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Regulating the and the Xin: Xu Wei (1521-1593) and his Military Patrons

Kathleen Ryor Carleton College

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Recommended Citation Ryor, Kathleen. "Regulating the Qi and the Xin: Xu Wei (1521-1593) and his Military Patrons." Archives of Asian Art, 54, no.1 (2004): 23-33. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20111314. Accessed via Faculty Work. Art and Art History. Carleton Digital Commons. https://digitalcommons.carleton.edu/ arth_faculty/1 The definitive version is available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/20111314

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Art and Art History at Carleton Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Work by an authorized administrator of Carleton Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Regulating the Qi and the Xin: Xu Wei (i 521-1593) and his Military Patrons*

Kathleen Ryor Carleton College

IVlany historians have viewed sixteenth-century research has shown, hereditary military officials wielded a on at positively as a period in which market economy devel considerable power both the battlefield and court.6 were oped, Confucian thought expanded through the influence In addition, many eminent civil officials intimately matters ofWangYangming and his followers, and increased social concerned with and often specialized in military careers. mobility altered power relations.1 It has also has been viewed during the course of their Although these recent as the great age of Chinese vernacular literature and as a studies in the field of military history have suggested that century of vitality in painting and calligraphy2 The polit military officials were, in fact, figures of consequence in ical system, on the other hand, has been characterized as Ming society, the ways in which powerful military figures corrupt and paralyzed by bitter factional struggles.3 may have participated in the cultural practices of civil offi However bleak this picture of the imperial court and the cials have not been examined. civil bureaucracy, scholars have traditionally held that Since the boundaries between civil and military society were more conven China's military power was then even less effective and that during the late Ming permeable than us to a the prestige of the military in Chinese society was then at tional historical narratives have led believe, detailed its lowest point in history4As the military historian Kenneth examination of the types of social and professional inter as a a new Swope has observed, the late Ming has been viewed actions between civil and military officials may offer on art. period when "the pen really was mightier than the sword," perspective the social history of Art-historical on in other words, wen predominated over wu.s Yet during the scholarship literati painting and its patronage during second half of the sixteenth century China fought four the latter part of the has thus far emphasized as major military campaigns along three borders. As recent the considerable fluidity of social boundaries mostly it

i. ink on w. cm. Museum Fig. Xu Wei (i521-1593) Flowers and Plants. China. Handscroll; paper; h. 37 cm, 149 (photograph courtesy of James Cahill).

23 obtained in the relations between civil officials and mer itary strategies and wrote a detailed record of a major chants.7 But in a further and noteworthy instance of this campaign as well as songs of victory.11 His reputation for social fluidity, members of the literati?men who partici literary talent, which had helped him secure work as a pated in the civil-service examination system and engaged professional writer and teacher in his native , in scholarship and the arts?became increasingly involved brought him to the attention of Supreme Commander Hu in military affairs and pursued careers as military strate Zongxian whose private secretary he became in 1557.12 gists, and at the same time hereditary military officials Hu's jurisdiction encompassed Nan Zhili, , engaged in the same acquisition of civil cultural capital as , and , a region whose coastal areas were merchants and other socially "disadvantaged" but eco being ravaged by the wo kou pirates in the 1550s. Part of nomically privileged individuals outside the literati class. Xu's job was to devise military strategy for Hu's campaigns This study will examine the case of the artist Xu Wei against the wo kou. Because these pirate raids devastated (i 521-1593), a renowned figure in late Ming art and liter the target areas and challenged the central government, ature, who also worked for military officials as a profes major operations were mounted to suppress them, for sional writer and military strategist. Specifically, it exam which Hu recruited several talented hereditary military ines his relationship with several military figures: Supreme officials as well as civil officials.13 As one of Hu's staff, Xu Commander Hu Zongxian, General Xu Ximeng, and Li Wei met leading writers and officials who were interested Rusong, son of General Li Chengliang, Earl of Ningyuan. in military strategy, such as Tang Shunzhi, Mao Kun, and Xu Wei participated in the tradition of literati painting Shen Mingchen.14 called xieyi (sketching the idea).Works such as his famous In 1557 Hu Zongxian intensified efforts to control the handscroll of flowers and plants in the Nanjing Museum coastal piracy plaguing the region, and itwas then that Xu (Fig. 1) have been read almost exclusively as embodiments Wei joined his staff In the third month on the fourteenth of untrammeled self-expression. Although Xu did indeed day, Hu Zongxian commissioned Xu Wei to write the text articulate theories of art and literature that emphasized that commemorated all officials and troops who had died immediate self-expression as the primary purpose of cre in battle with the pirates.15 At the end of the year, Xu ative he also for the went to Hu office in to write activity, produced paintings primarily 4 Zongxian's Hangzhou art market and for Xu Wei's various to to men in private patrons. pro joined" style visiting cards send of rank the on com fessional activities and collected writings shed light on the capital behalf of his employer.16 That assignment participation of hereditary military officials in the arts and pleted, he resigned and went home to Shaoxing, but after thus expand our understanding of art production and New Year 1558 Hu summoned Xu Wei again.17 Two patronage during the second half of the sixteenth century. white deer had been captured, a doe and a stag?auspi Although Xu s relations with military patrons may prove cious omens that were particularly welcome to the to have been exceptionally intimate, his example suggests emperor during this troubled time. Xu was ordered to the potential of further inquiry into this neglected aspect draft two memorials about these omens to present to the of Ming art history. throne. They were sent to the Chancellor of the , Dong Bin, who vetted all memorials and sent XU WEI'S EARLY CAREER AS A PRIVATE those approved on to the throne.18 Xu Wei's text SECRETARY AND MILITARY STRATEGIST impressed not only Dong but also the . Concurrently Xu was also advising Hu on military strate Although Xu Wei obtained the zhusheng degree in 1540, gy and training.19 His tenure in this service continued for a he failed in eight attempts to pass the higher-level provin five years, period of professional recognition and eco cial examinations. Like many sixteenth-century literati (wen nomic stability that ended only with his mental break ren)without the provincial-level civil service degree (juren), down and imprisonment in 1565. Xu Wei earned his living by engaging in a variety of occu Xu's fortunes rose after 1558, and in 1560 he received 220 pations in addition to the literati activities of painting and taels of silver from Hu Zongxian for writing the was calligraphy. Among his extra-literati pursuits employ Zhenhai Lou fi (Record of the Zhenhai Tower).20'With this ment as an aide to military officials and as a strategist. In money he purchased ten mu of land in the southeastern the third month of 1553, the wo kou pirates launched a part of Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province, and there built a concentrated offensive on the Zhejiang coast near Xu's large house called the Hall of Remuneration forWords.21 was hometown of Shaoxing. At this time Xu composed many In the fall of 1561 Hu Zongxian put in temporary poems commenting on the defects of the local defense charge of the military defense in Jiangxi Province to repel and the heroism of various individuals.8 During the next a bandit invasion. At the end of the year Xu Wei answered two years Xu Wei served the army of Yu Dayou andWu Hu's summons to come to Jiangxi to advise him on mili summer to Chengqi9 in their campaign against the pirates at Keting.10 tary strategy.22 Spring and brought pirate raids He worked with the poet Wang Yin to revise certain mil the Fujian coast, part of Hu Zongxian's region of com

24 to as man of tal mand, and Xu left travelling to join Hu. Not long refers L? the quintessential unrecognized ent and that after, Hu Zongxian was arrested as amember of the clique and therefore unrealized ambitions, suggests are surrounding the notorious and corrupt Grand Secretary Lus frustrations the wellspring of his poetry's strength. men careers or mil Song, who had fallen from power six months previ In writing about with military strong a to the distinctive and ously.23 Though Hu was exonerated by the emperor few itary interests, Xu tended extol pos or months later, Xu was left without permanent employ itive aspects of their artistic interests talents while as as ment. He worked briefly and unsuccessfully a private asserting their legitimacy participants in traditional secretary to Minister of Rites Li Chunfang in ,24 literati culture. returning home to Shaoxing in the winter of 1564. A few months after, a protege of Hu Zongxian was executed. XU WEI AND LATEMING VIEWS Found among his confiscated possessions was a letter from OF CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS son Hu asking him to present a bribe to the profligate of are Yan Song. This letter was used as evidence of Hu The L? brothers examples of members of the Zhejiang Zongxian's corruption. He was arrested in the tenth literati class who engaged in literary pursuits while active month and died in jail, apparently a suicide. Hu's death in ly participating in military defense and other aspects of was prison and his own failure to come to Hu's defense military culture. Xu Wei also intimately connected as plunged Xu Wei into a period of madness in which he with high-ranking hereditary military figures such Qi mutilated himself and killed his third wife. Xu's subse Jiguang andYu Dayou, who became patrons of his poetry, quent imprisonment and chronic bouts of mental and painting, and calligraphy. The interconnection of activities one physical illness prevented him from holding any further in spheres usually considered distinct from another? extended employment. scholar-officialdom and the military?is clearly articulated text on Although there are no extant paintings or textual records by Xu Wei in his military theory, entitled Zhi Qi of paintings made by Xu for the individuals whom he Zhi Xin (Regulatingthe Qi and theXiri): encountered while in Hu service, numerous a a Zongxian's When they spoke of generals in ancient times, scholar and written Xu to these individuals survive. were one a a were poems by general [person]. Since general and scholar were Moreover, during this period Xu also wrote many poems to one, regulating the qi (physical energy) and the xin (mind) one. When of and scholars are the renowned Qi andYu who both they speak generals today, generals generals Jiguang Dayou, are two [different types of people]. Since generals and scholars belonged to hereditary military families.25 The deep inter two [different types of people], in regulating the qi and the xin, est local literati in coastal defense, many expressed military those who rouse it up and are resolute are generals, and those who Xu's strategy and martial culture is also illustrated by rela do not rouse it up and are not resolute are scholars. It's a pity? tionship with two cousins of L? Guangxun, the Regional Sunzi knew how to regulate his qi and xin and how to unite them.30 The xin the and the the Inspector of and Songjiang and later Minister of Why? regulating qi qi following xin is one thing.31 War and a native of the neighboring city of Xinchang, was a wen are Zhejiang.26 The elder brother, L? Guangsheng, poet For Xu Wei, the scholar and the general, and urn, and calligrapher who fought in the campaigns against the optimally not separate types. Whereas conventionally the wo kou. Records describe the younger brother, L? xin, or mind, is seen as the scholar's domain, and qi, or Guangwu, as a "knight-errant" who also participated in the physical energy, as the locus of military talent, Xu pro defense of the coast.27 Both brothers engaged in literary motes the unity of things associated with the mind with exchange and sword collecting with Xu Wei, although L? their physical implementation. In this text Xu argues that Guangsheng appears to have had the more serious interest the concerns of the scholar and the general are not mutu in poetry.28 In a preface to L? Guangsheng's collected ally exclusive. He may have written Zhi Qi Zhi Xin to jus works, Xu extolled both Lus connection with orthodox tify his involvement, as a literary man, in military affairs, models of poetry and the powerful qualities of his poetry: but other of his texts more explicitly demonstrate the reverse: men the arts. As for his poems, those in ancient style imitate the Han and Wei military actively pursuing Xu Wei was not alone in the dynasties, and the most modern follow the Tang; everyone knows observing civil-military this. His serious poems are mysterious and untrammelled, and his dichotomy as it existed during the Ming. In A Plan for the verses with have a noble also ordinary topics spirit; everyone Prince, ten years after the fall of the dynasty, Huang Zongxi know this. Shanren [L?] harbors extraordinary talent, has deep (i610-1695) observed: strategies, and bravely looks at his ambition and responsibilities; a so however, he does not have chance to realize them, he lives in Beginning with the Tang and Song dynasties, civil and military a or as a were two the mountains. This is like tiger leopard being treated official differentiated along separate paths. Nevertheless, deer; everyone may not know this.This is why his poems have the in filling official posts, whether in the Chief Military Commission or above characteristics.29 in provincial government and army commands, civil officials were intermixed with military. Only in the Ming were the two Xu's preface praises Lus art as truly descended from definitely separated and not mixed....if soldier and scholar are orthodox models and Xu Wei also one powerfully expressive. brought together in profession, the scholar would realize that

25 not military classics and battle tactics do lie outside his province; of a the moment, reputation whose consequent social and he would learn that are not studying them, they completely financial bled him man obligations dry. impractical subjects. The military would learn that personal concern Toward the "Literati Who for the ruler and love of the people are the basis of mil opposite phenomenon, are Discuss a more itary service, and that crudeness and violence not to be mis Military Affairs," Shen adopts laudatory taken for ability....32 tone:

Since the Jiajing era, famous gentlemen like Aide to the Censor in to the demise of the Huang, writing part explain Ming, in-Chief Tang Jingchuan [Shunzhi], Grand Secretary Zhao to echoes Xu's observation that during the Ming scholars Dazhou [Zhenji], and Aide the Censor-in-Chief Zhao Jungu were were all Confucians and were the and generals two different types of people.33 [Shichun]39 great respected by literati of their generation. They all concentrated on Notwithstanding the predominance of that opinion, military affairs but began in the literary sphere. They lent distinction to the other writers of theWanli era (i 572-1620) describe men in literati [because of their interest in military affairs]. ...Others, such whom civil and are united. In his Wanli Ye as military pursuits First Graduate Shen Shaolin [Mouxue] and Minister of Rites are Huo Bian (Random Gatherings of theWanli Era) of 1606, Dong Bonian [Sicheng], famous in the arts, but they also were fond of matters.40 Shen Defu (1578-1642) writes about both "Military Men discussing military Who Are Devoted to Literature" and "Literati Who Discuss Military Affairs." In the former entry, Shen describes the Men of literary talent who took a serious interest in the interest in poetry of hereditary military officials: military receive Shen's praise. Even the military men who were fond of literature are for men In this dynasty military officials are able to be men of letters... and approved employing as to with talent like Xu Wei they have reputations poets. They only [compose poetry] literary who thereupon immersed amuse not erect themselves and do dare banners and halberds in themselves in military affairs. This essay concludes with arts. era the halls of the During the Jiajing (1522-1567) in the the end of an official who was vain of his lit were ignominious southeast pirates troublesome and ablaze with rebellion. The erary and military abilities, but that tale only seems to cau favored officials Hu Zongxian and Zhao Wenhua ...received men tion civil officials credit for suc of literary ability and filled the "Lofty Hall" with them.34 Hu against taking military men cesses that are not In employed the Zhejiang Xu Wei, Shen Mingchen, and Zhao theirs. contrast, Shen ends "Military Desong....35 They all had extraordinary talents and received gen Men Who Are Devoted to Literature," with a picture of erous payment [for their service]. They completely absorbed as the frontier a place where fortunes are made by the themselves in the world of the military. lowest sorts of people: Since the ...defense in the northwest became During the Longqing (1567?1573) and Wanli eras Qi Jiguang was Longqing era, for the all doctors and a renowned general of Jimen. At that time, Wang Taihan (Daokun) relaxed; ...except "recluses," fortunetellers, as a and held and Wang Hezhou (Shizhen)36 praised him literary talent. astrologers physiognomists [low-status occupations] letters of recommendation and returned home from the frontier Consequently, Qi took himself very seriously and considered a a with their satisfied. When I was I himself person with high degree of literary skill. ...He claimed [financial] expectations young, own used to see a servant in household who was an in mas his literary territory that differed from that of the gentry, and my expert on travel to Xuanfu and obtain two hundred in people who called themselves recluses made claims him in sage jin payment. This was a state of affairs.41 society. These "recluses" filled the borders and cities; consequent already strange was ly his income not sufficient to satisfy these people's requests. became with the but was Eventually Qi disgusted situation, Shen Defu's accounts clearly attest the participation of unable to put an end to it. literati in military affairs and the avidity of some military men for literary reputations; he also asserts that the two Shen Defu gives as a further example the Supreme groups were by no means equally successful in each other's Commander of , Xiao Ruxun, who also consid spheres. He describes men of letters as having genuine a man same ered himself literary and had the problem success in managing military affairs, whereas the literary with "recluses" plaguing him for poems and other favors.37 reputations of hereditary military officials were owing Shen ends this entry saying, "As for military officials who largely to the lack of discrimination among frontier audi are ences. devoted to literature, they bring calamity upon them Although Shen mentions only the efforts by mili selves in this way."38 Shen is clearly poking fun at high tary officials to establish themselves as poets, he makes as ranking military officials who cultivate reputations plain their eagerness for the social prestige accruing to men poets. He suggests that like Qi Jiguang and Xiao general artistic or scholarly accomplishments or to a rep Ruxun let their literary ambitions make them targets for utation for discriminating patronage. It is thus not surpris two moochers. While granting that noted literati of the ing to find that Xu Wei's military patrons requested not day,Wang Daokun andWang Shizhen, praised Qi's poetry, only his poetry but works of painting and calligraphy as Shen finds his literary fame only good for attracting spu well. rious "recluses" who parasitically clamored for his writing and largesse. His criticism of Xiao Ruxun goes further, implying that only fickle taste proclaimed Xiao the talent

26 XU'S MILITARY PATRONS INHIS LATER CAREER about it,"47 the artist compares shoots, a culinary specialty of southern China, with literati bamboo painting: Even there is little evidence that offi resem though very military At North of the Pass, they are pure and mouth-watering, or from him dur cials commissioned painting calligraphy bling the elder Su 's,48 can ing his period of participation in the coastal defense and On the impoverished frontier, how I obtain bamboo shoots his association with Hu Xu Wei had established to cook on a stove? Zongxian, one can I have heard that quench thirst by squeezing plum a network of contacts within the military that professional seeds, would later his career as a and am a help painter calligrapher. For this reason, I sketching the "dragon's grandson" with his in After release from prison 1573 his only salaried posi "great minister." tions were brief appointments as a private secretary to mil itary officials. Thus his opportunities for artistic patronage In this poem Xu Wei implies that his painting of bamboo often came from the close circles of high-ranking civil and shoots is as good as one by the great Song literati painter hereditary appointees to the army. In 1576, a few years Su and that his representation of them might satisfy his after his release from prison, Xu received an offer of hunger for them on the frontier, where they are unavail employment in Xuanfu, one of the important strategic able. The second couplet makes that meaning explicit. In posts on the northern frontier.42 Two of the people most the last line two metaphors describe the specific subject prominently associated with his painting production were matter of the painting?"dragon's grandson" is another hereditary military officials whom he met during this name for a bamboo shoot, "great minister" (daifu) is anoth er name period. Contrary to conventional, literati-inspired notions for the pine tree. Since Xu Ximeng had present about military officials as unrefined and uncultivated men ed bamboo shoots to Xu Wei, the pine tree may have been of action, these were also the persons with whom Xu most a visual metaphor for the general himself. often discussed his views on art. Bamboo appears to have been the sole subject matter One of these individuals was Circuit General Xu that Xu Wei painted for Xu Ximeng and other military on Ximeng.43 From the poems inscribed by Xu Wei paint officials at Xuanfu, perhaps because of the motif's wide ings he did for this general, it is clear that the general was range as a signifier. Because bamboo symbolized the vir supporting Xu Wei in exchange for paintings. Since they tuous scholar-official, it had long been quintessential had close social relations, Xu Wei also produced occasion literati subject matter. Xu Wei expanded the semantic al paintings for Xu Ximeng, which were usually obligato range of bamboo, using it to refer to rare food commodi ry and for which he was directly or indirectly compensat ties, literati painting, the relationship between patron and ed. Poems such as "Sketching Bamboo to Respond to artist, and even to symbolize the birth of sons. Clearly Circuit General Xu's New Year's Gift" and "Painting bamboo painting could serve a variety of social functions. Bamboo Shoots to Present to Xu Koubei on the Birth of General Xu Ximeng may also have been an art collec His Son" demonstrate the conventional use of paintings as tor. In his preface to a poem entitled "Painting with Xu," "gifts" in return for other "gifts" received, which were XuWei states that"Xu [Ximeng] often allowed me to copy often commodities or money.44 All of the paintings done a painting by Wang Meng (i308-1385)."49 Much of Xu for General Xu in Xuanfu respond specifically to gifts of Wei's correspondence with Xu Ximeng reveals the gener a a food. In poem written on painting depicting bamboo, al's serious interest in painting and poetry. In these letters Xu Wei clearly indicates the use of the painting as repay the artist discusses his theories about the nature and func ment for a New Year s gift of various comestibles: tion of art and poetry and about the process of artistic cre ation.50 The best of should be "like water A meal of soup, carp, rice and millet, type poetry icy to down the back"?Xu Wei writes this in Thinking deeply, wanting repay the debt; poured response a Only settling for useless visiting card, to a collection of poetry that Xu Ximeng has sent him. In Sketched bamboo as reimbursement. 45 acting painting or poetry these letters advocate an unpretentious plainness, presumably a quality that would have appealed to In this inscription, the artist does not make bamboo a flat his military patrons. In a letter that discusses a painting of tering symbol of the recipient's noble character. His empha bamboo executed for the general, Xu Wei praises simplici on as a sis the painting form of payment is not unusual in ty and informality. He suggests that his bamboo painting his oeuvre and reflects Xu's self-consciousness about the reflects these qualities and that Xu Ximeng is the type of man function of many of the works that he produced.46 who appreciates direct artistic expression. Xu Wei fur on A poem inscribed another painting of bamboo also ther ridicules aristocrats who play at being martial by dress focuses on the food item being offered to the artist. In this ing in furs and riding horses, but surround themselves with poem, whose headnote reads, "Painting bamboo shoots to opulent creature comforts.51 The artistic activities of a rel send as a present to Circuit General Xu?At North of the atively obscure figure like Circuit General Xu Ximeng, as Pass, Xu once tempted me with bamboo shoots, so I jest revealed in Xu Wei's poems and letters, support Shen

27 vQ-tf

? -? I 4t ?I rt?

2. on Fig. Xu Wei. Colophon to Painting Bamboo for Li Changgong. China. Handscroll; ink paper. Qing Wan Society Collection, Taipei.

Defu's picture of military men on the northern frontier Rusong's interest in painting appears to have initiated his engaging in literary pursuits and expand it by showing that friendship with Xu. Xu's letters to Li contain a great deal they were also interested in painting. of discussion about art and literature.56 Xu Wei's relation Xu Wei's most important patron throughout his late ship with Li Rusong also continued long past the two years was one of the most powerful military figures of the years in which they lived in the same area. Even after Xu late sixteenth century, Li Rusong.52 Xu, on his way to returned south to Shaoxing, Li provided economic sup Xuanfu in 1576, passed through Beijing and met Li, form port, ranging from food, clothing, materials for writing ing a friendship that lasted until the end of Xu's life. Li and painting, and money to a job for his youngest son, Xu Rusong descended from a hereditary military family in Zhi, who went to work for Li Rusong in 1588. Liaodong and eventually succeeded to the title of earl that Concrete evidence of the type of economic support had been bestowed upon his father, General Li that Li provided for Xu appears in a poem whose head Chengliang. At this time the Li family enjoyed the per note reads, "On the fifth day of the fifth month, Li sonal support of Grand Secretary Changgong of Liaodong sent wine and five Hang (taels) of (1525?1582) and of theWanli emperor, who invested Li silver; so I sketched bamboo shoots to answer him and am Chengliang and his sons with titles and responsibilities writing this on it": never before officials.53Not enjoyed by hereditary military Five thousand cash is sealed in a military tally,57 the Li and surprisingly, family, combining great power On its arrival, calling to exchange [it] for fermented authority along the northern frontiers with overall disdain rice for me;58 On I not for Confucian sensibilities, made many enemies.54Records becoming drunk, respond by sketching one thing, written by court officials describe Li Rusong as undisci Completely lopped-off bamboo shoots sent to arrogant to civil officials, and so unrefined that he plined, Liaodong.59 even own did not proper court attire.55 The many accounts of Li Rusong's bravery and ferocity in battle The theme of bamboo shoots, which was pervasive in the undoubtedly capture some part of Li's persona; whatever paintings done for Xu Ximeng, was also frequently his behavior off the battlefield, civil officials' description of employed by Xu in paintings for Li. Again, the subject may the fierce general as "the wolf sent to keep the tiger at have functioned as an emblem of literati culture while other a brute beast?reflects their in bay"?in words, pre simultaneously expressing other types of meanings. As vailing bias against military men. "Sketching Bamboo to Respond to Circuit General Xu An abundance of letters and numerous poems call into [Ximeng]'s New Year sGift," the benefice that prompted the question this picture of Li Rusong as a lout and a boor. Li painting appears in the text. Here Xu explicitly describes

28 of in this not will the the conventional of the Examining [these subjects painting] way, only exchange, adding deprecation not they harm you, but they will help you have success.With he has made in of his one painting repayment patron's largesse. touch, sudden enlightenment, and you'll be happy forever; Like paintings done for other high-ranking patrons, lodging your cleverness and quick wit in these four phenomena even more. a Xu's paintings and inscriptions for Li Rusong might cele help military people If this is the case, it is not bad to like a hall in which to store and brate the virtues and talents of the In a very thing build, Jinqing, paintings, recipient. to us we have scholars like writing about their qualities while wait ancient verse, entitled of long, seven-character, style "Song one for sudden enlightenment at your touch.66 Sketching Bamboo as a Gift for Li Changgong," Xu offered an encomium on the military skill and noble char By invoking Wang Shen, amember of the hereditary mil acter of Li Rusong and his father (Fig. 2).6o Unfortunately, itary class who married into the Song imperial family, Xu the painting attached to this colophon does not survive. Wei implicitly compares Li Rusong with that great The poem characterizes the elder and younger Li as painter and friend of . As in Regulating the Qi and valiant generals who never retreat, have triumphed over theXin, Xu Wei argues for mutual integration of the intel countless barbarian forces, treat captive civilians humane lectual and the physical, and of civil and military culture. ly, and have had riches and honors bestowed upon them as He makes clear that painting and collecting works of art a are result of their victories. This commingling of power and not only beneficial to amilitary man but that scholars can can benevolence be allegorized in the bamboo's strength also benefit from the cultivation of a painter who is a a and nobility. He ends the poem with conventional military official. Xu's preface, though obviously intended as an one expression of the inadequacy of his painting appro to flatter powerful patron, also suggests that military a priate gift for such lofty individual: officials generally participated in literati culture. Because to no known or Li are extant, The recluse has finished listening the words of the noble paintings writings by Rusong it is to assess the extent or gentleman, impossible quality of his artis One to louse attacking my waist, my hand feeling around kill it; tic output. But we know that he provided financial sup to one Wanting respond with word, unable to respond, a port for literatus who was renowned for his literary and Only sketching some wintry branches, rolled up to present to you. artistic skill among the hereditary military officials and By linking the motif of bamboo to traditional military civil appointees to the military who were active on the rather than literati virtues, Xu Wei once again expands the southeastern coast and the northern frontiers. Within the expressive range of bamboo, while simultaneously flatter context of recent research that has revealed the influence ing his very powerful patron. of military officials in sixteenth-century China, Xu Wei's Li art a a Rusong took up the of painting himself. In pref cultivation of powerful patron like Li Rusong hardly ace to two seems albums painted by Li, Xu Wei emphasizes how unusual. In addition, Shen Defu's picture of the can a man a as painting benefit military and how military northern frontier a place where fortunes (or at least man's art wen ren: painting might enlighten the of decent livelihoods) could be made suggests that military officials who to enhance their social status Mr. Li has gathered together two albums of his paintings; each sought by par ten in literati an volume has paintings; landscape, figures, feathers and fur, and ticipating culture may have been important fruits and are all included. Their is plants quality what painters call type of client for literati who earned their living by the and have a untrammelled, they divine spirit.... When you [Li] brush. entered the capital from Liao[dong], your acquaintances and con nections greatly expanded; every leaf thus needs a renowned poet to write on it. I am undeservedly considered one of them, and CONCLUSION went so as to me to a you far ask write preface for these albums. The lives of Xu and Li seen Ximeng Rusong demonstrate that I have Su Shi's Baohuitang Ji (Record of the Hall of Precious wrote members of the officialdom wrote Paintings) done for Wang Jinqing [Shen].61 Su extensively hereditary military about how collecting calligraphy and painting in the wrong way poetry, received, commissioned, and collected works of harms a to what is recorded about Cui person....62 According art, and even painted. The example of Xu Wei illustrates that I read in the Zazu time Boyan (Miscellaneous Records), every that, for at least one renowned wen ren artist of the six he in Cui had to order the monk Zhao to use a engaged battle, teenth these were to century, hereditary military officials whistle play martial songs about Jing Ke and Xiang Yu.63 on art Xu Wei's career further demon Afterwards he spurred his horses to enter the battle array and important patrons. over strates triumphed all opponents.64 In this way, the poems in these the permeability of the division between civil and albums would not harm certainly you. military spheres, since Xu, in addition to making his living never and worked as a for We have heard similar things about painting; but fish and by writing painting, military strategist are on fowl, geese and cranes, all recorded in military texts battle both hereditary military figures and civil officials in mili formations. for in the and Shi of [As landscape,] Xing chapters tary positions. Xu Wei and his patrons show that, notwith Sunzi, [we read of] waters into a bottomless "pent-up plunge standing literati assumptions to the contrary, an individual and the of the controls the flow"; these are abyss, shape territory both and are might encompass military cultural pursuits, and very important words.65 All of these four phenomena what the of action of men defined as essen painters call feathers-and-fur and mountains-and-water. spheres by society

29 or wen ren to a con tially military essentially intersected historian of sixteenth-century China, further inquiry into siderable degree. Moreover, Shen Defu by his very taxon this hitherto neglected aspect of art patronage and practice omy demonstrates that, in late Ming times at least, these may not only expand our understanding of painting and two forms of civil-military interconnection might be calligraphy during this period, but may also contribute to noteworthy but were in no way anomalous. For the art a much more nuanced view of Ming history in general.

some Notes 7- For of the most recent studies of art patronage during the see Ming dynasty, Anne DeCoursey Clapp, The Painting of Tang Yin (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1991); James Cahill, The Painter's Practice version of this was delivered at the Annual *A paper originally (New York: Columbia Univ. Pr., 1994); and Craig Clunas, Superfluous Association of Asian Studies on 10 March 2000. I am Conference, Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China to Peter of the Chinese who grateful Lorge Military History Group, (Champaign-Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Pr., 1991), and Fruitful Sites: and Edward Peter organized the panel, Dreyer, Sturman, Jennifer Garden Culture inMing Dynasty China (Durham: Duke Univ. Pr., 1996). Nixi and Richard for their Purtle, Cura, Pegg participation, helpful 8. "Presented to GeneralYu" in Xu Wei? (XWJ) (Beijing, Zhonghua criticism. For all of on several of the comments, and their suggestions Shuju, 1983), p. 789; "A Long Poem for L? Zhengbin" in XWJ, p. 113; in this I am indebted to Ann Waltner and the translations article, deeply "At Sea?five poems," XWJ, p. 59. members of her classical Chinese Hsiao were regular reading group: Li-ling, 9. Generals Yu Dayou andWu Chengqi regional commanders He Hsien Liu was a Joe Dennis, Qiliang,Wang Hua, Mei-yu,Tony Yu, Lisong, of Zhejiang Province at the time.Yu Dayou (1503?1579) from Minnesota. short and Fang Qin, all of the University of Any existing hereditary military family in Fujian. He received the military attributed to the author. All translations are wo comings should be solely degree in 1534. He commanded troops against the kou from was one my own, unless otherwise noted. 1552-15 59 and of the outstanding military officers of that 1. Numerous been devoted to the of see studies have philosophy Wang campaign. For Yu's biography, L. Carrington Goodrich and to on the intellectual histo Yangming and his disciples, and its impact Chaoying Fang, eds., Dictionary ofMing Biography (DMB) (New York: see ry of the Ming For an overview of these thinkers, William Columbia Univ. Pr., 1616-18. dynasty. " 1978), pp. in York: Theodore DeBary, ed., Self and Society Ming Thought (New 10. Ni Shang Dufu Shu" in XWJ, p. 463. Recent on the social and eco 11. was a Columbia Univ. Pr., 1970). scholarship Wang Yin, zi Zhongfang, poet from She xian in Anhui are nomic history of the Ming dynasty includes John Meskill, Gentlemanly Province. See DMB, p. 34. Some examples of these victory songs on Association for Asian Interests and Wealth theYangtze Delta (Ann Arbor: "On Policy (2)" (XWJ, pp. 506-11) and "Song ofVictory at Mt. Kan" Studies, 1994); Timothy Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and (XWJ, p. 339) as a censor Culture inMing China (Berkeley: Univ. of California Pr., 1998); John 12. Hu Zongxian (1511?1565), jinshi 1538, served on to Dardess, A Ming Society (Berkeley: Univ. of California Pr., 1996). inspector in Xuanfu the northern frontier from 1549 1551. He 2. Hu Three of the four masterworks of the Ming novel, Shui Zhuan, was then transferred to Huguang (the area that includes present-day were in In a Xi You Ji, and , written the sixteenth century. Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi and Provinces) to suppress Miao are most studies of the Chinese novel, these considered landmarks and rebellion. Because of his experience in military affairs, he was ulti of the catalysts in the development of vernacular fiction. Many major mately appointed Supreme Commander of Zhejiang, Nan Zhili, figures of graced the sixteenth century: the great Fujian, and Jiangxi, a post that combined military and civil jurisdiction, his followers in on wo term wo literati painter Wen Zhengming (1470?1559) and with a primary focus suppressing the kou pirates. The the sixteenth means Suzhou, active during the first three quarters of century; kou "Japanese pirates," and pirates from the southern islands of art and artist the renowned scholar-official, critic, collector, Dong Japan had been raiding the Chinese coast for many years. By the middle as Qichang (1555-1636); distinguished professional painters such Zhang of the sixteenth century, however, the raiders of the Chinese coast com Wu Bin ca. were Hong (ca. 1577-ca. 1652) and (act. 1573-ca. 1625). prised mainly Chinese from Zhejiang and Fujian who involved in see as see 3. For this view, such histories of the Ming dynasty The illicit trade with Japan. For Hu's biography, DMB, pp. 631-38. 1 Cambridge , Vol. 7: The Ming Dynasty 13 68-1644, Part 13. For an extensive treatment of the so-called Japanese pirate (wo and A Year on coasts see (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1998), Ray Huang, 1587, kou) raids the Zhejiang and Fujian in the 1550s, Kwan of No Significance (New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr., 1981). wai So, Japanese Piracy inMing China During the Sixteenth Century (East Great of theWanli 4. Kenneth M. Swopejr., "The Three Campaigns Lansing: Michigan State Univ. Pr., 1975); and Zheng Liangsheng, ed., and in Late Sixteenth Emperor, 1592-1600: Court, Military, Society Mingdai Wo Kou Shiliao, 5 vols, (Taipei: Wenshizhe Chubanshe, 1987). as an Century China" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 2001). 14. Tang Shunzhi (1507-1560), ziYingde, is famous essayist and Few Li and Chinas was 5. Kenneth Swope,"A Good Men:The Family prose stylist. After obtaining the jinshi degree in 1529, he assigned at Northern Frontier in the Late Ming," unpublished paper delivered as a secretary in the Ministry of War. He frequently retired from gov the Chinese Military History Group conference, University of South ernment service due to ill health and was involved in factional disputes 12 2001. Florida, on May, that often derailed his career as an official. He was also a serious student recent on see Alastair I. was 6. For research Ming military history, of astronomy, geometry, weaponry, and military strategy. When he Culture and Grand in Chinese went as an Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Strategy employed under Hu Zongxian, he beyond his position Kenneth an History (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Pr., 1995); Swope,"Three imperial observer and inspector to take active role in field opera Great Campaigns of the "; and David M. Robinson, tions. See DMB, pp. 1252-56. in the was "Banditry and Rebellion the Capital Region During Mid-Ming Mao Kun (1512-1601), hao Lumen, from Gui'an in Zhejiang (1420-1525)" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1995). Province. He earned his jinshi in 1538 in the same class as Shen Lian

30 and Hu A skilled Mao held several Zongxian. military strategist, high 29- XWJ, p. 901-2. level in which he created successful defense After his com positions plans. 30. Sunzi is the author of the military classic Sunzi Bingfa, dismissal from service in he became a consultant to as government 1554 monly translated The Art ofWar. Hu He wrote defenses of Hu when the latter was Zongxian. strong 31. XWJ, pp. 891-96. See imprisoned. DMB, pp. 1042?47. 32. William Theodore DeBary, Waiting for the Dawn: A Plan for the Shen ca. established a Mingchen (act. 1550-1561), ziJiaze, reputation Prince?Huang Tsung-hsi's Ming-i-tai-fang lu, (New York: Columbia as a the era. Like Xu he held a poet during Jiajing Wei, only zhusheng Univ. Pr., 1993), pp. 147-49. and served as a to Hu After Hu's degree private secretary Zongxian. 33. DeBary, Waiting for the Dawn, pp. 7-8. death in Shen wrote the commander. Shen prison eulogies praising 34. I believe the term qiao guan ("lofty hall") refers to the qiao cai made his as a talented his collected entitled reputation poet; poems, guan of the Han dynasty, an institute for talented men. Dui Lou Shi has eminent literati such as not Feng Xuan, prefaces by Wang 35.I have been able to identify Zhao Desong. Zhu Chaqing (d. Liu and Tu was was a Shizhen, Feng, Long. 1572) from Shanghai. He student at the National University, a as a 15. XWf,p.6s6. chivalrous and public-spirited, and had reputation knight-errant. 16. cards were notes much like modern was a "Joined" style visiting greet 36.Wang Daokun (1525-1593), jinshi 1547, poet, playwright, cards that were written in an antithetic and was ing euphuistically style pre and official who also active in military affairs. See DMB, pp. sented on occasions such as the New Year's Festival. Xu Wei was one important 1427-30. Wang Shizhen (1526-1590), jinshi 1547, of the lead would have the text for Hu and did the as composed Zongxian probably ing figures in the literary circle known the "Later Seven Masters of as well. calligraphy the Ming." His father had been supreme commander of Ji 17. Even he was Hu for a of though employed by Zongxian period Liao, the frontier region northeast of the capital, but had been blamed five Xu Wei was to commit himself exclu a was years, seemingly unwilling for defeat by the in 1559 and executed. Wang Shizhen to Hu and would Since Hu would then recall was was sively periodically resign. also concerned with military affairs and eventually appointed him to he tolerated Xu's unconventional behavior. service, apparently to the position of Right Vice Minister of War in 1588. See DMB, pp. 18. Bin was the XWJ, pp. 430-32. Dong (1510-1595), jinshi 1541, 1399-404. head of a and in Huzhou wealthy powerful family Prefecture, Zhejiang. 37. Xiao Ruxun was from a hereditary military family of theYan'an He was Minister of Rites and Chancellor of the Hanlin a appointed garrison. During the Wanli era he was general at Ningxia and was in See 1329. Academy 1565. DMB, p. active in suppressing the Piibei rebellion. 19. See XWJ, p. 463-66. 38. Shen Defu, WanliYe Huo Bian (1606) (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 20. The Zhenhai Tower was a famous site located on the eastern 1997), PP-434-35 of Mt. Wu within the limits of Xu Wei's text was a slope city Hangzhou. 39. Zhao Zhenji (1508-1 $y6),jinshi 1535, scholar and philoso recounts its as history. pher who served the director of studies in the National University. 21. See "Zhenhai Lou and "Zhouzi in 611-12. Ji" Tang Ji," XWJ, pp. He came to the defense of the capital during the Mongol invasion of 22. was career XWJ, pp. 460. 1550, but curtailed in his advancement by Yan Song. See For a of Yan see 23. biography Song (1480-1565), DMB, pp. DMB, pp. 120-21. Zhao Shichun (1509-1567), jinshi 1526, was a man 1586-91. of letters and friend of Tang Shunzhi. As an official, like Tang, he was 24. Li entered the three Chunfang (1511-1585) deeply concerned with military affairs. in and was Chief Grand from to was an years earlier, 1565, Secretary 1568 40. Shen Maoxue (1539?1582),jinshi 1577, outspoken official 1571. As a official, Li was concerned with the government primarily who offended Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng and subsequently lived relations with the and the to Mongols supported military's proposal in retirement. He was friend of the poet and dramatist Tu Long, uncle construct watchtowers the line of defense in the northeast. He a along of the renowned soldier and military leader ShenYourong, and disci Xu Wei while he was Minister of Rites. Because Xu was dis employed ple of the Daoist priestess Tanyangzi. Dong Sicheng (1560-1595), jinshi satisfied with the of his he decided to a was insignificance position, request 1580, the grandson of Dong Bin (1510-1595) and vice director of leave of absence to travel back to to take the examina Zhejiang juren a bureau in the Ministry of Rites. He was also a poet. tion. It that Li was to the con appears Chunfang unwilling grant leave; 41. Shen Defu, WanliYe Huo Bian, p. 435. Xu Wei tried to return his which Li refused to sequently, salary, accept. 42. Xuanfu or Xuanhua, located in northwestern Province, For Li's see DMB, 818-19. was one biography, pp. of the two great garrison cities situated one hundred miles 25. zi was born into a Qi Jiguang (1528-1588), Yuanjing, hereditary northwest of Beijing and key to the defense of the capital. For a dis in Province. In addition to his train see military family military cussion of its strategic importance, Johnston, Cultural Realism. received a traditional Confucian education in the Classics and ing, Qi 43. Not much is known about Xu Ximeng. He held the position of literature. rose to in the coastal defense the wo Qi prominence against Regional General of the Xuanfu Circuit; thus, he was a military offi and later in his career commanded the defense of the northern a a kou, cial rather than civil appointee to military position. frontier the He rose to against Mongols. extremely high rank, unprece 44. These two poems can be found in XWJ, pp. 333 and 393, respec dented for a member of the class. See hereditary military DMB, pp. tively. 220-24. For more extensive studies of see Su Qi Jiguang, Tongbing, Qi 45. "Writing Bamboo to Respond to Circuit General Xu's New Asia Xie Jiguang (Hong Kong: Press, 1959); Chengren, Qi Jiguang Year's Gift," XWJ, p. 3 3 3. Renmin Chubanshe, and Fan (Shanghai: Shanghai 1978); Zhongyi, Qi 46. See Kathleen Ryor, "Bright Pearls Hanging in the Market Zhuan Chubanshe, Jiguang Ping (Nanning: Guangxi Jiaoyu 1995). place :Self-Expression and Commodification in the Painting of Xu Wei 26. I am indebted to Dennis of the of Minnesota for Joe University (1521-1593)" (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1998), chaps. 2, 3. me a of the L? L? Shi Pu giving copy family genealogy, Zong 47. XWJ, p. 390. (Shanghai: Mingyantang, 1930). 48. The elder Su is the Northern Song poet, calligrapher, and painter 27. L? Shi Pu, 107. Zong p. Su Shi (1037-1101). Xu is comparing his painted bamboo shoots with 28. Sword was Xu Wei's circle of collecting very popular among Su Shi's paintings of bamboo. friends and Xu wrote about this acquaintances. many poems activity. 49. XWJ, p. 3*3 For see "Shen Shuzi Sent a Sword As a Gift" examples, (Jixia) Foreign 50. For example, see XWJ, p. 482. Island Two Poems" (2 poems, XWJ, p. i49);"Ryukyu Sword, (XWJ, pp. 51. XWJ, p. 1016. "Precious Sword Poem" 167-68); (XWJ, p. 185). 52. Li Rusong (1549-1598) was born into a prominent hereditary

31 was military clan in Liaodong. His father the regional commander Li Shenzong. Because his position and fortunes were considerable and rel was an Chengliang, who made earl in 1579. Li Rusong was appointed atively secure, he often gave Su Shi financial aid. He established the Hall was regional commander of in 1583. In 1587 he appointed of Precious Paintings in 1077. The Record of theHall of Precious Paintings was to a to regional commander of Xuanfu, but forced resign with loss of expressed the gentleman's approach collecting and appreciating art. was to a see salary. He reappointed in 1592 in order suppress the P?bei rebel For partial translation, Susan Bush and Hsio-yen Shih, eds., Early lion. See DMB, pp. 830-35. Chinese Texts on Mass.: Harvard Univ. Pr., " Painting (Cambridge, 1985), 53. Swope, Three Great Campaigns of theWanli Emperor," chap. 1, p. pp. 233-34. 34, chap. 3, p. 30. 62. In The Record of theHall of Precious Paintings Su Shi describes how on 54. Swope, "Three Great Campaigns of theWanli Emperor" chap. 3, p. the gentleman should "rest his thoughts objects, but must not fix his on 29. thoughts them.... Of all the things that may be enjoyed enough to not none are 55. Swope, "Three Great Campaigns of theWanli Emperor" chap. 3, p. gladden one, yet enough to affect one, better than callig n. n. to on 29, 136, chap. 4, p. 80, 315. He refers the account given in the raphy and painting. But if anyone fixes his thoughts them unremit Ming Shi (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1987), pp. 6192-93. tingly, his misfortune will defy description...." See Bush and Shih, Early on 56. Unfortunately, it is impossible to determine the content of Li's Texts Chinese Painting, p. 233. or to as no a man poems letters addressed Xu Wei, collected writings by Li 63. Cui Boyan is CuiYanbo, military who lived during the as Rusong survive. Wei dynasty. He served a Mobile Corps commander in the Huai 57. This is presumably the copper cash equivalent of five ounces of River region. During theTaihe era (227?233) he became a command er as silver. in chief. In bravery in strategy, he surpassed others. to 58. Fermented rice refers rice wine. 64. Facing ultimate defeat, the hegemon king XiangYu composed a 59. XWJ, p. 390. and sang song about his fate and his trusty horse and loyal concubine. was 60. XWJ, p. 134.This done sometime after 1577 and before 1583, Afterwards he broke out of encirclement, won three battles, and cut off as when Li's title would have changed. 1582 is the probable date, Xu the heads of the opposing army's generals before committing suicide was mentions Ruan, where Li stationed at that time. See DMB, pp. rather than be captured. See William Nienhauser, ed., The Grand Scribe's was 830-35. Liang Yicheng thinks it done in 1577 when Xu first met Records, Volume l:The Memoirs ofPre-Han China (Bloomington: Indiana Li. See Liang Yicheng, Xu Wei de Wenxue y? Yishu (Taipei: Yiwen Univ. Pr., 1994), pp. 205-7. Yinshuguan, 1976), p. 13 5.This text exists in the colophon of the paint 65. The phrase here,"jwe shui qian ren," alludes to the last line of the ing, which survives in the collection of the Qing Wan Society, Taipei, fourth chapter of Sunzi, "Xing": "It is because of xing that a victori ous to and is reproduced in Zhongguo Wenwu Jizui?Qing Wan Ya Ji Shoucang general is able make his people fight with the effect of pent waters a Zhan (Exquisite Chinese Artifacts?the Collection of the Qing Wan Society) up which, suddenly released, plunge into bottomless abyss." (Taipei: Guoli Lishi Bowuguan, 1995), pp. 62?63. See The Art ofWar, trans. Samuel Griffith (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Pr., 61. Wangjinqing isWang Shen (ca. 1048-ca. 1103), the Song collec 1963). tor, poet, and painter who was a great friend of Su Shi. Wang was from 66. XWJ, p. 539. a a hereditary military family and became son-in-law to Emperor

32 Characters

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