Traditionally Used Wild Edible Greens in the Aegean Region of Turkey

Home , Cezerye, Glasswort salad, Malva neglecta, Stuffed mallow, Tarhana

Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae Journal homepage: pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/asbp INVITED REVIEW Received: 2012.08.31 Accepted: 2012.10.10 Published electronically: 2012.12.31 Acta Soc Bot Pol 81(4):329–342 DOI: 10.5586/asbp.2012.037

Traditionally used wild edible greens in the Aegean Region of Turkey

Yunus Dogan* Buca Faculty of Education, Dokuz Eylul University, 35150 Buca-Izmir, Turkey

Abstract

Turkey has the largest coastal area in the Mediterranean, possesses an extraordinarily rich flora, and a great traditional knowledge. This diversity of plants naturally affects the traditional use of plants and is reflected in the rich Turkish cuisine. Consequently, the Mediterranean Diet (whose typical components are wild greens) constitutes one of the important elements of Turkish cuisine. For this reason, the aim of this study was to determine the consumption of wild edible green plants for the Aegean Region of Turkey and to establish the similarities to or differences from consumption in other regions and other cuisine in the Mediterranean Basin. This study compiles and evaluates the ethnobotanical data currently available. There were 111 taxa that were identified as wild edible greens in the study area belonging to 26 different families. Asteraceae (21 taxa) were the most commonly consumed as food. It was followed by Boraginaceae with 19 taxa, Apiaceae with 15 taxa and Lamiaceae with 7 taxa, respectively. Rumex and Erodium were the most represented genera with 4 species. Tamus communis and Asparagus acutifolius, Mediterranean elements and distributed in all of the Mediterranean Basin, are among the most widely consumed wild plants in the area. Wild edible plants are consumed in a variety of ways. The most common type of consumption (79 taxa) was in salads. The fact that the majority of the plants used in the area are consumed in salads shows the close relationship between the local diet and the concept of the Mediterranean Diet. As a result, very promisingly, there is a renewed or increasing interest in consuming wild food plants as part of this diet.

Keywords: wild edible greens, ethnobotany, traditional knowledge, consumption, Mediterranean Diet, Aegean, Turkey

Introduction more recent investigations focused on their evident health benefits. The type of food consumed reflects the identity of people However, the Mediterranean Basin contains many different and the use of wild food plants is a very good indicator of cultures, religious beliefs, and ecologic backgrounds. This has traditional local knowledge. The main characteristics of the resulted in many diets, sharing a multitude of elements. But Mediterranean Diet has been described as mainly composed at the same time, these diets differ in distinct local or regional of vegetables, salads, fruits and spices, whole-grain cereals, traditions. Food and medicinal uses have always been the most pasta, nuts, legumes, olive oil, seafood, a moderate consump- relevant reasons for plant management in the folk traditions tion of wine with meals, poultry consumed in low-to-moderate of the Mediterranean Region, and they still continue to be amounts, and a relatively low consumption of red meat [1–3]. so, even in cultures that are progressively losing their close By supplying micronutrients, vitamins, and minerals, wild relationship with nature [2]. plants play an important role in complementing staple foods The studies show that Mediterranean Diet contains impor- [4]. Many of these wild foods are common and productive, as tant dietary components that may contribute to a lower risk of well as being highly nutritious, palatable, and easily harvested cancer. Several micro-components with antioxidant potential [5]. They are also important as a source of income for poor are underlying factors that define the health benefits of this communities, as well as being a source of food and considered type of diet. The relative longevity of the Mediterranean people a healthy diet by many. Diets consumed by Mediterranean is attributed to the type of diet they consume [6]. The Mediter- peoples have been a subject of interest since antiquity, with ranean Diet is an example of sustainable food production. It is a dietary pattern that can combine taste and health, environ- mental protection, biodiversity protection, and consumption of local and seasonal products [7]. * Email: [email protected] Turkey, which has the largest coastal area in the Mediter- ranean, possesses an extraordinarily rich flora and a great This is an Open Access digital version of the article distributed traditional knowledge. Due to its climate and geographical under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License position, Turkey, with its 10000 taxa, is one of the richest (creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits redistribution, commercial countries in Europe and the Middle East, in terms of flora [8]. and non-commercial, provided that the article is properly cited. A total of 1/3 of the plant taxa of Turkey is endemic [9]. Ana- tolian people have been profiting from this variety and using © The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society plants as food and medicine since the Paleolithic [10]. This 330 Dogan / Wild edible greens of the Turkish Aegean Region diversity of plants naturally affects the traditional use of plants The vegetation in general consists of sclerophyllous shrubs and is reflected in the rich Turkish cousine. Consequently, the and trees. The typical Mediterranean species are Styrax offici- Mediterranean Diet constitutes one of the important elements nalis L., Rhamnus palaestinus Boiss., Rhamnus punctatus Boiss., of Turkish cuisine. Arbutus andrachne L., Cistus creticus L., Satureja thymbra L., Despite all the great qualities of the Mediterranean Diet, in Salvia triloba L., and Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) Spach. Some many Mediterranean regions, including Turkey, the traditions of the representative species found in both the east and west regarding the diet are under the risk of disappearing, and provinces are Quercus ilex L., Quercus coccifera L., and Pistacia therefore there is an urgent need to study them [11]. In this terebinthus L. The East Mediterranean Province exhibits a modern era where the fast-food culture is spreading world- strong influence from the Irano-Turanian region. The typical wide and the transfer of ethnobotanical knowledge from old dominant species in the Mediterranean Region is Quercus ilex. generations is diminishing, this study will be helpful for both This species is replaced in the East Mediterranean Province recording the information regarding the consumption of wild by Quercus coccifera and among the tree species are Ceratonia edible plants as a food source and providing people with new siliqua L., Olea europaea L. subsp. oleaster (Hoffmanns. & Link) ideas. For this reason, the aim of present study was to review Negodi, and Pistacia lentiscus L. The maquis was formed as the consumption of wild edible green plants and establish a result of the destruction of tree formations. They develop the similarities to or differences from consumption in other on the slopes which lack soil cover deep enough to support regions and other cuisine in the Mediterranean Basin. forest vegetation and consist of the sclerophyllous species of Several previous studies have described the traditional shrubs, together with some climbers like Lonicera, Clematis, knowledge about the plants in the research area and the uses and Asparagus. and different needs for them such as everyday household items, The borders of the Mediterranean Region in Turkey were traditional crafts, etc. 8[ ,12–17]. drawn by Zohary [23]. They correspond with the southern border of the distribution of Pinus brutia Ten. The latter is General characteristics of the study area an indicator of the true Mediterranean conditions. In some CLIMATE. The Mediterranean climate is dominant in places this border is drawn by the Quercus ithaburensis Decne. the study area, particularly along the shores of the Mediter- subsp. macrolepis (Kotschy) Hedge, but never by plants like ranean, Aegean, and Marmara regions. In the Mediterranean Quercus cerris, Pinus nigra Arn., and Juniperus spp. Black climate, summers are hot and dry; winters are mild and rainy. pine is a typical indicator of the oro- and sub-Mediterranean The maximum precipitation falls in the winter; the minimum vegetation. This vegetation is phytogeographically closer to falls in summer. A long and arid period predominates from euxinian vegetation than the Mediterranean one. The region mid-May till mid-October. In April and May, clear and still close to Central Anatolia serves as a transition zone between weather conditions alternate with rain showers and cold. The the Mediterranean, the semi-desert belt, and the steppes. The difference between summer and winter precipitation is very climate and vegetation in general show the same characteristics high. The average annual precipitation is 600 to 1000 mm. The as those of the Mediterranean [24]. annual average temperature is 18 to 20°C. Mountains in the Aegean Region lie perpendicular to the shore and this allows the Mediterranean climate to reach inland [18–20]. Material and methods VEGETATION. The study area includes the Aegean Region of Turkey (Fig. 1). It is geographically situated in the western This study compiles and evaluates the ethnobotanical data part of Turkey. Markgraf [21] has divided the Mediterranean currently available. More than seventy literature sources were Region into two subdivisions: the west and the east provinces. reviewed [25–101] including six from the study area [25–30]. According to this division, the study area lies in the East Plant names are given according to Davis [31]. A literature Mediterranean Province. In the Mediterranean Basin there is review was carried out firstly for the Aegean Region, which is huge topographic, climatic, and geographic variability giving target study area, and then for all of Turkey and the wild edible rise to an astounding array of species and habitat diversity [22]. green plants used in these areas were identified. According to Turner et al. [5], edible wild plants are root vegetables, edible greens, fleshy fruits, grains, seeds, and nuts. This study focused on the wild edible greens. It includes leaves, stems, and shoots. In addition, based on field observations, the consumption of some plant taxa is reported here for the first time. The plants' scientific names, families, local and English names, parts consumed, type of consumption and related sources are also given in Tab. 1.

Results and discussion

Altogether, 111 taxa of wild edible greens have been used in the study area (Tab. 1). Rumex and Erodium are the most represented genera, with four species. Amaranthus, Tragop- Fig. 1 The map of the study area. ogon, and Papaver were represented by three species. Allium, Anchusa, Chenopodium, Chrysanthemum, Eryngium, Lamium, Lepidium, Scorzonera, Silene, Sinapis, Sisymbrium, Smyrnium, Sonchus, and Urtica were represented by two species (Fig. 2).

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society Dogan / Wild edible greens of the Turkish Aegean Region 331 , , , , ] , ] 61 48 ] 45 49 , , , , 66 , 63 89 , 83 52 46 ] , – 41 45 , , , , 51 , 61 ] ] , 85 66 86 41 45 , , , 38 41 , , , , 48 80 , 83 58 , , ] , 84 63 82 38 39 , , , 37 39 , , ] , 44 68 ] , 75 – 80 56 , , , , 80 61 71 37 38 71 , , , 34 , , , 75 42 36 49 , , 71 – , 60 54 , ] ] , ] , 71 60 61 34 34 59 ] – , , , , ] , , 46 11 32 11 48 75 , 34 , 61 , 71 , 45 , ] , ] , , , , 77 52 68 50 56 11 4 37 4 11 49 4 4 , , , , , Citation out of study area study of out Citation , , , , , , , , 46 81 2 32 2 4 82 33 2 38 4 2 2 34 2 37 [ [ [ 71 [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ 49 66 [ [ 47 [ [ 53 [ ] 30 ] , 30 29 ] ] , , 29 29 26 27 ] ] ] ] ] ] , , ] ] , ] ] ] , ] ] ] ] ] ] Use in the Use study area study 25 25 29 27 25 27 27 25 27 27 25 25 25 25 25 25 27 25 26 27 29 [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ author's observations [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ Recipe Consumed as pastry. Fried with egg. Cooked with olive oil, oil, egg. with Fried Cooked olive with pastry. as Consumed pie. vegetable as prepared oil, egg. with Fried Cooked olive with pastry. as Consumed pie. vegetable as prepared fried salads, pastries added to or and and in a skilletChopped and eggs. with consumed added in salads, to or raw Consumed meal, pie. stew, as Prepared saladsboiling. after as salad. consumed and boiling added is after lemon and oil Olive own. its meal as on Consumed roasted. Consumed pastries. to Added vegetables. salads, to many with cooked Added roasted. or meal,own its on mealas consumed stuffed, are Leaves bryony black with or alone either Fried bryony. black like Roasted egg added. is and vegetables. saladsCooked other with rice. In with alone. eaten salads to or Added fried egg. with raw, Eaten salad. as Consumed salads. or soup, in meal, roast, Consumed in salads. raw Consumed in salads. raw Consumed as eaten and lemon, and oil Boiled seasoned olive with and food. refreshing with Fried oil. olive and salad as lemon with Boiled, prepared onion. onion. with Fried Roasted. salads. pastries to and Added Edible green part leaf leaf shoot leaf and shoot leaf and leaf leaf shoot leaf and leaf aboveground leaf young shoot leaf aboveground whole plant leaf and shoot young aboveground shoot leaf and shoot leaf and leaf aboveground aboveground aboveground English name wild leek hairy garlic amaranth slim amaranth common amaranth slender pimpernel scarlet wild bugloss alkanet dill lords-and-ladies asparagus spiny daisy water leaf cut parsnip beet mustard black purse shepherd's cress bitter whitetop thistle star yellow quarters lamb's all-seed weed rush skeleton Local name Karaköremen Köremen tilkikuyruğusirken, horoz ibiği sirken, deli tilkikuyruğu fare kulağı Sığırdili kocaot ballıkotu, dereotu yılan yastığı kuşkonmaz koyungözü sukazayagı yabani pancar karahardal çobançantası sukerdimesi kediotu çakırdikeni sirken sirken sakızı çengel Family Liliaceae Liliaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae Primulaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae Apiaceae Araceae Liliaceae Asteraceae Apiaceae Chenopodiaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Asteraceae Chenopodiaceae Chenopodiaceae Asteraceae L.

L. (L.) L. L. L. M. Bieb. L. L. L. L. L. subsp. L. subsp. L. L. L. Mill. (L.) Desv. L. (L.) Koch (Huds.) Coville (Huds.) Traditionally used wild edible greens of the Aegean Region of Turkey. of Region the Aegean used of wild greens edible Traditionally Scientific name (Ten.) Cout. (Ten.) spp. Tab. 1 Tab. Allium ampeloprasum Allium subhirsutum chlorostachys Amaranthus Willd. Amaranthus retroflexus Amaranthus viridis arvensis Anagallis azurea Anchusa Anchusa undulata hybrida graveolens Anethum Arum maculatum Asparagus acutifolius perennis Bellis Berula erecta Beta Brassica nigra Capsella bursa-pastoris Medik Cardamine uliginosa draba Cardaria Centaurea solstitialis Chenopodium album polyspermum Chenopodium Chondrilla juncea

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society 332 Dogan / Wild edible greens of the Turkish Aegean Region , ] , 49 , – 83 , 72 , , 55 , 45 , ] 68 52 , 71 , , ] 53 ] , 42 71 , , 66 49 , ] 68 92 59 , , 50 , – 41 61 , , – 65 92 , , 66 90 52 47 , , ] , , 37 54 44 , , , 63 85 ] ] , 63 85 91 50 45 , , – , , , 34 53 42 , , 91 93 , 83 ] , ] ] , ] ] 61 84 60 53 47 40 , , , – , ] , , 11 50 11 , , 79 54 37 72 39 , 75 34 ] , , ] , ] , , , , 53 82 58 81 4 41 38 4 45 34 4 , , , , Citation out of study area study of out Citation , , , , , , , 2 4 4 61 2 78 32 42 32 83 2 4 50 38 2 32 32 [4,46] [ 52 80 [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ 56 72 [ [ ] ] ] , 30 29 28 ] , , , ] ] ] 27 27 27 27 27 81 27 ] , ] ] , , ] , ] ] , ] , ] ] – ] ] ] 30 , Use in the Use study area study 25 26 27 25 25 25 27 25 25 25 25 29 25 25 25 25 27 27 27 [41] [ [ [ author's observations [ [ [ [ author's observations [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ 29 [ [ [ Recipe Eaten raw. Eaten raw. Eaten in salads, used raw in yogurt salad, be cooked can eaten Leaves in consumed lemon, and seasoned oil with onion) with (sautéed oil. fried and or in stew garlic with soup, stuffed. meal as or Consumed into Chopped onion. with Fried salad plant. to fresh as Added soups. various used in salads. freshly Leaves stew. meal, and as Consumed tarhana. to Added roasted. Consumed Cooked onion. with pastry” iron “sheet (sac of stuffing to fried.Consumed Added böreği). pastry. iron sheet of stuffing to fried.Consumed Added pastry. iron sheet of stuffing to fried.Consumed Added pastry. iron sheet of stuffing to fried.Consumed Added in salads. raw Consumed stew. or pie as Prepared vinegar. and lemon, in salads oil, with raw Eaten oil. olive and onion with in salads.cooked Leaves raw Eaten Cooked meal. as pilaf. to egg. Added and onion with Fried meat. Cooked lamb with prepared and oil salads. added to Cooked and Chopped olive with pie. vegetable as salad pie. as Consumed and stew. as Consumed pie. meal as and Consumed Edible green part leaf leaf aboveground leaf aboveground leaf shoot leaf and aboveground leaf leaf aboveground aboveground aboveground aboveground leaf shoot leaf and leaf shoot leaf and aboveground leaf aboveground leaf English name crown daisy crown marigold corn chicory thistle creeping coriander samphire rock wild carrot herb tarhana viper's Italian bugloss lily foxtail filaree redstem bill stork's Mediterranean bill stork's bill stork's musky salad rocket eryngofield eryngo an Crete sickle weed fennel fumitory rue goat's geranium cutleaf Local name dallama sarı papatya hindiba yabani köygöçerten kişniş denizmarulu, kayakoruğu daraklık, yabani havuç çördük, tarhana otu ayıkulağı çiriş iğnelik iğnelik dönbaba, iğnelik dönbaba, iğnelik dönbaba, roka yabani Boğa dikeni dikeni göz kazayağı arapçaçı şahtere keçisakalı turnagagası Family Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Boraginaceae Liliaceae Geraniaceae Geraniaceae Geraniaceae Geraniaceae Brassicaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Fumariaceae Fabaceae Geraniaceae L. L. L. subsp. L. subsp. L. C. A. L. (L.) L. Bieb.* L. (L.) (L.) L'Hérit Mill. Lam. L. L. L. Bernh. L. (L.) Scop. L. (Guss.) Tutin (Guss.) Mill. (continued) Scientific name

Tab. 1 coronarium Chrysanthemum segetum Chrysanthemum Cichorium intybus Cirsium arvense Coriandrum sativum Crithmum maritimum Daucus carota Echinophora tenuifolia sibthorpiana Echium italicum spectabilis Eremurus Erodium cicutarium Erodium hoefftianum Meyer malacoides Erodium L'Herit. Erodium moschatum L'Herit. Eruca sativa Eryngium campestre Eryngium creticum Falcaria vulgaris vulgare Foeniculum Fumaria officinalis officinalis Galega Geranium dissectum

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society Dogan / Wild edible greens of the Turkish Aegean Region 333 , , , 83 54 , , – 49 , , – ] 55 71 80 ] 59 , ] , 47 52 – , 96 , , 98 – 66 91 68 , 53 49 ] , , , 45 49 , , , 94 – 97 , 90 63 89 66 , 49 47 , , , , 42 , , 45 72 – , 91 , 80 61 88 63 48 45 , , - , , , , 37 41 59 , ] , , 66 59 89 83 61 45 40 , , , , , ] , , 34 71 37 50 , , , , ] ] ] 63 54 83 72 59 90 37 38 , , , , , , , , 32 54 11 39 , 54 52 , 39 , , ] , , ] ] , 61 53 78 66 58 89 11 4 34 4 4 , , , , , , Citation out of study area study of out Citation , , , , , 33 4 50 2 49 34 2 82 40 2 33 2 [ [ 58 [ [ 50 72 [ [ [ 61 [ [ [ [ [ 56 87 ] ] ] ] 30 30 , , 30 30 , , ] 28 27 29 29 30 ] , ] ] ] ] ] ] – ] ] , , ] ] ] ] ] ] – Use in the Use study area study 27 27 27 25 25 25 25 25 25 27 27 27 25 27 25 27 25 25 25 25 [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ author's observations [ [ [ [ [ Recipe Consumed as roasted, salad, and pickle. salad, and roasted, as Consumed salad. as Consumed meal,pastry. added as to Consumed meal,pastry. added as to Consumed pastry. to Added salad. added to fresh, Eaten salad. added to fresh, Eaten salad. as raw eaten and oil in olive Put in put or soup as Prepared oil. olive or Cooked minced meat with fried herbs. other with pastry, salad. and roasted, soup, pie, as Consumed meal. and soup, as Consumed salad. as Eaten onion. with Fried meal. salad, as and Consumed salad. as Consumed Boiled egg thenwith cooked and salads. various added to in breakfast, eaten freshly are Leaves meal. as Consumed salad. green with mixed Consumed pastry as stuffing. salad. green with Used mixed Consumed Consumed pie. vegetable as prepared and oil, Cooked olive with soup. and meal, roasted, as pastry as stuffing. salad. green with Used mixed Consumed Consumed pie. vegetable as prepared and oil, Cooked olive with soup. and meal, roasted, as pastry as stuffing. salad. green with Used mixed Consumed Consumed pie. vegetable as prepared and oil, Cooked olive with soup. and meal, roasted, as Edible green part young stem and leaf and stem young leaf aboveground aboveground aboveground leaf leaf leaf and shoot young aboveground aboveground leaf aboveground leaf and stem stem leaf leaf aboveground leaf and stem young young shoot young shoot young shoot English name Tournefort's Tournefort's gundelia lettuce prickly deadnettle henbit deadnettle musk mallow cornish cress pepper cress seawavyleaf lavender mallow common mint water mercury annual watercress water- corky-fruited dropwort thistle Taurian opopanax oregano Turkish Bethlehem of star Bermuda buttercup poppy long-head corn poppy Local name kengerotu eşekacı marul, marulu ballıbaba otu lünlün develik, gömeç tere kerdime sahil karanfili ebegümeci nanesi Su fesleğeni yer teresi su kazayağı eşek dikeni sarıot kekiği Izmir akbaldır yonca ekşi meşkük haşhaşı gelincik gelincik Family Asteraceae Asteraceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Malvaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Plumbaginaceae Malvaceae Lamiaceae Euphorbiaceae Brassicaceae Apiaceae Asteraceae Apiaceae Lamiaceae Liliaceae Oxalidaceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae L. L. L. Willd. L. R. Br. Mill. (L.) Mill. Stapf. Ard. (Friv.) (Friv.) L. L. L. L. L. L. L. L L. L. (continued) Scientific name

Tab. 1 Gundelia tournefortii Lactuca serriola Lamium amplexicaule Lamium moschatum cretica Lavatera Lepidium sativum Lepidium spinosum Limonium sinuatum Malva sylvestris aquatica Mentha annua Mercurialis Nasturtium officinale Oenanthe pimpinelloides Onopordum tauricum hispidus Opopanax Griseb. Origanum onites narbonense Ornithogalum Oxalis pes-caprae Papaver dubium guerlekense Papaver rhoeas Papaver

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society 334 Dogan / Wild edible greens of the Turkish Aegean Region , ] , ] 50 , , 75 – , 71 92 56 , , 56 , 47 – 71 ] , , , – 61 87 , , 78 53 , 90 45 61 , 67 54 , ] , , , – 53 59 , , 73 49 ] ] , ] 85 82 39 , 66 47 ] , , 59 , , – , 49 58 ] 83 , 42 , 65 91 48 , , ] , 92 75 80 , 61 38 – , , , 37 49 , , 41 , 47 55 75 , 40 , 82 – 89 41 – , , , ] , 58 90 74 70 54 37 , , , , 34 , ] , – ] ] 40 48 45 ] 36 – 61 , 39 , 71 , 87 66 , , , , ] ] , , 56 88 71 68 53 49 34 37 62 81 , , , , ] , , , , , , 39 32 34 45 42 33 , 53 , 36 , 50 82 75 , 82 63 , , , , , , – 55 83 63 65 59 34 4 4 47 4 33 34 55 63 4 , – , – , , Citation out of study area study of out Citation , , , , , , , , , , , 2 2 32 2 47 2 4 33 2 4 4 4 34 34 61 4 2 37 [ [ [ [ 52 80 [ [ 82 [ [ [ [ 61 [ 61 [ [ [ [ [ [ 63 [ ] ] ] 28 30 30 ] , , , ] ] ] 28 27 27 27 28 30 28 ] ] ] , , ] , ] ] , , ] , ] ] ] ] , Use in the Use study area study 29 29 27 27 25 25 25 29 27 25 27 27 27 25 25 25 27 25 [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ author's observations [ [ [ [ [ [ [ author's observations [ [ [ Recipe Added to pastries and salads. pastries to and Added onion with Fried pickle. to Added alone. eaten are shoots Fresh egg. and and salad. pie, stuffed, as Consumed with wheat soup made into friedor egg with chopping, After pastry. as yogurt. Prepared and grains Cooked garlic. with yogurt salad and with as freshly or Consumed vegetables. other with Cooked soup as onion. salad as boiling. after Prepared boiling. after lemon and garlic, oil, salad as olive with Prepared and soup. stuffed stew, meal, roasted, as Consumed pastries, salads to and Added lemon. and garlic, oil, seasoned olive boiled with and oil salad olive with made or is raw consumed and removed is Skin egg added. is and oil with Fried lemon. and spice as dishes other or dishes meat to salads or to fresh as Added dried. after Prepared salad raw. as or consumed commonly taste, sour Due to and meal, pie, soup, salad stuffed, as as yogurt. Consumed with roasted. roasted. meal, and salad, pie, soup, stuffed, as Consumed roasted. meal, and salad, pie, soup, stuffed, as Consumed stuffed, as Consumed pastry. to egg. Added and onion with Fried roasted. meal, salad, and soup, pie, garlic. and lemon oil, salad as olive with Boiled prepared and in salads. Eaten a is salads. to It Added in the breakfast. raw eaten are leaves Its plant. spice pie. vegetable as in salads. Prepared Used meat. Cooked lamb with meal as and Consumed eaten. sprinkled are salt with leaves Young in salads. Edible green part aboveground young shoot leaf aboveground aboveground leaf leaf and shoot fresh aboveground fresh shoot and petiole young leaf leaf and shoot young leaf leaf leaf young shoot leaf and shoot young leaf leaf and shoot young and the root of bark basal stalk leaf young leaf English name paracaryum terebinth ribwort plantain knot-grass purslane lesser celandine wild radish weed turnip rhubarb rosemary sheep sorrel curled dock dock broad-leaf dock patience glasswort salad burnet savory thyme-leaved shepherd's-needle blessed thistle dog's scorzonera Local name elköpürten çitlenbik menengic, sinirliot madımak semiz otu yağlıot,katırnalı turpotu turp yabani küçük ışgın kuşdili kuzukulağı labada kıvırcık labada yabani labada, evelik deniz börülcesi düğmesi çayır taş kekiği kişkiş şevket-i bostan iskorçina yakıotu, Family Boraginaceae Anacardiaceae Plantaginaceae Polygonaceae Portulacaceae Ranunculaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Polygonaceae Lamiaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Polygonaceae Amaranthaceae Ranunculaceae Lamiaceae Apiaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae L. L. L. Meisn.* (A. DC.) L. (L.) All. L. L. L. L. Scop. L. L. L. L. L. (C. A. Meyer) (C. A. Meyer) L. L.* (continued) Scientific name

Tab. 1 Paracaryum aucheri Boiss. Pistacia terebinthus Plantago lanceolata cognatum Polygonum Portulaca oleracea Ranunculus ficaria Raphanus raphanistrum Rapistrum rugosum ribes Rheum Rosmarinus officinalis Rumex acetosella crispus Rumex Rumex obtusifolius patientia Rumex europaea Salicornia Sanguisorba minor thymbra Satureja pecten-veneris Scandix Scolymus hispanicus Scorzonera cana Hoffm.

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society Dogan / Wild edible greens of the Turkish Aegean Region 335 , , , 60 , 61 , ] , , ] , 56 ] ] 58 ] 50 , – 89 60 55 , , , 88 81 , , 92 99 – 90 , , 56 53 , 49 , , 82 54 , , ] , 83 80 53 , , 85 92 , ] 86 , , 55 48 , 45 , 61 61 53 , , , , 75 – 75 49 68 , , 81 75 , 61 , , 53 – , 42 , 59 59 49 45 , , , 71 , 69 67 – , , ] 80 68 , 46 53 ] , , 49 , , 52 49 48 42 , 40 , , – 63 , 68 75 52 , , , , 90 75 66 44 49 ] , , , , , – 49 47 45 45 34 , 37 , , , 47 , 66 71 ] , , , , 90 83 71 63 34 45 44 , , , , , , ] , ] ] 42 34 37 34 11 75 , 34 , , , 45 , 63 61 , , ] , ] 87 80 63 60 32 4 34 4 34 4 4 34 4 41 – , – , , , Citation out of study area study of out Citation , , , , , , , , , , 37 4 2 11 37 4 2 2 2 2 34 2 2 35 4 100 [ [ 60 85 [ [ 59 [ [ [ [ [ 65 [ 61 [ [ [ 58 [ [ [ ] ] ] 30 29 30 ] ] ] , , ] ] ] ] – 30 27 30 27 27 30 27 30 27 27 ] ] , ] , , , ] ] ] ] ] , , , , , , ] ] ] Use in the Use study area study 25 25 27 25 25 27 25 29 27 27 25 25 25 29 25 25 25 25 27 29 25 [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ [ author's observations [ [ Recipe Young leaves sprinkled with salt are eaten. Consumed as meal and meal as and Consumed eaten. sprinkled are salt with leaves Young in salads. in salads. raw Consumed stew. as Prepared oil, in salads. Cooked raw olive with Consumed stew. as Prepared pie. vegetable as prepared and oil, in salads. Cooked raw olive with Consumed stew. as Prepared pie. vegetable as prepared and salad. into made boiled egg, with Roasted and or salad. Also consumed into made boiled egg, with Roasted and or soup. vegetable as pastries. to Added in salads. raw Consumed or cooked with rice. eggand onion friedAfter boiling, with snack. as raw eaten are shoots Young pickled. as Consumed pickle. to Added raw. eaten Leaf stalks are pickle. to Added raw. Cooked. eaten Leaf stalks are and garlic, salad as lemon, with prepared Boiled courgettes, with olive oil. as salad. as Used egg. Boiled and prepared and onion with Fried raw in saladoil with or seasoned soup inpastryEaten stuffing. lemon. and as or salad prepared egg. After boiled and onion with Fried pastry as with stuffing. salad.Cooked as Used fresh consumed olive oil. pastry as stuffing. salad. as Used freshly Prepared egg added. is and fried shoots onion with Fresh salad as salads. green pastries Boiled to and prepared and Added meal. and stew, as Consumed lemon. and garlic, oil, olive with pie. meal, salad, as and Consumed as consumed Commonly fresh. as in breakfast eaten are Leaves plant. salad. A spice salads. pastries to and Added salads. pastries to and Added Edible green part leaf leaf aboveground aboveground aboveground aboveground aboveground aboveground leaf and shoot leaf and shoot young leaf leaf leaf and shoot young leaf leaf aboveground young shoot aboveground aboveground leaf shoot leaf and shoot leaf and English name viper's grass red stonecrop groundsel catchfly Italian campion bladder mustard white wild mustard mustard tumble mustard hedge sarsaparilla Alexanders yellow Alexanders nightshade black thistle sow spiny thistle sow chickweed black bryony dandelion pennycress cotswold za'atar salsify goat's long-beaked beard Local name tekesakalı kayaüzümü kanaryaotu nakıl otu gıvışgan beyaz hardal hardal otu bülbül otu akhardal silcan gıcır, sarıkırek kereviz yabani köpek istifno, giritotu üzümü, sütlen sütlot, yalancı eşek marulu, marul kuşotu sarmaşık radika, karahindiba çiçeği akça çayır zahter yemlik tekesakalı Family Asteraceae Crassulaceae Asteraceae Caryophyllaceae Caryophyllaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Liliaceae Apiaceae Apiaceae Solanaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Caryophyllaceae Dioscoreaceae Asteraceae Brassicaceae Lamiaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae L. Bisch. Bisch. (L.) Scop. L. Boiss. et Boiss. L. L. L. L. L. Boiss. L. L. (L.) Vill. (Moench.) (Moench.) L. (L.) Hill subsp. subsp. (L.) Hill L. (L.) Pers. L. spp. (Jordan) Ball (Jordan) (continued) Scientific name

Tab. 1 Scorzonera elata rubens Sedum vulgaris Senecio Silene italica vulgaris Silene Garcke Sinapis alba arvensis Sinapis Sisymbrium altissimum Sisymbrium officinale aspera Smilax Smyrnium connatum Kotschy Smyrnium olusatrum Solanum nigrum asper Sonchus glaucescens Sonchus oleraceus media Stellaria communisTamus Taraxacum Thlaspi perfoliatum Thymbra spicata latifolius Tragopogon longirostris Tragopogon ex Sch. Bip.

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society 336 Dogan / Wild edible greens of the Turkish Aegean Region , ] ] , There were difficulties in identifying the species reported as 47 , 77 , 101 101 , , 45

, Beta, considering they are given at the genus level. While 71 , 99 63 , , 42 67 , – Beta vulgaris is given as wild in some studies, the use of Beta 97 56 , – 66 40 , , 92

, maritima is reported in others. However, Beta vulgaris has no 54 , 63 38 , 91 – ,

49 wild localities in the Turkish flora. Another curiosity is related , 37 , 61 89 , 39 – , to Taraxacum. Although there is no Taraxacum officinale 34 , 58 ] , 87 34 , , ] 33 48 ,

56 in Turkey [31], some authors, possibly due to difficulties in , 83 4 32 – , Citation out of study area study of out Citation , , 100 47 2 4

[ [ [ 52 78 [ identification, have reported the consumption of this species as food. In addition, more than fifty Taraxacum taxa are naturally distributed in Turkey and most of them are consumed as food. ] ]

28 30 Therefore, this genus is given as Taraxacum spp. in this study. ] ] ] , , Use in the Use study area study 25 27 27 25 27 [ [ [ [ [ Recipe Added to pastries and salads. pastries to and Added yogurt. with stewed salad, as or Consumed stuffed. Consumed to Added pastry to Added stuffing. mallow. and onion with Fried stew. and soup, as salad Consumed fresh. as to Added pastry to Added stuffing. mallow. and onion with Fried stew. and soup, as salad Consumed fresh. as

Fig. 2 Plant genera with the highest number of taxa in the study area. Edible green part shoot leaf and shoot leaf and leaf leaf and shoot young leaf and shoot young

Wild edible green vegetables identified in this study belong to 26 different families. Asteraceae are best represented (21 different taxa, 18% of the wild green vegetables). Other well represented families are Boraginaceae with 19 taxa, Apiaceae English name with 15 taxa, and Lamiaceae with 7 taxa, respectively (Fig. 3). long-beaked goat's goat's long-beaked beard salsify coltsfoot nettle stinging nettle dwarf The other 22 families have less representation, between one to six taxa each. Local name tekesakalı tekesakalı öksürükotu ısırgan dalgan, ısırgan Family Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Bisch. Bisch. L. L. L. L. Fig. 3 Plant families with the highest number of taxa in the study (continued) Scientific name

area. Tab. 1 longirostris Tragopogon ex Sch. Bip. porrifoliusTragopogon farfara Tussilago dioica Urtica urens Urtica sold. and the markets to brought area, Collected the study area. outside in the study * Doesgrow not

Wild edible plants are consumed in a variety of ways. The in the open markets, as well. Especially wild Eruca sativa and identified consumption types are divided into nine main Lepidium sativum are commonly consumed as a salad or raw. categories: green salad (fresh plants and dressing), salad after The consumption of plants in an area especially that of boiling, salad with yogurt, raw/fresh, main dish (sautéed with wild edible plants as food, is closely associated with the socio- oil and onion, also may have different vegatables, rice, meat cultural features of the population. Particularly, the increase etc. added), pastry/pie, soup, pickle, and stuffed. However, it in ethnic variety in the area is supportive of a variety of plant must be noted that many species could be classified in more usage and occurrence of more recipes. In light of this, Izmir than one category. The most common type of consumption province in the study area, with a population of over 3 million is as a salad (Fig. 4) with three sub-categories under this and the 3rd most populated city in Turkey, in the past hosted consumption type: green salad, salad after boiling, and salad immigration from many areas. This fact has naturally influ- with yogurt. Among them, only salad with yogurt is consumed enced the consumption of a variety of wild edible plants. For without oil. All other salad types (76 taxa) are prepared with instance, Cretan immigrants have had a great impact in this oil, as it is a typical Mediterranean region. Because olive oil is regard. In this study, it was concluded that the information readily available in the region, it is preferred in all salads and regarding the consumption and recipes of plants such as Scoly- most foods. In addition to olive oil, vinegar, lemon, and garlic mus hispanicus, Solanum nigrum, and Taraxacum spp. may are also added to salads, depending on the type of the salad. have been transferred to the area by immigrants from Crete. It has already been reported that salad and vegetable dishes It must be noted that the species whose flowering tops prepared as traditional recipes in Turkish cuisine make use of or green parts are collected in small amounts for seasoning many local wild plants [10,32]. Another category, following are not included in the study (e.g. Thymbra spicata, Satureja the consumption as salads, is the main dish category with 71 thymbra, Origanum onites, Laurus nobilis L., Capparis ovata taxa. The pastry/pie category is represented by 42 taxa. The Desf., and Capparis spinosa L.). T. spicata (za'atar), O. onites consumption habits of the Turkish people play an important (oregano), and S. thymbra (thyme-leaved savory) are sold as role in the high number for this category. Due to the partiality wild in many open markets of Izmir. They are dried and used for food made with dough, various tastes are obtained by mix- as a spice, while very rarely consumed fresh. Fresh leaves of ing many plants in pastries. Twenty-two taxa are consumed as O. onites are consumed raw even for breakfast in and around soup. Another category of consumption is stuffed foods. In this Izmir-Beydag. Similarly, S. thymbra and T. spicata are con- study area, stuffed rolls (so called “sarma” rolls) is a popular sumed raw or added to salads. “Za'atar salad”, a type of salad dish made especially with rice, but sometimes cracked wheat mostly known and consumed in Eastern and Southeastern (bulgur) is preferred. Sarma rolls are primarily wrapped with Anatolia, is not commonly consumed in the study area [35]. the leaves of the grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) and then those Green, unripe fruits of Amygdalus communis L. are consumed of cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.). However, nine other taxa very commonly in the spring months in the study area. They are used to wrap sarma as well. Among these, Arum macula- were not included here due to the fact that technically they tum, which is a poisonous plant, so the leaves of this plant is are not “green vegetables”. Both cultivated and wild forms are consumed as sarma only after being boiled 27[ ,33]. This type collected and sold. However, the fruit dries and hardens in a of consumption has not been reported outside the study area, very short time and its seeds are consumed as a snack or added while Redžić [34] reported consumption of ground parts of to food or desserts for taste. this plant as mush (from Bosnia-Herzegovina). Rheum ribes and Eremurus spectabilis do not occur in the study area and Polygonum cognatum is very rare. However, they are common in Middle and Eastern Anatolia. P. cognatum is commonly consumed in various parts of Turkey [27,28,32,33,36–41], as well as Rheum ribes [33,36,39,40,42]. It was observed that these plants are only sold in Izmir (in the study area). There is only one reference to the consumption of E. spectabilis [42] in Turkey and no references from outside the country. This could be explained by the fact that these plants are Irano-Turanian elements and therefore are not distributed in the Mediterranean Basin. Market surveys showed, that sell- ers collect the plants in various parts of Middle and Eastern Anatolia and then transport and sell them in the markets of Izmir, but the indigenous population never consumes these plants. They are mostly consumed by immigrants from Middle and Eastern Anatolia or people who spent their childhood Fig. 4 Ways of consumption for the wild edible green plants in the there. These people also bring their unique ways of using the study area. plants and food culture. This is one of the factors that increase the variety of dishes in the region. Similarly, salad made with Thymbra spicata, an Irano-Turanian element, is commonly consumed in Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia. Also Scorzo- Out of the listed wild greens some of them are both col- nera elata and S. cana, though are not commonly consumed lected from the wild as well as cultivated. Plants such as Daucus in the study area, are sold in small amounts in some markets, carota, Eruca sativa, Allium ampeloprasum, Beta vulgaris, beacuse they are eaten by immigrants from Middle and Eastern Foeniculum vulgare, Coriandrum sativum, Lepidium sativum, Anatolia. Although the two species are used in some parts of and Portulaca oleracea are mostly sold as crops. However, wild Turkey [25,28,37,39], there are no reports of their use in other plants are either collected from nature and consumed or sold parts of the Mediterreanean. Also, there is no report for the use

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society 338 Dogan / Wild edible greens of the Turkish Aegean Region of Origanum onites and Satureja thymbra outside of the study leaves are consumed raw, as well as fried or fried with eggs, area. The usage of these plants is being reported for the first after boiling 59[ ]. In Spain, the inner parts of the prickly basal time based on our field observations. leaves are boiled and then usually lightly fried with a bit of Tamus communis and Asparagus acutifolius, Mediterranean garlic, cured ham, and scrambled eggs [70]. Neither this type elements distributed in all of the Mediterranean Basin, are of consumption nor the preparation with lamb is reported for among the most widely consumed wild plants in the area. An the study area. interesting fact is that one of the toxic plants identified in the Daucus carota is a commonly consumed plant. Its roots are study is black bryony (T. communis) [43,44]. The plant has a commonly used in salads and other foods. In various parts of bitter taste because of its saponin content. Young shoots with the area, the leaves and roots of the wild form are used in the leaves are the least toxic parts of the plant. They have been preparation of food. Shoots and leaves are consumed in the fall traditionally consumed after cooking, which destroys the toxic and winter months, while the roots are collected and consumed principles [44]. in the spring. Redžić [71] reported that, apart from the roots Although T. communis and A. acutifolus are among the and leaves, its seeds are also used as food. Additionally, in some most commonly consumed species throughout the study area, parts of Turkey, especially in the Mersin area, their roots are usually young shoots are fried with onion [25,27] and egg used in preparation of a sweet called “cezerye” and are widely [25,26,42], they are not consumed in other, non-Mediterra- consumed in all of Turkey. nean, parts of Turkey. On the other hand the two species are An endemic plant, Papaver guerlekense, a species similar to widely used in other parts of the Mediterranean, e.g. Spain, P. rhoeas, is consumed mixed in green salads, used as pastry Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Crete, Sardinia, and Sicily, where their stuffing, as a main dish, roasted, in a pie, salad, and soup25 [ ]. tender leaves are eaten both cooked and raw, in soups, and Pistacia terebinthus is not a common plant in the study area. omelets [4,11,44–66]. Pieroni et al. [45] and Menendez-Baceta It is generally collected from nature and its fresh shoots con- et al. [67] have reported that T. communis is first boiled and sumed raw. It is sold in the markets in small amounts. Due to then cooked with egg or in other ways. It is thought that the its resin content, it is added to pickles for taste and also cooked cooking method aims to eliminate the bitter taste coming with onion and egg. It is only in Cyprus that the plant is used in from the saponin. However, despite its bitter taste, it is also a similar way [59]. Although there are no literature data on the consumed raw, but only in Spain [4,68]. The plant was prob- use of its seeds, a type of coffee is made of the, called “Kenger ably used as food already in the times of Pedanius Dioscorides, coffee”, which is consumed widely instead of normal coffee in physician, pharmacologist, and botanist (40–90 AD). Accord- the Eastern Anatolian region (Y. D., unpublished data). ing to many scholars Dioscorides mentiones this plant in his In this study, the Malvaceae family is represented by La- famous five-volume encyclopedia “De Materia Medica” [49] vatera cretica and Malva sylvestris. The former is not commonly (though not everyone agrees, see [69]). This would show that consumed [25]. It is usually fried with other herbs and added to some food habits have remained the same from antiquity. The pastry. However, the other member of the family, M. sylvestris, plant formerly belonged to the genus Dioscorea, dedicated to is one of the most widely consumed plants in the study area, as Dioscorides. Similarly to Tamus communis, Solanum nigrum well as in other parts of Turkey and all of the Mediterranean and Arum maculatum are also toxic. All the three plants are Basin. The plant is cooked with minced meat or olive oil, pre- consumed after boiling. That way the bitter taste in the leaves pared as a soup, put in pastry, or fried with other herbs. In the is removed. Among the three, S. nigrum has the most toxic Aegean part of Turkey it is usually eaten in pastry. Apart from content. The greatest toxicity was detected in the unripe green this type of use, common mallow is consumed raw in salads in berries. This species is important especially for Izmir in the Northern Italy [66] and Lebanon [72]. This type of use is not study area. Among the locals, it is known with its Greek name encountered anywhere else. “istifno”. One of the most common salads made by Cretan In addition to M. sylvestris, which is widely distributed immigrants is prepared with this plant. The salad is prepared and commonly consumed in the study area, various Malva by boiling fresh shoots and leaves and then by adding fresh species such as Malva moschata L., Malva cretica Cav., Malva courgette, olive oil, and garlic. The use of the plant declines nicaeensis All., and Malva parviflora L. can be found, although towards the inner parts of the Aegean region, the reason being not so commonly. Although these plants can also be consumed is that the Cretan immigrants did not settled there. Interest- similar to M. sylvestris, there are no reports of their use. In ingly, in Cyprus, only the fruits of the plant are consumed and other areas, M. neglecta Wallr. is consumed like M. sylvestris there is no record of consumption of the green parts [59]. The [32,33,36,39,41,73–77]. usage of S. nigrum's fruits is common in many parts of the Plantago lanceolata is one of the plants that is consumed world. There are records of similar types of consumption for as stuffed, in a pie, and as a salad in the study area, but in this study area [25,27]. Redžić [34] and Hadjichambis et al. [2] other parts of Turkey its fresh leaves are consumed raw. Only reported that only fresh shoots of the plant are consumed in Menendez-Baceta et al. [67] reports its fresh leaves being Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Greece. consumed raw in Spain. The closest to this type of use in this Another typical Crete food, served even in choice res- area is to chop it up and add to salads. Pieroni [53,54] reports taurants, is prepared with Scolymus hispanicus (the bark of its use as soup and Redžić [34] reports it as cooked vegetables. the root and young basal leaf stalks of the plant with lamb). Chrysanthemum coronarium (Asteraceae) is one of the Theophrastus, known as the father of botany (371–287 BC), rare plants whose leaves are consumed only raw [25]. Similar and Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) mention the use of this plant usage has only been reported for Palestine [50], whereas in as food in their works [49]. The consumption of blessed Spain it is cooked [4]. There are no other reports for its use. thistle, which is a Mediterranean element, is not very common However, consumption of C. segetum in the same manner as especially around Izmir and outside of the places where the C. coronarium has been reported by Ertug [25] for Bodrum, Cretan immigrants reside. It is a commonly consumed plant which is included in the study area. Rumex acetosella is one of in the Mediterranean countries. In Cyprus, fresh stem and the plants that is consumed raw in the study area. It is eaten

© The Author(s) 2012 Published by Polish Botanical Society Dogan / Wild edible greens of the Turkish Aegean Region 339 directly from the field and, in addition to its many other uses. as Anagalis arvensis, Cichorium intybus, Fumaria officinalis, Its green leaves are consumed widely in rural areas due to Lactuca serriola, Lamium amplexicaule, Lamium moschatum, their sour taste. Plants that are sold in the markets are mostly Malva sylvestris, Papaver rhoeas, Raphanus raphanistrum, consumed as a salad [27]. It is commonly consumed in Asian Sinapis arvensis, Sisymbrium officinale, Stellaria media, and Minor and the whole of Europe. Tragopogon latifolius are considered as invasive field pests and Purslane (Portulaca oleracea) is a plant that is widely dis- are controlled with agricultural chemicals. They cause a loss tributed and consumed as food from Central Asia to Central of yield in crops, especially in grains, and therefore various America, from Myanmar to Brazil and from the U. K. to Yemen herbicides are applied, which decreases the availability of wild [49]. It is a commonly consumed plant in the study area and greens. in the whole Mediterranean Basin. Its aboveground parts are added to green salads [27], especially its fresh leaves which are mixed with yogurt and consumed as a salad widely in the Conclusion study area. They are also commonly cooked. Both the wild and cultural forms exist and the wild forms are preferred in the In total, 111 taxa that were identified as wild edible greens rural areas, whereas the cultivated varieties are preferred in the in the study area belong to 26 different families. Asteraceae is urban areas. Purslane, a plant recommended for medicinal use the most commonly consumed family and the results of this by Dioscorides, has been used as a medicinal food all over the study show parallels with other Mediterranean areas. world since antiquity [49,56]. The majority of the plants identified are species widely The leaves ofSonchus oleraceus, used in the study area and distributed in the Mediterranean Basin, due to the fact that mentioned already by Dioscorides as food, are consumed as a the Aegean Region has a Mediterranean climate. In addi- salad and soup in many parts of the world [49]. In addition to tion, the eastern borders of the region are adjacent to the this type of use, it is commonly consumed as a pastry and main Irano-Turanian Phytogeographical Region and therefore it dish, as well as boiled and prepared as a salad. contains species unique to that region. As a consequence, there Salicornia europaea (glasswort), which is only consumed exist species that are not consumed in other Mediterranean along the shores in the Western Anatolia, is a succulent and countries. halophyte plant that grows in salt marshes and seashores. It is The fact that the majority of the identified plants in the commonly consumed but only in areas close to the coast as a area are consumed as a salad show the local diet has strong salad after boiling. Garlic and especially olive oil are added. It Mediterranean features. As a result, very promisingly, there is is also eaten in other parts of the Mediterranean [34]. a renewed or increasing interest in consuming wild food plants One of the most interesting plants used in the study area as a part of the diet. is Echinophora tenuifolia subsp. sibthorpiana. It is a very well known and commonly used plant everywhere in Turkey. It is known as “tarhana herb” and is consumed as an addition to the Acknowledgements tarhana soup, a soup unique to Anatolia. This taxon is added to tarhana when fresh to give a pleasant aroma and used as The author express his gratitude to Mesut Koyuncu (Tokat an aromatic food preserver in order to prevent pickles from University, Tokat), Dr. Ilker Ugulu (Balikesir University, Balike- frothing [25,27,29,78,79]. No other use of this plant has been sir), Dr. Anely Nedelcheva (Sofia University, Sofia), Robert J. reported outside of Anatolia. Kelley (Ege University, Izmir), and Dr. Munir Ozturk (Ege In Western Anatolia, the most commonly eaten wild ed- University, Izmir) for their help, constructive comments, and ible greens are Asparagus acutifolius, Beta spp., Cichorium support in the preparation of this manuscript. The author intybus, Foeniculum vulgare, Malva sylvestris, Papaver rhoeas, wishes to thank especially those who were interviewed for the Portulaca oleracea, Silene vulgaris, Taraxacum spp., and Urtica key information used in this paper, for their time, and willing- dioica. These taxa are also widely consumed in other parts ness to share their knowledge and experience. of the Mediterranean Basin. Some species, such as Tamus communis, are very commonly consumed in the study area according to the author's unpublished observations, although References this is not supported by earlier publications. An ethnobotanical research was carried out by Hadjichambis et al. [2] between 1. Hu FB. The Mediterranean diet and mortality – olive oil and beyond. 2003–2006 in seven countries from the Eastern Mediterranean N Engl J Med. 2003;348(26):2595–2596. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/ (Cyprus, and Greece), the Western Mediterranean (Italy, and NEJMp030069 Spain), the Adriatic/Balkan Mediterranean (Albania) and the 2. Hadjichambis ACH, Paraskeva-Hadjichambi D, Della A, Giusti EM, De North-African Mediterranean (Egypt, and Morocco). It was a Pasquale C, Lenzarini C, et al. 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