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Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1. Background: Description of the Area

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Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1. Background: Description of the Area Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1. Background: Description of the area of study This study analyzes the “socialization” of the countryside and the agricultural production in Manica district during the postcolonial period. Manica district is located in central west Manica Province of Mozambique, bordering the following districts: Barue to the north; Sussundenga to the south; Gondola to the east; and, to the west, Mutare district of Zimbabwe (see Appendix 1: Map 1).1 The majority of its inhabitants are Shona-speaking people subdivided into Mateve and Manyika speakers. It has a humid-temperate climate with two distinct seasons: dry and cold from May to September (tropical winter), and hot, humid and rainy from October to April.2 The principal river of the district is the Revué. The district is located on a plateau bordering Zimbabwe.3 Its soils and environmental conditions are favourable for agriculture, hunting, forestry, and mining. In general, the soils are good for the production of cash crops such as maize, cotton, wheat, sunflower, beans and potatoes (see Appendix 1: Map 2).4 During the colonial period (1960 until 1975), agricultural production was done by white and African settlers (colonos brancos e negros) in the broader context of the colonial settlement system (sistema de colonatos).5 In this system, the majority of ordinary rural Africans were used as farm workers in Mozambique and they also were recruited as laborers for the colonial plantations in Zimbabwe.6 1.2. The aim of the study This report analyzes the “socialization” of the countryside and the agricultural production in Manica district from 1975 to 1987. Specifically the research answers the following questions: 1Kindly provided by Arlindo Charles-National Statistical Institute (INE)-Mozambique, 2013. 2 Neves, Joel das. ‘Economy, Society and Labour Migration in Central Mozambique, 1930-c.1965: A case study of Manica province’, PhD Thesis, University of London, 1998, 23-24; MAE. ‘Perfil do Distrito de Manica-Província de Manica, 2005, in www.govnet.gov.moz, accessed on 01-05-2013, 2. 3Neves, “Economy”, 23; MAE, “Perfil do Distrito de Manica”, 3. 4Ibid, p. 17. 5Hedges, D. and Rocha, A. “Moçambique Durante o Apogeu do Colonialismo Português, 1945-1961: a economia e a estrutura social” in História de Moçambique: Moçambique no Auge do Colonialismo, 1930-1961. D. Hedges, ed. (Maputo: Imprensa Universitaria, 1999) 165. 6Neves, “Economy”, 21. 1 What was the impact of the Portuguese system of colonatos on agricultural production in Manica district from 1960 to 1975? What was the impact of the liberation struggle of Mozambique on the Portuguese system of colonatos in Manica district from 1972 to 1975? What did the “socialization of the countryside” do on agricultural production in Manica district between 1975 and 1987? Changes occurred in the organization of traditional agricultural production in parts of Manica district after 1890 when as the colonial state replaced traditional leadership. The rural population lost not only their sovereignty and right to self-determination but also their resources, including their cattle and land, to the incoming white settlers.7 These changes were intensified from the 1940s to the 1960s by the establishment of the colonato system following World War II in Europe. During the war, Mozambique came to support the Portuguese economy through the further integration of Africans in the intensive production of export goods as workers earning low incomes.8 This system was supported by forced African labor during the 1960s. This was the principal factor causing the growth of the clandestine migration of Africans from Manica district to Southern Rhodesian plantations, in search of better livelihoods, a situation which continued until the independence of Mozambique in 1975. After independence, Manica district (as elsewhere in the country) experienced the abandonment by white colonos of their socio-economic positions in agriculture and trade, which led the government to replace the colonatos with state farms for agriculture and cattle raising, a policy which lasted until 1987. In that year structural adjustment policies were adopted, marked by the withdrawal of support for state enterprises and the beginning of institutional support of a market economy and private property.9 “Socialization of the countryside” operated in the same way as the system of colonatos operated, in that rural Africans were integrated as a rural proletariat but organized in Communal Villages (Aldeias Comunais- hereafter referred to as ACs) 7Mlambo, A. S. “The International Dimensions of the Zimbabwean Crisis up to 2005”, South African Historical Society Biennial Conference, Southern Africa and the World: the Local, the Regional and the Global in Historical Perspective, (2005, 25-29, June,) 2. 8Neves, “Economy”, 26-27; 100; Duri, P. T. ‘Antecedents and Adaptations in the Borderlands: A Social History of Informal Socio-Economic Activities across the Rhodesia-Mozambique Border with Particular Reference to the City of Umtali, 1900-1974’, PhD Thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 2012, 128-133. 9Adam, Y. Escapar aos Dentes do Crocodilo e Cair na Boca do Leopardo. (Maputo: Promédia, 2006) 127-131. 2 and in production cooperatives.10 Therefore, the first objective of this report is to examine the impact of the colonial system of colonatos on agricultural production in Manica district from 1960 to 1975.11 The second objective is to analyze the socio-economic postcolonial state policy of “socialization of the countryside” and the agricultural production in Manica district from 1975 to 1987.12 1.3. Literature review Studies on the “socialization” of the Mozambican countryside, particularly those focusing on rural Africans living in ACs and working in collective farms in the state farms, are few and limited. Some of these studies about “villagisation” and “collectivization” were developed in southern Mozambique, particularly in Gaza province, and in the north, particularly in Cabo Delgado province. In the case of central Mozambique, studies of “socialization of the countryside” have been developed for Tete province, much less so in Manica province. Due to the heavy dependency on migratory labour in production and trade in the colonial economy of Manica province, research has mainly concentrated on these themes for the colonial period. Historical studies about the rural economy of Manica district during the colonial and postcolonial periods do not address the dynamics of its transformation outside the context of the colonial economy. Their approaches are fundamentally about the rural Africans work on colonial farms, production of cash crops for tax payment, migrant labor to the neighboring countries, motivations, causes and importance of this economic structure for colonial government, and the significance of this economic system of exploitation for the rural population in Manica district.13 There are many studies broadly related to the postcolonial socio-economic “socialization of the countryside” and war. These studies concentrate on land conflict due to the process of nationalization and the process of integration of rural Africans in agricultural production and trade. 10Borges Coelho, J. P. "State Resettlement Policies in Post-Colonial Rural Mozambique: The Impact of the Communal Village Programme on Tete Province, 1977-1982”. Journal of Southern African Studies. (1998, 24:1) 64-85. 11Hedges and Rocha, “Moçambique”, 165. 12Borges Coelho, “State Resettlement”, 61. 13Neves, “Economy”, 20-22; 3 1.3.1. Rural economy among African societies The debate about the meaning of “rural economy” among Africans societies is a long and complex debate. Marxist theory is based on the mode of production and defines rural African economy based on the class of individuals resident in rural areas whose main activity is agricultural production at a rudimentary level, using, for example, hoes, draught animals, unpaid African labour and low capital inputs.14 The terms “rural areas” and “rudimentary techniques” were defined in relation to the industrialization and mechanization in Western Europe during the nineteenth century. The meaning of this concept is that Africans were not capable of self- sufficiency without their integration into an industrial and capitalist market as workers. Indeed, from Marxist to capitalist theories, Africans are defined as semi-autonomous in economic production.15 This research discusses rural Africans who, producing with rudimentary techniques, also maintained a strong relationship with the market system for their self-sufficiency in the colonial and postcolonial period. Economically, most rural Africans were self-sufficient before the penetration of capitalism at the end of the nineteenth century. From that time, African labour was integrated into the colonial economy as workers producing raw materials for industries and markets overseas.16 According to Jack Lewis, it is important to integrate the discussion about rural economy within the meaning of the African society. For him, African society is a productive and redistributive unit implying a strong relationship between people, people with their natural resources, and of course, production with rudimentary techniques. It is in this light that Theodor Shanin sees rural Africans as “small agricultural producers, who, with the help of simple equipment and the labour of their families, produce mostly for their own consumption, direct or indirect, and for the fulfillment of obligations to holders of political and economic
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