Archaeology of Hunter-Gatherers from the Emergence of Modern Humans

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UCL INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

MA/MSc MODULE (15 credit): ARCL0109

ARCHAEOLOGY OF HUNTER-GATHERERS FROM THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN HUMANS

MODULE HANDBOOK 2020-21

Magdalenian cave art at Lascaux, France (Aujoulat 2004)

Coordinator: Dr. Andrew Garrard

E-mail: [email protected] (Office IoA room 408. Telephone 020-7679-4764)

Office hours: please email to make online appointment.

Potential changes in light of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic Please note that information regarding teaching, learning and assessment in this module handbook endeavours to be as accurate as possible. However, in light of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, the changeable nature of the situation and the possibility of updates in government guidance, there may need to be changes during the course of the year. UCL will keep current students updated of any changes to teaching, learning and assessment on the Students’ webpages. This also includes Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) which may help you with any queries that you may have.

Please refer to the Institute of Archaeology Student Handbook https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/current-students/ioa-student-handbook and the Institute of Archaeology Study Skills Guide: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/current-students/ioa-study-skills-guide for instructions on coursework submission, IoA referencing guidelines, marking criteria, as well as UCL policies on penalties for late submission, etc

MODULE OVERVIEW

MODULE DESCRIPTION This module examines key issues in human ecology and behavioural evolution from the emergence of "cognitively-modern" humans until the beginnings of food production. The course will review contemporary debates on issues such as: (a) the emergence of biological and behavioural modernity in Africa; (b) the dispersal of modern humans into Europe and Asia and their interactions with resident hominin populations; (c) the adaptations of hunter-gatherers to the harsh environmental conditions of the last glacial in Europe; (d) the interpretation of symbolic imagery represented in mobilary and parietal art; (e) the transformations which occurred in hunter-gatherer populations prior to the development of farming; (f) the colonization of Australia and the Americas and human involvement in megafaunal extinctions.

AIMS This module will examine key issues in human evolution and development from the emergence of modern humans in the late Middle Pleistocene until the transition to food production in the early Holocene. It will involve a comparative study of the archaeological records from Africa, Western Asia and Europe, and a review of the evidence for the colonization of Australasia and the Americas.

OBJECTIVES On successful completion of this module, students will: - be knowledgable about the central debates concerning the development of hunter-gatherer societies through the later Pleistocene and early Holocene - have an understanding of the nature of the evidence and the ways in which it has been collected and analysed - have a critical appreciation of the range of models which have been used in its interpretation.

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this module, students will have expanded: - their skills in evaluating archaeological data-bases, and the techniques and models used in their analysis and interpretation. - their experience in articulating complex ideas and information in written and oral presentations. - their abilities to design and undertake original research.

GENERAL INFORMATION

TEACHING METHODS This 15 credit module will be taught weekly through the autumn term in 10 two hour online sessions. These will be held on Fridays at 11.00-13.00. Each session will be taught Each session will be taught live online in Moodle using Blackboard Collaborate. Each session is likely to involve a lecture interspersed with discussion and in later classes short student presentations. This handbook lists highly recommended readings which should be undertaken before the class each week, so you can follow and actively contribute to the discussion. A copy of the powerpoints and other relevant resources will be made available each week on the Moodle site for the course.

ATTENDANCE A 70% minimum attendance at all scheduled sessions is required (excluding absences due to illness or other adverse circumstances, provided that these are supported by medical certificates or other documentation, as appropriate). If you are unable to attend a class, please notify the coordinator by email. Departments are required to report each student’s attendance to UCL Registry at intervals through each term.

METHODS OF ASSESSMENT This module is assessed by means of: - Powerpoint – 10 slides with accompanying notes of 1,000 words (25%) - Essay – of 3,000 words (75%) More detailed information is given in separate section below.

LIBRARIES AND OTHER RESOURCES The essential reading for this course is available online through UCL’s e-library. However, further reading not available online will be found in the library of the Institute of Archaeology and UCL’s Science Library (particularly the Anthropology Section). Libraries outside of UCL which have relevant holdings include those at the University of London at Senate House and the British Library.

WORKLOAD There will be 20 hours of lectures/seminars for this module. Students will be expected to spend around 80 hours undertaking background reading, and 50 hours preparing and producing the assessed work. This adds up to a total workload of 150 hours for the module.

COMMUNICATION - If any changes need to be made to the module arrangements, these will normally be communicated by email. It is therefore essential that you consult your UCL e-mail account regularly. - For any questions or to make online appointments to discuss aspects of course please email the module coordinator. - The seminars will be held in Blackboard Collaborate in the Moodle site for the course.. - The Moodle site will also contain the handbook for the course and copies of powerpoints and other material presented in the weekly seminars. It can also be used as a forum for additional discussion..

FEEDBACK In trying to make this module as effective as possible, we welcome feedback from students. You will be asked to give your views on the module in an anonymous questionnaire which will be circulated at the end of the course. If students are concerned about any aspect of this module we hope they will feel able to talk to the Module Coordinator, but if they feel this is not appropriate, they should contact the Academic Administrator (Judy Medrington), or the Chair of Teaching Committee (Dr.Louise Martin).

ASSESSMENTS

The module will be assessed by a Powerpoint (25% of marks) and an Essay (75% of marks).

(1) Powerpoint A powerpoint should be created on a particular theme or subject covered in the course comprising a maximum of 10 slides with 1,000 words of accompanying text. The text should provide a commentary on the information contained in each slide. Depending on the class size a range of these powerpoints may be presented online later in the term. The deadline for the powerpoint with text will be: Friday 13 November

(2) Essay An essay should be submitted on a theme or subject relevant to the course comprising a maximum of 3,000 words. The deadline for the essay will be: Friday 15 January

Subject areas and titles for both the powerpoint and essay should be agreed with the Module Coordinator, who can help with recommending key items for reading. The coordinator is willing to discuss an outline of the student’s approach to the assignment, provided this is organised suitably in advance of the submission date.

ESSENTIAL INFORMATION regarding word length, citing of sources, presentation style, method of submission, granting of extensions will be found in the Institute of Archaeology Student Handbook: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/current-students/ioa-student-handbook and the Institute of Archaeology Study Skills Guide: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/current-students/ioa-study-skills-guide

Please note strict penalties are applied for overlength courswork and for late submission (if an extension has not been agreed). There are also serious penalties for plagiarism.

Cousework will be marked and returned within four calendar weeks of the official submission deadline.

COURSE SYLLABUS AND TIMETABLE: (Fridays 11.00-13.00 on MS Teams)

Introduction and background

1. October 9: a) Hunter-gatherer diversity in the recent past. b) Late Pleistocene and early Holocene environments.

2. October 16: a) Evolution of Modern Humans. b) Technology through the Middle and Late Palaeolithic.

Emergence and Spread of Modern Humans

3. October 23: Emergence of behaviourally Modern Humans in Africa.

4. October 30: Late Neanderthals and early Modern Humans in West Asia and Europe.

Hunter-gatherers of the last Glacial Maximum

5. November 6: Hunter-gatherers of the last Glacial Maximum in Europe.

NOVEMBER 9 - 13: READING WEEK

6. November 20: The nature and interpretation of Upper Palaeolithic art.

Hunter-gatherers in transition

7. Noember 27: Late Pleistocene adaptations in the Near East.

8. December 4: Mesolithic adaptations to the post-glacial of North-West Europe.

Colonisation of Australasia and Americas

9. December 11: The Colonisation of South-East Asia and Australasia.

10. December 18: The Colonisation of Eastern Siberia and the Americas.

SEMINAR DETAILS AND REFERENCE LIST

The following pages give details of the seminars/lectures for the module and identifies high priority (•) and optional readings relevant to each session. The majority of the texts are available online through UCL Library Services Explore, but information is provided as to where to find hard copies in UCL library if not online.

The highly recommended readings are considered important for keeping up with the topics covered in the module sessions, and it is expected that students will have checked these prior to the session under which they are listed.

(•) = highly recommended readings Arch. = item in Archaeology library Anthrop., Geology etc are held in the Watson Science Library.

1a. HUNTER-GATHERER DIVERSITY IN THE RECENT PAST

Hunter-gatherers only survive in very restricted areas at the present day, but there is historic documentation extending back into the early 19th century, giving some idea of the diversity of adaptations which may have existed in the more recent past. This session will discuss the demographic structure, subsistence strategies and social organization found in recent hunter-gatherer societies. It will also consider the value but also the pitfalls of using ethnographic analogy in interpreting the archaeological record.

Ames K.M. (2003) The Northwest Coast. Evolutionary Anthropology 12: 19-33. (Online) Arnold J.E. (1996) The archaeology of complex hunter-gatherers. Journal Archaeological Method and Theory 3 (2): 77-126. (Online) Binford L.R. (1978) Nunamiut ethnoarchaeology. New York, Academic Press. (Arch: DEC BIN) Binford L.R. (2001) Constructing frames of reference. Berkeley, University of California Press. (Arch: AH Qto BIN; Issue Desk BIN 9) Cummings V., Jordan P. & Zvelebil M. (eds.) (2014) The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers. Oxford University Press. (section on Ethnohistory and Anthropology of Modern Hunter-Gatherers) (Online) • Kelly R.L. (2013) The lifeways of hunter-gatherers: the foraging spectrum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (especially chapters 3,4,5) (Online) Lee R.B. (1979) The !Kung San. Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. (Arch: DCE LEE) Lee R.B. & DeVore I. (eds.) (1968) Man the hunter. Chicago, Aldine. (especially Lee, Woodburn, Suttles, Balikci). (Arch: HB LEE; Issue Desk LEE 4) • Marlowe F.W. (2005) Hunter-gatherers and human evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology 14: 54-67. (Online) • Testart A. (1982) The significance of food storage amongst hunter-gatherers: residence patterns, population densities and social inequalities. Current Anthropology 23: 523-37. (Online) Wobst H.M. (1978) The archaeoethnology of hunter-gatherers or the tyranny of the ethnographic record in archaeology. American Antiquity 43: 303-9. (Online) Woodburn J. (1982) Egalitarian Societies. Man 17: 431-51. (Online)

1b. LATE PLEISTOCENE AND EARLY HOLOCENE ENVIRONMENTS

A review of the impact of climate change on global environments and resource distribution through the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. It will consider the impact of environmental events on the dispersal of modern humans and on the survival of the archaeological record.

• Lowe J.J. & Walker M.J.C. (2015) Reconstructing Quaternary Environments. 3rd ed. London, Longmans. (chapters 1, 7) (Online) Lowe J.J. (2008) Synchronisation of palaeoenvironmental events in the North Atlantic region during the Last Termination: a revised protocol recommended by the INTIMATE group. Quaternary Science Reviews 27: 6-17. (Online)

Petit J.R. et al. (1999) Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica. Nature 399: 429-436. (Online) Rasmussen S.O. et al. (2014) A stratigraphic framework for abrupt climatic changes during the Late Glacial period based on three synchronized Greenland ice-core records: refining and extending the INTIMATE event stratigraphy. Quaternary Science Reviews 106: 14-28.(Online) Roberts N. (2014) The Holocene: an environmental history. 3rd ed. Oxford, Blackwells. (Online) • van Andel T.H. & Tzedakis P.C. (1996) Palaeolithic landscapes of Europe and environs, 150,000- 25,000 years ago: an overview. Quaternary Science Reviews 15: 481-500. (Online) Walker M. (2005) Quaternary Dating Methods. Chichester, Wiley. (Geology: G90 WAL) Zachos J., Pagani M., Sloan L., Thomas E., & Billups K. (2001). Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present. Science 292 (5517): 686-693 (Online)

2a. FOSSIL AND GENETIC EVIDENCE FOR THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN HUMANS

A review of the fossil and genetic evidence for the evolution of biologically modern humans and their dispersal through Africa and Eurasia where there is evidence for limited interbreeding and replacement of resident hominin populations (Neanderthals, Denisovans etc).

Conroy G. (2012) Reconstructing human origins. 3rd ed. New York, Norton. (Arch: BB 1 CON; Anthrop: B 45 CON) • Galway-Witham J. & Stringer C. (2018) How did Homo sapiens evolve? Science 360 (6395): 1296- 98. (Online) Green R.E. et al. (2010) A draft sequence of the Neandertal Genome. Science 328: 710-722. (see also comment by Gibbons: Science 328: 680-684) (Online) Humphrey L & Stringer C. (2018) Our Human Story. London, Natural History Museum. (Arch: BB 1 STR) Prufer, K. et al. (2014) The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains Nature 505: 43-49. (Online) Reich D. et al. (2010) Genetic history of an archaic human group from Denisova Cave in Siberia. Nature 468 (7327): 1053-60. (Online). • Reich D. (2018) Who We Are and How We Got Here. Oxford University Press. (Chapters 1-3) (Arch: BB1 REI) Sankararaman S, Patterson N, Li H, Pääbo S, Reich D (2012) The date of Interbreeding between Neandertals and Modern Humans. PLoS Genet 8(10): e1002947. (Online) • Stringer C. (2016) The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 371: 20150237 (Online) Stringer C. & Galway-Williams J. (2017) On the origin of our species. Nature 546: 212-214. (Online) Wood B. & Baker J. 2011. Evolution of the genus Homo. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 42: 47-69. (Online)

2b. TECHNOLOGY THROUGH THE MIDDLE AND LATE PALAEOLITHIC / STONE AGE

A review of the key technological developments which occurred through the Middle and Late Stone Age in Africa and Middle and Late Palaeolithic in Eurasia.

Andrefsky W. (2005) Lithics. Macroscopic approaches to analysis. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. (Chapters 2) (Online) Andrefsky W. (2009) The analysis of stone tool procurement, production and maintenance. Journal of Archaeological Research 17: 65-103. (Online) Debenath A. & Dibble H.L. (1993) Handbook of Paleolithic Typology. Vol. 1: Lower & Middle Palaeolithic of Europe. Philadelphia, Univ Pennsylvania. (Arch: BC 120 HAN; Issue Desk HAN 1) Demars P-Y. & Laurent P. (1989) Types d'outils lithiques du Paleolithique Superieur en Europe. Cahiers du Quaternaire, Bordeaux, CNRS. (Arch: DA 120 DEM) • Inizan M-L. et al. (1999) Technology and Terminology of knapped stone. Nanterre, CREP. (available online from internet but not from UCL library) • Shea J.J. (2013) Stone tools in the Palaeolithic and Neolithic of the Near East: a guide. Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press. (Chapter 2) (Online)

3. THE EMERGENCE OF BEHAVIOURALLY MODERN HUMANS IN AFRICA

This seminar will begin by determining the behavioural characteristics associated with human “modernity” and the factors which may lay behind their development and how they might be recognised in the archaeological record. It will continue over the next two sessions with a comparison of the archaeological record from the Middle and early Late Stone Age of Africa (250-30 ka) which has the earliest fossil evidence of Homo sapiens, with the archaeological records from the Middle and early Upper Palaeolithic in Western Asia and Europe where Neanderthals were resident until 50-40 ka. It will look particularly at developments in technology, food procurement and the use of symbolic imagery.

NATURE OF “MODERNITY” AND "THE HUMAN BEHAVIOURAL REVOLUTION" d’Errico F. et al. (2003) The search for the origins of symbolism, music and language: a multidisciplinary endeavour. Journal World Prehistory 17: 1-70. (Online) • d’Erico F. & Stringer C. (2011) Evolution, revolution or saltation scenario for the emergence of modern cultures? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Scoeity B: Biological Sciences 366 (1567): 1060-69. (Online) Foley R. & Lahr M.M. (1997) Mode 3 Technologies and the evolution of Modern Humans. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 7: 3-36. (Online) Gamble C. (2007) Origins and Revolutions. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press (chapter 2) (Online) Henshilwood C.S. & Marean C.W. (2003) The origin of modern human behavior. Critique of the models and their test implications. Current Anthropology 44 (5): 627-651. (Online) • McBrearty S. & Brooks A (2000) The revolution that wasn’t: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behaviour. Journal Human Evolution 39: 453-563. (Online) Mithen S. (1996) The Prehistory of the Mind. London, Thames & Hudson. (chapters 8-10). (Arch: BB 1 MIT; Issue Desk MIT 3) • Nowell A. (2010) Defining behavioural modernity in the context of Neanderthal amd anatomically modern human populations. Annual Review of Anthropology 39: 437-52. (Online) Powell A., Shennan S. & Thomas M.G. (2009) Late Pleistocene demography and the appearance of modern human behaviour. Science 324: 1298-1301. (Online)

MIDDLE STONE AGE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA Backwell L et al (2018) The antiquity of bow and arrow technology: evidence from Middle Stone Age layers at Sibudu Cave. Antiquity 92 (362): 289-303 (Online) Barham L. & Mitchell P. (2008) The First Africans. Cambridge University Press. (chapters 6, 7) (Online) Brown K.S. et al. (2012) An early and enduring advanced technology originating 71,000 years ago in South Africa. Nature 491: 590-593. (Online) Cain C.R. (2006) Implications of the marked artifacts of the Middle Stone Age of Africa. Current Anthropology 47: 675-681. (Online) • Henshilwood C.S. & Dubreuil B. (2011) The Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, 77-59 ka: symbolic material culture and the evolution of the mind during the African Middle Stone Age. Current Anthropology 52 (3): 361-400. (Online) Henshilwood C.S., d’Errico F. & Watts I. (2009) Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 57: 27-47. (Online) Marean C. (2010) Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Western Cape Province, South Africa) in context: The Cape Floral Kingdom, shellfish and modern human origins. Journal of Human Evolution 59: 425-443. (Online) Marean C. & Assefa Z. (1999) Zooarchaeological evidence for the faunal exploitation behaviour of neanderthals and early modern humans. Evolutionary Anthropology 8: 22-37. (Online) Texier P.J. (2010) A Howieson’s Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dating to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of USA 107: 6180-85. (Online) • Tyler Faith J. (2008) Eland, buffalo and wild pigs: were Middle Stone Age humans ineffective humans? Journal of Human Evolution 55: 24-36. (Online) Wadley L. (2010) Were snares and traps used in the Middle Stone Age and does it matter? A review and a case study from Sibudu, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 58: 79-92. (Online) Ziegler M. et al. (2013) Development of Middle Stone Age innovations linked to rapid climate change. Nature Communications 4: (1905) (Online)

4. LATE NEANDERTHALS AND EARLY MODERN HUMANS IN WESTERN ASIA AND EUROPE

Early Modern Humans had appeared in West Asia by at least 100 kyr and in Europe by 40 kyr. In both areas there was a period of overlap with Neanderthals and there has been much interest in any behavioural distinctions which can be drawn between the two populations and the nature of any interactions.The evidence from western Europe is intriguing as there are suggestions that Neanderthals may have already developed some of the hallmarks of “modern human” behaviour before Homo sapiens appeared on the scene.

WEST ASIA Bar-Yosef O. (1998) On the nature of transitions: the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic Revolutions. Cambridge Archaeology Journal 8 (2): 141-63. (Online) Bar-Yosef Mayer D.E. et al. (2009) Shells and ochre in the Middle Palaeolithic of Qafzeh Cave, Israel: indications for modern behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 56: 307-14. (Online) Douka K. et al. (2013) Chronology of Ksar Akil (Lebanon) and implications for the colonization of Europe by Anatomically Modern Humans. PloS One 8 (9) e72931 (Online) Hershkovitz I et al. (2015) Levantine cranium from Manot Cave (Israel) foreshadows the first European modern humans. Nature 520: 216-219.(Online) Hovers E. et al. (2003) An early case of color symbolism: ochre use by Modern Humans in Qafzeh Cave. Current Anthropology 44: 491-522. (Online) Pettitt P. (2011) Palaeolithic Origins of Human Burial. Abingdon: Routledge. (Chapters 4,5) (Arch: BC 120 PET; Issue Desk PET 20) • Pomeroy E. et al. (2020) Issues of theory and method in the analysis of Paleolithic mortuary behaviour: a view from Shanidar Cave. Evolutionary Anthropology 2020:1-17. doi: 10.1002/evan.21854 (Online) • Shea J. (2003) The Middle Paleolithic of the East Mediterranean Levant. Journal of World Prehistory 17: 313-394. (Online) Shea J. (2008) Transitions or turnovers? Climatically-force extinction of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals in the East-Mediterranean Levant. Quaternary Science Reviews 27 (23-24): 2253-2270. (Online) Vanhaeren M. et al. (2006) Middle Palaeolithic shell beads in Israel and Algeria. Science 312: 1785- 1788. (Online)

EUROPE Bradtmöller M. et al. (2012) The repeated replacement model: rapid climate change and population dynanics in Late Pleistocene Europe. Quaternary International 247: 38-49. (Online) Finlayson C. et al. (2012) Birds of a feather: Neanderthal exploitation of raptors and corvids. PloS One 7 (9): e45927 (Online) • Higham T. et al. (2014) The timing and spatialtemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance. Nature 512: 306-9. (Online) Jaubert J. et al (2016) Early Neanderthal constructions deep in Bruniquel Cave in southwestern France. Nature 534: 111-114.(Online) • Joris O. & Street M. (2008) At the end of the 14C time scale – the Middle to Upper Paleolithic record of western Eurasia. Journal of Human Evolution 55: 782-802. (Online) Mellars P. (2006) Archaeology and the dispersal of modern humans in Europe: deconstructing the “Aurignacian”. Evolutionary Anthropology 15: 167-182. (Online) Mellars P. & French J. (2011) Tenfold population increase in western Europe at the Neandertal to Modern Human transition. Science 333 (6042): 623-27. (Online) Müller U.C. et al. (2011) The role of climate in the spread of modern humans into Europe. Quaternary Science Reviews 30: 273-79. (Online). Rougier H. et al. (2016) Neandertal cannibalism and Neandertal bones used as tools in northern Europe. Scientific Reports 6 (29005) (Online) Soressi M. et al. (2013) Neandertals made the first specialized bone tools in Europe. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (35): 14186-90. (Online) • Zilhao J. (2006) Neandertals and Moderns mixed, and it matters. Evolutionary Anthropology 15: 183-195. (Online) Zilhao J. (2010) Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Iberian neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107: 1023-1028 (Online)

CHATELPERRONIAN ISSUE • Caron F. et al. (2011) The reality of Neanderthal symbolic behaviour at the Grotte du Renne, Arcy- sur-Cure, France. Plos One 6 (6): 1-11. (Online) d'Errico F. et al. (1998) Neanderthal acculturation in Western Europe? A critical review of the evidence and its interpretation. Current Anthropology 39 Supplement: S1-S44. (Online) Higham T. et al. (2010) Chronology of the Grotte du Renne (France) and implications for the context of ornaments and human remains within the Chatelperronian. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (47): 20234-39. (Online) Ruebens K., McPherron S. & Hublin J. (2015) On the local Mousterian origin of the Châtelperronian: integrating typo-technological, chronostratigraphic and contextual data. Journal of Human Evolution 86: 55-91. (Online)

5. HUNTER-GATHERERS OF THE LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM IN EUROPE

During the coldest stages of the last glacial, parts of southern Europe provided refuge for human, animal and plant communities, displaced from further north. This session will examine the nature of subsistence and settlement strategies in two such areas. Firstly, south-western France where caves and rock-shelters have provided an extremely rich record for this period. Secondly, the Dnepr-Desna river valleys in the Ukraine where intriguing open-air sites have been found containing the remains of mammoth-bone structures. It will also consider whether there is evidence for social complexity during this period in Europe.

GENERAL ON UPPER PALAEOLITHIC EUROPE Boudadi-Maligne M. & Escarguel G. (2014) A biometric re-evaluation of recent claims for Early Upper Palaeolithic wolf domestication in Eurasia. Journal of Archaeological Science 45: 80-89. (Online) • Formicola V. (2007) From the Sunghir children to the Romito dwarf. Aspects of the Upper Paleolithic funerary landscape. Current Anthropology 48: 446-453. (Online) Gamble C. et al. (2005) The archaeological and genetic foundations of the European population during the Late Glacial: implications for ‘agricultural thinking’. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 15 (2): 193-223. (Online) Giacobini G. (2008) Richness and diversity of burial rituals in the Upper Palaeolithic. Diogenes 214: 19-39. (Online) Pettitt P. (2011) Palaeolithic Origins of Human Burial. Abingdon: Routledge. (Arch: BC 120 PET; Issue Desk PET 20) • Pettitt P. (2014) The European Upper Palaeolithic. In V.Cummings, :P.Jordan & M.Zvelebil (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers. Oxford University Press: 279-309. (Online) Stiner M. et al. (2000) The tortoise and the hare. Small game use, the Broad Spectrum Revolution and Paleolithic demography. Current Anthropology 41 (1): 39-73. (Online) • Wengrow D. & Graeber D. (2015) ‘Farewell to the childhood of man’: ritual, seasonality and the origins of inequality. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 21 (3): 597-619. (Online)

SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT IN WESTERN EUROPE French J.C. & Collins C. (2015) Upper Palaeolithic population histories of Southwestern France: a comparison of the demographic signatures of 14C date distributions and archaeological site counts. Journal of Archaeological Science 55: 122-134.(Online) Grayson D.K. & Delpech F. (2002) Specialised Early Upper Palaeolithic hunters in southwestern France? Journal of Archaeological Science 29: 1439-49. (Online) • Olsen S.L. (1989) Solutré: a theoretical approach to the reconstruction of Upper Palaeolithic hunting strategies. Journal Human Evolution 18: 295-327. (Online)

SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT IN EASTERN EUROPE Hoffecker J.F. (2005) Innovation and technological knowledge in the Upper Palaeolithic of northern Eurasia. Evolutionary Anthropology 14: 186-198. (Online). • Iakovleva L. (2015) The architecture of mammoth bone circular dwellings of the Upper Palaeolithic settlements in central and eastern Europe and their socio-economic meanings. Quaternary International 359-360: 324-334. (Online).

Iakovleva L. (2016) Mezinian landscape system (late Upper Palaeolithic of Eastern Europe). Quaternary International 412: 4-15. (Online) Soffer O. (1989) Storage, sedentism and the Eurasian Palaeolithic record. Antiquity 63 (241): 719-32. (Online) Soffer O. et al. (1997) Cultural stratigraphy at Mezhirich, an Upper Palaeolithic site in Ukraine with multiple occupation. Antiquity 71: 48-62. (Online)

6. THE NATURE AND INTERPRETATION OF UPPER PALAEOLITHIC ART

This session will explore the nature and interpretation of the prolific portable/mobilary and cave/rock art produced in various areas of Europe through the Upper Palaeolithic. It will look closely at the discoveries from the Aurignacian period at Chauvet Cave (c 32 kyr) and from the Magdalenian period at Lascaux Cave (c.17 kyr) in France. The interpretative section will examine some of the ethnographic explanations which have been developed based on recent hunter-gatherer art in Australia and South Africa.

GENERAL AND INTERPRETATION Bahn P.G. & Vertut J. (2016) Images of the Ice Age. 3rd ed. Oxford, Oxford University Press. (Arch: BC 300 BAH) Cook J. (2013) Ice Age Art. The arrival of the modern mind. London: British Museum Press (Arch: BC300 COO; Issue Desk) • D’Errico F. et al. (2003) The search for the origins of symbolism, music and language: a multidisciplinary endeavour. Journal World Prehistory 17: 1-70. (Online) Gamble C. (1982) Interaction and alliance in Palaeolithic society. Man 17: 92-107. (Online) Hodgson D. (2006) Altered states of consciousness and palaeoart: an alternative neurovisual explanation. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 16 (1): 27-37. (Online) Hoffmann D. et al. (2018) U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neanderthal orgins of Iberian cave art. Science 359: 912-915. (Online) • Lawson A.J. (2012) Painted Caves: Palaeolithic Rock Art in Western Europe. Oxford, Oxford University Press. (Part 1) (Online) Lewis-Williams J.D. (2002) The mind in the cave. London, Thames & Hudson. (Arch: BC 300 LEW; Issue Desk LEW 2) Lewis-Williams J.D. & Dowson T.A. (1988) The signs of all times: entoptic phenomena in Upper Palaeolithic Art. Current Anthropology 29: 201-233. (Online) Pettitt P. & Pike A. (2007) Dating European Palaeolithic Cave Art: Progress, Prospects, Problems. Journal Archaeological Method & Theory 14 (1): 27-47. (Online) Porr M. (2010) Palaeolithic art as cultural memory; a case study of the Aurignacian art of Southwest Germany. Cambrdige Archaeological Journal 20 (1): 87-108.(Online)

CHAUVET AND LASCAUX CAVES Clottes J. (2003) Return to Chauvet Cave: Excavating the birthplace of art. London, Thames & Hudson. (Arch: DAC Qto CLO; Issue Desk CLO 2) Leroi-Gourhan A (1982) The archaeology of Lascaux Cave. Scientific American 246 (6): 104-113. (Online) Pettitt P. & Bahn P. (2015) An alternative chronology for the art of Chauvet Cave. Antiquity 89: 542- 53. (Online) • Quiles, A. et al. (2016) A high-precision chronological model for the decorated Upper Palaeolithic cave of Chauvet-Pont d’Arc, Ardèche, France. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113: 4670-75. (Online) Ruspoli M. (1987) The cave of Lascaux: the final photographic record. London, Thames & Hudson. (Arch: DAC Qto RUS; Issue Desk RUS 4)

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC FIGURINES Conard N.J. (2003) Palaeolithic ivory sculptures from southwestern Germany and the origins of figurative art. Nature 426 (6968): 830-2. (Online) Mcdermott L. (1996) Self-representation in Upper Paleolithic female figurines. Current Anthropology 37 (2): 227-75. (Online) Nowell A. & Chang M.L. (2014) Science, the media and interpretations of Upper Paleolithic figurines. American Anthropologist 116 (3): 562-77. (Online)

• Soffer O., Adovasio J.M. & Hyland D.C. (2000) The “Venus” Figurines. Textiles, basketry, gender and status in the Upper Palaeolithic. Current Anthropology 41 (4): 511-537. (Online) • White R. (2006) The women of Brassempouy: a century of research and interpretation. Journal Archaeological Method & Theory 13 (4): 251-304. (Online)

7. LATE PLEISTOCENE ADAPTATIONS IN THE NEAR EAST

Coinciding with the major environmental changes at the end of the Pleistocene there is evidence for the development of sedentism amongst certain hunter-gatherer communities in the Near East (the Natufian phenomenon) and intensification in the use of plant and animal resources which was a precursor to their domestication in the Neolithic. Cemeteries and a range of mobiliary art objects have been found in association with these settlements providing insights into changing social and ideological practices.

GENERAL ON DEVELOPMENTS THROUGH EPIPALAEOLITHIC • Bar-Yosef O. (1998) The Natufian Culture in the Levant, threshold to the origins of agriculture. Evolutionary Anthropology 6 (5): 159-77. (Online) Bar-Yosef O. & Enzel Y. (2017) Quaternary of the Levant. Environments, Climate Change and Humans. (Chapters 33-35, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. (Online) Bar-Yosef O. & Valla F. (eds.) (2013) Natufian Foragers in the Levant. Ann Arbor, International Monographs in Prehistory. (Arch: DBA 100 BAR) Boyd B. (2006) On sedentism in the Late Epipaleolithic (Natufian) Levant. World Archaeology 38: 164-178. (Online) Byrd B. F. (2005) Reassessing the emergence of village life in the Near East. Journal of Archaeological Research 13: 231-290. (Online) Goring-Morris A.N. & Belfer-Cohen A. (2008) A roof over one’s head: developments in Near Eastern residential architecture across the Epipalaeolithic-Neolithic transition. In Bocquet-Appel J-P.& Bar-Yosef O. (eds) The Neolithic Demographic Transition and its Consequences. Springer: 239-286. (Online) Hardy-Smith T. & Edwards P.C. (2004) The garbage crisis in prehistory: artifact discard patterns at the Early Natufian site of Wadi Hammeh 27 and the origins of household refuge disposal strategies. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23: 253-289. (Online) Maher L.A. et al. (2016) Occupying wide open spaces: Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherer activities in the eastern Levant. Quaternary International 396: 79-94.(Online) • Maher L.A., Richter T. & Stock J.T. (2012) The Pre-Natufian Epipaleolithic: Long-term behavioural trends in the Levant. Evolutionary Anthropology 21: 69-81. (Online) Munro N.D. (2004) Zooarchaeological measures of hunting pressure and occupation intensity in the Natufian. Current Anthropology 45 Supplement: S5-S33. (Online) Nadel D. & Werker E. (1999) The oldest ever brush hut plant remains from Ohalo II, Jordan Valley, Israel (19,000 BP). Antiquity 73 (282): 755-64. (Online) Roberts N. et al. (2018) Human responses and non-responses to climatic variations during the last Glacial-Interglacial transition in the eastern Mediterranean. Quaternary Science Reviews 184: 47-67. (Online) • Stutz A., Munro N. & Bar-Oz G. (2009) Increasing the resolution of the Broad Spectrum Revolution in the Southern Levantine Epipalaeolithic (19-12 ka). Journal of Human Evolution 56 (3): 294- 306. (Online) • Verhoeven M. (2004) Beyond boundaries: nature, culture and a holistic approach to domestication in the Levant. Journal of World Prehistory 18: 179-282. (Online). Wright K.I. (1994) Ground stone tools and hunter-gatherer subsistence in southwest Asia: implications for the transition to farming. American Antiquity 59: 238-63. (Online)

BURIAL PRACTICE Belfer-Cohen A. (1988) The Natufian graveyard in Hayonim Cave. Paléorient 14 (2): 297-308.(Online) Bocquentin F & Garrard A. (2016) Natufian collective burial practice and cranial pigmentation: a reconstruction from Azraq 18 (Jordan). Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 10: 693- 702.(Online) • Byrd B.F. and Monahan C.M. (1995) Death, mortuary ritual and Natufian social structure. Journal Anthropological Archaeology 14: 251-87. (Online) Grosman L., Munro N. & Belfer-Cohen A. (2008) A 12,000-year-old Shaman burial from the southern Levant (Israel). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (46) 17665-9. (Online)

Kuijt I. (1996) Negotiating equality through ritual:a consideration of Late Natufian and Prepottery Neolithic A period mortuary practices. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 15: 313- 36.(Online) Nadel D. et al. (2013) Earliest floral grave lining from 13,700-11,700 year old Natufian burials at Raqefet Cave, Mt Carmel, Israel. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (29): 11774-78. (Online)

8. MESOLITHIC ADAPTATIONS TO THE POST-GLACIAL OF NORTH-WEST EUROPE

During the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene, recolonisation occurred of the previously glaciated areas of north-western Europe and a wide range of new adaptations are seen in technology, subsistence, settlement and social practice. This session will focus on the extremely well-preserved Mesolithic record from southern Scandinavia and will also briefly examine the transition to agriculture in this area. There will also be some discussion of the British sequence.

GENERAL ON NORTH-WEST EUROPEAN MESOLITHIC Bailey G. & Spikins P. (eds) (2008) Mesolithic Europe. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press (Arch: DA 130 BAI) • Shennan, S. (2018) First Farmers of Europe.(Chapters 7, 8) Cambridge, Cambridge University Press (Online) • Warren G. (2014) The Mesolithic of North-West Europe. In V.Cummings et al. (eds) Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 537-551. (Online)

MESOLITHIC IN S. SCANDINAVIA AND TRANSITION TO FARMING Blanckhorn H.P. (2008) South Scandinavia. In G. Bailey & P. Spikins (eds.) Mesolithic Europe. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 107-132 (Arch: DA 130 BAI) • Boethius A. (2020) Knowledge from the ancient sea: a long-term perspective on human impact on aquatic life in Mesolithic Scandinavia. Holocene 30 (5): 632-645. (Online) Conneller C. et al. (2012) Substantial settlement in the European Early Mesolithic: new research at Star Carr. Antiquity 86: 1004-20. (Online) Gron O. (2003) Mesolithic dwelling places in south Scandinavia: their definition and social interpretation. Antiquity 77: 685-708. (Online) Gunther T. et al. (2018) Population genomics of Mesolithic Scandinavia: investigating early postglacial migration routes and high latitude adaptation. Plos Biology doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2003703 (Online) Holm J. (1991) Settlement of the Hamburgian and Federmesser cultures at Slotseng, South Jutland. Journal of Danish Archaeology 10; 7-19. (Online) Jessen C.A. et al. (2015) Early Maglemosian culture in the Pre-Boreal landscape: archaeology and vegetation from the earliest Mesolithic site in Denmark at Lundby Mose, Sjaelland. Quaternary International 378: 73-87. (Online) • Larsson L. (1990) The Mesolithic of Southern Scandinavia. Journal World Prehistory 4 (3): 257- 309. (Online) Malmstrom H. et al (2009) Ancient DNA reveals lack of continuity between Neolithic hunter-gatherers and contemporary Scandinavians. Current Biology 19: 1758-62. (Online) Nash G. (1998) Exchange, status and mobility: Mesolithic portable art of southern Scandinavia. Oxford, BAR S710. (Arch: DAM 100 Qto NAS) Price T.D. & Gebauer A.B. (1992) The final frontier: foragers to farmers in Southern Scandinavia. In A.B.Gebauer & T.D.Price (eds.) Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory. Madison, Prehistory Press: 111-126. (Arch: HA GEB) Rowley-Conwy P. (1999) Economic prehistory in Southern Scandinavia. In J.Coles (ed.) World Prehistory. Oxford, Oxford University Press: 125-60. (Arch: BC 100 COL; Issue Desk COL 4) Skaarup J. & Gron O. (2004) Mollegabet II. A submerged Mesolithic settlement in southern Denmark. Oxford, BAR S1328. (Arch: DAN Qto SKA) Sorensen L. & Karg S. (2014) The expansion of agrarian societies towards the north: new evidence for agriculture during the Mesolithic-Neolitlhic transition in southern Scandinavia. Journal of Archaeologial Science 51: 98-114. (Online) Zvelebit M. (2006) Mobility, contact and exchange in the Baltic Sea basin 6000-2000 BC. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 25: 178-192.(Online)

9. THE COLONISATION OF SOUTH-EAST ASIA AND AUSTRALASIA

Modern humans appear to have reached northern Australasia by 50 kyr and during the following 20 kyr had colonized most parts of the continent. There will be a discussion of the nature of the colonization process, the adaptations developed by the communities and their impact on the indigenous fauna and flora. There will also be a brief discussion of the much earlier colonization of island south-east Asia (Wallacea) by Homo erectus populations and the nature of the dwarf hominin population found on the island of Flores.

LATE PALAEOLITHIC OF S.E. ASIA Aubert M. et al (2014) Pleistocene cave art from Sulawesi, Indonesia. Nature 514: 223-27. (Online) Barker G. et al. (2007) The ‘human revolution’ in lowland tropical Southeast Asia: the antiquity and behaviour of anatomically modern humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo). Journal of Human Evolution 52: 243-261. (Online) • Dennell R. & Petraglia, M. (2012) The dispersal of Homo sapiens across southern Asia: how early, how often, how complex? Quaternary Science Review 47: 15-22. (Online) Dennell R. & Porr M. (2014) (eds) Southern Asia, Australia and the Search for Human Origins. Cambridge University Press (Online) Gathorne-Hardy F.J. & Harcourt-Smith W.E.H. (2003) The super-eruption of Toba, did it cause a human bottleneck? Journal Human Evolution 45: 227-230. (Online) Morwood M.J. et al. (2004) Archaeology and age of a new hominin from Flores in eastern Indonesia. Nature 431: 1087-1091 (Online) • Sutikna, T. et al. (2016). Revised stratigraphy and chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia. Nature 532: 366-369. (Online)

THE COLONISATION OF AUSTRALASIA Balme J. (2013) Of boats and string: the maritime colonization of Australia. Quaternary International 285: 68-75. (Online) • Bird M. et al. (2018) Palaeogeography and voyage modelling indicates early human colonization of Australia was likely from Timor-Roti. Quaternary Science Reviews 191; 431-39.(Online) Bowler J. et al. (2003) New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia. Nature 421: 837-840. (Online) Clarkson C. et al. (2017) Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago. Nature 547: 306-10. (Online) Cosgrove R. (1999) Forty-two degrees south: the archaeology of late Pleistocene Tasmania. Journal World Prehistory 13: 357-402. (Online) Field J., Fullagar R. & Lord G. (2001) A large area archaeological excavation at Cuddie Springs. Antiquity 75: 696-702 (Online) • Habgood P.J. & Franklin N.F. (2008) The revolution that didn’t arrive: a review of Pleistocene Sahul. Journal of Human Evolution 55: 187-222. (Online) Hiscock P. (2008) Ancient Australia. London, Routledge. (Arch: DDA HIS; Issue Desk HIS) • Malaspinas A.S. et al. (2016) A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia. Nature 538: 207-14 (Online) Mulvaney K. (2013) Iconic imagery: Pleistocene rock art development across northern Australia. Quaternary International 285: 99-110. (Online) O’Connor S. et al. (2011) Pelagic fishing at 42,000 years before the present and the maritime skills of Modern Humans. Science 334: 1117-1121. (Online) Summerhayes G.R. et al. (2010) Human adaptation and plant use in Highland New Guinea 49,000 to 44,000 years ago. Science 330: 78-81. (Online) Tobler R. et al. (2017) Aboriginal mitogenomes reveal 50,000 years of regionalism in Australia. Nature 544 (7649):180-84.(Online) Webb S. (2006) The first boat people. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press (Online)

FAUNAL EXTINCTIONS Field J., Fullagar R. & Lord G. (2001) A large area archaeological excavation at Cuddie Springs. Antiquity 75: 696-702 (Online) Field J. et al. (2013) Looking for the archaeological signature in Australian Megafaunal extinctions. Quaternary International 285: 76-88. (Online) • Johnson C. et al. (2016) What caused extinction of the Pleistocene megfauna of Sahul? Proceedings: Biological Sciences 283 (1824) (Online)

Lorenzen E.D. et al. (2011) Species specific responses of late Quaternary megafauna to climate and humans. Nature 479: 359-64. (Online) Roberts R.G. et al. (2001) New ages for the last Australian Megafauna: continent-wide extinction about 46,000 years ago. Science 292: 1888-92. (Online) Saltré F. et al. (2019) Climate-human interaction associated with southeast Australian megafauna extinction patters. Nature Communications 10 (5311). (Online)

10. THE COLONISATION OF EASTERN SIBERIA AND THE AMERICAS

There is still considerable controversy about the date of the first colonization of the Americas, but there is intriguing evidence from Central and South America indicating that small populations may have arrived by the last glacial maximum. This session will examine the evidence for the colonization process, and the adaptations of communities to the wide ranging environments encountered. It will also examine the factors which may have led to the extinction of megafauna in the late Pleistocene.

LATE PALAEOLITHIC OF NORTH-EAST SIBERIA & BERINGIA Goebel T. (1999) Pleistocene human colonisation of Siberia and peopling of the Americas: an ecological approach. Evolutionary Anthropology 8 (6): 208-27. (Online) Hoffecker J.F. & Elias S.A. (2003) Environment and Archaeology in Beringia. Evolutionary Anthropology 12: 34-49. (Online) • Pitulko V. et al. (2012) The oldest art of the Eurasian Arctic: personal ornaments and symbolic objects from Yana, RHS, Arctic Siberia. Antiquity 86: 674-95. (Online) Slobodin S. (1999) Northeast Asia in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. World Archaeology 30 (3): 484-502. (Online)

THE COLONISATION OF THE AMERICAS Ardelean C.F. et al. (2020) Evidence of human occupation in Mexico around the last glacial maximum. Nature 584: 87-92. Bourgeon L., Burke A., Higham T. (2017) Earliest human presence in North America dated to the last glacial maximum: new radiocarbon dates from Bluefish Cave, Canada. Plos One: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169486 (Online) Dixon E.J. (2013) Late Pleistocene colonization of North America from Northeast Asia: new insights from large-scale paleogeographic reconstructions. Quaternary International 285: 57-67. (Online) Erlandson J.M. et al. (2011) Paleoindian seafaring, maritime technologies and coastal foraging on California’s Channel Islands. Science 331: 1181-1185. (Online) Hall R., Roy D. & Boling D. (2004) Pleistocene migration routes into the Amercias: human biological adaptations and environmental constraints. Evolutionary Anthropology 13: 132-144. (Online) Jenkins D.L. et al. (2012) Clovis age Western Stemmed Projectile Points and human coprolites at the Paisley Caves. Science 337: 223-228. (Online) Lesnek A.J. (2018) Deglaciation of the Pacific coastal corridor directly preceded the human colonization of the Americas. Science Advances 4 (5) eaar5040. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aar5040 (Online) • Meltzer, D.J. (2009) First peoples in the New World, University California Press.(Chapters 2, 4, 8) (Online) O’Brien M.J. et al. (2014) On this ice: problems with Stanford and Bradley’s proposed Solutrean colonization of North America. Antiquity 88: 606-24. (Online) • Pedersen M. et al. (2016) Postglacial viability and colonization in North America’s ice-free corridor. Nature 537: 45-49. (Online) • Raghavan, M. et al. (2015) Genomic evidence for the Pleistocene and Recent population history of Native Americans. Science 349 (6250). doi: 10.1126/science.aab3884 (Online) Reich D. et al. (2012) Reconstructing native American population history. Nature 488: 370-74. (Online) Waters (2011) Pre-Clovis Mastodon hunting 13,800 years ago at the Manis site, Washington. Science 334: 351-353. (Online)

SOUTH AMERICA Adovasio J.M. & Pedler D.R. (1997) Monte Verde and the antiquity of humankind in the Americas. Antiquity 71: 573-80. (Online)

Borrero L.A. (1999) The prehistoric exploration and colonization of Fuego-Patagonia. Journal World Prehistory 13 (3): 321-55. (Online) Dillehay T.D. (1999) The late Pleistocene cultures of South America. Evolutionary Anthropology 7: 206-16. (Online) Dillehay T.D. (2015) New archaeological evidence for an early human presence at Monte Verde, Chile. Plos One doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141923 (Online) Guidon N. et al. (1996) Nature and age of the deposits in Pedra Furada, Brazil. Antiquity 70: 408-21 (reply to article by Meltzer) (Online) Meltzer D.J., Adovasio J.M. & Dillehay T.D. (1994) On a Pleistocene human occupation at Pedra Furada, Brazil. Antiquity 68: 695-714 (Online).

FAUNAL EXTINCTIONS Gill J.L. et al. (2009) Pleistocene megafaunal collapse, novel plant communities, and enhanced fire regimes in North America. Science 326: 1100-1103. (Online) Grayson D.K. (1991) Late Pleistocene mammalian extinctions in North America: taxonomy, chronology and explanations. Journal World Prehistory 5: 193-231 (Online). Grayson D.K. & Meltzer D.J. (2003) A requiem for North American overkill. Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 585-593. (Online) • Haynes G. (2013) Extinctions in North America’s late Glacial landscapes. Quaternary International 285: 89-98. (Online) Lorenzen E.D. et al. (2011) Species specific responses of late Quaternary megafauna to climate and humans. Nature 479: 359-64. (Online)