 8.0 grams 04-11-2 Shell 45 Ostrea lurida; wt. 40.0 grams 04-11-3 Shell 4 Mytilus edulis; wt. 3.5 grams 04-11-4 Faunal – marine 2 Cancer claws; wt. 0.4 grams 04-11-5 Olivella Shell Bead Olivella – Type A1b medium spire-lopped bead; length 10.7 mm x max diameter 6.6 mm 04-11-6 Lithic- Cortical flake 1 Cortical flake, Monterey chert; wt 8.7 g 04-11-7 – 04-9 Not assigned 04-11-10 Faunal/Mammal 4 bone fragments, possibly squirrel 04-11-11 Faunal/Mammal 1 unidentified bone frag.
C-14 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-12 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-12
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-12-1 Shell 39 Cerithidea; wt. 19.9 grams 04-12-2 Shell 16 Ostrea lurida; wt. 22.1 grams 04-12-3 Shell 1 Mytilus edulis; wt. 0.3 grams 04-12-4 Faunal – marine 4 Cancer claws; wt. 0.8 grams 04-12-5 Faunal 1 Calcined faunal fragment (artiodactyl); wt. 2.2 grams 04-12-6 Boulder mortar 1 Hopper boulder mortar made on fragment of fragment boulder of basalt; unwashed for future processing of botanical and phytolith analyses; shallow well dia. = 10.6 cm, well depth = 8.8 mm, mortar length 23.2 cm x width 14.7 cm x height 13.6 cm; wt. 14.0 lbs 04-12-7 Lithic - Pebble core 1 Multi-face pebble core of Monterey chert; wt. 155.5 grams; length 56.9 mm x width 57.3 mm x thickness 44.4 mm 04-12-8 Lithic – primary flakes 2 green Franciscan chert; wt. 3.3 grams 04-12-9 Lithic – utilized flake 1 Monterey chert; EU is located along the upper right lateral edge ventral view, has a pot-lid from being exposed to heat; EU length 10.6 mm and exhibits rounding and unifacial nibbling; PEA range 28° to 30°, DEA 35° to 38°; probably used for whittling or scraping;; bulbar length 22.6 mm x width 22.0 mm x thickness 6.4 mm; wt. 2.6 grams 04-12-10 Lithic – bipolar 1 Black chert; wt. 1.5 grams primary flake 04-12-11 Lithic – cortical flake 1 Gray Franciscan chert; 0.8 grams 04-12-12 – 12-14 Not assigned 04-12-15 Faunal/Mammal 4 fragments, 7th Thoracic vertebra, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-12-16 Faunal/Mammal 5 long bone fragments, artiodactyl 04-12-17 Faunal/Mammal 1 left distal humerus, Odocoileus hemionus Black- tailed deer 04-12-18 Faunal/Mammal 5 bone fragments, squirrel 04-12-19 Faunal/Mammal 2 pieces of the 6th Lumbar vertebra, Enhydra lutris, Sea Otter
C-15 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-13 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-13
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-13-1 Lithic – primary flake 1 Green Franciscan chert; wt. 8.6 grams 04-13-2 Lithic – utilized flake 1 Red Franciscan chert; EU length 14.4 mm; slightly concaved on the right lateral edge dorsal view; exhibits nicking, nibbling and possible retouch; bulbar length 24.0 mm x 25.3 mm x 6.3 mm; PEA 30°-35°; DEA 51°-54°; wt. 4.1 grams 04-13-3 Small cobble mortar 1 Small hand held mortar fragment of sandstone, fragment with a proto well and pitting on one face, and a well on the other face; length 82.1 mm x width 73.8 mm x thickness 56.5 mm; diameter of well 53.4 mm, depth of well 17.3 mm; wt. 314.4 grams 04-13-4 Lithic - flake 1 Sandstone flake; wt. 36.1 grams. 04-13-5 – 13-9 Not assigned 04-13-10 Faunal/Mammal 7 fragments left innominate, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-13-11 Faunal/Mammal 1 right 8th proximal rib fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-13-12 Faunal/Mammal 1 8th Thoracic vertebra fragment, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-13-13 Faunal/Mammal 1 rib fragment, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk? 04-13-14 Faunal/Mammal 3 long bone fragments, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-13-15 Shell 4 Ostrea lurida 04-13-16 Shell 1 Cerithidea 04-13-17 Faunal/Marine 2 Cancer crab claw 04-13-18 Faunal/Mammal 1 long bone fragment, calcined, unidentified species 04-13-19 Faunal/Mammal 1 midshaft of left 7th rib, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-13-20 Faunal/Mammal 1 skull fragment, unidentified species
C-16 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-14 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-14
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-14-1 Shell 40 Cerithidea; wt. 15.3 grams 04-14-2 Shell 50 Ostrea lurida; wt. 17.8 grams 04-14-3 Shell 1 Penitella sp. (Boring Clam); wt. 0.1 grams 04-14-4 Shell 1 clam shell (sp. ?); wt. 0.6 grams 04-14-5 Shell 1 Balanus (barnacle); wt. 0.1 grams 04-14-6 Faunal – marine 1 Cancer claw; wt. 0.1 grams 04-14-7 Faunal 1 calcined bone (artiodactyl); wt. 0.6 grams 04-14-8 Lithic – primary flakes 3 red Franciscan chert; wt. 13.1 grams 04-14-9 Lithic – primary flake 1 green Franciscan chert; wt. 0.6 grams 04-14-10 Faunal 1 bone (artiodactyl); wt. 0.2 grams 04-14-11 Hopper mortar 1 Unshaped hopper mortar fragment made on a fragment boulder of sandstone; length 23 cm x width 15.9 cm x thickness 10.8 cm; worked diameter 12.8 cm x width 10.4 cm; depth of chord=7.6 mm; wt. 12 lbs 04-14-12- 14-14 Not assigned 04-14-15 Faunal/Mammal 1 right ecto-meso cuneiform, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-14-16 Faunal/Mammal 1 left scaphoid, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk, possibly roosevelti 04-14-17 Faunal/Mammal 3 long bone fragments, artiodactyl 04-14-18 Faunal/Mammal 2 long bone fragments, artiodactyl 04-14-19 Faunal/Mammal 2 bone fragments, rodent?
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-15 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-15
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-15-1 Shell 7 Cerithidea; wt. 2.4 grams 04-15-2 Shell 7 Ostrea lurida; wt. 6.4 grams 04-15-3 Faunal/Marine 6 Cancer claws; wt. 0.9 grams 04-15-4 Shell 1 Pectin (scallop) shell fragment; wt. 0.4 grams
C-17 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-15 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-15 (continued)
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks
04-15-5 Faunal 1 faunal fragment (artiodactyl); wt. 0.2 grams 04-15-6 Lithic – Exhausted core 1 Green Franciscan chert; length 22.8 mm x width 22.4 mm x thickness 21.3 mm; wt. 15.4 grams 04-15-7 Lithic – Exhausted core 1 Monterey chert; length 33.4 mm x width 26.1 mm x thickness 18.0 mm; wt. 18.3 grams 04-15-8 Lithic – primary flakes 2 Green Franciscan chert; wt. 6.5 grams 04-15-9 Lithic – primary flakes 5 Monterey chert; wt. 7.3 grams 04-15-10 Lithic -- shatter 3 shatter, red Franciscan chert; wt. 8.6 grams 04-15-11 Lithic – primary flake 1 Fragment gray Franciscan chert; wt 0.6 grams 04-15-12 Olivella Shell bead 1 Olivella shell Bead Type C2 split-drilled; is uni- conically drilled from the dorsal side, edge ground with no shelf, length 10.1 mm x 9.2 mm curvature is 3.2 mm, perforation diameter= 1.9 mm; wt. 0.1 grams; 04-15-13 – Not assigned 12-14 04-15-15 Faunal/Mammal 1 mid shaft meta carpal (cannon bone), Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-15-16 Faunal/Mammal 1 meta carpal frag., juvenile, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-15-17 Faunal/Mammal 7 long bone frags., mammal 04-15-18 Faunal/Bird 1 rib fragment, unidentified species 04-15-19 Faunal/Mammal 1 long bone fragment, large mammal
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-16 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-16
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-16-1 Shell 1 Penitella sp. (Boring Clam); wt. 0.3 grams 04-16-2 – 16-9 Not assigned 04-16-10 Human 4 fragments, Ilium
C-18
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-16 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-16 (continued)
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-16-11 Faunal/Mammal 5 fragments 13th Thoracic vertebra (body), Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-16-12 Faunal/Mammal 2 fragments, 11th Thoracic vertebra (body), Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-16-13 Faunal/Mammal 1 3rd Lumbar (articular facet), Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-16-14 Faunal/Mammal 3 fragments 12th Thoracic vertebra, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-16-15 Faunal/Mammal 3 fragments 10th Thoracic vertebra, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-16-16 Faunal/Mammal 1 left 10th rib proximal fragment, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-16-17 Faunal/Mammal 7 fragments vertebral, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-16-18 Faunal/Mammal 1 phalange, burnt (size of Mt. Lion) unidentified
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/2/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-17/18 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-17/18
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-17/18-1 Shell 6 Cerithidea; wt. 2.4 grams 04-17/18-2 Shell 5 Ostrea lurida; wt. 4.4 grams 04-17/18-3 Shell 3 Mytilus edulis; wt. 0.5 grams 04-17/18-4 Shell 2 Penitella sp. (Boring Clam); wt. 0.2 grams 04-17/18-5 Faunal/Marine 5 Cancer claws; wt. 1.1 grams 04-17/18-6 Faunal 3 faunal bone fragments, of which one is burned, artodactyle ; wt. 1.3 grams 04-17/18-7 Lithic – Biface tip 1 Red Franciscan chert; possible dart point; length 26.7 mm x width 20.2 mm x thickness 9.6 mm; wt. 5.1 grams 04-17/18-8 Lithic – bladelet 1 white chert; wt. 1.1 grams
C-19 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/2/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-17/18 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-17/18 (continued)
04-17/18-9 Lithic – primary flakes 2 Monterey chert; 6.4 grams 04-17/18-10 Lithic – thinning flake 1 Monterey chert; 0.4 grams 04-17/18-11 Lithic – utilized flake 1 (bladelet) white chert; located along the right lateral edge ventral view; exhibits unifacial nibbling, nicking, and rounding – possibly used for scraping; bulbar length 38.1 mm x width 12.9 mm x thickness 3.4 mm. EU length 24.5 mm; PEA is 28° to 36°; DEA is 56° to 61°; wt. 1.4 grams 04-17/18-12 - Not assigned 17/18-14 04-17/18-15 Faunal/Mammal 1 left 6th rib fragment (proximal), Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-17/18-16 Faunal/Bird 3 left radius fragments, Aqulia chrysaetos Golden Eagle 04-17/18-17 Faunal/Mammal 1 cannon bone fragment, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk 04-17/18-18 Faunal/Mammal 1 long bone fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/2/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-19 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-19
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-19-1 Shell 8 Cerithidea; wt. 2.6 grams 04-19-2 Shell 37 Ostrea lurida; wt. 31.4 grams 04-19-3 Shell 2 Mytilus edulis; wt. 0.5 grams 04-19-4 Faunal/Marine 2 Cancer claws; wt. 0.2 grams 04-19-5 Faunal/Mammal 8 bone and teeth (artiodactyl tooth broken), bone calcined; wt. 2.1 grams 04-19-6 – 19-9 Not assigned 04-19-10 Faunal/Mammal 7 fragments long bone, unidentified species 04-19-11 Faunal/Mammal 1 midshaft, unidentified species
C-20 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/3/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-20 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-20
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-20-1 Shell 14 Cerithidea; wt. 5.7 grams 04-20-2 Shell 215 Ostrea lurida; wt. 146.8 grams 04-20-3 Shell 55 Mytilus edulis; wt. 20.1 grams 04-20-4 Faunal/Mammal 3 faunal bone fragments, one calcined; wt. 0.8 grams 04-20-5 Lithics – Thinning 1 Thinning flake, Monterey chert; wt. 0.6 grams flake 04-20-6 Boulder mortar 1 Mortar – medium sized boulder mortar fragment fragment of indurated sandstone; looks like it’s been reworked after broken, mortar fragment was shifted from remaining well to create a new well perpendicular to the original well, reused well or reworked dia. of reused well length 13.6 cm x width 12.7 cm and shows some evidence of beveling reused well depth 7.3 cm; unwashed for future analyzes of botanical and phytoliths; length 23.1 cm x width 14.6 cm x height 20.9, well depth = 15.4 cm; wt. 12.5 lbs 04-20-7 Soil Mortar soil (recovered 8/17/04) 04-20-8 Lithic – Pebble core 1 Red Franciscan chert; very thermally affected, and thermal spalled; length 46.5 mm x width 44.8 mm x thickness 39.8 mm; wt. 80.9 grams, 04-20-9 Lithic – core fragment 1 Red Franciscan chert; length 35.9 mm x width 25.9 mm x thickness 16.7 mm; wt. 18.2 grams 04-20-10 Faunal/Mammal 3 fragments, left ulna, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-20-11 Faunal/Mammal 1 right scapula fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-20-12 Faunal/Mammal 1 right scapula fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-20-13 Faunal/Mammal 1 distal radius?, unidentified species 04-20-14 Faunal/Mammal 1 left distal femur (later condyl ( fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-20-15 Faunal/Mammal 1 Ischium fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black- tailed deer 04-20-16 Faunal/Mammal 1 undetermined element 04-20-17 Faunal/Mammal 2 fragments, proximal tibia fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer
C-21 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/3/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-21 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-21
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-21-1 Shell 21 Cerithidea; wt. 9.1 grams 04-21-2 Shell 22 Ostrea lurida; wt. 6.9 grams 04-21-3 Shell 1 Mytilus edulis; wt. 0.2 grams 04-21-4 Shell 1 Haliotis cracherodii; wt. 7.4 grams; unmodified 04-21-5 Faunal/Marine 2 Cancer claws; wt. 0.4 grams 04-21-6 Lithic – primary flakes 2 red Franciscan chert; wt. 2.4 grams 04-21-7 Lithic – Core fragment 1 Monterey chert; length 42.6 mm x width 22.3 mm x thickness 15.6 grams; wt. 10.3 grams 04-21-8 Worked Bone/Tool 1 Distal end of a bone awl/hair pin; length 51.5 mm x width 10.3 mm x thickness 5.7 mm; wt. 3.0 grams 04-21-9 Not assigned 04-21-10 Faunal/Fish 1 skull fragment, unidentified fish 04-21-11 Faunal/Mammal 1 left (medial) distal cannon bone fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-21-12 Faunal/Mammal 1 vertebra body fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-21-13 Faunal/Bird Long bone fragment, unidentified species 04-21-14 Faunal/Mammal 1 antler fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black- tailed deer 04-21-15 Faunal/Mammal 1 unidentifiable fragment, (Mt. Lion tibia?)
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/2/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-22A Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-22A Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-22A-1 Shell 3 Cerithidea; wt. 1.4 grams 04-22A-2 Shell 51 Ostrea lurida; wt. 60.8 grams 04-22A-3 Shell 6 Mytilus edulis; wt. 1.8 grams 04-22A-4 Shell 2 Penitella sp. (Boring Clam); wt. 0.4 grams 04-22A-5 Unmodified cobble 1 Unmodified cobble and rock material sample 04-22A-10 Faunal/Mammal 1 complete 7th Thoracic vertebra, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 04-22A-11 Faunal/Mammal 3 long bone fragments, mole
C-22 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/2/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-22B Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-22B
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-22B-1 Shell 1 Cerithidea; wt. <0.1 grams 04-22B-2 Shell 1 Ostrea lurida; wt. 0.5 grams 04-22B-3 – 22B- Not assigned 9 04-22B-10 Faunal/Bird 1 rib(?) fragment, unidentified species
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SMA-287 Date: 9/2/09 Level/Stratum: Burial 04-23 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-23
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-23-1 Shell 12 Cerithidea; wt. 7.5 grams 04-23-2 Shell 21 Ostrea lurida; wt. 7.2 grams 04-23-3 Shell 5 Penitella sp. (Boring Clam); wt. 0.6 grams 04-23-4 Faunal/Mammal 2 bone fragments; wt. 0.7 grams 04-23-5 Lithic – primary flakes 2 Monterey chert flake fragment; wt. 4.3 grams 04-23-6 – 23-9 Not assigned 04-23-10 Faunal/Mammal 1 lower left canine tooth, Canis latrans Coyote 04-23-11 Faunal/Mammal 5 small fragments, unidentified species
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SMA-287 Date: Level/Stratum: Burial 04-24 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-24 Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks
C-23 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SMA-287 Date: Level/Stratum: Burial 04-24 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Reference No.: 04-24 (continued)
04-24-1 Boulder mortar 1 Boulder Mortar fragment – unwashed, vesicular fragment basalt, ½ mortar, broken prior to excavation, second half not recovered; inner well beveled from use with pestle, mortar unwashed for future botanical and phytolith analyses; length 28.6 cm x width 12.2 cm x height 12.2 cm, well depth 14.3 cm dia. of outer well is 20.4 cm dia of inner well 18.1 cm, wt. 14 lbs 04-24-2 Soil 1 gallon bag soil sample, associated with mortars and possible ground stone (recovered 11/15/04) 04-24-3 Pecked cobble 1 rounded pecked cobble made of indurated sandstone with pecked surface on rounded surface; exhibits slight unifacial pecking on rounded surface; length 19.8 cm x width 14.8 cm x height 6.8 cm, wt. 2700 grams (2.7 kg) 04-24-4 Cobble with slight 1 rectanguloid cobble of indurated sandstone with polish possible polish on flat surface; length 18.3 cm x width 15.3 x height 8.6 cm, wt. 2520 grams (2.52 kg) 04-24-5 Cobble core 1 Cobble core of red jasper that was thermally annealed; core made from coble of jasper with many stress flaws, exhibits many points of detachment; length 71.4 mm x width 69.3 mm x height 36.2 mm, wt. 180.3 grams 04-24-6 Lithic –primary flake Bipolar Red Franciscan chert; wt. 11.0 grams
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: East of Burial 7, E end of Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Hole 3, Isolates Reference No.: 04-30
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-30-1 Faunal/Mammal 1 left 11th rib (distal segment), Enhydra lutris Sea Otter
C-24 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: East of Burial 7, E end of Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Hole 3,Isolates Reference No.: 04-31
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 04-31-1 Shell 4 Cerithidea; wt. 2.2 grams 04-31-2 Shell 7 Ostrea lurida; wt. 0.5 grams 04-31-3 31-4 Not assigned 04-31-5 Faunal/Mammal 1 rib fragment, Bos? Cow? 04-31-6 Faunal/Bird 1 right ulna (proximal) fragment, Buteo lineatus, Red-Shouldered Hawk
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Hole 3, east end, east of burial 7 Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Isolates Reference No.: 32
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 32-1 Lithic – primary flake 1 Monterey chert; wt. 1.2 grams 32-2 Faunal/Mammal 3 fragments rib (distal end), Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 32-3 Faunal/Mammal 1 antler fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black- tailed deer 32-4 Faunal/Mammal 5 fragments femur (midshaft), Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Hole 3, central eastside Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Isolates Reference No.: 04-33
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 33-1 Shell 1 Ostrea lurida; wt. 0.1 grams 33-2 Faunal/Mammal 1 anterior segment of a manubrium, Cervus elaphus nannodes Tule Elk (possibly roosevelti?)
C-25 ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: 4th Tee Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Isolates Reference No.: 34
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 34-1 Worked bone (possible Worked bone fragment; length 50.1 mm x width pendant?) 6.8 mm x thickness 4.6 mm; wt. 1.5g. 34-2 Faunal/Mammal 2 long bone fragments, calcined, unidentified 34-3 Faunal/Mammal Unidentifiable fragments, mammal
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Hole 3 – East Side Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Isolates Reference No.: 35
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 35-1 Cobble mortar Cobble mortar fragment sandstone; length 166 mm fragment x width 118.5 mm x thickness 55.5 mm; well diameter present is 92.2 mm, depth of well 23.8 mm; wt. 1304 grams 35-2 Lithic – primary flake 1 Fragment of red Franciscan chert; wt. 3.1 grams 35-3 Faunal/Mammal 1 left talus fragment, immature, Bos? or Elk? 35-4 Faunal/Mammal 1 unidentifiable fragment
ARTIFACT RECORD CATALOG Site No.: CA-SCL-287 Date: 9/1/09 Level/Stratum: Recorder: Leventhal/DiGiuseppe Coordinates: Isolates Reference No.: 36
Catalogue No. Artifact Type Remarks 36-1 Faunal/Mammal 1 right ilium fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 36-2 Faunal/Mammal 1 right pubis fragment, Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed deer 36-3 Faunal/Mammal 4 long bone fragmentsOdocoileus hemionus Black- tailed deer
C-26
C-27
APPENDIX D
DATING REPORT FROM NSF-ARIZONA AMS LABORATORY
APPENDIX E
REBURIAL FORMS