Developing Partnerships for Conservation in the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia

Volume 10: Protected Areas and Sustainable Tourism 53

P. Dearden1, S. Gauntlet2 and B. Nollen3 1University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada 2Wildlife Alliance, Phnom Penh, Cambodia 3 International Consultancy Europe, Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract

Protected areas owned and operated by national agencies have long been the mainstay of global conservation planning. However much more needs to be done to conserve the biodiversity of the broader landscape than can be achieved solely within the confines of protected area systems run by national governments. This paper describes an initiative in the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia, where conservation planning embraces a large number of stakeholders using a variety of approaches to achieve conservation goals.

The Cardamom Mountains cover some 880 000 ha of seasonal rainforest in SW Cambodia and are thought to be the largest contiguous extent of this forest formation remaining in mainland SE Asia. Many species, such as elephants, tigers, banteng and dhole that are regionally rare can still be found in the forests. The area is also home to the world’s largest population of Siamese crocodiles and various other critically endangered species, especially turtles.

The area is coming under increasing pressure from both legal and illegal activities and conservation groups have been pro- active in designing and implementing a variety of approaches that accept the needs for economic development, but strive to achieve this in a sustainable manner. In the South West Cardamoms Wildlife Alliance, a US-based NGO has partnered with the private sector to access funds that allow such plans to be implemented in a manner consistent with government policy. The plans operate over a landscape that embraces

Proceedings of the FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry Change in a Changing World 17-20 November 2008, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand 54 FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry Change in a Changing World

protected areas such as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, but also less formally-protected lands in forest use and also in agricultural development. This paper describes some of the activities being undertaken to sustain communities in the area while ensuring that conservation values are maintained.

Keywords: forest conservation, protected area, partnership, Cardamon Mountain, rainforest

Introduction

Southeast Asia is of global significance in terms of biodiversity (Myers et al., 2000) but has suffered large-scale deforestation and hunting pressures over the past couple of decades. The region has the highest relative rate of deforestation of any region in the tropics and could lose three quarters of its original forests by 2100 and up to 42% of its biodiversity (Sodhi et al., 2004). Large areas of contiguous forest are rare. The Cardamom Mountains area in southwest Cambodia, at 1 870 316 ha, is one of the largest relatively intact forest landscapes remaining and it conserves significant biodiversity with many rare and endangered species including the largest of only three remaining populations of the critically endangered Siamese crocodile. The area remained largely intact as one of the last strongholds of the Khmer Rouge but now the area is seeing rapid encroachment spurred by profits to be made from logging, land shortages elsewhere in Cambodia bringing high immigration, land speculation and the paving of Route 48 from the Thai border up to Phnom Penh.

The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) had divided much of the area into logging concessions, but these were cancelled in 2002, as a result of concern over excessive deforestation occurring in the rest of the country. The southern part of the area was designated as Botum Sakor National Park under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Environment (MoE). The remainder of the area is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) and its forestry branch, the Forestry Administration (FA), under a variety of categories of land having various amounts of protection with differing degrees of permanence.

The government recognised the value of the area for conservation, but also recognised the need to provide some development opportunities. Unfortunately, Volume 10: Protected Areas and Sustainable Tourism 55 the data suggests that there is a strong inverse relationship between forest cover and level of development in Southeast Asia (Sodhi et al., 2004) and one of the main challenges is to achieve higher levels of economic growth without incurring the costs of deforestation. In Cambodia, land speculation became a main driver for deforestation in the early years of the 21st century. In 2002, the high level of illegal forest activities coupled with little capacity within government institutions prompted the FA to seek assistance from several NGOs to protect the area, including Wildlife Alliance. Together the FA and Wildlife Alliance created the Southwest Elephant Corridor program (SWEC) aiming to protect the forest between Botum Sakor National Park and the Central Cardamoms Protected Forest as a wildlife corridor (Figure 1). An innovative partnership was born out of need, and the purpose of this paper was to outline the nature of this partnership for this area, now known as the South Cardamoms Coastal (SCC) Project, and also the way in which it has since broadened to include other partners.

Phnom Samkos Central Cardamoms Phnom Aural -

Peam Krasop MAFF & FA Southern Cardamoms

Kirirom

MoE Kirirom Extension Botum Sakor Dong Peng

Bokor

Figure 1 Map showing location and administrative boundaries in Cardamom Mountains. The red line shows the boundary of the South Coastal Cardamoms (SCC). 56 FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry Change in a Changing World

Background

The Cardamom Mountain Range rises from the Gulf of Thailand to the highest point in Cambodia, Mount Aural, at 1771 m above sea level. The mountains are characterized by high rainfall for much of the year, with some parts receiving more than 5000 mm annually, particularly on the south- western slopes, which catch the saturated southwest monsoon from May to October. This high rainfall gives rise to numerous rivers, which in turn feed into the Gulf of Thailand to the south and the Mekong basin and the Tonle Sap to the northwest.

The area forms the largest contiguous rainforest in mainland Southeast Asia and is considered one of the main biodiversity hotspots on the planet (Myers et al., 2000). There is a wide variety of natural habitats depending on variation in altitude, geology and hydrology. The most abundant formation is tropical, lowland, evergreen forest, much of which is still in primary condition. This formation is very rare in Southeast Asia, as most of it has been cleared for agricultural activities. It is also the richest formation in Southeast Asia (and one of the richest in the world) for biodiversity. Sixteen different eco-systems have been recognised including 14 globally endangered and threatened species. The Southern Coastal Cardamoms (SCC) encompasses an area of 881 316 ha including semi-alpine forest, hill evergreen forest, lowland evergreen forest, open forest, melaleuca forest, mangrove forest, grassland and wetlands. Approximately 720 000 ha (80%) of the ecosystem is under forest cover. The Cardamoms host over half of Cambodia’s known 2300 species of plants. About 230 of these species are endemic to Cambodia and more than 100 of these endemic species are from the Cardamom forests. New varieties of ginger and orchids, which have never been catalogued before, have been found in the Cardamoms.

During the wet season of July-September 2002, WildAid (now Wildlife Alliance) supported the FA to conduct a biodiversity survey of the core zone in the SCC. During the following dry season of November 2002-May 2003, WildAid and FA conducted a biodiversity survey of the entire SCC (Daltry and Traeholt, 2003). As a result of these surveys, along with previous biodiversity surveys conducted in 1998-2002 by Fauna and Flora International (FFI) and Conservation International (CI), the Cardamoms were identified as one of the last seven elephant corridors in Southeast Asia and a major biodiversity hotspot on the planet. FFI, CI, CAT Treasury and Volume 10: Protected Areas and Sustainable Tourism 57 medications, medical equipment, nurses, and general practitioners or doctors to ensure adequate health care. A large number of villages and communes do not have health centres, and continue to depend on traditional medicines found in the forest.

Population growth is expected to have a significant influence on the Southern Cardamoms. Koh Kong has been identified as the province with the highest expected population growth in all of Cambodia, with an average annual growth rate between 2001 and 2021 of 4% (National Institute of Statistics, 2000). Koh Kong province has a number of features, which make it especially attractive for development: a close proximity to Thailand, a large coastal area, and a newly constructed highway connecting Phnom Penh with Bangkok. Land prices in Koh Kong have had an average growth rate of 14.4% per year since 1995, with the current price of agricultural land approximately 4000 US$/ha (Ministry of Commerce, 2002; Grogan et al., 2008). This price increase, together with the government’s plans to develop the area around Koh Kong town further into a Special Economic Zone (SEZ), has sparked widespread land speculation in the region, with people encroaching on the land to claim ownership, so thereafter it can be sold (Cambodia Mirror, 2008).

Furthermore, 13 hydropower sites have been identified in the project area, one of which has already been approved. A further six sites have been identified as priority projects by the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy in 2003 (Middleton, 2008). Without heavy incentives to protect the forest, it is likely that these six projects will be realised within the next 10 years and thousands of hectares of forested land and several villages will be inundated. If people lose their land to development, or if crop yields decline due to changes in water quantity or quality, the affected people will inevitably have to settle somewhere else. Since the proposed dam locations are in remote areas, well inside the forest boundaries, these displaced communities may have no choice but to clear forest to survive. Up to 3000 ha of forest and indigenous land will be flooded following construction of just two of the dams, with serious concerns for some 2100 downstream rice paddy fields dependent on upstream run-off (Middleton, 2008). This gives some idea of the magnitude of the potential impact if all six, or maybe even 13, dams are developed.

58 FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry Change in a Changing World

medications, medical equipment, nurses, and general practitioners or doctors to ensure adequate health care. A large number of villages and communes do not have health centres, and continue to depend on traditional medicines found in the forest.

Volume 10: Protected Areas and Sustainable Tourism 59

The Project

The background provided above suggests that although the Cardamoms represent an exceptional landscape for biodiversity conservation in Southeast Asia, there are many pressures for developments contrary to this purpose. In terms of legal framework, the Cardamom Mountain Range is a landscape of Protected Areas and Protected Forests with a ‘Gap Area’ in the middle of the range, which is not protected by law. The forest logging concessions that were cancelled in 2002 previously occupied this ‘Gap Area’ (Figure 2). Even though the forest in the cancelled concessions returned to its status of “Permanent Forest Reserve” protected under the Forestry Law of 2002, RGC can decide to allocate portions of it to development. As a result, this ‘Gap Area’ leaves 514 341 ha of rainforest vulnerable to government permits for large-scale logging concessions or commercial crop plantations.

The SCC project’s vision is to help the Government of Cambodia to protect what needs to be protected within the project area, while ensuring that development which does occur in the Cardamoms is as sustainable as possible. The project has three components:

Figure 2 Forest classification, administration and concessions Source: Grogan et al. (2008)

60 FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry Change in a Changing World

Conserve Biodiversity and Forests

The project helps the RGC to develop and enforce management practices and policies and builds capacity of the Forestry Administration and the Ministry of Environment to enforce forest law and to carry out participatory zoning and demarcation activities that allow local people to continue to harvest natural resources from some areas while still protecting the most critical biodiversity areas. The objectives under the forest and wildlife protection component are:

Forest and wildlife protection: x Develop a long-term park management plan for the project area x Design and construct basic infrastructure to support management activities, including the expansion of the scope of ranger patrolling to the entire SCC x Conduct zoning and demarcation surveys to designate land for appropriate usages x Design and construct a rehabilitation station for the re-stocking and re-introduction of endangered wildlife x Conduct reforestation where eco-system connectivity has been fragmented

Capacity building: x Provide institutional development to improve the capacity of MAFF, FA, MoE, and Ministry of Land Management and Urban Planning (MLMUP) and Royal Gendarmerie Khmere (RGK) x Develop and implement operational guidelines for protected areas management to ensure a systematic approach to management practices x Develop and implement an appropriate long-term financing mechanism to fund conservation and protection activities in the area

Alternative Livelihood Development

The development of alternative livelihoods is a critical component of the overall plan to reduce destructive, non-sustainable practices in the SCC (non- circular slash and burn, intensive wildlife poaching and trading, commercial Volume 10: Protected Areas and Sustainable Tourism 61 charcoal production). This component focuses on the delivery of sustainable alternative livelihood schemes.

The objectives of the alternative livelihood development component of the project are:

x Enhance irrigation systems and other infrastructure and technical assistance for WildAid’s Community Agricultural Development Project (CADP), where farmers are provided with access to land, water, technical know-how, equipment, capital and markets. x Enhance irrigation systems and other infrastructure and technical assistance for WildAid’s Community Agricultural Development Project (CADP), where farmers are provided with access to land, water, technical know-how, equipment, capital and markets. x Introduce sustainable agriculture development in other areas where severe forest degradation has resulted from slash-and-burn farming.

Sustainable Tourism Development

The goal of the tourism component is to develop international standard ecotourism facilities in the SCC that will provide alternative livelihoods for households in the project area, create benefit streams to the surrounding communities and generate fees to fund park protection activities.

The objectives of the sustainable tourism component of the project are:

x Develop a range of sustainable tourism opportunities in the SCC that will provide employment opportunities for local people x Develop a clear link between tourism development and the benefits of conservation through ecotourism x Provide a revenue centre for conservation activities x Provide a direct market for agricultural products from CADP x Develop an international standard of nature interpretation infrastructure and services x Raise awareness of threats to nature conservation and solutions to those threats amongst local people, visitors and the general public 62 FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry Change in a Changing World

x Create a successful model that can be used elsewhere in the Cardamom Mountains and in Cambodia to help achieve conservation goals through appropriate tourism development.

The Partnership

What is instructive about the partnership is the manner in which it has grown to address the tasks at hand and bring in new skills and resources. Much of this credit has to go to the original partners, MAFF and Wildlife Alliance. MAFF were astute enough to realize that the resources they had at their disposal were inadequate to bring to task the rampant illegal activities in the Cardamoms. Wildlife Alliance (at that time WildAid), were an international NGO with particular expertise in direct action to halt the wildlife trade. WA is a non-profit organization headquartered in Washington D.C. with operations throughout the world. WA’s mission is to eliminate the illegal wildlife trade by addressing the supply, trade and consumer demand for wildlife. WA's strategy is to bring wildlife conservation to the top of the international agenda, to effectively and affordably protect wilderness areas, to ensure that endangered species populations rebound, and to enable people and wildlife to survive together. This is achieved by developing innovative solutions to conservation threats that are credible, efficient, cost-effective and deliver direct and measurable results. Within four years, WA assisted the Forestry Administration of MAFF in establishing five ranger stations across the SWEC area with 70 rangers patrolling against forest crime. International assessments suggest that provision of guards is the most important strategy in determining the effectiveness of protected areas in terms of protecting biodiversity (Bruner et al., 2000).

In 2003, WA and the Ministry of Environment entered into an agreement to create the Botum Sakor Conservation Project to assist the MoE in protecting the forest and wildlife in Botum Sakor National Park. Within a few months, WA had trained and equipped 55 rangers for the area. However, these efforts did not enjoy the outstanding success generated in the area under MAFF control. One reason has been the greater reluctance on the part of the MoE to embrace the partnership. For example, the MoE has been unwilling to integrate WA officials into their patrolling teams, resulting in less organised and ineffective patrolling and law enforcement. As a result, most of WA’s resources have been focussed in the MAFF area. This seems to have stabilised deforestation rates in the region. The MoE area on the other hand, deprived Volume 10: Protected Areas and Sustainable Tourism 63 of resources and adequate levels of enforcement, has seen a sharp rise in deforestation rates.

WA has been authorized by the RGC to develop, manage and implement the Southern/Coastal Cardamom Mountains Conservation Project. However, just as MAFF had realised that their capacities needed to be expanded, WA also realised that the scope of the project needed to be expanded if it was to be successful in the long term. In particular, greater efforts needed to be made in the area of alternative livelihoods. The agricultural component of the project was enjoying success in the development of sustainable agriculture in the CADP. However the costs of providing inputs was high and the village represented only a small number of farmers that would need to be accommodated to relieve pressures on the forest over the larger area. WA realised the need to develop additional solutions of which ecotourism, as described above, seemed to have the most potential. However, they had little expertise in this area and decided to bring in additional partners and in particular the skills of the private sector.

ICE BV is an independent research and consulting firm in sustainable infrastructure development based in Bangkok. ICE BV oversees every stage of a development initiative from identifying a project and writing the terms of reference together with project principals, to the formation of a consortium to implement the project, sourcing the project funding and assisting in project management and implementation. ICE BV now manages the SCC project on behalf of WA. This not only brings greater management expertise to bear but also releases WA to concentrate their energies on what they do best, direct action to combat illegal forest use.

Although experts in sustainable development projects, ICE also realised that it would need more specific expertise in terms of ecotourism planning and development. They enlisted the assistance of a university professor, Dr Philip Dearden from the University of Victoria, Canada, who had almost 25 year’s experience in researching and implementing alternative tourism developments in Southeast Asia (e.g. Brockelman and Dearden, 1990; Dearden, 1991; Dearden, 1992; Boonchote and Dearden 1994; Dearden and Harron, 1994; Dearden, 1995; Dearden, 1997; Hvenegaard and Dearden, 1998; Yasué and Dearden, 2006).

64 FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry Change in a Changing World

While the additional assistance was useful in leading the ecotourism component of the project, it was also realized that additional skills would be required in the development of the hospitality side of the development. That skill was also sourced from the private sector, thru Jetwing Hotels (Jetwing). Jetwing is widely regarded in Asia as a field-leader in environmentally friendly tourism practices, which are also beneficial to local communities through interactive programs and skill-building. Jetwing initiatives have been awarded many international accolades and they also have significant experience in developing small-scale, high-class ecolodges in remote locations. Jetwing is responsible for the operation and marketing of the ecolodge facilities, including capacity development in local villages, so that villagers will be able to benefit from the ecotourism development.

Designing accommodation facilities in remote locations, especially ones that are going to compete at the top of the international market, also required special architectural capabilities. For this task, ICE contracted Selin Maner Architects (SMA), based in Bali, who had a record for outstanding architectural designs in natural settings. SMA would be responsible for infrastructure development including not only the ecolodges but also the proposed visitor information centres.

In addition to these key partnerships, it was also realised that other needs would arise to deal with some of the innovative aspects of the initiative. For example, the underlying goal of the project is to prove to the RGC that protecting the Cardamoms will result in equal, if not greater, benefits than would be realized through logging, agricultural expansion, hydro development and other consumptive uses. One aspect that holds much promise in addition to the components outlined above is the carbon sequestration value of the intact forests and whether this value can be traded as carbon credits on the international market. This is a relatively new approach to conservation (e.g. see EcoSecurities, 2007) and requires research to determine the amounts of carbon sequestered as well as the complexities of the trading mechanisms. For this aspect, Vrije University in Amsterdam was engaged to conduct basic studies on carbon sequestration values, legal aspects and to undertake socio-economic baseline assessments in the area. A consortium of university partners is now developing a research agenda for the area under the leadership of the University of Victoria.

Volume 10: Protected Areas and Sustainable Tourism 65

References

ADB. 2005. Cardamoms Conservation Biodiversity Corridor Cambodia – Pilot site – Project Profile. Annex 3-1. Baird, I. and P. Dearden. 2003. Biodiversity conservation and resource tenure regimes – A case study from NE Cambodia. Environmental Management 32 : 541-550. Boonchote, T. and P. Dearden. 1994. Tourism growth and impacts at Ban Sob Ruak, the Golden Triangle Village, Thailand. Mahidol Journal of Ecology 21 : 62-67. Brockelman, W.Y. and P. Dearden. 1990. The role of nature trekking in conservation: A case study in Thailand. Environmental Conservation 17(2): 141-148. Bruner, A.G., R.E. Gullison, R.E. Rice and G.A.B. da Fonseca. 2001. Effectiveness of parks in protecting tropical biodiversity. Science 291: 125–128. Cambodia Atlas. 2006. The atlas of Cambodia: national poverty and environment maps. Save Cambodia’s Wildlife, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Cambodia Mirror. 2008. Mr. Thaksin Shinawatra Plans to make big investments in Koh Kong. Available Source : http://cambodiamirror. wordpress.com/2008/05/20/monday-1952008-mr-thaksin-shinawatra- plans-to-make-big-investments-in-koh-kong/. 19May 2008. Daltry J. and C. Traeholt. 2003. Forestry Administration-WildAid, Biodiversity Survey of the Southern Cardamoms. WA, Phnom Penh. Dearden, P. 1991. Tourism and sustainable development in Northern Thailand. Geographical Review 81: 400-413. Dearden, P. 1992. Tourism and development in Southeast Asia: Some challenges for the future. pp. 215-229. In A. Pongsapich, M.C. Howard and J. Amyot, eds. Regional Development and Change in Southeast Asia in the 1990s. Social Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University. Dearden, P. 1995. Biocultural diversity and development in Northern Thailand. Applied Geography 15 : 325-340. Dearden, P. 1997. Carrying capacity and environmental aspects of ecotourism. pp. 44-60. In J. Bornemeier, M. Victor and P. Durst, eds. Ecotourism for Forest Conservation and Community Development. Regional Community Forestry Training Centre for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. 66 FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry Change in a Changing World

References

ADB. 2005. Cardamoms Conservation Biodiversity Corridor Cambodia – Pilot site – Project Profile. Annex 3-1. Baird, I. and P. Dearden. 2003. Biodiversity conservation and resource tenure regimes – A case study from NE Cambodia. Environmental Management 32 : 541-550. Boonchote, T. and P. Dearden. 1994. Tourism growth and impacts at Ban Sob Ruak, the Golden Triangle Village, Thailand. Mahidol Journal of Ecology 21 : 62-67. Brockelman, W.Y. and P. Dearden. 1990. The role of nature trekking in conservation: A case study in Thailand. Environmental Conservation 17(2): 141-148. Bruner, A.G., R.E. Gullison, R.E. Rice and G.A.B. da Fonseca. 2001. Effectiveness of parks in protecting tropical biodiversity. Science 291: 125–128. Cambodia Atlas. 2006. The atlas of Cambodia: national poverty and environment maps. Save Cambodia’s Wildlife, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Cambodia Mirror. 2008. Mr. Thaksin Shinawatra Plans to make big investments in Koh Kong. Available Source : http://cambodiamirror. wordpress.com/2008/05/20/monday-1952008-mr-thaksin-shinawatra- plans-to-make-big-investments-in-koh-kong/. 19May 2008. Daltry J. and C. Traeholt. 2003. Forestry Administration-WildAid, Biodiversity Survey of the Southern Cardamoms. WA, Phnom Penh. Dearden, P. 1991. Tourism and sustainable development in Northern Thailand. Geographical Review 81: 400-413. Dearden, P. 1992. Tourism and development in Southeast Asia: Some challenges for the future. pp. 215-229. In A. Pongsapich, M.C. Howard and J. Amyot, eds. Regional Development and Change in Southeast Asia in the 1990s. Social Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University. Dearden, P. 1995. Biocultural diversity and development in Northern Thailand. Applied Geography 15 : 325-340. Dearden, P. 1997. Carrying capacity and environmental aspects of ecotourism. pp. 44-60. In J. Bornemeier, M. Victor and P. Durst, eds. Ecotourism for Forest Conservation and Community Development. Regional Community Forestry Training Centre for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. Volume 10: Protected Areas and Sustainable Tourism 67

Dearden, P. and S. Harron. 1994. Alternative tourism and adaptive change: Insights from Northern Thailand. Annals of Tourism Research 21: 81- 102. Dearden, P., M. Bennett, and J. Johnstone. 2005. Trends in global protected area governance. Environmental Management 36: 89-100. EcoSecurities. 2007. Policy Brief: REDD Policy Scenarios and Carbon Markets. EcoSecurities, Oxford, UK. Available Source: www.ecosecurities.com. Grogan, K. 2008. Reduced emission from deforestation in the Southern Cardamom Ecosystem, Cambodia. Institute for Environmental Science, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. Hvenegaard, G. and P. Dearden. 1998. Linking ecotourism and biodiversity conservation: A case study of Doi Inthanon National Park, Thailand. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 19: 193-211. Middleton, C. 2008. Cambodia’s hydropower development and China’s involvement. International Rivers, USA & The Rivers Coalition of Cambodia, Cambodia. Ministry of Commerce. 2002. Koh Kong Land Resources. Available Source: http://www.moc.gov.kh/national_data_resource/Provincial%20Resou rces/Koh%20Kong/Koh%20Kong%20Land%20Resources.htm. Myers, N., R.A. Mittermeier, G.G. Mittermeier, G.A.B. da Fonseca and J. Kent. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853-858. National Institute of Statistics. 2000. General population census of Cambodia 1998. Analysis of census results. Population projection 2001-2021. National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Sodhi, N.S., L.P. Koh, B.W. Brook and P.K.L. Ng. 2004. Southeast Asian biodiversity: An impending disaster. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 654- 659. WCS, WWF, Smithsonian and STF. 2006. Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers: 2005-2015. Wildlife Alliance. 2008. The Southern Cardamom Master Plan for Conservation and Development – DRAFT. Wildlife Alliance, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 11th of February 2008. World Food Programme. 2008. Provincial Profile – Koh Kong. Available Source: http://142.46.154.4/khm/provincial-Profile/Koh-Kong. 68 FORTROP II: Tropical Forestry Change in a Changing World

Yasué, M. and P. Dearden. 2006. The potential impact of tourism development on habitat availability and productivity of Malaysian plovers, Charadrius peronii. Journal Applied Ecology 43: 978-989.