CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Film andSocialisminthePost-WarPoland Thesis submitted totheCentral UniversityEuropean Second Supervisor: ProfessorMaciej Janowski First Supervisor: Professor Balazs Trencsenyi Professor First Supervisor: History Department Budapest, Hungary Petar Mitric 2007 By CEU eTD Collection part of any such copies made. Further copies made in accordance with such instructions may not may be made without the written permission of the instructions Author such with accordance in made copies Further made. copies such of any part Central the in European lodged and Library. Author the Details by given may be obtained instructions the from with the librarian. accordance This in page only made must be may form part, a Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any process, either in full or 2 CEU eTD Collection and their interaction with society. interaction and their films Polish several of analysis the to “historiophoty” neologism White’s Hayden apply objective, my argumentation willinto phases,be film. a three eachcontaining divided this unique connection with Pursuing treat film primarily as a history the historicalsocialism Socialism inthe1945-1960 period. inPolandof can period of this source. Thus, I will Abstract The first objective of my thesis is to present the way in which Polish film narrated film way present the Polish in is which my to thesis of The firstobjective 3 CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY SENTIMENTS IN 1956–1960POLAND IN THE SENTIMENTS CHAPTER 4 – THE ROLE OF THE POLISH SCHOOL IN RAISING THE NATIONAL CHAPTER 3 - THE FILM IN SERVICE OF STALINIZATION AND IDEOLOGY, FILM AND SOCIOLOGY CHAPTER 2 - EARLY POLISH POST-WAR FILM AS AN INTELLECTUAL HISTORY; FILM CHAPTER 1 - THEORETICAL CHAPTER - 1 THEORETICAL CHAPTER INTRODUCTION ABSTRACT FILM AND SOCIALISM IN 1 THE POST-WAR ...... POLAND Table ofcontents 4.3. P 4.2 4.1 3.3. R 3.2 3.1 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.3. 1.2. 1.1 OLAND EALISM A S F S C C P P A OCIAL AND TALINIZATION IN TALINIZATION IVE FROM OLITICAL AND OLITICAL NDRZEJ ONGRESS IN ONGRESS ONCEIT OF THE ONCEIT OF OLISH NDRZEJ , ...... 54 ...... C I F P TALIAN ILM AND ILM RAISES FROM ONCEPT OF ONCEPT ...... 3 ...... S W CHOOL ASAN CHOOL W B AJDA AJDA P ARSKA ...... 101 ...... 5 ...... W N OLITICAL EOREALISM I H ISLA NTELLECTUAL ’ N S ISTORY – P ATIONAL W K OLAND S S – A ANAL ON THE ON ANAL IGNALING THE IGNALING TREET AR BROAD O A A C FFICIAL LTERNATIVE TMOSPHERE ...... 11 ...... INEMA (1950-1955) ...... 15 ...... – C . A INEMA IN ...... 77 ...... A LEKSANDER I TMOSPHERE TMOSPHERE IN THE ...... 16 ...... NTRODUCTION OF NTRODUCTION T E WO MERGENCE OF MERGENCE I – DEOLOGY P S D ...... 50 ...... IDES OF THE OLAND E ...... 10 ...... -S F ...... 23 ...... TALINISATION AND TALINISATION ORD ...... 73 ...... 31 ...... – ’ S A A S CCEPTING THE CCEPTING N E TALINISM TO TALINISM PPEASEMENT OR PPEASEMENT I EW ARLY RON G C ENERATION OF ENERATION P OST URTAIN ...... 50 ...... R -W EVISIONISM C P AR ULTURE AST – C C P HALLENGING THE HALLENGING , OLAND OLLECTIVE F F ACING THE ACING ILMMAKERS ...... 47 ...... 73 ...... 23 ...... C ATHARSIS IN ATHARSIS P RESENCE ...... 72 ...... S OCIALIST ....91 ...... - 4 CEU eTD Collection This poster for Krzysztof Kieslowski’s film Kieslowski’s Krzysztof for poster This Introduction was always meant end expected to accompany the development of socialism. of thedevelopment end toaccompany expected meant was always which art” important most film as“the for stands brick to the attached objective Camera brick. in the epitomized is Socialism Europe. Eastern in film and socialism between observed separatelyis it when evokes poster this that notion the actually is myconcern of matter The from the film for whichBuff it was created – the a notiondifferent of a periodtight linkfrom the one I am addressing here. Neither Kieslowski nor is, at least directly, among the topics I am going to cover in the text of this thesis. Amator (Camera Buff)wasmade in in 1977, Camera 5 CEU eTD Collection socialist order led either to birth or radically different recreation the of of nationalIntroduction cinemas.Revolution. the to connected essentially was countries socialist society. with interaction their and films Polish Thus, White’s Iwill apply neologismHayden “historiophoty”analysis tothe of several source. historical a as primarily film treat will argumentation my objective, this Pursuing can period a film.intowith be divided phases,eachcontaining unique connection three the narrated history socialismof period. Socialism inthe 1945-1960 inPoland of this values. It never showed the tendency to change them radically or to renounce them. and revolutionary sustain the film intendedtorestore its imposed on cinema, national state limitation dueto a socialist the them toward acritical itadopted attitude that phenomenon is that although The suffered. from people ordinary everyday which the plights problems and articulated parting from the authorities issues, national and important de-tabooized the were graduallybeingabandoned.It that of a socialist state, values Film revolutionary maturer. becamethereminderand and of madeitthe poetics, in a sense cinemathe new enhanced wasevolving each itwith anauthentic and vision generation say, deteriorated, better changed and, of socialism courses as the However, achievements. ideas and postulates, formative its on resting revolution, socialist of the values revolutionary Filmand serious matter. in quicklyEurope Eastern identified itself with the institutionalized, national and engaged film cinema.The wasbe expected to led Europe Warcountries state-financed, inthepost-World Second to the Revolution and the introduction of socialism to Poland and other Eastern Bloc My second objective is to scrutinize the idea that birth of national cinemas in cinemas national of birth that idea the scrutinize to is objective second My film Polish which in way the present to is thesis my of objective first The 6 CEU eTD Collection order to answer this question, it is necessary to approach inseveral material approach filmic the necessary to itis toanswer this question, order from of historiography? regarded asavalid of modern view historical point the source In be whatextent can warcinema To persistently up. questionimportant thatcomes level. a symbolic at moment present the with past upthe intoformer its stitches imaginary observer world by evoked the recentconnecting the orcommercial entertainment, andof historical source asadry war a particular serve give account an intends to latter the while Nevertheless, matter. have warasasubject the the war thematic can be differentiated: can warthematic the third objective is defend interpretation statingto the that twogroupswithinfilms the with filmsall Eastern European frompost-war producedin (starting those USSR).My the instead of passive andindifferent. beand united peopleactive to motivate would always of that cinema cathartic, qualities intellectual, tothe engaged, devoted communisttheir orientation, remained socialist or although renounced sometimes who, authors, andits of cinema focusPolish onthecase my set will I revolutionary. and engaged intellectual, not was which style, filmic any thatthey European Eastern from imbeddedintopowerfully cinemas absolutely distanced so became patterns Those pattern. formative revolutionary its maintaining values remind wantedthe about to offilmauthors opportunism groups significant and elitism, conformist, of forms extremist the into going Revolution, the of values all from departing were officials Party the while Later, Revolution. celebrated film and bourgeoisie, of abolition security, collectivity, solidarity, communism, victory, celebrated Revolution During elaboration of aforementioned ideas and classifications, there is an The Second World War was definitely predominant topic (if not the only one) in only one) notthe topic (if predominant War definitely World was The Second war cinema and historical cinema . Both cinemas . Both 7 CEU eTD Collection country country must be both national and people’s. national history: and society with interaction and poetics their films, Polish first the of analysis the in is importance on of which neorealism particular literature from extensive the concepts filmmakers livedwho worked in the historical period that is mineof concern. Ichose one and societyalso defined. Neorealistfilms and the network of their interactions with war, ideology,served as the primary model for the first two Polish generations of history writing process (Robert A. Rosenstone, R.J.Raack, I.C.Jarvie, among them). against assumedforfilm either or the theattitudes applying filmmakinginanalysis or the of new, radically potency the and dominance of officialthe historiographymodern by introducing the use challenging The creation and of term the sources. as historical material using visual the different, sources shapessociety. andideology which the created is it in which society reflects film how approaches different raised slightly with describe who debates Sorlin and Pierre Ferro by Sadoul, Marc Georges basisof on the concepts presented the among2005 certainconcepts historians. They following three books: three following of war cinema and its onhistory dependence will interpretationthe rest on in the establishedwith society,My ideology,history.definition above all, and, general politics, ways. Whatshouldcinemabe aretherelations thatcreators andits thoroughly examined by Denise J. Youngblood. The relation between film and sociology will be Before moving to the case of Polish cinema, the concept of concept the cinema, Polish caseof the to moving Before the Hayden White invented term by Susan Hayward and integral realism War Cinema by Cezare Cavatini. According to it, the cinema of a Russian War Films:Russian War Cinema On the Front,1914- by Milutin Colic, Milutin by historiophoty in order to define the process of Cinema Studies: The main neorealism must be 8 CEU eTD Collection marked by the death of Boleslaw Bierut, Poznan’s riots andfor“thaw”. the riots Except Poznan’s the by markedBoleslaw Bierut, of death the society. cinema, and attempts of challenging the process of dogmatization in both film and function to anddescribe after-life Street theBarska from (examinedvalues ofindoctrination andspreadingaccording casestudy the Stalinist Propaganda. The film the of the Stalinized to for means asa served solely It minimized. was role artistic and creative Cinema’s the reactions Poland,lasted from 1955.This1950 to change significantly influenced cinema itsand course. in thethe pressimposed of the perceptionperiod)humanism and universal suffering. has a of universal idea of the increating relevance their and authorities, andthe audience institutionalization of cinema, the life of the life theof first film, their interaction with the films: Polish significant three first the into concerns their of transpositions and society in post-war changes all-way the to reactions Poles’ of stands for an adequate transition to the next section of the text. which conclusion a and films, three chapter, first the in thecaseof or, one of analysis in introduction period the describing level,question at the elaborate the macro-historical short a contains chapter Each about. writing am I period historical the in phase and Last stage The body of my thesis is divided into three chapters; each dedicated to aparticular to eachdedicated into chapters; my The body three isdivided of thesis The third chapter introduces again the new phase in Polish post war history which Poland, of Stalinization severe the of phase the covers chapter The second and covers It gives between chapter theThe first overview period the 1949. 1945 . The chapter introduces the processes of nationalization and nationalization of processes the introduces chapter The . will be presented. The analysis of the topics of the film, and its life its and film, the of topics the of analysis The presented. be will Forbidden Songs , Boarder Street Boarder Five 9 , CEU eTD Collection normative-ideological concept normative-ideological the which in way the analyze will I Then reality. firm with information and analysis primary intentions of themovements, andvaluesofsociety authors); confronting the pictures created by in out will besegments. several carried certain historical analysisfilm level.in the of and Therefore, history as ahistorical source asource writing withdo aprimary on reality little to very which has aim concept the contains film also in influencing being society weapon capableperiod, given the addition to that, of adirect In birth. their for framework a as serve which circumstances and situation the on picture historical Films asa CHAPTER 1-Theoretical Chapter potentlegacythe created for all generations of future Polish filmmakers. films which today really School five andwas its war created during yearsof existence it(not historical)produced justifies the existence Film Polish called style generation. Anewcinematic lost them post-war as the struck of the notion topicof historiophoty it in order and their towho films almostface always featured the war asand the theme. However, evoke they used the war as a war in Polandfront only.of the The grew up generation audiencefilmmakers,of and who intellectually whowere shaped in post- the Second World the currentWar the new introduced phasealso this andpoetics infreedom expression amount of certain was for problems them history that already. Nevertheless, The first point of view isgivenby information the concerning the source, even in an ideally typical case, can only give an indirect an give only can case, typical ideally an in even whichin appear change after-warthe period after 1956. appearing infilms (sometimes independent even of the structures, 10 CEU eTD Collection subsequent situation ininternal the country, relationships and debatesof and profession, the the political general of the inthecontext only film canbeanalyzed the of critical reception leadership. position film and The of thewithin cultural production policy, the and andideological of political the independent already partly whowere creators of ones the well as the to extent andgreater a greater to over gives Film then historical competence cinema reflects reality at all levels. at reality reflects cinema competence historical andMark Ferro Pierre Sorlin inup witha research 1977 took proving that, great 1.1 neorealism. Italian the link filmand the andhistory, and relations: between theconceptof war cinema, suture, itis Poland, several introduce politics in concepts post-war to theoretical the necessary to certain that extent, of in society the periodbetweenthe 1945 and 1958. ideology, history the and of culture, sense, involves,necessarily inwider itinvestigation of a subject since as source, historical itbecan arelevant is that conclusion possible European Eastern When changes. political provoke thus and order existing post-warthe undermine subtly filmit soattitudes, in can itsinfluence also, semi-independence, society and indirectly or is perceivedpolitical structures. However, film also plays a significantthrough role in shaping people’s of dependant system, thus and of apolitical A filmisa inproduct a part production. the this union with politics and society, a Film and History Film In order to reconstruct the tight connection between the cinema, and history and history and cinema, the between connection tight the reconstruct to order In ideological aimconcepts of the age aimconcepts ofthe ideological confrontation of a finished film with the set of norms that has already played already has that norms of set the with film finished a of , autonomous, but still similar to the earlier the to similar still but , autonomous, the realisticthe age elements of , as 11 CEU eTD Collection 2 176- 204. 1 a society thought. of frameworks inboarder them places and national culture, each them with correlates research to includeideas determinedby wayinthe which worldthe wasportrayed. his Sorlin thenbroadens all of post-warwhich concerns Europe. seems this concept toItalian film toand society in – WorldHe post the War IIperiod. Heshows seem lays to have out obsessed a series applies Sorlin possesses. aculture “imageof reality” ofthe andthe idea portray reality both offilm recurrent and societyperceive. The bringisresult to into both focus kindthe of“image” a culture usesto and themes, also which easily viewers can andwhat easily presentable filmmakers consider what designates a film tells us what is portrayable.thought along which it travels. of Thus,horizon the us shows Before society the of Sorlintelling orientation the and usinterests the whatus showing positsa given society thechooses ideal to portray, of film the of perception different the showing Jud Suss. style, the way in which itis read. He reconstructed Nazi obsessions through the editing of society. a given of Ferrosubstrata ideological the clarify uses that reactions triggers it others; asdownplay evidence not just what a film says, but what it does not say, its Ibid. See Casetti, Francesco. SeeCasetti, For Mark Ferro cinema tells stories that play up certain of life’s aspects and aspects life’s of certain play up that stories cinema tells Ferro Mark For There is the whole group of similar studies research that shows the ways in which ways the shows that research studies similar of group whole is the There For Pierre Sorlin theidea ofmirroring to needs be Afilm, broadened. before 2 represents itself represents He considered the change in social climate in pre- and postwar France by France in postwar pre-and climate insocial change the He considered Theories of Cinema: 1945-1955 in order to create a sense of belonging among its members, who La Grande Illusion.La Grande ; Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999, pp. 1 visible , by he which 12 CEU eTD Collection significant loss of content. without equivalent intoauditory avisual history of account awritten “translate” to history in verbal images and written discourse). Heposes a question itwhether is possible “historyo as he defines of what adequacy relative deals Itwith the respect. in this historians theprofessional of concern in both fields, who often sidework byside. Dec.,1988, pp. 1193. historio governpresumed theprofessional of to practice and criteria tothe of in accuracy ittruth visual andfilmicabout discourse) images 4 Cinema: 1945-1955 Keleidoskops, Schmid’s ofG. core atthe is representation Historical sources. accumulate 3 films asa of concept the Likewise, sides. both penetrating is horizon same the within moving of awareness An former. the by out brought data the consideration into andmore more takes andthelatter latter the characterize that rethinkings the values theformer that has acknowledged been widely It general. conception of life, and perceptions of the world. in asociety bring films)ideological outthatsociety’s them (among orientations, naturally, the “histories of mentality,” which through an analysis of the text that circulateshare common themes of discussion and models of reference. On the horizon are, White, Hayden. “Historiography and Historyophoty”, This field characterized by the increasing numberof studies on historical films (that bothwrite history and Defining the role of cinema inhistory Haydenwriting, White sets mainthe Important aspect is the nature of relation between film history and history in filmhistory history and is between aspect of relation nature the Important and is part of P. Ortoleva’s ; Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999, pp. 337. 4 photy” Scene del passato. (the representation of history and our thought our and history of representation (the 3 The American Historical review: Takenfrom Casetti, Francesco. graphy historicalsource Die Figuren des (the representation of representation (the Vol. 93, No.5, has scholars Theories of Theories 13 CEU eTD Collection Dec.,1988, pp. 1183. 9 History onto Film, 8 7 18, July 1983, pp.416. Cinematography: A Prolegomenon to film Work for Historians”, for Work film to Prolegomenon A Cinematography: as “Historiography R.J. Raack, liveliness. past the all recover and reconstruction empathetic the complex, multi-dimensional world in which humans live….”Only film can provide an adequate 6 5 historiography. to dealspresented byhistoryophoty challengethat It with the a historian and a strong advocate of putting history onto film, of R.J.Raack history advocate onto putting a historian and astrong respect, Rosenstone confronts two radically opposed attitudes: the first based on theory of a “poor information load”, suffers from a “poor information from load”,a discursive load” suffers one based conceptthe on of a philosopher Ian Jarvie sayingmoving the that image carries a patriarchal version of history. version of a patriarchal while pretending tonothingmore than“telling whatreally happened” effectively present filmmaking say seriously bring into question historical andrepresentation analysis that, in studies feminist as cinema) war (primarily film emotions, observers’ involving by havingnot footnoting defend system itsto own criticizeand discourses. opposite Besides, avoid in symbolizm whatlinearit to narrativeandlacks, the order descriptive compensate music, sound, mentions) is, White (as that aesthetics, film uses cinema war context this In cinema. historical from cinema war differentiating of necessity discussed the above to genresfilms of and different production countries and This companies. factleads us again notdifferentiate different does Healso entertainment. serves and only as propaganda for doing ameaningful history film.on White, Hayden. “Historiography and Historyophoty”, and “Historiography Hayden. White, Rosenstone, Robert: “History in images/History in Words: Reflections on the Possibility of Really Putting Jarvie, I.C. “Seeing Through movies”, Through “Seeing I.C. Jarvie, Raack argues that traditional written history is too linear and too narrow in focus Ibid. to render the fullness of Another Historian, Robert Rosenstone further raises another question in field. this The main flaw of the latter interpretation is that it rests on the idea that cinema The American Historical Review, 9 Furthermore, using simplified stylistic references, film references, stylistic simplified using Furthermore, Philosophy of the social Sciences, 8 Vol. 93, No. 5, Dec., 1988, pp. 1176. The American Historical review, Journal of Contemporary History 7 , and thus from any possibility No. 8, 1978, pp.378. 6 , and the second the and , Vol. 93,No.5, 5 Inthis , No. 14 CEU eTD Collection nazi war dossier in the Serbian Balkans, and Liliana Cavanni’s film Cavanni’s Liliana and Balkans, Serbian the in dossier war nazi 10 that innovations the include will It filmmakers. Polish on neorealism Italian of influence the exclusively examine will I aesthetics, film post-war emerged newly the of terms In atrocities. different of finalization facilitating certain high-ranking officials usedtocooperatewith who fascist duringregimes WWII, about pastof the hidden records For example, historiography. became the concern of they before issues certain raised also films or novels historical the where West the with history weremarkedwriting by of burden same the A censorship). beparallel can drawn official national historiography mostly was silent aboutthem both (although cinema and least in the films while orat several hinted Polish fully treated Warsaw were Uprising and of Holocaust, the horrors anti-Semitism, likePolish some topics Poland where yearsmany a laterenters discourse within modern historiography. only that event historical ignored an initiate literary works films or casesthat numerous been have there time, same the At accounts. historical their into documents or events some of inclusion the omit accidentally or deliberately also can film) (like they since relevance historical of theabsolute recognizedtext, nothingthe scientific guarantees intellectual nature limits toahandful their target-groups historians. Inadditionof to this, discourses within modern historiography, often, which duetotheirhighly elitist, wide to massesoffers is of ahistorical people account that more comprehensible all than 1.2. The examples can be the novel an Australian author Australian an novel be the can examples The The content of my thesis will present how it was the case in post-war socialist Italian Neorealism Raki 10 by B. Wongar dealing with Kurt Waldheim’s Night Porter (1974). See Ljiljana 15 CEU eTD Collection thought andthought but itaccording will, the will and need should to of whose power those a single creative own person’s be according to established only War cannot cinema oftheReality An Aesthetics books the essays from the journals the from essays the people’s lives. (I examined the features of the Neorealism mostly from the compilation of political juster anda for thirst war post socialsubsequent their and movements anti-fascist order.people’s The theninterprets mass cinema also andthehopesof Neorealist passions people. the greatof the cinema by it wasinspired seemed, alternative and matter howintellectual noThe cinema, war. also realisticallybecause it looks for itsdepicts film ismarkedas Neorealist cinema. of heroes nationalization of state-monitored the withinimportance and advantages much the stresses it thethat, to broader addition In cinema. Italian the or Polish actual circle than it conditionsused to be before the of the process of creation the modern Poland or Italy. That implies the That Italy. Poland or modern the of creation process the in interested The uprisings,andwere events, historical efforts in artists longings people, commercial hadpre-war cinematicbeen unimaginable atmosphere became very popular. film. Italian film then was also was then film Italian film. in the characters asthe same things the whosuffered actors of engagement andthe facts Bogoeva-Sedlar, “Mapping Otherthe Mapping the Self: B. Wongar’s Novel Raki”;Nis: Facta Universatis ideathe of the came to Cavatini Cezare about. brought and conditioned Poland of complexity and specificity 1.3. Cinema Concept ofWarCinema Italiano (1903-1953) integral realism ” by Andre Bazen) Cinema Nuovo people’s by M Gromo, that implied direct observation of life, every-day life, of observation direct implied that and and national Cinema Cinema eRealta . Thus, the topics that in the edited by Turconni Sergioand national by B Rondi, and character of people’s 16 CEU eTD Collection 11 series: Linguistics and Literature, Vol. 2, No.9, 2002. (Chukhrayev’s when people mention theto putbans on of screenalready theshot interventionsare of organizations, religious the boycotts whichof distributors the filmsrefuse and censored they characterize films of incontrol whichthe can be manifested Soviet in asdifferent otheranti-state ways. Union The commonest among them type is another but there isa state-control, there no sector, a private belongs to production films, or officialfilm control.production, state was subjectedtothe InWestern inwhichthe countries, bans. Thus, incountry which they In socialistwere produced. countries marked by state film the production systems, or the of their official differences the to due warcinema of types different are there think that political or ideological systems of the society,enemy”. the towards hate the homeland, the or towards love the“the is films peace in the brutal warit presumed that they could serveenemy,the to andthatpeople not shouldthink about reality, but about allow didfilms,World American making War,the warsince government not eventhepacifist only. The dictum objectives,that unites allit loseswartimefollow state’s not the itdoes case In objectives. state’s and patriotic the fulfilling the donations, or is for of andasort formation” warcinema becomes “army ismultiplied, the of cinema the simply banned.function such of importance the war a of outbreak InUpon well. as thestrengthen and maintain first years of the Second Colic, Milutin. The war cinema operates in the same way all over the world. It is misleading to misleading is It world. the over all way same in the operates cinema war The Sta je ratni film Tryasina [Quagmire], for instance), it is inevitable to mention also the [What isWar Cinema]; Beograd: Institut za film, 1989, pp.23. 11 17 CEU eTD Collection pp. 14. 482-497 and also Colic, Milutin. whose action is and action whose conceived, like constructed poetically thefilm films war are There war cinema. and historical the between is difference Hence, there Star Wars Lucas’ George (like sciencefiction the mixedup with be can easily also The warcinema Strangelove arm like even Kubrick’s fighting “cold”(Stanley without so-called fighting the 12 are by people killing in created and psychology the war material of devastation form the the of consequences the However, peacetime. during the war, a after place take actions Yugoslav director Purisa Djordjevic. The war cinema further includes the films whose fights or nations between the fight the treats that cinema the only warcinema the Is cinema? a war as a dominant theme. If it is so, then, can war cinemacinemaincludes films only fighting speakabout that among andnations, people have also and be labeled as historical parameters of both concepts overlap. The main question both authors pose is whether war crucial the that it clear becomes definitions), theoretical Colic’s Milutin and Hayward’s instance, Susan (for interpretations of types both compare whenwe Nevertheless, concept has been defined indifferentways in andEastern Europe in West.the shelf for yearsbefore itwas released. film American See Hayward, Susan. within Then what is the universal definition of war cinema? Sometimes, it seems that the ). The war cinema does not necessarily treat a particular historical event. historical a particular treat necessarily not does cinema The war ). )? The war films are not only the films that have a war as their subject matter. a nation as well? Does a war cinema necessarily imply any arm fighting, or any imply fighting, anation arm necessarily awarcinema as well? Does From HeretoEternity Cinema Studies: The Key Concept Sta je ratni film 12 by Fred Zinnemann which was being byFredZinnemannwhichwas kepton the [What isWarCinema]; Beograd: Institut zafilm, 1989, ; London andNew York: Routledge,2006, pp. Devojka (A Girl) by a Dr. 18 CEU eTD Collection America, Salvador, Afghanistan, Yugoslavia are of political nature, based on confronting two different two confronting on based nature, political of are Yugoslavia Afghanistan, Salvador, America, 14 Studies: The KeyConcept studies in child psychoanalysis conducted by Jacques Lacan inthe 1960s. See Hayward, Susan. pre-20 13 interwoven. often very are circumstances these although with deal they circumstances to the according other each from differ films war the so economic, national, religious, political, film. historical reality a particular the of reality, and his and anobserver between someleast extent, to at keepsadistance, cinema historical hand, other the On reality. present the in rooted is deeply it simultaneously, but event, subjectandboth look. objectof is The the the film revelation. brings based It on a past – as known film studies is in that concept usethe directors warcinema material, the such While processing experiences. personal onthe based isit usually real,the and it presents the war more dramatically, severely cinema, historical and unlike alternatively. that, fact the is respect in this It feels cinema war of deeplyfeature rooteddistinctive in always conveystendency classifyto war cinema asasub-genre of historicalhistory, cinema, due to the fact that it regardless of with from eventsandprotagoniststhe 20 the the type of events or peopleStreet] by Aleksander Ford to whichit I will refer extensively in the Chapter II) treats. ( films in such dominant most the and Another present The civil war in USA is caused by the economic reasons, Spanish Civil War, the wars in the Latin inthe wars the War, Civil Spanish reasons, economic by the caused is USA in war civil The As a critical concept, a critical As stitching the spectator into the filmic text. the into spectator the stitching th The war itself can be caused by different constellations of circumstances: social, circumstances: of constellations by different becaused can The waritself deals cinema War important. also is time-criterion cinema war the defining In century war are classified as historical films. Still, in the 21st century, there is a is there century, 21st in the Still, films. historical as classified are war century 14 suture ; pp.404-405. was introduced by theoristthe Jean-Pierre Oudart in 1977, and was based on 13 th Piatka zulicyBarskiej century. All other films whose topic is a is topic whose films other All century. A spectator, watching the film, becomes watching the A spectator, [Five from Barska Cinema suture 19 CEU eTD Collection patterns. Consequently, itis the same with the films about them. ideologies, but, at the same, time all those wars can have their social, economic, national or religious of fora nation’s anintegral part it stands alarming, engaged, Beingalternative, which a film emerges. in society the to lesson moral deliver a to intending experiences, historical expresses and summarizes discovers, warcinema the events, historical recent the Reviving orders. history using it asameansfor achieving and maintaining moral their own and ideological of importance the emphasize much so that establishments the and truths, the history, people.loaded It itself with immensethe burden of responsibility.preoccupations Its are and afilm director between communication of means subtle very engaged, became a world in post-war the warcinema the Thus, works. literary and scholarly or manifestos, films, cultural by meansfurthersome of subsequent developed unique andlater Sometimes it could be a modification of a previous idea, but, at the same time, it might be a newidea. initiation of the with asociety warcinema hasendowed frequently word, ideological taboos,andquestion myths national Ina andlegends. the or constructed means that itdefined the systems within asociety ideologicalsocial,- their and aspects.That political tends to broadenoutside of the closenesstheits observers directed often very has warcinema the andmeansexpression) of matter overall of the particular picture political ofsystems a society, or ideology.Interpretations of War Cinema It in and MicroApproach History, asPartofIntellectual Cinema 1.4 War hasto uniquelybreak politically The war cinema as such is going to be of my particular interest in further text. beinterest the my suchisgoing The warcinema of to as particular leadWith its multitudeofurgesthat the creation to its(not only with subject 20 CEU eTD Collection movie, they visualize what somebody else want. listening to the music and reading books people canvisualize whateverthey want, but by watching the 16 deed. heroic sole the as inwar dying and participation the perceive to them Japan, the Soviet Union whichwere entitled to “sell the war” to people of theircountry, and to motivate 15 century. twentieth the of history whole the throughout seen be can war cinema of predetermination Such defeats. nation’s some other victories and national propagate nations, and homelands else’s someone hatetoward or nation, defends pros or cons for and communicates It discourse. political ancertain of anargument means or asa serves idea, supports or develops politics. is as artistically very independent) tightly to Italwaysandpowerful connected love toward own homeland and with officialideology. the extent development the itaccompanied create, not did if warcinema mentioned, As already Ihave discourse. and ubiquity history’s intellectual the itusing with deal is to here intention My history. intellectual of certain ideas that unnecessarily could comply to some authors can stay while fighting against the official one. Serving to a promotion fighting can and official the Servingto againstauthors stay one. while the option political opposition an from independent much how remains question the hand, other the on However, countries. Bloc Eastern former the of number ina state the from autonomous gained working levels and expression conditions independence certain of of people. Thus,suchfilms uncompromisinglyforauthors, strivingand the their widemasses tothe messages “subversive” for emitting convenient expression intelligent endedupproducingEurope) counter-effect the films –craftily with an wrapped war inEastern state-censorship the least (at censorship War, the World Second the After beenvarious by existence proved of forms theworld. throughout of censorship the Arthur Miller told that it was dangerous to ascribe the supreme meaning to the war heroism since by Germany, America, in wars world the during committees cinema and censorship ofthe example The On hand, other the warcinema in(although the cases filmsnumerous markedof 15 Its predetermination Itspredetermination has 21 16 CEU eTD Collection sentiments. revising the historicalexisting interpretations and, provoking catharsis and revelation-like whole light historical usuallycasting period, anew particularhistorical on events, andmicro stories for metaphors powerful very can of contextualized,potent the stand a scrutinized and idea. Masterfully of a particular development to the they contributed how in time, left they trace historical the was what society, a within operated films those how level, micro the to descending show, to is concern main my Nevertheless, cinema. They can be perceived as Polish, Eastern European, European, or simply samples of war warcinema. the film in particularly and general of character strongly premeditated duetothe subjected easily are observers which the to conclusions misleading of us deprive can films war the of scrutiny all-way an only cultural intellectual and andinheritance,trends anddirectors’ personal urges. Ina word, behind it lies a complex network comprised of corresponding macro-historical context, must asin bemoreregarded a source broadly history-writing, since contextualized, if warcinema, afilm. for making are inevitable Thus, with state the compromises it tothe can becompletely official ideology opposed unwilling since certain willing or like, nor itreally looks society as narrativedescribes neither totally to theofficial Its one. from authors auteur independence.having absolute the development of an idea, always connected to an ideology or politics, undeniably prevents In the course of my thesis I will extensively present the case studies of two films. ideology aparallel create to directors film the entitles and enables Such position 22 CEU eTD Collection only Polish path for the future. They facilitated implementation of the Socialist order into the communism the whoregarded Stalinization.as included The thirdpeople orientation aggressive the to passive resistance and peaceful, compromises for certain readiness showed of people force of Germany. secondgroup equal to that The occupying another as Army Red only and the the Soviets regarded they sense that in a “hard-liners”,the orientation. However, what is evident is that, initially, a number of Poles were markedpeasantry. as It is difficult to speak about percentage, or profile of people belonging to to from elites each of society: the allstrata involved years and post-war already, first their political fororientation and thevision future the Poland. Thathappened in thevery to according groups, different three into Poles divided powers, Western the of interest influence andthe decreasing Soviet by denominated increasing the changes thatwere the society, whole the through spread that changes fundamental All-way, rebellious. The finish of Secondfoundthe World War Poland and divided,disappointed still 2.1. 1General Overview Poland Post-War in the Early Atmosphere Intellectual 2.1 Politicaland Sociology Intellectual History; Filmand Ideology, Film and CHAPTER 2 - Early Polish Post-War Film as an 23 CEU eTD Collection accommodation or discouraging it. Accommodation and resistance facilitating grew fromeither role, a a singleplayed also affiliations political and ideological, Social, people. London, in choicesby intellectuals, made the in and natural millionsthe actions of of in and in Poland - leaders military and politicians of decisions in the identified be can forces two of the interplay The its culture. and community the threatened that everything dismissed that resistance force of the and accommodation force of forces: the two soldiers. Krajowa) (Armija Army Home began internmentand with the subsequentdeportation USSR to the of thousands of cease period.society not but withcontinued It the Germanoccupationdid inthepost-war individualshad beeninvolved in who armedunderground.the The of the destruction dynamic most of the decimation andthe Nazi of the occupiers, target particular were the destruction many andof structures old social drasticgroups, the erosion of which elites, country's finally, borders; and physical the mental society,exhaustion of the the policy; mass repressions; the destruction of the country, dispersion of Poles outside of the involvement of the USSR intointernal affairs and certain lack of sovereignty in foreign largeregarded asalienby partof lacking society; explicitthe a widepublic support, forces, on outside dependent force, of by use in the power put a newregime state; the significantly shaped by the following factors: the imposition of changes to the territory of livingwere and operating as warwas the still in progress. the Polish post-war society, provoking the utmost rage among their arch-nemesis, who Polish responses to the new situation initially rested on the interaction between interaction the on rested initially situation new the to Polish responses WorldII was War after immediately society in Polish the The atmosphere 17 24 CEU eTD Collection 2001, pp. 176 19 18 Publica, 17 between the USSR and the West as well as the impossibility of equal partnership with the conflict armed of inevitability the implied orientation first the mentioned, already I As WhatWere2.1.2. theThreeOrientations? definitively confirmed the communists' monopoly on power, with all of its implications. which 1947 elections, it, January and migrations thataccompanied great andthe lands western the of annexation the Poland, to return Mykolajczyk's and Unity National conference, the creation - after months of negotiations - of the Provisional Government of includingitsa doubt werewithout elites, thefollowing: theWarsaw Yalta the Uprising, society, the of behavior and attitudes the on influence most the had that events the scene, domestic the On War. Cold the to Alliance" "Grand the from situation international the of evolution the and in Poland developments with along changed it dynamic; was spheres the between relationship The rule. their up set to began communists the that from moment the behavior of Polish andsociety attitudes characterized the another, one spheres,which influenced two the between life. coexistence of The necessities sphere of symbols and values, and actionseveryday made necessary by basic the or active, conscious or instinctive, was the lifeandPoles. of cultural appearance of a gap survival betweenof the nation but also the survival of the Polish state as a protector of the material ideology, the biological survive. wasnotonlymatter of the - theimperativeand cultural It the root to Davies, Norman. Davies, Ibid. Kersten, Krystina. “Poles’ Responses to Realitiesthe of 1944-1947: Questions forConsiderations”, A consequence of the yoking of adaptive processes with resistance, be it be passive with resistance, processes adaptive yokingof the A of consequence (transl.) Dawid Walendowski, February 1990. Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland’s Present 18 ; Oxford: Oxford University Press, University Oxford ; Oxford: Res 25 19 CEU eTD Collection 2001. 23 during the war. After the war they strongly opposed Yalta Agreement. 22 journal Afterthe war its members were persecuted or purged out of Poland. In London theyendecja (Narodowa Demokracja)started faction.the During émigré the war they fought against both Germans and Soviets. 21 Publica, 20 affirming this orientation and showing its inevitability. inPolandandabroad articles by and press statements politicians, published documents, lot of a There are thinking. of wishful wasan USSR example the to Poland acceptable see allowedspokesmen group this independent conceptof the that of them to a truly of the anti-communism consistent Army. The Red the of inthepresence be genuine not could freeelections and rule, coalition pluralism, political argued that It communists. from today's perspective there can be no doubt that the model of struggle that included that struggle model the of that be nodoubt can there perspective from today's Nevertheless, wars. the between "anintermission” time was the at The situation period. Unity. National of Government Provisional the enter decision andto agreement criticized Mykolajczyk's 1945 sharply Moscow the was by adopted many from politicians nationalistthe camp. Itwasthese groups inthat Arciszewski,Adam andPragier, Adam Ciolkosz the Stronnictwo Narodowe in Poland. Among this by theémigrés, linenationalist wassupported parties including- it of minority a and abroad elite intellectual the of majority the Sosnkowski, and Anders Generals dismissal, after Mykolakczyk's government London andthe Raczkiewicz making compromisesfor andwaiting theinternational changesituation to were:President Davies, Norman. Polish pre-war left-wing intellectuals who opposed Sanacja regime and mostly emigrated to the West Thebiggest pre-war Party in Poland whichgathered most of thepolitical opponent of Poland’s the Kersten, Krystina. “Poles’ Responses to the Realities of 1944-1947: Questions for Considerations”, Mysl Polska. According to this orientation, Poland was only passing through a short interwar (transl.) Dawid Walendowski, February 1990. Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland’s Present It was recreated in Poland after 1989. after Poland in recreated was It 21 - but it also had support among socialists like Tomasz 23 22 . In Poland, the "no compromise" line compromise" "no the Poland, . In ; Oxford: Oxford University Press, University Oxford ; Oxford: 20 The chief advocates of not Res 26 CEU eTD Collection not engaged in activity that was political per se, but who manifested their opposition their engagedinmanifested opposition to butwho was political not activity per se, that Church, social associations theunderground, and organizations, millions and of people in in exile Government represented bythe period, after-war the “Poland of wrote: Milosz In to this, Czeslaw connection future. in foreseeable change the not would situation external Poland's that conviction the and aspirations, social and national ascontrary to order communist-imposed the of rejection were the its foundation autonomy and the preservation of pluralism ontheother, manytook forms. However, at combined compromise on onehandand the struggle for speaking) (broadly internal 25 Publica, 24 called and immeasurably spreadofan opportunism, encouraged the mightbeorientation that even conformism, or justify compromise, and rationalize need as to the aswell losses, conflict. arm of a potential of the threat aware became politicians aswell as émigré orientations of softer the proponents the Gradually, armedresistance. it,aggressive than and objectifying society the was basedonatomizing system, tothe which more perilous was resistance non-violent and compromises certain Milosz, Czeslaw. Kersten, Krystina. “Poles’ Responses to Realitiesthe of 1944-1947: Questions forConsiderations”, opposition withinopposition the Yalta framework The differences within the opposition orientation, which included the legal,includedThe orientation, which the within opposition the differences reality. Neither I nor my friends writers believed in WWIII Europe andbelieve inthe forWorldWarhadThird granted totake thenew division of not did adjust Who be. that powers new the with collaboration against toarguments the new whichprovided country, belief inthe that shared The underground division The believedémigrés that the ThirdofWar World wouldbreak soon out. Poland. Europe transforming of program their with won Army, Red the to thanks and adjustLondon, to the andnew the Home Army suffered defeat, whereas the Communists, The psychological reflex to point out those responsible for disappointments and disappointments for responsible those out point to reflex psychological The (transl.) Dawid Walendowski, February 1990. Captive Mind ; New York: Vintage International, 1962. 24 in Polish society. This orientation, which orientation, This society. in Polish 25 Res 27 CEU eTD Collection Publica, 26 They slight. very was resistance their but values, be higher to considered they what preserve to wished also this orientation to People belonging andsome activists. Catholic dismantling of the Polish state. This view was shared by many socialists and intellectuals, in havesurely in happenedfree elections, eventof couldthe andresult unfettered the They also considered that any effort to take power away freedomthe fromindependence thatPolandand win could by were delineated will. Stalin's the communists, of aslimits the would therefore, that, and fact, unavoidable an was independence of loss Poland's in communiststhe though hostile the 1944-1946that and distrustful USSR, decided of to the fundamental conflicts seen by both sides, but took them to adifferent level. and the communists condemned by press. Thisthat common didnot extinguishground common Poles" between ground "true -aterm used by often papers- underground the underground pressin more or less primitive, even vulgar, terms. Thereexisted awidening and inthe agents"whowereoften "foreign described together withthe "traitors" positive efforts, if only professionally, who were forced, willingly or not, to work with in "occupation"not strikeachord and"collaboration" readers engaged could underground press wasoutof attitudes step with determined life.Words like byeveryday The languageprevented people of from papers. underground reading andtone the groups remaining weregradually underground Butitdecreasing. was not fearonly that andinfluence of support popular the isthat noquestion There limits of compromise. acceptable and of of resistance forms the matter a ways, were in various new regime the Kersten, Krystina. “Poles’ Responses to Realitiesthe of 1944-1947: Questions forConsiderations”, The proponents of the third orientation were perceived as the capitulators. They, capitulators. as the perceived were orientation the third of The proponents (transl) Dawid Walendowski, February 1990. 26 Res 28 CEU eTD Collection originally a Soviet concept. Lenin allegedly proposed to the Russian film directors filmthe directors Russian to the Leninallegedly concept. proposed originally aSoviet both processes, historical and officialsocial political, the of indicators valuable be could distribution) andfilm and all events connected to itsometimes (the press releases, the debates in schools and factories, process. Thus,the for that significant particularly potential was immense propagandist the alternative Thefilm as mass introduced. a medium an were with aesthetics of and politicization system values destroyed, totradition orientations new religion of the devoted and was ones.nationalistic or liberal-democratic the of class civil elitist the abolished, was property However, such concept was not this this tradition andsuccess, the Eastern Europeanfilm has remained until today to tightly Due withconnected the aesthetic. film world the in approaches and concepts of the development the to contributed authors 27 1920sandthe 1930s. initiated socialistthis revolutionary Pudovkin, approach were during Eisenstein, Vertov revolution and theofbuilding process anewman. IntheSoviet whoUnion, authors the means The part”. importantmost“the forcinema wastheperfect glorifying the part of indoctrination byLenin oftheand societies dogmatization was cinemadefined as Essential Yalta Agreement. after influence its political ideological and which wereunder is going to be the main subject in the further text. years after-war in first the circumstances new the with coped they way The of them. ones predominantly were cinema people’s national the initiating of process the during active process lay the socialistwingbackgrounds, suchas thesocialists, wereabsolutely at positive that endthe the of Poland of their from cameleft- of Those them who by dreams. communists. role given them the the accepted The film directors who decided to be This is the period whenfirst serious films were created in Russia, and when theRussian avant-garde The Soviet Union exported the socialist-realistic war cinema into all countries all into cinema war socialist-realistic the exported Union Soviet The 27 . In the post-revolutionary atmosphere in which the private the which in atmosphere post-revolutionary the In . 29 CEU eTD Collection 1955]; Beograd: No. 1,2002. pp. 98-102;. jugoslovenskog igranog filma 1945-55” [Stalin’s Presents – Topics of Yugoslavthe Feature Films 1945- allies’ military missions. Itwas a pathetic propaganda film called 29 346. betweenHistorical Source and Tradition]; Beograd: Godisnjak zadrustvenu istoriju, No.II/3,1995, pp. model inserve warcinema future projects. the national making as the socialist nation withoutwould any firstly serious present a film aspre-war a gift, and then cinematicsendUnion Sovietcountries. the Infact, satellite its into other socialist a concepts exported film crew to shoot tradition. a film for a new The filmwar cinema wasvery infruitful conscience and shapingpeople’s Soviet’s the attitudes, was meant to the Soviet Since countries. Bloc Eastern all other spread to and naturally thewar, after became the main conceptsleader in wisegreat name the of the andsacrifice collectivism The cinematography. of the Soviet cinema. It continued then for theRussianauthors. film years servedasaninspiration this twenty almost during the war and thanks thanks to the Red Army. (See Miloradovic, Goran. in. Yugoslav Mountains). Film’s most important thesis is that the Yugoslav victory in WWII was reached filmmakers how to make a “good” movie. Rom’s film was called famous directorAbrahama Roma with acomplete film crew to train agroup of amateur Yugoslav but she refused to tell them her, how shot to reach torture Stalin. long the Thenafter in1945,then Stalin and her, sent to captured his still Germans great The friend homeland. Titoher a and Party the to devoted politics has long beenestablished” …Ristovic, Milan. Socialand Violence]; Novi Sad-Beograd:Prosveta, 1994, pp. 183-185; strong “The link betweenfilm and they were allowed toinitiate and organize their country’s national cinema on their own. and potent Polish film directors returned to Poland wit the strong left-wing credentials, so Polish wereunnecessary, case,suchinterventions anumber since of mostprominentthe “cinematic processing history”. See: Ljubojev, Petar. Ljubojev, See: history”. processing “cinematic 28 ideology. new radically the of introduction enthusiastic the with together created being was cinema the simple; is reason The ideas. leftist film by from David Griffith 1919 called In May 1944, Stalin sent a present to Tito, who was in Eastern Bosnia with its headquarters and the This is a quite logical assumptionsince Griffithis regarded as the constructorof the whole concept of However, Stalin’s ascent to power inevitably brought about the changes in changes the about brought inevitably power to ascent Stalin’s However, Intolerance Evropski film i drustveno nasije Film izmedju istorijskog izvora itradicije Istorija20, veka; 28 Zoe. as amodel in filmmaking, andfor The main hero was agirl fanatically U planinama Jugoslavije “Staljinovi pokloni – Tematika 29 [The European Film European [The However, in the However, (In the [Film 30 CEU eTD Collection demithologizataion of the war and the past which ledto war. past the warandthe of the demithologizataion act and contribution. Their initial objective was not mithologization, revolutionary own their but of realization for but opportunism, and conformism from benefits human They essence. notonlyperceived such situation foras getting opportunity the and social aesthetic, spiritual, its notion, its incorporated which and country, in their cinema national of idea the brought which revolution socialist the was it them of majority Warsaw Uprising or camps, Nazi came front, concentration the backfrom thefilm from directors that, from the West whereAlthough ititwas finished, still loudly wholereverberated throughout Apart Europe. they mostly made war film chronicles.by means of the subject matters of their films.For supported existingthe political situation,butat same, the time they improve to wanted it of socialistthe society which would provide equality and stability for all people. They implies that they praised revolution,It “anti-Polish”. or Stalinist only were thethey victorythat imply not does faction, over socialist the Germany and fascism, and a vision to belonged war the after immediately active film directors the that saying paragraph last from the statement My Europeancountries. Eastern of inpost-war cinema common trait dominant the was That operates. it which in regime the with complied absolutely never it society undermineto itsor it,eternal but,dueto striving forindependence, autonomy and of improve condition the be to objective could Its its society. of account alternative an give to tends usually film regime, the of service in the is it much how matter No inPoland ofthe Cinema National 2.2 Conceit It was completely natural that the only topic of the first films would be the war. 31 CEU eTD Collection returned to Poland. Many of them were honest, true socialist. They enjoyed strong Andrzejewski Andrzej with together script the of outline the wrote …He notes: Wajda war showed almost the same hero, only in different uniforms and situations.” 32 Yugoslavia – the praising the national liberation army. 31 liberation national the praising – the Yugoslavia In movement. resistance by the brought was treason Paten’s after that alibi French-the The dying. of chivalry and ofstrategy triumph the praised American The ofpatriotism. epics the stressed Soviets the ghettos, and camps concentration in suffering the synthesize Poles the While needs. and mentality 30 andcharacters. sentiments romantic and heroic filled with imperative was to maintain peacefilm The directors’ survived. that message generations the for alerting in warand and glorify the victory and whodied tothose weretribute period inmade this films victory. The the war celebrated thus they made war films Colic, Milutin. Such sentiment was characteristic foreach country. Eachof them modified it according to its own Lekcja Polskjego Filma This testifies about the opportunities that film directors initially had. Most of them by experienced colleagues first. senior apprentices join organizing of were to their everything.the Thegroup young of takecare production, to film; someone be and madeinto to material who tookcare of scripts, a screen writer, thatis, totake care of literarythe of people controlled by an experienced director,illusions persisted until 1949. Co-operative means making filmsby withgroup those and a writerexample, for amongeconomy, them co-operative like ideas, the of socialist most the was it thought Everybody bash. cooperative on movies make to They wanted. wanted films Artisticwere were desirable. taste accept their to wouldforce viewers the directors Filmsproducers. whose not wanted were directors moment, Atthe became equipment. It UFA inBerlin. the from things robbed They ordeals. Soviet recent their of only born be Polish People’sin their Army managers its uniforms cars, or had plentyhouses, of practicalequipment, movie like foresight thatcommodities, could institution looked a little like a den makingof thieves, diverse anditto took Film the in producers thePolski of Lodz. The town Recounting themaking-process of firstthe film Polish post-war in 1946,Andrzej The first post-war yearsThe first almost post-war eachnational were theperiod in cinema which The Yugoslav War Cinema; (2002) by Andrzej Wajda. Titovo Uzice; Ofset stamparija – vesti, 1989, pp. 172. 32 30 ”The world screens after the after screens ”The world 31 32 CEU eTD Collection 35 hands of the state regardingagencyall matters the creation, production and distribution of a film were placed inthe Polish Film its of nationalization. place This took onNovember 13,1945and by governmentdecree (Film Polski). Its first manager was Aleksander Filmmust provide people with thefood fortheir thoughts. People should Odrodzenie theirs.As in early publishedinlike thearticles journalsas 1945, thePolish 34 33 made.” hell, everythingfail, where used to all a sudden,of movie a miraculously industry was Andmovies the first anexcellentprovided point. Thus, starting asWajda said convey authenticity the of Polishnessin the all complexities,its tragedy and absurdities. and all that led to birth, or reincarnation and and social mobility,financially supported subsidized theprojects of filmmakers,the of the Polish Cinema. Now, it was supposedwith tothe new worldcorresponding and artistic – style new the to cinematiccinema pre-war low-profile and commercial trends. New socialistprivileges leftists.as They enthusiastically the welcomed opportunity shiftfrom to state,mostly obsessed with social changes Toeplitz, Jerzy. “Film instrumentem kultury” Toeplitz, Jerzy. “Novy Film Polski”, Ibid. 33 The first act passed on cinematography by the Polish wasinrespect by Polish government passed on the act cinematography The first culture. disseminating for instrument the become could it that so survive, to andsocial right work of burden an authentic specific contain a should intheatres, cinema the shown film, each Polish directors: the forin“The creating huge the film responsibility society lies in culture the life.” spiritual their enhance to should but A film viewers the […] entertain to serve not something. out point should film a and it, from learn As watching the European movies, Polish directors wanted Europe to watch to Europe wanted directors Polish movies, European the As watching appeared a sort of programs and manifestos of the filmmakers of of time. filmmakers the of the andmanifestos of programs asort appeared Kuznica: , No.21, November1945. Odrodzenie: No. 34, November 1945. November 34, No. 35 Kuznica : “In Polish “In 34 and 33 CEU eTD Collection 38 1945”, 37 biography Such recommendedZhukov. him stronglyGeneral for Soviet holdingof the the most important supervision postthe Film in under Polski formed Army of Red unit Polish supported Westernthe Allies, and drivenby his Marxist ideologicalbackground 1943in joinedhe the 36 script from somefilms Hebanned writing. and official some closeddistribution down internalset up forms of censorship,from allstages filmmaking, starting controlling of Party which authorized him beto the pioneer of the new Polish cinema; he was obliged to recruit and apprentice the next generation. On theother hand, in order to comply with the in a sense that nationalstate controlled production Film Polski on hisFord own. sustained the idea of cooperative cinemaand wasnationalized fully organize to infreedom the him thepromised officials Party the handsreturn in of filmmakers whose idea Fordgave and of cooperative, uphis Being an cooperative. planned opportunist, mission was to socially important creativity. and ambitious artistically of patron the became also state, films,the of The producer medium ameans social as of and theeducation dissemination knowledgeculture.of and the mainstated that aim producing of films anddistributing wastheuseof film the cinematography nationalizing the decree Itis thatthe true state. socialist financed bythe cooperative teamsfilmmakers of which with would compete and each wouldother, be of concept his introduction for possibility and cinema, commercial – enemy harshest Ford perceived abolishing hisprewar establishmentthe of the way of order, socialist the he supported socialfilmthe industry idea,he which inherited from his pre-war days. In Ford. Fuksiewicz, Jacek. Fuksiewicz, Misiak, Anna. “Politically Involved Filmmaker: Aleksander Ford and Film Censorship inPoland after Ford spent the war in the Soviet Union. He refused enlistment in the under General Anders who 36 Kinema; Driven by his dictum “that the cinema cannot be a cabaret, it must be a school”, No.17, Fall 2005. Polish Cinema; 38 However, the decree completely excluded Ford’s Ford’s concept decreecompletely the excluded However, Warsaw: Interpress Publishers, 1973, pp. 84. 34 37 CEU eTD Collection the war. The issue of concentration camps, a picture made through the ordeal of one itsof topics that after the war were fundamental from the point of view of ordinary people after fight, love for the homeland, and desire forfreedom. Film was an attempt to deal with the which is manifestation of various form of resistancepeople’s against fascism, in courage andliterature. theater both sense, in that excelled, thus Polish cinema of people. lives the with connected significantly somebody from the outside. insteadof students if the itwas better ideathat was ageneral controlled teachers the Sadoul for the FrenchIdequeFilm Georges prepared School. of from “film FilmSchool)the brought theconceptParis of school”avant-garde which together with Aleksander Jerzy Ford, Bossak and Antoni Bohdziewicz laidthefoundation (who Toeplitz Jerzy as well. Namely, andfilm theory lessons invisual art were there the filmmaking. Alongintroduce young taskwasto wereenoughprofessionalsinto the there whose apprentices with classes of practicalin fact the that madefounded Despite only in atthat Lodz. 2-3filmswere time Poland, nature like editing or scenario writing, as started early 1945. as 41 40 previous political rightist affiliations. Misiak, Anna. “Politically Involved Filmmaker…” of the film, and to the personal content the dowith influence to had decision of this Ford degree what to who clear did become not never appreciate has it BohdziewiczNevertheless Krakow. in because of his 39 independentFilm Youth cooperative Workshops. Haltof, Marek. The first banned film was Lekcja Polskjego Kina Polish film did not run away from the important and difficult matters that were that matters difficult and important the from away run not did film Polish The School The School tocontrol was supposed andfilms. the censor short students’ There The cinema was also institutionalized in 1948. The first State Film School was Polish National Cinema (2002) – a documentary film by Andrzej Wajda on the early Polish cinema. 2X2=4 41 (1945) by BohdziewiczAntoni together with Youthhis Film Workshop 42 The films about the war presented the patriotism the warpresented the Thefilmsabout ; New York: Berghahn Books, New York:Berghahn 2003, pp.76.Books, 39 The first film magazine film first The 40 Film wasalso 35 CEU eTD Collection L. BUCZKOWSKI – PRE-WAR COMEDY-MAKERL. BUCZKOWSKI –PRE-WAR 2.2.1 their release, and they definitely deserve to be mentioned even today. stage ground devastated Poland. Three of Poland. devastated of them Three ground ( Poland and abroad. Seven films were made in the first few post-war years in almost to the in both popularity their by confirmed be can films Polish the of wave first the of value only Newerly will successfully followingincooperate in the period, themid 1950s.The Igor and Andrzejewski Jerzy Jaroslaw Iwaszkiewicz, and circles. works literary with the sameco-operation the wasnot there stage first this In Serocki. Kazimierz Szeligowski, composersAndrzejpart took the Panufnik, Palester, significant like Tadeusz Roman authors from the other artistic disciplines. In completion of the first movies, the time in the world cinema that somebody tried to convey the dimension of Hitler’s crime. cinema. Mira and Antonin J. Liehm wrote: national serious the to commercial shiftfrom find entertaining the to tried way to the in produced had1947. Buczkowki mademostly beforecomedies war,but the nowhe were presented in were presented andthe issue JewsinWarsawghetto, anti-Semitism of the despicable cruelty towards 42 film Polish called The firstpost-war in treated was prisoners Fuksiewicz, Jacek. Fuksiewicz, and The Life of the First Polish Films The Polish cinematography established also close artistic co-operation with the with co-operation artistic close also established cinematography The Polish Border Street Border Polish Cinema; Ulica Granyczna Ulica ) remained popular, screened and valued even two decades after valuedtwo even and screened popular, ) remained Ostatni etap Warsaw,Interpress publishers, 1973, pp.97 (Border Street) by Aleksander Ford.It was the first (Last Stage) topic of by WandaJakubowska.The Stage) (Last ForbiddenSongs Zakazanie Piosenki Zakazanie by Leonard Buczkowski, was [Forbidden Songs], Last 36 CEU eTD Collection Beograd: Clio. 2006, pp. 165 hides in building,the a and informer.German main However, the further topic becomes building familymusician inwhichthe Tokarsky cowardice Cieslik, reside: aJewwho young people, the film also shows the plays episodesover his grave on a mouth accordion a melody of a partisan song. from the Roman battles. the inone of dies boyfriend Halina’s conflicts. andarmed livesdiversions of other tenantsRoman’s They sister. weapons anddistribute underground newspapers andorganize of the Szaflarska), (Danuta isHalina also Among them organize aresistance. to in order gather colleagues, Roman’s of Theyoungpeople, stairs burntWarsawPhilharmonic. the the on sings which orchestra nomadic street, the organizes his colleagues with together Tokarski, Roman occupiers. the with fighting represent they how and evoke, they that (Jerzy Duszynski). He songsthe is aboutoccupation themainin character film,the amusicianRoman Tokarski recounts the history of the songs, describes the dramatic events narrator. point of view;struggles from occupation the time. Theyintended toexamine themnow from a new not from and a experiences their own recollected authors Their war-thematic. the movies was position of a witness or a participator, but the artist and 43 “When Antonin J Liehm and Mira Liehm. The narration line of the film is pretty frail. Apart from the story about a group of about story from the Apart frail. film is lineof pretty the The narration As I have mentioned, the common feature of this one and all miracle”. other a but first else nothing for stood film post-warPolish first the extermination, by been who had threatened For people premiere. the after longbe could seen services of billet the infront long queues andthe cinema the theaters, Forbidden songs ForbiddenSongs 43 depict the life in Warsaw under occupation. The collector of depict lifeinthe The collector Warsawunderoccupation. The Most Important Art: Eastern European Cinema after 1945 entered distribution, crowds distribution, crowds entered of people rushedto ; 37 CEU eTD Collection Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Artysticzne i Filmowe,1974, pp.146. 44 way the Thealso pronouncingof the film words. includesscript for typical language the and education, mood, local the naïve typical of grammatical type mistakes, and syntactic urban environment of the time. The lyrics to some extent describe the city’s authenticity: Belz. resting Miasteczko girls melody from forthe on the ghetto, of made Warsaw about song is the The exception material. authentic the actually presented film making, was in charge of the music for on cooperated had occasionally who a composer Roman Palster, alles. uber Deutschland, song Deutschland, of melodymarch tact the a grotesque the and Heili-Heilo, of fight. their and partisans the to film section accompanies the of the is sievierzby dedicated song that the Roszumivaly Oj bida,bida wszedzie tells about unbearableexistential conditions during thewar. inbeforewas dominantThesong occupation. society shortly the “bourgeois” Polish the whoseclass many made for characters was for example, asongSiekiera-Motyka Thus, each which in manners in dramatic situations correspond with film. different diverse the songs episodes.fourteen are There in Warsaw occupation form of the separate narrative frame of the film. Arranged chronologically, they give account of the history history the infairlyplace on occupation. songs the of acquired significant They the of Mruklik, Barbara.”Revolucja ifilm” in Leonard Buczkowsky depicted in his film the life-style and the atmosphere of of the theatmosphere life-style inhisfilm and the depicted Leonard Buczkowsky the is songs forbidden Polish the to motif opposing musical and Dramaturgical Historia Filmu Polskiego Forbidden songs Forbidden , Vol. 3:1945-1956 . The majority of the songs the of majority The . 44 . ed. Jerzy Toeplitz; 38 CEU eTD Collection subjected to certain alteration. Thus the second “premiere” of “premiere” second the Thus certain alteration. to subjected wasstressed. collaborators andNazi traitors the Polish role of the though them, of characteristic so brutality the denies manner in that the shown soldiers are andGerman Gestapo membersof describing the queues in front of the cinema theatres as “Dantean in as“Dantean scenes” thequeuesfront of describing cinema theatres the audience and the film critics. Film’s success was vividly depicted in the press by 46 45 journal generations Thefilm wasdemanded. was describedasbeingshort of realism. The of killed people,interpretation of the occupation which would correspond with memorythe about millions andForbidden Songs which will serve to lacksfilm. in the political In aword, thecritiques revealed features. the fortune cinematic commercial bourgeois pre-war the emphasized allegedly which film, the of and benefit characteristic stylistic the to referred partly reproaches film. The inthe scenes of number of the remainingClub some very containinga and several published articles remarks about critical journal resistance ofWarsawians and their for hopes surviving the occupier’s terror. the occupied Warsaw. The inscriptions on the walls of the city buildings testify to the „Nasz objektiv – przedruk opinii o filmie z roznich czasopis” zroznich o filmie opinii przedruk – objektiv „Nasz Ibid. Under such pressures, the film was withdrawn from the distribution and was Similar remarks occurred in some other journals as well. It was written that Trybuna robotnicza Kuznica The film received very positive and affirmative responses from The film from very and responses the both received affirmative positive at one point initiated atonepoint discussions about film the in LodzPickwickthe decreased the level of the German crimes. New and different 47 published the article saying that in sayingthat article the published , Film, 1947, No.11. Forbidden Songs Forbidden Songs 46 However, the 45 was held was the 39 CEU eTD Collection 149.) 50 Filmu Polskiego 49 48 pp.148. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Artysticzne i Filmowe,1974, pp.146. screening critics and massively visited theincreasing number of cinema which theatres were lossesin war. lostand it and the the society after the atmosphere”, during 47 WANDA JAKUBOWSKA A – HOLOCAUST SURVIVER million fourteen people. of filmsmade in People’s Poland). Consequently, until filmwasby 1968 the seen retrospectives various the (during was film re-screened the when andevery one, time first story. the fragmentation editing, entertainingthe of for type of dramaturgical– revival banality of occupation ayoungto soldier, arepatriate whois England. film was changed as well: the young heroes in the film now give account of the history of frame of the roundups. Thenarrative by of street shown scenes the occupation were the informer triggered by the act of denunciation she committed). The horrors woman of Polish lifethe for under death-sentence the poet, young the of shooting the example, wereadded(for of bestiality the Germans depicted sceneswhich reality. Several inin autumn, 1948. Toeplitz, Jerzy. „Granyca prawdy Plazewski, Jerzy. „Zakazanie piosenki” „Zakazanie Jerzy. Plazewski, Ibid. Mruklik, Barbara.”Revolucja ifilm” in Nevertheless, the public did not share the same opinion with the impassioned the with opinion share same the not did public the Nevertheless, Alteration again failed to satisfy the critics who further reproached Buczkowski reproached satisfy whofurther critics the failedto Alteration again Forbidden Songs 49 The film was also perceived as the “description of petite-bourgeois of “description asthe Thefilmwasalso perceived pp.149.) 48 Introduced changes were supposed make changes Introduced moreto were film alike the the supposed 51 . Itwas more the case after the second premiere than after the ” : Film, , Historia Filmu Polskiego Odrodzenie No.7 1948 (taken from Toeplitz , No.47, 1948.(taken from Toeplitz. , Vol. 3:1945-1956 Historia Filmu Polskiego . ed. Jerzy Toeplitz; 50 Historia pp. 40 CEU eTD Collection 53 Kwartalnik Filmoy 52 51 value.” of documentation a particular experiences I had there. I collected everything that happened livedis, there. ButIwantedtorestrain since exclusively from myself personal I to me and the others as the wanted to make a film about an important issue like the concentration camp in Auschwitz etap The next Polish film which dealt with the horrors of the Second World War was the trials to the Nazi leaders and bureaucrats. The third phase consisted of segregation of segregation of third consisted phase The bureaucrats. and Nazileaders the trialsthe to of results andthe liberated, been had they after in camps the found were that documents German the of examination implied one second The remember. could simply they first rested on recollecting what one The process. writing phasesinthescenariothree filmin of the premiere columns the the of 1945 already. Wanda Jakubowska described their work on the scenario twoyears after theyleftin writingafter camp,the started scenariosoon the Gerda Schneider, communist youron subjective own experiences.” relying without only outsidethe eyeshappened of the observer, through there that facts atthe “it sense makes ifyou look furtheronly wrote: Jakubowska reality.Auschwitz’s constituted that horrors the of all synthesis to screen the be an to attempt was supposed It camp. concentration the of insanity the convey to endeavor an but film, autobiographical film.to be not supposed the was conveyedNamely it future the theconcept of Ibid. Jakubowska, Wanda. “Kilka wspomnieno powstaniu szenariusza (na marginesie filmu Maly Rocznik Filmowi 1971;Warszawa: Filmowi Serwis Prasowy, 1972,pp. 133. (Last Stage) directed by Wanda Jakubowska. The director wrote inmemoirs: wrote “I her The directed byWandadirector Jakubowska. (Last Stage) Wanda Jakubowska and her friend from the concentration camp, aGerman camp, concentration the from friend and her Jakubowska Wanda , No.:1, 1951, pp. 40. 52 53 Thus, this fragment of director’s memoirs already Kwartalnik FilmowiKwartalnik . She differentiated there differentiated She . Ostatni etap Ostatni )” , 41 CEU eTD Collection moment when bombing planes the began of allies the thebeforeitcamp, be would hospital by a Germanwoman doctor. DesaIn the endinclude later partisan Yugoslav the The resistancewill andmovement. camp resistance of theRussians film Marta diesthe interpreter and thus she will be particularlyNadia helpful to the femaleon prisoners, setting the the gallows and of function the Weiss.She receives Marta awoman called camp came to the transported atHelena, the whose child is evident. was prisoners female the among killed in them,the and force themcamp to dig. But as early kneelsas then, the episodesdeep their with inof kneeling even theare the women the strong of Some stopped. mud,has rain the collectivity after women the but the guardians of crowd the several camp,scenes of Thefirst into movie introduce of the episodes. divided the camp do not save them. They swear sleeping bunks on real the andunder sameblankets the that prisonersthe used.” on us, and helped us a lot to imaginethe traces of blood of their previous ownersthe were still visible. It leftpsychological powerful impressions state of onwhich uniforms wewerewearing film authenticthe on the prisoner’s was inprogress the prisoners. We were camp in an authentic way. An actor from the movie told in an interview: “While the work Film, 55 54 version final of scenario. the of course the appropriate choosing the most the had bulkymaterial the they examined, Krawczykowski, Zbigniew. “Zbieg zfilmowogo Oswiecimia opowiada (Relacja Barbary Fijewskiej)”, Ibid. No.: 29, 1947. The film is still todeveloptrying asuggestive meansof depicting the life in the At one point, together with a group of the Jewishin the fight the life and the about epic socialist apartisan like is itself film The women from Warsaw 54 55 42 CEU eTD Collection concentration recorded. camps concentration leaves no still dramaturgy film’s the However, limited. highly was camps Naziconcentration the place for in existence the how convey film. They of the epic dimensions to the contribute effects the psychologicalmud (there ismore andmore ofit) justslows down already half-dead legs. All such cruel quite manthe towards burns sun the there, the stands for the grass and thirst, only individualseems is with barracks, likenature wires chimneys. It and crematoriums smoking the experiences panoramas Auschwitz of area–mud, bymasterfully the shot areaccompanied sceneries and workingthe site, tiredinworking of heavy the mud,under wind. rainandstrong Such traumas the powerful from dimension very the theprisonersbeginning: are completely exhausted on Nazi film aunique, tothe sceneascribe assembly the massscene, film. anthological the The contrasts betweenrhythmic constant are There evident. very is scenes mass in the black light with play the and white which contributes effectof The faces. prisoners’ on the pathos romantic the reveals film The photography to the expressivea unique expression artistic of valuethestriking. The mainsinister body of the filmof action takes place in the camp hospital. Then, there is scenery filled with the concentration camp barracks. 56 again.” ever repeat Auschwitz allow not “Do poster: film the on even written film the of idea main the and which last themotto words, become Marta’s would highly pathetic today’s perspective from and with over-theatrical finishes the is,filmitself the This that scene, liberated. Nie pozwolcie, zeby Oswiecim sie powtorzyl! The film has several aesthetic solutions that even today look powerful and powerful look today even that solutions aesthetic several has film The 56 43 CEU eTD Collection 58 Warszawa: WydawnictwaArtysticzne i Filmowe,1974, pp.150. 57 show the human misery, not the Polish martyrdom. “ nationalities. different to belong production film of the in process the cooperatives Jakubowska’s and itself film in the protagonists the both Thus, general. in fascism against fighting of type international the and of camp, the character international the prisoners, the between solidarity and humanity Ibid. Mruklik, Barbara.”Revolucja ifilm” in Figure 1: a survivor’s account of woman’s life in concentration camps concentration in life ofwoman’s account survivor’s a 1: Figure As a hard-line and devoted socialist, Jakubowska unfailingly wanted todepict socialist, wanted unfailingly the As devoted Jakubowska a hard-line and Historia Filmu Polskiego 57 “In the last stage, the director intended to 58 , Vol. 3:1945-1956 . ed. Jerzy Toeplitz; 44 CEU eTD Collection pp. 122-123 Century History”;Jefferson, NorthCarolina andLondon: McFarland &Company, Publishers, Inc., A Twentieth 1989, Film: “Polish Hammond, Robert and Ford Charles See suicide. to him drove despair York one country to another, this originally militant communist chose to settle inthe United States, but inNew victim of its purges. Unable to work, he became an expatriate in 1973 and went to Denmark.returned to Poland Buffeted as a winner. Inthelate sixties washe from harassed party by bureaucracythe ultimatelyand a anti-Fascist and leftist, he took participationon the Soviet front, in the Soviet Film Units. After the war, he finally he and Liwszyc, was name settledoriginal His but repeatedly. once, not desire the onhad Ford FordAleksander but place, inthe and 1927. time the considering desire, a such Asin I remarkable have nothing is There name. his already change to wanted mentioned, during the Second61 World War,1956 as a devoted 60 Prasowego, 1969,pp. 135. it was the second film that dealt with the horrors of the Second World War and, this time, in world. around the was 49 countries distributed nextdecade LastStage festival in Karlovy Vary. It was the first triumph of the Polish national cinema. In the 59 Ulyca Graniczna is to refer to like would I cinema Polish post-war early the of film last the and third The RUSSIANTHE FRONT ON “CZOLOWKA” FILMUNIT POLISH THE OF FORD –HEAD ALEKSANDER imagine.” is a documentationWorldWar. of Second the horrors of a bitter of documents the and one greatest of the format, big of work the the as characterized truth of the moments which we are even In 1948, opened. movies were not able tothe about discussions in which newspapers the of all sorts to arrived letters numerous The attention of the film critics, but it was also discussed in the literary and political circles. Ford had at least one eccentricity worthy of mention. He was Jewishand like many JewishPoles he Quotation taken from: Mruklik, Barbara.”Revolucja ifilm” in Kolodynski, Andrzej. Kolodynski, . ed. Jerzy Toeplitz; Being politically correct, after its premiere in 1948, the film attracted not filmafter its the only premiere in attracted the correct, 1948, Being politically 60 (Border Street) (Border from 1948 by Aleksander Ford. Handel zagraniczny Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Artysticzne i Filmowe, 1974, pp.150. Last Stage New York Times ; Warszawa: Wydanie specjalne Filmowego Servisu Filmowego specjalne Wydanie ; Warszawa: won Grand Prix on the international film international the on GrandPrix won wrote: “Ita puppet–it isnotwrote: theatre Historia Filmu Polskiego 61 Following 59 , Vol. 3: 1945- Thefilmwas Last Stage 45 , CEU eTD Collection film has integrity and nobility. One can only echo its final hope that the man-made the that hope final its echo only can One nobility. and integrity has film The one. become soon Jews, Poles and low, high and outset, atthe Separated evaporate. himturned a girl against friend Jadzia, whenhelearned of her part-Jewishness, quickly Hitler-likeand Wladek’sownprejudice,moustache). haircut which occupation affected collaborator who unscrupulously (Nazi likeKusmirak andPoles grandfather like Dawidek’s Jews are there him that denounces Jews, tells fatherlater Wladek’s became victims. asboth Jews, and Poles of interchangeability and who at the onset growing the of sense film’s the typifies of Pole the the conceals here Jew the whereby German uniform, beat him yetnothing extract from him, Pole the isimpressed. Theironic reversal Polish discarded the about man old the question in, march soldiers German when But grandfather. Jewish from Dawidek’s gift a as clothes new the take to refuses Poles. He hiding after Polishthe Army’sshares defeat, the anti-Semitic prejudices ofmany pre-war in in officer a reserve film),the appear which children is numerous the of (Wladek one father Polish Wladek’s occupiers. the to toady and ancestry claim ones German malign reclassifiedlater as,Jews; Poles andare film.towards, gravitate pervades the Good frontiers ethnic of crossing The anti-Semitism. of absurdities stress the to occasion the Poles and the Jews. between of solidarity sentiment andthe anti-Semitic the as aswell Germans, the against The author of the scenario,Jewishinto andAryan andquarters, showsthe importantmostepisodes of revolts the Aleksander Germans by the inWarsaw,partitioned Ford entirely takesplace film the of action WWII The himself, used the relation Jewish-Polish during thecontroversial touched the applying approach, critical film which, thefirst itwas since innovative, filmwas However,the Warsawghetto. the 46 CEU eTD Collection 62 opened authors Polish matters the cinema, Polish of national the and subject expression in history more II. details in Chapter andperiod from would thatlast of Polish 1950 to1954 Polish Cinema.Itto refer Iwill successes. Congress in Wisla in the 1949 initiated second cyclein the development of was artistic and first attempts cycleof the It the of reorganization cinematography. plan. In the thehistory working party of in the of itwas unification surface, accomplishing political Onthe from warconsequences. the recovery for the Polish the cinemasingle in stageof striving acollective the unification wardestruction, the restarting Poland after objective it was – realization alsothe Polish the ofpost-war the stage three-yearcinema. TheThe films Ihave analyzedarethemain of first representatives the phaseof (1945-1949) firstof periodrevitalization was in general theto Culture ofStalinism –OfficialIntroduction inWisla Congress 2.3 stage of rebuilding and and of struggle”. heroes anti-German Border Street and international brought another themeagerrecognition Polishnationalto cinema, National itCinema. Although Lion Golden the won filmat the festival in inVenice 1949, Polish imposed on the exclusively where patterns ideological and aesthetic realistic with edifying final the voice-over solidarity urgingthe all of people. film the of tone pessimistic the soothes Ford borders. no has truth that fall, must barriers Coates, After overcoming the initial production difficulties and consolidation of the socialist- when in Wisla Congress the after shunned was film the Nevertheless, Paul. The Red and Whitethe was banned in Poland as “it depicted Jews, rather than communists, as the ; 62 London &New York: WallflowerPress,2005, pp. 167 47 CEU eTD Collection removing, is termed a “fascist” by a grieving soldier. Under the binary mentality is by mentality removing, termeda“fascist” Underthebinary soldier. a grieving the of with leader heischarged Party installed than newly the rather workers assassinates mistakenly who partisan, AK young the Chelmicki, Maciek character main the novel, “did not correspond at all with the objective reality.” his famous novel pro-Party The writer Jerzy Andrzejewski, one of the most devoted communist of the time published message. ideological sendan adequate to in order be modified hadto films some and cancelled, Beograd: Clio,2006, pp. 120-121. Boarding Street especially criticized, harshly were films post-war all Art, and Cuture of Ministry Polish interrupted. violently national cinema by Duringwas this congress, sponsored the were officially proclaimed andanyfurtherof, developmentleast at semi-independent, of socialist-realism the postulates the and in heldVisla was filmmakers the of congress mentioned the In such atmosphere, power. took Boleslaw Bierut hard-liner andStalinist 64 63 policespursued relatively for severalindependent years, under was house-arrest placed had who leader, Party governing first the Gomulka, Wladislaw in Poland. ban to subject politician – Stanislaw Mykolajczyk fled thecountry, discourses of nationalism became Partia Roboticzna – Polish Party) power Workers’ in took 1948 and last the after pre-war PRL (Polska Sponsored Soviet after Nevertheless, obstacles. bureaucratic numerous despite concern, general people’s of topics local war various to treating road the Antonin J Liehm and Mira Liehm. Ibid. pp. 7-8 The socialist-realistic concept was epitomized in the Party literature of the time. the of literature Party the in epitomized was concept socialist-realistic The and Last Stage Pepiol i diament The Most Important Art: Eastern European Cinema after 1945; . Italian neorealism was criticized as the film style which style film the as criticized was neorealism Italian . (Ashes and diamonds) 64 Several film-shootings were film-shootings Several in 1948. In the 48 63 , CEU eTD Collection 65 with us” is“he isagainst not who “struggleus for peace”, buy a ticket for a new film. The messages and ideas emitted from for from anewbuy inthe emitted ideas screens the film.Themessagesanda ticket influenced thewhole historicalfor period. would People awhole queueto dayin order films significantly but waralso the themselves turmoil, of product post-worldthe only not the was warcinema ideology. The official of the sphere the of ideas outside and theissues independencemoderate intackling and tradition self-examination, of post-war unlike some nations in other region,the Poland hold an ofhavingadvantage the early Munk’s films. post-war first the of filmmakers’ the inspired which neorealism Italian of traditions the to turning nationalism Polish of discourse unique the created School Polish so-called of films the how wewill see chapters away.the following fading began In Stalinization once authors, serve whichweregoingcontroversial as toinspirationtopics a source forof many future films enabledPolish first the that evident is it cinema, a Polish the goodof development further the startingshattered point for the Polish national cinema. region inthe samemanner. the They entered some in in countries all initiated was Stalinization the typesocialism, of different toward path infrom Apart progress. her Yugoslavia,independent which Tito-Stain after adopted clash mustfor the war cinema of the period subjected to the severe propaganda, which was still Graniczna Holocaust. The inferno-like images and evocations of Warsaw ghetto shown in Coates, Nevertheless, no matter how much the introduction of the socialist-realism the of introduction the much how matter no Nevertheless, Pasazerka Paul. would reverberate even in the recent Polish films on films sametopic the Polish on even in recent the would reverberate The Red and Whitethe Last Stage , which would result in initiating for the time a unique discourse on discourse a unique time the for initiating in result would which , would get its more mature intellectual continuation in its Andrzej moreintellectual continuation mature get would pp.7. 65 . That is the idea that was a 66 . Thus, . Ulyca 49 CEU eTD Collection 66 intelligentsia professions.” other education’ pertained alsoto not and willingness, merit earnest of the on an officer may become ‘you slogan: “Thecelebrated enterprises. of andnationalized boards the inandapparatus, posts Party state to the enjoyed access and promotion collectivization of form in introduced were also changes social profound political, from of the social Poland Apart thephase of in chapter), (as Idescribed Stalinization. entered previous the mobility. Boleslaw’Bierut’s power anddescent to in caseoffilmthe industry by Congress inWisla People regarded four yearsAfter post-war of gradualtransitional the markedending whose was period, by inPoland(1950-1955) 3.1 Stalinization as of “low”CHAPTER 3 - The Film in Service of Stalinization class status now conformism. – filmmaking the resume to wanted they if choice one hadonly directors the and topics, state-censored only treat to were obliged situation became perilous andimpairing for existing the order, political warfilmsthe auditoriums shaped their and attitudes stirred their subconscious. Themomentwhen such (Trybuna Mlodych Ludu,Sztandard them),among and, Polish FilmChronicles, foe”.“eternal the upon reprisal and justice historical as expression an as treated was annexation whose was legitimizingformer factor myth the important of Regained Territories German the An Fear andhunger of unemployment disappeared. rural poor. thousands jobs tothe importance. of They towns weresupremethe hundredsof devastated still the of offered industrialization heavyindustry, developmentthe of the programme, reconstruction and One of the examples is 68 State omnipresent propaganda, epitomized in Party innewspapers propaganda, epitomized omnipresent State controlled Party Korczak (1991) by Andrzej Wajda. 67 The 50 CEU eTD Collection ColumbiaUniversity Press 1989, pp. 78 69 68 poland.bufallo.edu 67 of past, fragments the such naturally, frequent; were national tradition to References symbols display medieval white (the State eagledidnot remained unchanged a redstar). place Stalin’safter death). Waszynski 1953, of inSeptember took Primate imprisonment (the Church Catholic the against late attack arather launched authorities The Polish Soviet Union, otherhand, bythecommunists. Onthe andruled abounded. differences the attracting force reactionary a called be could Krajowa Krajowa). Armija Army of Home the (Armija representation wasthe main fifties the problem early of the literature Polish Inthe were condemned. theidlers, and kulaks, music, bourgeois, the profiteers the cinema, poetry the and theatre were accompanied by full respectall processes that Itwasmaintained these “catching upwith backwardness”Europe”. and of the principles of the social apath entered of modernization”, she“rapid that “centuries-old wasliquidating equality and justice. In gradually, social-realistic war-cinema and comedies, incessantly claimed that Poland Dadlez, Anna. Ibid. Paczkowski, Andrzej. “Poland 1945-1999: Servility, Misfortune, Liberation”; taken from www.info- The situation recalled the oneprevailing in countriesother dominated by the Communist force underground another, wasalready in operating Poland. when years, later the in activities Army’s Home the on attacks their years concentrated and in war early the Army role Home of the the ignore of novelists (1950-1955) to Facedtended period the dilemma,the with the alternative. unhappy an – anti-German as well as anti-Soviet was which suggesting the that Polishvoluntarily joined proletariat the underground to tantamount be would army home in the farmers and workers were there that admit to Yet masses. Polish broad the to insulting contention a occupation, the of years first in the Nazis the fighting were people class bourgeois but elements; thiswould statement imply only that middlethe Political andSocial Issues inPoland as Reflected in the Polish Novel ; New York: 69 51 CEU eTD Collection 70 reality bleak The class. working the of mobility social and movements communist fascist anti- bourgeoisie, of decadence the like Committee) Censorship Cinema official the by couldinspirenaturalistic realistic or description politicallythe of issuescorrect (approved it that in asense filmmaking for model unofficial the still was neorealism authorities, by the condemnation official the Despite sametime. the at value artistic with certain film to transpose theideological into languageoffilmandprovide the the demands to them are notworth mentioning today. Itwas very difficultfor the film authors of the time We talkitreally Wlodzimierz was. Sokorski wrote in 1950: about a very than better look make people’s reality ontheability virtueto rested mainits andprimary important fact However, new order. the praise and of socialism, concepts embody basic the to expected that the was A film filmmaking. in concern only be the must art film of function indoctrinating and the culture propagandist- the that stated thenopenly film.of Social-realism a component in a artistic the to never referred dictum this Stalinization, under Europeancountries Eastern according to Lenin’s thesis saying frequently. more recalled thatwere Modernism) versus Positivism theRomanticism, film is the most important to Enlightenment (the “progressive” as opposed bewhich as could acknowledged art. However, in Paczkowski, Andrzej. “Poland 1945-1999” Tens of films supporting this concept appeared in the period 1950-1954. Most of in periodthe films1950-1954.Most Tens appeared thisconcept supporting of epoch. inrole important an play thescience and culture the ideological-educational that means its which function, primarily crucialfulfill should democracy people’s process of building a new man, a man of the socialist be had unquestionablyThe films to didactic period the optimistic and of 71 70 52 CEU eTD Collection upper-middle class, aristocracy, capitalists who have lost theirfortune, and kulaks. See GaborKresalek andutmost obstacle values, do not do values, groups and so-called hooligans first place, and unconditional – values two only possess must Workers 1. support. to socialist-realistic film (not only in Hungary, but inall countries in which Stalinization was in progress) had Gabor Kresalek and Janos M Rainer72 2000. set Sciences, and Arts of the the Advancement the for Society Poznan number the Houseof Publishing of takenfrom Hendrykowska, Malgorzata. quisling enemy. The Yugoslav war cinema also adopted the stylistic patterns were which stylistic patterns the alsoadopted cinema war Yugoslav enemy.quisling The Yugoslav evilfascist nations) Army andall and of Yugoslav defeats (comprised good united in the battles which of war the images the through recollected was still The war countries. socialist in other itcase was the society, as in left itpost-war the consequences inthe1950s through the cinematography. warwasnotpresented the However, owned in thestate genre dominant most the was naturally warcinema The Tito. of cult the building and War, Liberation National the of mithologization man, Yugoslav Stalinized countries insideitwhile usedtotalitarian means for building anew socialist Unlike other Stalinized countries, Yugoslavia had only formal framesoutside the of Red Army warwasminimized the during comparing tothat of Yugoslav the Army. in orduringStalin’s headquarters official portrait Party the celebrations. Therole of the flag Soviet or the filmsneverintroduced the clash Yugoslav yearsthatpreceded the in even Firstly, differences. slight some adopted cinema war Yugoslav turmoil, political and harsh measures by accompanied andStalin After clashbetween the Tito Yugoslavia. 71 unambiguously excluded topics. Polandwere post-war the of class working miserable the struck that destitute and Refering to compliance of the Hungarian cinema with the demands of the Stalinist type indoctrination, Sokorski, Wlodzimierz. „Sztuka w walce o socjalism The only country The only in country cinematography region the whose another took path was ab ovo of the imminent realization of the picture of the society. The enemy is embodied in the old fit into the picture of society and, thus, have to be excluded. 3. The loyalty belong to the categories of people who, even if they accept the fundamental the accept they if even who, ofpeople categories tothe belong to and 72 Looking Back: Analysis andInterpretation of Polish Film identification theses ”, work achievements with the leadership. 2. in Sztuka w walce osocjalizm, that the characters and their actions in each in actions their and characters the that measured in quantities in the in quantities in measured Intellectuals, certain youth 1950, pp.233. enemy as the ; Poznan: ; 53 CEU eTD Collection attending all the most important commissions, he sacrificed his personal vision, but he but vision, personal his sacrificed he commissions, important most the all attending andby the“friend image the of friendworking wasreducedto classes), composer of a of Films 1945-1955]; Beograd: No.1, 2002,pp.97. Tematika jugoslovenskog igranog filma 1945-55” [Stalin’s Presents – Topics of Yugoslavthe Feature which would later lead to ceaion of Unaligned countries. See Miloradovic, Goran. “Staljnovian alternative pokloni version – of provided it socialismframework which impaired international the the in ideological and country, the homogeneity insde revanshism of the the further Soviet the prevent lager,to and attempt nationalism confronted the challenges of the liberal-democratic tendencies and particular nationalisms in its facilitated the communist dictatorship of Josip Broz Tito whichby the ideology of the Yugoslav 73 Moveeast, 1992, pp. 21-47. Janos M Rainer. HungarianSociety Film (AViewin of ValuesSocieties, Its and Ideologies) 1948-1956; making the for tomakeorder while failure. his up Party the conformingrequirements previous By to in socialist-realism trendy politically new the with comply to he decided conformist, and doanythingregainposition.As his waswilling to to agreatopportunist and previous liked power the Ford system. of the adversaries political the hadstarted and opposition the moved had to Ford meanall a sudden of it not that did However, Czechoslovakia. to moved financial theoffended for Ford responsible within stateenterprise, corruption the he was films, that and the of in supervision mistakes ideological he many hadmade that Afterfrom of ofFilm hewasfired post the director the sayingPolski reasoning with the theSocialist-Realism Challenging or Appeasement Street–AleksanderFord’s fromBarska 3.2 Five ones. social-realistic favored recently until to opposite diametrically solutions, conceptual and aesthetical Western the of uniqueclearly inthe region. It newemanated Hollywood-like sensibility and affirmation Zika Mitrovic, Hajrudin Krvavac and Veljko Bulajic are the main directors of this ganre. Their war fims Chopin’s Youth in 1952 (in which the biography of biographyin piano Polish the which 1952(in the of 73 54 CEU eTD Collection since warthe came to anend,butatthesame time wasthat notenough toenablethecity, opens the 1947.The storyof in Warsaw,film Twothe endof hadalready at years passed favoringparticular discourse. any avoid to trying plot, its of synopsis brief a provide will I film, this of life the and release of Western cinema period. the to compared when enough trendy nor artistic neither was film the interpretation, this to According was still legging behindits in neorealist counterparts Italy and other parts of Europe. film some opinions, the to other even backthen, according However, enough. educative realistic it ideological social-realisticnot sense) enough implied that (in which and was course of two different arguments. The film was sometimes marked as NOT being ( 1940s and 1950s. or an honest account art, of asawork in anthologies the ofcharacterized beenfrequently filmhas the However, the lost war generationremained.naturally, Today, arepeople there would who dismissit as a non-value work. in poverty and war stricken Poland of they never knew how to live otherwise.” slightly different only:young Poles still and rob, andeventually kill, because the war taught them that, and delinquency the did notexist. Ford’s boys brotherspropaganda are of Carne’s Brux’sand official protagonists. Their the to roots are according where, cinema, Czechoslovak or Polish the in courageous and new with the juvenileBelgrade: Clio, 2006, pp.121-122. ”Thematically, film the was close to many films of 1950 the which dealtdelinquency. Nevertheless, what was an ordinary topic in the French or American was 75 National Film Library in Warsaw, No. A-214. 74 top. communist, thefoundcozy heon androom his again was perceivedasagood again Polytica, Film,Nowa Kultura,KlubLiteracky,Sztadard Mlodych), See Protokolposiedzenia z Komisji OcenFilmow I Scenariuszy, 20padziernika 1954, Archive of AntoninJ. Liehm and Mira Liehm. 74 Before I move to a more detailed description of the discussions that marked the the that of discussions a more description detailed move I Before to His film The Five from Barska Street Fivefrom The 75 On otherthe hand,if we go back to press the of earlythe 1950s The Most ImportantEastern Art: European film After1945 (1953), on the other hand, is a film that has we can follow the 55 ; CEU eTD Collection methods of terrorism, blackmail and bribery. The guardian eventually succeeds in guardianeventuallysucceeds The andbribery. terrorism, blackmail methods of good. struggle totakefor Zenonconducts side these through arefinally the boys Zenon, namedLutek.The struggle which now goes onconcerns thequestion astowhich Zenon, anditincludesinitsranks anotherBarskaStreetfollower of boy,afaithful of aband engaged indiversion andsabotage. The leader of thatband is aled called –members and stillare havebeen– butalso beenburglars, the boys that notonlyhave with East-West theconstructionof Theguardian unaware thoroughfare. isblissfully onworkconnected employs andtheotherthree he office; inanewspaper’s messenger another music school; a them hefinds aplacein a jobas for boys. For oneof wholeheartedlyEast-West the thoroughfare.Hethrowshimselfinto hisguardianship of ofthe whois workingontheconstruction oftheParty Wojciechowski. Heisamember The guardiancourt under ofa“guardian”. thecare nominatedisabricklayer named Juvenile the placedby andare violence with robbery for beenarrested The boyshave members ofsociety. isthestruggle tosavefilm themfromthedepthofthem valuable banditryandtomake of themeofthe demoralized section.The precisely that Zbych, representyoungpeopleof maincharactersof The five the moralrecovery ofsuchyoungpeople. their younger targetofwhichcitizens. Theystartedaneducational the of campaign, was reconstructionwere onWarsaw, notturnedeither, bythedemoralization aside,some of But thePolishwhowhoby ruins, people, hadbeenaside hadlaunchedonthe Barska Street went rapidly down hill,deepintobanditry anddiversion Academic studies. allseemedtothembetheir It boys Great Adventure.Thefive from those oftheir acquaintances who gotdown to work and on thebuilding sites or to then themselvesmuchmoresophisticated They considered assaults andeven killings. youngpeopleorganizedrobberies, them. Thesemisguided work norstudiesinterested tragedy oftheWarsaw who sometoo, insurrection, developed ataste crime. for Neither the Ghetto,personal Nazithe sacking ofthe experienceof ofConcentration campsor the rising generation. who Therewere,amongyoungpeople their during short lives had onpeopledemoralizing certain –andespecially resistantsectionofthe effect on less It was notonlythatthe war transformedWarsaw into ruins, butalsothathada constructional enterprise. the film, boys Barskafive Street,from isclosely boundupwith thatgreat of the leadingcharacters Thestoryof the VistulaRiver. shores of and between thetwo the city of extremities between thetwo link thoroughfare, the East-West construction of the vastbuildingplanshadyet tobegin. Thefirst ofsuchgreatundertakings was the of Numbers ofhousesandbuildingshadalreadybeenreconstructed, buttherealization Warsaw, studying inschools already andacademies,already buying intemporary shops. factories, alreadytraveling bytramand bus, already reading thenewspaper printedin people hadtheirhomesamongruins,butthey workwere at already inreconstructed wereand rubble still city omnipresent Warsaw, oflife.Half-a-million was the in full eighty per cent ruined, tohaveshaken offthe terrible heritagewar. of Yet, thoughruins Five from Barska Street Barska from Five –Marek, Kazek, Jacek, Franek, and 56 CEU eTD Collection special mention for directing. by a was awarded Ford, Aleksander director, The Festival. the of GrandPrize for the the tale ofheroes ofthe film. marks outthebeginning andtheendofstory, the andintensifies significance ofthe the outlinedinbroad East-Westof thoroughfare, handledmass and masterfully scenes links withThe film Warsaw.storystorythe boys’ thatofbuilding theconstruction The appreciate theattractions of thereal GreatAdventure which bears thename -New Life. comingto and portrays thoseboys path, on theirdownward the BarskaStreetboys The filmdemonstrates in anoriginalandcourageous way People’show Poland halted ruins, enteronanew, splendidandcreativelife with theentirepopulation of thecountry. people, haltedon their downward pathandrehabilitated, will, the towns in raised from abandon youngpeopleset bywar onthe road tocrime andbanditry. Thoseyoung voices in thosewords theessential messageofthe entire film. People’s Poland does not live”–and “He must her fiancé,Hankacriesout, of Bending overtheprostratebody In the actofsabotage. the ensuingpitchedbattle, Kazek is severelyinjured. inthenickoftime, theboys, tocommitthoroughfare tunnel.But includingKazek, refuse day,theEast-West the great opening of toblow up,ontheeve is planning,infact, Barska Street Boys.He whichsabotage toexecute needsthehelpof act of heparticularly an organizing when thatyoungbanditis time just atthe Zenon’s band and goesbackto denunciation oftheboy’sunhappy past.work Embittered, Kazek throws uphisbuilding whichagainst Kazekdefamation, comes acampaign of to ahead inthepublic One oftheworkers on theEast-West construction thoroughfare site,Macisz,carries on Correction.Hose of refuses tochange course andwho his drinking bouts for and hisbrawling getssent toa and office Zbych’s enthusiasm forhismusic studies is boundless.ItonlyFranek who workHanka. Meanwhile, andmore Jacekenters intothe deeply more ofthenewspaper construction sites.Marekbecomesapopularfavorite there.Kazekwins the loveof enthusiasm andsense making a of constructivewhich contribution is common togreat workin the attractive on building getcaughtup to theboys;those making thehonestlife The film screened Cannes atthe was Film Festival in it was nominated 1954 when 57 CEU eTD Collection Figure 4: Boys from Barska Street in the neorealist setting. Janczar Tadeusz and Slaska Aleksandra – live” “Hemust 3: Figure 58 CEU eTD Collection 79 78 77 did.” Slaska Aleksandra and AnnaMagnani would managetoplay a role of Hanka sosplendidlyit like Kally, if Grace “believe not he did that commented Festival Cannes the from reporting 76 of heroes The journalists andfilm historian of timethe wrote: This is a quotation from a short article in worldfoundbestmovie post-war young aboutthe who the themselves wrong way” on is notIt have the it, hugesignificance. does any to Thedialogue, compared absorbance. Police censorship in the City of Chicago has forbidden the screening of the hand,other bad artist, while the artist who does not want to say what he knows is a coward. say with saying an Balazs’s is no thathave Bela anything whodoes postulate a to artist duringfilm andafter theCannes infestival the 1954.In pressfilmwasidentified Polish Kuryluk Jerzy. Kuryluk Sadoul, Georges. Toronto Star Demokraten “Everything first thatthe film Polish colored from be conveys visual can its seen of the police of Chicago, some lines from the film are “improper”. The “improper”. are film the from lines some Chicago, of of police the film Cayatte’s movingdifferent towards future than fiveyoungguysfrom the Andre Those are only a few positive comments that occurred in the European in press that occurred European the Those areonly few positive comments a in cinematography of rank highest the world cinema. places A. Ford among the most appealing directors and the Polish history marked by passion, humanism and love. The success film the of colors in means directing expressive introduces recount a and order to the author of represented inW-Zthrough A.the Ford, buildingprogress thoroughfare. city, with the but fivealong boys the Warsaw, arerecovering whole New York DailyWorker Five from Barska Street Barska from Five ; No. 167, May 26, 1954. – Denmark; No. 125, June 28, 1954. Stolica Less Lettres Francaises Less Lettres Before the Deluge Before the , No.10, March7, 1954. Chopin’s Youth Five from Barska Street Barska from Five 77 Georges Sadoul oneof Georges leading(1904-1967), the European published an publishedarticle an saying that ; No.511, April 8, 1954. . They also live in ruins, the same one as the . What is the reason for that? In the opinion the In that? for reason the is What . is a big romantic. He uses a lot of film- Demkraten were born before the warandare the before born were 76 . A journalist of 78 Toronto Star 79 On the 59 CEU eTD Collection 82 81 improve one’s perspective and his possibilities? Does the film answer to those questions those film the hisimprove one’sanswer to possibilities?Does and perspective essence ofgeneration? one’s Doesstruggles, theroad for the society been societylost? Is it allowed to renounce any segment of the young lost invade lettersandone’s life, one’sof the or readershelp, publishedinnumerous the occurred frequent that questions most of the Here aresome place educate, who belonged andwithin show to differentthe rightthe ages system? and professions: Should Has a righteous the society 80 ZMP andmembersof pedagogues, teachers, werestudents, debate tothe contributed didacticwork” “important as an be regarded film the can what extent meantto examine was also The discussion of war. the horrors itfound very fitinto to difficult newthe it after had reality experienced all possible which generation post-war first the depicted refinements and stylization any without commenting on issues the addressed in film. the Sztandard Mlodych social, and artistic values. political, immense it to ascribed critics film and success, a was it that census common film wasa daily the receivedwell. wasgenerally tothe possible. According There press, target-audience, the youth of the same age as the protagonists of the film, as much as The newspaper meant for the Communist Youth Taken from Taken Sztandard Mlodych American public. American the and film police infuriate” isworried that“insult Ford’s could In late1954,adiscussion in film on the was initiated dailynewapaperthe called reach its to in Poland theaters all cinema the throughout Film wascirculated Zolnierz Wolnosci Zolnierz - Warszawa, No. 71; March24, 1954 p. 34. . 81 The main point of the discussion was to involve the young into young the involve to was discussion the of point main The 80 – Warsaw; No.120; May 23, 1955. 82 . The majority of the readers who readers the of majority The . Five fromBarska Street allegedly, 60 83 . CEU eTD Collection Street hand, other the on However, them. for conditions life the imposes and determines wisely it because boys, the of leader is transitory It film. in the delinquents ismembership. TheParty forinitiating reason the thehealing process of fivethe whole the implied also it Secretary; General its only not meant Party the that convey Polish own our is It films. Polish other all from different far movie a is It from Poznan. student female of from a letter is a an extract quotation following life. The severe real row, and the about filmfirstnot speak common which about and banal shallow and did but topics, places, 84 83 longtwo-month discussion conveyed was that film. towards the a negativemessage general attitudes that particularly expressed The which existence letters the today speculate any of about wecan censorship. Thus, only actorsplay the convincingly? roles their and, if does, is that answer righteous? How potent is the artistic strength of the film? Did The Polish acronym for the Association of Polish Youth of Polish Association the for acronym Polish The Sztandard Mlodych is a “proper” film although its action does not revolve around the Party solely and solely Party the around revolve not does action its although film “proper” is a The role of filmisThe hewantedto However, role inFord’s itself of Party domineering. the andbuilding of thoroughfarethe E-W. them to see for the moment fight of Stalingrad, suffering in the Auschwitz, experiences find could they not or themselves come out, across. Itoffered about find to people called art every like A film, city. the towards love feel but Warsaw who else, theanything devastation can’t of survived and interpretation. in experienced own theirA men Ford] [Aleksander convinced byrubbish. Peoplebroughthome the things theyhad survived film. …In the concentration camps people seldom allowed to be Sztandard Mlodych -Warszawa, No. 72; March 27, 1954 p. 30 stood for a typical Party-line propaganda project under forsevere project atypical stood propaganda Party-line 84 Five from Barska Street Five from Five from Barska Five from excelled asthe excelled 61 CEU eTD Collection point of view, it wasmore beautiful than the book.” from dramaturgical the scenario, the “If talk about following: the we stated Polish radio 88 remained unfinished”. whilebook “one artthere, the can see the Krakow, during discussion the film-related in the technical it school,high was stated that In valuable. more was it thus and content realistic the contains book the that assured others intelligent, more andmore as beautiful thefilm characterized Some were divided. novel written by Kazimierz Kozniewskiwhich served Ford’s inspiration.as The attitudes 87 Chepaev, making contributed to more them stable andjustified. side of people’s life, it did not shake the pillars of the socialist Polish society, but only “happy end”. The film is positive in a sense that, although it discretely dealt with the dark 86 of suspense. a sort in observers the keeping film, of the end the by untouched remained issue the However, crime. the hiding and committing watches the film underthe constant gut feeling then thatspectator the The guys dothat. to will them once pay ordered enormousan Zenon after prize aman for killed and gang Zenon’s with mingled 85 ending, film Ford’s ismarked by optimistic ending. the Party. of representative and real authentic is only the Wojciechowski communist The literally. Ibid. pp.2 Warsaw Film Archives – “Wnioski ogolne z dyskusji o filmie After the Juvenile Court decided not to imprison the boys, but to allocate them a guardian, they again Sztandard Mlodych It is the same with joy future and life,and allplights inof difficulties the despite described it. the main protagonist, but it did not at all diminish our faith in the power Another important issue was based on comparing the film with thefilm same-titled the with issuebased on comparing important was Another Unlike films other of periodthe which are optimistic beginningthe from the till one of the most beautiful Soviet films finished with the death of - Warszawa, - No.71; 24.3 1954 p. 34. Five from Barska Street. Barska from Five 88 86 Piatkaz ulicy Barskiej 85 Still, it is not Hollywood–like not is it Still, 87 The employed in the employed The ”, 1955, pp. 1. 62 CEU eTD Collection problem was how to make the compromise with the officials at home. dominant they, asloyal since world time Party ofthe films members, could neorealist the travel occasionally watched critics film and to the West. directors Theythe realizedtrends Nevertheless, that they Europe. mustEastern follow the if theythat Italy participatedhad the ondefeated sideinthewar, itwas present during not Stalinization periods in wantedWesternculture only. Since it was basedto onpessimistic and nihilistic feelingsbecome whichstemmed from the fact 90 part of the89 world cinema, and they wanted. The only neorealism himself,if he intended todo that, also to some extentfulfilled the basic demand of the director the film and that inthe themselves target-audience recognized supposed the that proved generally discussions the of outcomes The relatives. and friends their of families either they themselves experienced the same or they witnessedMany tofactory the same stories workers in the and students age.” he that when inwasof film the heshows sameproblems facedthe he probably felt that the story was close made. knows any mold the was film ….Ford since psychology the which guys the of on to them in a sense that nois lives. There in our every day meet we can that people ordinary the “speaks about psyche ofthe in themetamorphosis authentic an that five conclusion the drew They was. film the guyseducative was unfolded in how Thedisputants issueof the road. theright also raised young backto delinquents the film. It was claimeddemoralized people, and of thepotency course People’s of RepublicPolish inturning the that the whole bourgeois that adversities human political occupation,the condition during pre-war film impaired that matters man, the of renaissance the film: the of points socialist-realistic the the movie. Only then they radiate the level of indoctrination and the exposure to the to exposure the and indoctrination of level the radiate they then Only movie. the flaws of asthe considered what they to present started participants the when conclusions As the most dominant and potent cinematic styleWestern in Europe Italian neorealism was ascribed to Ibid. Nevertheless, the issue of the highest concern for the participants wasexamining the participants for concern issue of highest the the Nevertheless, However, further discussions cast a sort of shadow upon such positive 90 , apartfrom that of the social-realism. 63 89 CEU eTD Collection going going to introduce below. theirprofessions. Itwas also the case with anotherfilm critic theoreticianand Jerzy Plazewski whom Iam order to get grants for Intellectualprofessional historianAndrzej Walicki, philosopher Laszek Kolakowski all madetrips certaincompromises in in the West were92 they got acquainted with the new trends within compromises make certain with and forces, accommodation join soft the to hedecided intellectuals, the Communistwhowas always everywhere present give to his opinion on everything. Like many other rule. akind in film of and literary andcritic persona warhe Poland, the a distinguished became Kaluzynski.Kaluzynski from had Warsaw graduated University before thewar,and after in Zygmunt epitomized actually was voice That well. as emerged intellectuals the among voice acritical andfactories, schools, advanced and high auditoriums, cinema Polish 91 asingleeducate youngperson. movie since itimmoral wasso unjust, itand how wasimpossible thatsuch a film could hiswatching even hadregretted how mentioned mother gang. Oneparticipants the of members liquidated were the the of who in film the hooligans constant from the differ beenmisdeed.was trialed andpunishedfor that remarked way this not It that they did tothepolice,they never boysthe remarked reported have some participant that should which man, innocent an kill movie the of beginning in the protagonist the Since criteria. film was measuredvalue system, only and moral correct andpolitically whendesirable the established inPoland expansion three-year films after and itaesthetics was socialist-realistic the for manipulative, and placed ispowerful criteriamedium asa film how proved amongwithin people. again once attitudes, Such period. the films of social-realistic Party previous numerous Thethe quality frame of any ofnew reference of those There are numerous same stories in the biographies of many distinguished intellectuals of the time. Warsaw Film Archives – “Wnioski ogolne z dyskusji o filmie Still, in the midst of such discussions throughout, at that time already numerous, already time that at throughout, discussions such of midst in the Still, 91 92 In return he had opportunity more In work he had return to opportunity Piatka z ulicy Barskiej , 1955, pp. 3 64 CEU eTD Collection stressed uselessness of oversimplification and over-glorification in interpretations of the of ininterpretations over-glorification and of oversimplification uselessness stressed ithad ontheyoung generation littlewas of importance for awork Kaluzynskiof art. also vanity. Aleksander for Ford his opportunism and hisconformism, knife-cutting and artistic intellectuals whichdespised of group increasing timeat the to belonged hejust or medium, engaged socially and morally asan film of importance the stressing permissible of border the challenge to he wanted either Namely ways. two in interpreted be can film Ford’s of undermined essence the his negativewhich filmmaking. comments Thus, mode of socialist-realist “hard-core” officially prescribed the alter if to hetried encounter could director afilm of difficulties aware wasperfectly Kaluzinsky sametime, the filmmaking and how fanatically and uncompromisingly he was striving to follow it. At Heknewhimselffilm model infamous posedinfront as Ford a of what directors. intentionFord’s knew about establishand personal to himselfurge among the world wrote an article tackling all problematic aspects of an aspects problematic articlewrote all tackling opportunity seeas opportunity a Party to were. hard-liner or Bunuel’s national and people’s in away, for example, already mentioned Italian neorealistmovies eye and taste As innovative filmsinEurope. some populara personwith and artistically hea discerning was watch able to chances such used probably he Thus, abroad. to sometimes travel to and freely contextualize the Polish cinema in its attempt at being According toKaluzynski, educational the value ofFord’s film, and theinfluence In Nowa Kultura, Nowa Los Olvidados Los a kind of liberal and high-brow journal of the time, Kaluzinski time, the of journal high-brow and liberal of akind (1950), the films that Ford himself exclusive Ford had filmsthe (1950), also an that Five from Barska Street. Barska from Five Kaluzynski 65 CEU eTD Collection intellectuals is to point out at its weak points, at things the film lacks to become a was a good film with certain potential, but the role and duty of the film critics and the characterization. The conclusion he drewwas that conclusion The characterization. falsepeople abouttheformalist true), of from to film-editing,the topography, type the independent,intelligentstrong, young in girl servicesocialistthe mission to convert to Kazek(between between– torn socialisttrue andfalselife underground - and Hanka, and inc-waster.and and books made recently other of hundred a like story same the conveys It that: he emphasized followed, Ford persistently allegedly which literary source film, expressnot does and questionany not doubts, does anything.” critics – due to the mediocre reception of works of art –does notmention the lacks of the film unprofessional the of voice “the that wrote Kaluzynski Namely unprofessional. and irrelevant asmediocre, class Polish the and working Polish youth for the organized thediscussions characterize Kaluzinsky entitled to asking who entities poseaquestion Kaluzynski. to were ascribed that response letters to thisfollowed, statement containing many derogatory and vulgarnames 94 93 press” in“gutter film which appeared In Kaluzynski, Zigmunt. Film Using the same tone, Kaluzinski gave the remarks about the love story in the film come byhome sincehe probably alocal re-entered gang. never son who almost for her her concern with mother of the character likepotential remained with the stories undeveloped great completely that example, are there …For there. nothing unique There is schematized way. of Tom Sawyer. from distinguish not does film the sense, that In story…. makes Still, what has become atype. already It be educative. to tend films that he was called a rough and scamp of the critic; in Five from Barska Street Five from Nowa Kultura Ford uses realistic descriptions, but only in butonly Ford usesrealistic ahighly descriptions, – Warsaw; No.12; March 21, 1954. pp.6. 94 Nowa Kultura 93 an untypical film is only its spectacular its is film only untypical an like Sztandard Mlodych Sztandard Trybuna Mazowiecka then allowed that on its insulted allowed thaton pages then Five from Barska Street Barska from Five 96 The Adventures hooligan, tramp, cynic 95 . Then thousands of thousands Then . Commenting on the essentially 66 CEU eTD Collection harshest criticism came from another distinguished film and literary critic, and famous and critic, literary and film distinguished another from came criticism harshest book remains book inside inthe film heart.” the deep thoughts, stays andproud’ fighting such man is worth filmis for. Te While from different book. the the European framework “The film is based on Chekhov’s ‘A words. man it sounds so which implied film thatthe was undeniably even achievementartistic in the world and Festival Cannes during the treatment distinguished the film fact got the that the course on him followedfilm byhiscolleagues – other Theargumentagainst himwas critics. of watermelon two those like finish ourselvesto allow not should We 99 98 97 96 95 own our realize first we after authors these excel to try should We in Poland. he proposed films by Pudovkin, Donski, Trauberg, de Sica as the models forfilm-making masterpiece. That was the way to explore the potential of the Polish film in general. Thus, He concluded his of one on articles Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Kaluzynski, Zigmunt. Sztandard Mlodych Upon the release of Kaluzynski’s articles, the series of subsequent all-way all-way attacks of series subsequent articles, the Kaluzynski’s release of the Upon theirs. then better worldthe were competition, butthey ended uponthe250place, since the 249 watermelons in to sent were they Then world. the in best the were they that stating Allfirmly of proud producers. lives theywereso their watermelons, their working. hard- and self-critical be persistent, We should art. our of development the paralyze just enthusiasm irrational and euphoria, celebrating, over- that in mind bear should we However, potential.. cinematic 97 -Warszawa, No. 71; March 24, 1954, p. 34. Nowa Kultura – Warsaw; No.12; March 21, 1954. p.6 Five from Barska Street Barska from Five 98 with a vivid anecdote. 99 . The loudest and loudest The . 67 CEU eTD Collection the Western styles. Plazewski mentioned how he once saw the Italian film Italian sawthe heonce how mentioned styles.Plazewski Western the plagiarize just must not it heritage; cultural and historical from her coming authenticity with cinema world the enrich and enhance must cinema Polish the that was point main Plazewski’s arguments. Kaluzynski’s confronting directly war-films, world prominent most some of the with perspective in thecomparative film positionedalso Ford’s controversial Kaluzynski’s remarks emerged.Itwasinitiated by Jerzy Plazewski howit didacticjustandwas. of naïve estimations tothe according itlackedexamine gain what to samethe insteadof fame world itsvalue establishing 100 culture” socialist “an abstraction and to underminerealistic dogma in uncompromising, direct and arrogant way. He wanted Polish film beto and diminish the true and unique value of the forcritiques Film wereonly deteriorating Polski. Polish conformist of the time Krzysztof Teodor Toeplitzwho among all stated that Kaluzynski’s 101 Kayatti’s Bunuel’s mentioned already like its counterparts film tocompareWestern the with film.Hetried examination the of shallow discussionsstudents inbuilding-a-new-man-process by saying thevalidity that andimmature of their and workers enchanted the of emotions the of importance and value the wasdiminished overstated, and he emphasized the value of the intellectual Toeplitz, Krzysztof. .“In Cinema and God Knows Where Else”, Ibid. However, at the same time, an intellectual counter-argumentation against the against counter-argumentation intellectual an time, same the at However, Kaluzynski committed the “mortal the“mortal Kaluzynski committed to challenge courage sin” finding social- the Without Pity 101 . He dared to scream DEFEAT instead of ACHIEVEMENT. He or even pre-war American films like films American pre-war even or Los Olvidados , de Sica’s 100 Nowa Kultura; The Children of the Street of Children The Boy’s Town Boy’s No.27; June 23, 1954. in order to Senza Pieta Senza 102 . He 68 , CEU eTD Collection the years of yearsthe of war” the atlook remained plightsafter the that – each filmwasscreaming inthe “literally scene 1954, aids the Negro soldier compassionately signorina destitute the when begins affair pristine film’s The belonged. had brother her which to gang local the on dependant and prostitute a becomes girl Homeless a local was killed. of member a her Butgang, brother, seehercity brother. to 105 104 1954. 103 festival. He is still active as a film critic in Polishfilm magazine 102 (Without Pity). The action of The war captured the whole world andmade a desolate place outof it.The him from pursuingthe black marketers from whom he has money.stolen stealing Army supplies.it And, reaches a climax when girlthe is killed trying protect to for andtotakeherto keepheron of Italy is paths the out righteousness incarcerated Plazewski, Jerzy. “Oni musza zyc” [They Must Live]; Must [They zyc” musza “Oni Jerzy. Plazewski, troops U.S. occupying the from Live]; Must [They zyc” musza “Oni Jerzy. Plazewski Aword-wide knownPolish critic and historian. In 1981, he presided over the jury Berlinat the film The film’s central pointis a story about agirl from the countryside who came a to man.” principleshown in the West, now, we was also processes gloomy use those of vision an artistic artistic the After unhappiness. visionsuccessful, to epitomize our, in realityBeech since but verythey dodifficult not offer to processa man an exit of fromthe rehabilitationhis plights and of wholeheartedly in the films like films inthe wholeheartedly film in the photographed reality Italian the However, uprising. andthe ghetto, of the horrors the seen had probably guy seventeen-year-old the that thought and his friend in the school toilet because he used his turn. Then we said “war” killed guy yeara seventeen who old in about newspapers war weread the the After Poland. and inItaly both them of none were There values. moral all of suspension aboutthe brought sametime the at material devastation 105 are sad and dark realities, and they differ essentially from our 103 104 Without Pity . who was wounded by the bandits. Itflourishes when he, resolute Without Pity , and other countries’ realities captured realities countries’ , andother Los Olvidados takes place one year after the war, but Zycie Literackie Zycie Literackie Kino. and On aBeautifulSmall –Krakow; No. 40;March 14, –Krakow; No. 40;March 14, 69 CEU eTD Collection importance of indicative details in the scenes of his film. 109 No.17,September, 1954. pp. 3-15. high-brow high-brow film journal.monthly 108 107 106 charged betweenpeople andconflicts themes, ambitious and alwaysdifficultwith dealt Distancing from all comments of the time, an evidentthing is that Alexander Ford Sztandard Mlodych cooperationfilm his of innovations aesthetic the about mostly talking was withfilm critic atthe the time, and filmlater the writer of thecrew. first historypublished in popular themost weekly dailyor newspapers,in but of the PolishBoth cinema, and Zigmunt him,the interview with of hetouched topic where allalmost at andrespond publiclytoall debates these criticism. onlyserious The Kaluzynski the broke Marek after euphoria the built, they thoroughfare new The return the post-war delinquents on the right way. They were led to the New Life. to individuals and institutions particular established who society, the was it film Ford’s and kill. However for the girl in It was the first, colored film in Poland. He used different type of editing, shorter scenes. He stressed the Toeplitz, Jerzy. “Razmowa zAleksandrem Fordem o Ibid. Ibid. In Kozniewski’s book and Ford’s film there are five boys who used to drink,boys and five steal usedto who film are there Ford’s In Kozniewski’sbook Alexsander himself,Ford mysterious and ashewasdidnot unapproachable grows into aflame in the film – they all epitomized the New Life. apartment, and above all, the love story which from a sparkle in the NewMarek’s site, machine construction on the bookuse averycomplex to how learnt he when felt Kazek that happiness the inbrick-laying, record were touched only briefly and at the very superficial level. superficial very the at and briefly only touched were Without Pity 108 He was interviewed by Jerzy Toeplitz, the leading by the Jerzy interviewed He Toeplitz, was no one showed the slightest interest, but in but interest, slightest the showed one no Piatce z ulicy Barskiej ulicy z Piatce Five from Barska Street Barska from Five 109 and the discussion in discussion the and ”, , and his extraordinary his and , Kwartalnik Filmowi Kwartalnik fimowi, 107 106 was not , a 70 CEU eTD Collection appear scenes is pathetic why that pathetic, often very is youth the “Since of giving themoral lessons. However, Ford often looked pathetic in his attempts toconvey the intense passion broadened this concept with the inclusion of withinclusion the this concept broadened Party, or striving the of demands social-realistic the with Complying cinema. Western to and neorealism establish himself as climaxes.the inventor, not only youngthe in generation its formative years, describing its inner conflicts at their as a good artisan, of depiction through filtrated be effectively could thus, society, and Fordreality contemporary itandbutbears uncompromising, innocent as most humanisticwell the charge.The difficult violent, is life of is which one’s youth deeds.The astage and heroic committing justice, for searching eagerness innocence, its youth sensitiveness, with nobility,were the in dealing directives, all social-realistic to complied willingly who communist hard-line his filmsof What Ford, as matter. heusedattracted subject themosta youth dominant as 111 post-warfilm was, as we saw, acourageous treatment of the Polish anti-Semitism. 110 dramatism. of maximum the with See Konwicki, Tadeusz. “W prawie poezji”, “W prawie Tadeusz. SeeKonwicki, first His Poland. in movement underground film of the a pioneer was Ford period pre-war the in Even educational of functions film.”the educational moral and the facilitate is to there It by created chance. not was symbiosis Barska Street Five from Thus,class. working the of friend a Ford Warsaw, in revolutionary is student bohemian a poeta but ignorant, an not is – Chopin poet there even However, love”. of “form of a screen. Andfilm poetry previous in his it seen have We already Ford. is Alexander of films in all often pathetic. In 111 That is the That Chopin’s Youth innocence-lost where Ford stresses the pathos which accompanies a accompanies which pathos the stresses Ford where 110 , Ford joins , Ford reportage, andsuch poetry and a In addition to that, it is nota pure chance that in most concept that Ford apparently had taken over from apparentlyhadtaken over Ford that concept Kwartalnik filmowy 112 innocence- regained , No.17, May 1954. . 71 CEU eTD Collection with Tadeusz Janczar’s suicidal jump from the top of upthe staircase of stitched spiral from top jumpthe suicidal Janczar’s with the Tadeusz a little tavern with a strange clock on a factories,dirty spiral staircase, the square inwall) front of the church in a rainy andSunday afternoon, or several poetical climaxesgeography ending of the wholewhich film (the planewere with scenariothefar straight wasfrom not differentof theconveying chimneys from others on the of thebrick timethe idealistthe communistyouth,since fighting during the occupation. itreal was full of lifedeclarative in The characters pessimistic. of lines the Poles.Socialist However, different radically be would chapter, next the in presented be will it as thanksrealistPokolenie to the films.focusfrom and Ford’s, filmic beshifted. would that his perception bedifferent would The Wajda’s that itwas natural years.Then in and post-war matured the whoactually war, the Party whohada film notworked beforedirector war,who the was a youngduring adolescent officials,by made film first the was it Namely cinema. in Polish phase new the initiated it because thus, harshly criticized film for being the firstthe Wajda’s film feature from 1955. 113 112 making film Wajda theworkers, scenario offered forfilm his next one ofhis duringto assistants Due toits intention introduce andto keepcooperative atmosphere among the post-war Filmmakers of ofNewGeneration theEmergence Signaling Wajda– Andrzej 3.3. Ibid. pp. 47. Lekcja Polskjego Kina Wajda’s film also tells about the youth and maturing in a very difficult time. The time. difficult very in a maturing and youth the about tells also film Wajda’s Five BarskaStreet Five still provided only the hints for subsequent Polish School hintsstill Polish forwhose onlytheatmosphere, subsequentSchool provided (2002) , Andrzej Wajda. It was scenario for was scenario Wajda. It Andrzej , Pokolenie were described as Lumpenproleteriat rather than described asLumpenproleteriat were Pokolenie is a significant film primarily film significant is a 113 Pokolenie from that in the (Generation) – 72 CEU eTD Collection 114 stemming from probably local tradition, includingattachment strong independence to and form aspecific assumed thaw In PolandStalinist post mere the be a episode. to prove would dogmatization socialist-realist five-year-old the andthat would collapse, regime facilitated byBoleslawBierut it construction entire the appeared that In 1956, Stalinist andRevisionism –De-Stalinisation Atmosphere 4.1 SocialandPolitical Sentimentsinthe1956–1960Poland the National CHAPTER 4 – The Role of the Polish School inRaising society. Polish and cinema Polish the mark would point in significantly of period which, zero subsequent Polishthe the School historians are often anticipated in filminthe mild a and that reason, way.For refined of Polish the film divided opinions aboutmobility whether and benevolence more realistic. sounded of the lines, and declarative unconvincing made, otherwise textand in observers filmic the Party could overcome all his plights, was already Vucicevic, Branko. “Filmovi Andrzeja Wajde”, Andrzeja “Filmovi Branko. Vucicevic, The breaking of the myth of a positive young man, who, thanks to the social the to thanks who, man, young apositive of myth the of breaking The 114 Filmska Kultura: Pokolenie Zagreb,No.6, Nov., 1957, pp. 53-54. should be taken as a 73 CEU eTD Collection 116 leader cult. the cancelled he after and crimes, Stalinist unmasked which document famous the publicized Khrushchev 115 Congress Party Twentieth thefamous of aftermath the “Fatherstand. anti-Soviet Nation”, Bierut, of the induringthe the died March 1956, The many dogmatismParty’s and droveaway obstinacy its sympathizers;original of its fear hate, on based regimea whether many people to dubious appeared “It enough, everything,back went tonormal” as longand about and lasted the reforms asany cynic quickly decent expect, would “However openness the threat. the deflected Gomulka but effectively Polishthe border, unheard of defiance elicited avisit coupledof Khrushchev with massingseveral armies at approval. stamp Moscow six This the after without years of Gomulka wasre-elected a 1956, reform-promising In October national itbecamemythology. partof Uprising, Warsaw the or nineteenth century the during insurrections national ofPolishin case the factor. It was recognized not only as an additional impulse tothe “war on the top”, but, as was ultimately put down to the accompaniment of bloodshed, proved to be a stimulating in 1956),and out (28June broke Poznan rebellion, which communist Theworker’s elite. morethe andbywagedwithin succession for profound struggle the accelerated rendered http://www.geopoland.com/history/h7.shtml It was marked by a severe debate about the future continuation of the Polish socialist path after Nikita All these political All were events political these only not against regimeinobjections the Poland. futile.“ undermatter what rendersthus slogans,usuallybackfires repression and inflicted The more on so, degradationpeople, history the no tells usthat population, shouldnot be employed inthe pursuitof communistthe goals. the of mentality the on imprint psychological its leave to bound is which repression, of power the impulses, destructive human of restraint measures. such drastic to adopt had one society, idyllic communist reach the One andcouldviolencea justlead could fraternal to in to system; whether order argue that since the goal of communism was the 117 116 115 , and de-Stalinization was , andde-Stalinization 74 CEU eTD Collection human beings from the degrading effects of alienation. Hence Iwas well liberating equippedof for problem defending onthe myself concentrated Marx, a ‘libertarian’ discovered I soon Hessen, with conversation 119 Forwardly), No. 49; December 2, 1956. 117 Marxist ineconomic to turned situation Intellectuals revisionism Poland. protests of all of by strata society struck uncompromisingly very the difficultpolitical and was not freedom. It Party the changewhich decided to itsbut mass policy, ubiquitous the posed been again has means the sanctifies goal the whether question The is Party what one member said in memorablethe 1956: October committed to a policy of relaxation which was welcomed by the people as a whole. Here within originated members had Polishthe Party Communistgradually whose become from became widespread. ideology alienation the official fifties the for regime. middle the the In supporters few sincere in created Poland, dissatisfaction economic the combined with These factors character. as well as intelligence for diverse problems, contributed to the Party reputation for attracting people without simplistic viewof worldthe andits tendency recommendto uniform and equalsolutions 118 ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1989, pp. 120-121 “Thanks to the translations of some works on young Marx (H. Lefebvre, A. Cornu), as well as my Dadlez, Anna. Jadwiga Siekierska, “Czy Tragedja Optymistyczna?” (An Optimistic Tragedy?), Such atmosphere consequently led to introductionSuch led consequently to atmosphere of certain andartistic political subverts Partythe itself and depravesits members. any policy without tactics; butsellingideals moralityand for tactics human intercourse of free principles of fearnormal the and moralalso but terror. It communism, is of impossible ideas humanitarian to have himself wasmost forgotten…Stalinism dangerously destroyed notonly and distortion of facts werecalled the Party line in learning….Man ethic; lies were clothed with the dignity of truth; the falsification of history class crimes-the white, black wascalled where wascreated atmosphere An humanitarianism. of goal the of ahead movement communist the with all its sharpness in connection with the Hungarian tragedy….It places isIt fact interesting the an that “thaw” momentum which ingathered such 1956 Political andSocial Issues inPoland as Reflected in the Polish Novel 118 Po Prostu ; New York: 119 and artists to andartists (Straight 75 CEU eTD Collection function. could they successfully how of examples brightest the as serve Czechoslovakia and Poland France, producer complete ofauthor of his film (the director,the script-writer, sometimes composer, camerafilm operator), but the auteurfilm whichbrought about anew dimensionasonthe relation film-society. welldirector The is not only a – in120 a certainPress, 1999, pp. 290-291. way.Articulation of the Nation.“Auteur in: Poland” in Nation’ ‘Imagined as Vicissitudes the and Elites “Intellectual Andrzej. groups”Walicki, See Marxism-Leninism.” in indoctrination ofofficial pressure increasing the against from were established throughout Europe. film famous most mainpresentthe and ideas of concept focusing this school, its mainly formativeon and called Polish School shootingand would of becomethe first world-wide Polishsolidarity among the new generation filmmakersof whoserved as apprenticesinthe the post-war known. films, I will even film industry makewhich certainpossessed levela independenceof new cinematican attempt Polish the of organization the to Thanks style general. in to filmmakers the of emerged.expression the and It was images, the messagesthrough “subversive” byemitting subtle overcome thecensorship It couldimportant. Film particularly was rigidto the official politics. anddegrading Party deny importance the of socialismthe but and its revolution, which analternative created not did which identity – Poland Socialist in identity collective national a of formation which in Poland wasinprogress during the Second World they War. Thus, led to revolution and the war. They treated many taboos, especially those related to the civil war ideas. real They aboutthe catharsis, peopleof newhopes, the purposes reminded ordinary into instilled which mediators as served often They self-closedness. and elitism any of absence was the hadthey point strongest The established. views were alternative ininventing anew their Thus,people expression. the circlesof with the newaesthetics This is the period when “producer’s cinematography” appeared for the first time, and its antipode – antipode its and time, first the for appeared cinematography” “producer’s when period the is This Kanal (eds.) Ronald Grigor Suny and Michael D. Kennedy; University of Michigan by Andrzej Wajda, and trying to contextualizein it respect to the 120 , and the talent and talent the and , Intellectuals and the 76 CEU eTD Collection including, especially, the war time history theSeptemberincluding,history wartime 1939 regarding, especially, among others, the doctrinal lines impliedurge of prevailing the experiences Poles. the dismissal about bitter the of That and restoration Uprising. Theshadowsof people and requiredcouldmurdered killed that avoice testify of to openthe a way to a different outlook on the most recentmemory history; includinghad also itthe Warsaw later or Sooner life. political and social country’s the upon of effects Stalinism’s the truth, about Poland’s landscapes. watching those the experiences traumatic recollected history urban forareas reconstruction post-war the used Warsawians,propaganda. – however, devastated of landscapes dominant the with scenes the of form the in only be present ithavein of seen example the inAs wecouldperiod culture. subduedduring socialist-realist became references the wrapped highly eventhe However, meanta lot. it which audience to tothe communicated wassomehow issue the obvious,but of was censorship thetrace an manner; enigmatic 121 film of the sequence a complete taboo of in time not issuethe Uprising mentioned the sinceit was of was the Kanal Abroad. from in Poland,Praises Catharsis Collective Curtain– KanalontheTwoSidesofIron Wajda’s 4.2 Andrzej political changes in post-WWIIthe world. geo- newwave of the dueto emerged that tendencies cinematic regional and world other Hendrykowski, Marek. was released in 1957 after years of ignoring the topic of years ignoring Warsaw Uprising. The the inafter topic of of was 1957 released The years between The years between 1955 and1957inforhopes breaking released Poland through Forbidden Songs Kanal ; Poznan: Wydawnicztwo Naukowe, 2007,pp. 18. Five from Barska Street Five from Barska (1947). Nevertheless,in (1947). waspresented everything , the topic of the Uprising could 121 77 CEU eTD Collection 124 No.11,1956. 123 122 philosophers or politicians, historians, journalists, be: might they whom of regardless “revisionists”, that year, of Stalin’s Poznan in1956andtheso-called October deathin1953tothe Polish Uprising when Nonetheless, during propaganda andcensorship PRL’s apparatus the “thaw (from period” Gomulkafractured. for government communist the of benefit the history erected of falsification took power)forhow Poles fought The independence.their wall perennial of own silence and didn’tin PRL’s omnipresent intendpeople”. to give up the field to the Stalin’s NKVD (where forest Katyn in London), government the to (loyal Krajowa Armija campaign, March in1956 themagazine tragedy of rising.the ofAnders’struggles in armyfrom Russia, andthe evacuation the country, occupied the originating from one man’s experience was a great advantage. a great was experience from man’s one originating at record of all. For, beginning,a documentary very theappearance the at fiction writing to relate doesn’t sense. It aspecific inthis case has “literary” epithet The inspiration. Polska RzeczpospolitaLudowa (Polish People’s Republic) Jerzy Ambroziewicz, Walery Namiotkiewicz, Jan Oszewski. “Na Spotkanie ludziom z AK.”, z ludziom Spotkanie “Na Oszewski. Jan Namiotkiewicz, Walery Affairs. Ambroziewicz, Jerzy Internal for Commisariat People’s or Del) Vnutrennikh Komissariat (Narodny NKVD The Like many films of the Polish School, A impulse strong was towards truth given by the famous article publishedin 123 After Stalin’s death on the 5 filmmakers. 122 murdered hundreds of captured Polish officers), the resistance the Polishofficers), of captured murdered hundreds 124 publiclife way gradually courage the to to speak aboutgave Po prostu entitled “To an appointment with the AK the with appointment an “To entitled th of anddread terror March the of 1953, Kanal owes its creation to a literary Kanal ’s scenarist was a was ’s scenarist Po Prostu, 78 CEU eTD Collection Film; London: Wallflower, 2003, pp. 176. 127 1988, pp. 3. 126 story Jerzy Stawinski’s context. October rather than the context “thaw” is the context much historical andits place earlier, making film entireof takes the the However, scripts for Andrzej Munk ( scripts. His short stories further inspire the whole series of the Polishfilmmakers. He Warsawwrote Uprising.eventhree Warexperiences served him as the main source of inspiration for his novels and film 125 Institute. same year it was printed as a book in ten thousand copies by the National Publishing inwritten 1955 and published in March 1956 in consideration, indicate that to premiereApril dateof may be20 itmight1957 also misleading inthesense that betaken that considered is generally soldier of the Uprising. Jerzy Stefan Stawinski as experiences, own my hardilyfrom draw to decided had I evening …that his memoirs that it all began on a November evening in 1955. He writes: Jerzy StefanStawinski. Stawinski was a novelist and a script writer. As a young officer of Armija Krajowa he participated in the Iordanova, Dina. Cinema of the Other Europe: the Industry and the Artistry of East Central European The author’s recollection includes a testimony which is of importance today.Forit is includes importance of which atestimony The recollection author’s companions. District,in Mokotow Pulawska Street 6 nextto Street Szustra hatch at sewer into and howregiment “Baszta”, on the 26 I left thebeing acommanding officer of company a communication AK the of sewerslong writing, Istarted my relying on Warsaw experienceUprising – when, at 1 pm. chancesthe for publishing the farforbidden increased; topics thus before the next day with only five 127 Kanal Kanal 126 was a post-October film. Agreed, if we take the premiere date into date if premiere the we take film. Agreed, wasapost-October Czlowiek naTorze Czlowiek Notatki scenarzysty was first shown on movie screens six months after October. after sixmonths screens movie on shown first was Kanal th September 1944, at 10 pm, Ihad seventy men ’s filming resulted from the Polish October. The , Eroica (The Scenarist’s Notes) Scenarist’s (The and 125 Zezowate Szczescie Zezowate (AK resistance alias “Lacki”) claims in claims “Lacki”) alias resistance (AK Tworzosc ; Warsaw: Filmoteka Narodowa, Filmoteka Warsaw: magazine. In August of the ) Kanal was 79 CEU eTD Collection 131 130 pp. 11-12. both a direction to aim for that the filmmakers associated with the story, and the general Homeland’s wasswiftlyGlory”, by created endthe of 1953. “For entitled version, originally based picture oldestscreenplay The story. on the “Kadr” FilmUnit (1May,of created 1955) recently the around the same film unit.organizing all phases film of the production. Thus, the authors and ofSee same tastethe and scenarios attitudesthe would gather ordering Stok, for responsible was unit film Danusia. Each producer. executive an and scriptwriter the state.was decentralized1955. in Eight independent film productionunits (Zespoly) were financedcreated and by Each unit129 hadSchool dzien lata ofPolish films a famous most ofthe managerof one author the as famous also is He youth. ofhis land for theParty. His later works are mostly concerned withart the author's childhood and the semi-mythical, sector,romantic mid 1950s, he had become disillusioned by the communist regime inPoland and fell out of grace with the who 128 usually was also the director of the unit, a production unit. filmmakers’ the of arguments the hand, other the on and, authorities, cinematic discussion,one hand,opposing approaches two clashed:on standpoint of the the fierce a during however, moment, specific this At festival. the to delegation Polish send decision to tough make apolitically would later months several who – Borkowicz Leonard Department, Cinematography thing is that the person who 24 the opposed the project dated Board, most Evaluation Screenplay and Film the of session from the preserved records was the chairman of the projectfor wasfiled evaluationby the filmthe production Central Stenographic authorities. Konwicki Tadeusz publication was Ibid. Although itwas still under the censorship of the Ministry forArt and Culture, the Polishfilm industry Tadeusz Lubelski “50 lat szkoy polskiej: spory,emocje, konfrontacje”, Konwicki initially was one of the leading advocates forSocial Realismin literature. However,by the The first person to notice the filmic potential of Stawinski’s story, long before its before long story, Stawinski’s of potential filmic the notice to person first The th of January 1956, testifies that the session was a dramatic process. The interesting The session process. was adramatic the that testifies 1956, of January (Last Day of Summer, 1958). 131 Kanal was very important project for the film unit “Kadr”, setting filmunit for the project important very was 128 , a co-worker (and from 1957 the literary literary from director) (and 1957 the , aco-worker Kieslowski onKieslowski Kanal to Cannes, presidedoverthe official and 129 . Itwas hisinitiative createto a ; London: Faberand Faber, 1993, Kino; 130 Also, at that time, the time, that at Also, No.362, April 4, 2007. Ostatni 80 CEU eTD Collection film vision independent ofentirely and thea complete time: the at be omitted to Uprising. had what well very known The complex, twistedthe screens political after context October of Poland’s 1956, history which is the context of its social reception. It is also film. people intheUprising.strategy followed This throughout the whole was consequently butliving asstatues, shown anonymous insurgents not the choice: experienced. Hence deeply was authentic, allthat a of loss to film’s outlook, of the trivialization to the lead Excessivecould generalization exclude bigger the to picture. manner threaten would city hundred and several thousands Fragmentingof inhabitants. the filmin the this the film, and on the other hand, the film was an attempt torefer to the great tragedy of the hand, incorporate they tried specificitythe to personal andindividual of inexperiences and realisticand Stawinski enough. Wajda lookingwere forsome middleground.On one discussed imagine this It would filmby be theresponses to which to sameaudience the interesting harsh of Poland. Stalinization of atmosphere the by influenced previous affected and the wouldstatement misunderstandings. leadtocertain slogan “The film first Warsaw about Unfortunately,Uprising”. in future, nearthe the The expectations. Still,making factof the such film, many years after a immense social of silence aroused andthaw fervent of the increasingly tone yearsthe from favored makers. the 1955-1957 level to which they aspired at the time. Generally speaking, the context of the political Thus, severely still time,was at that which, publicspace the film entered the Namely, Five from Barska Street Five from Kanal Kanal is a thaw period film through itsisitfirst appeared film athawperiod However,on origin. through movie included poster an yet attractive, socially very obliging, three years before, claiming how it was not positive 81 CEU eTD Collection pp. 27. Andrzej. “ SeeWajda, sponsor. state since I made the films whichdid not communicate only with heempty cinema theaters and self-content a film, I felt like I did not owe anything otherthe hand,socially enough,engaged so neitherthat that it can also be socially useful. Thus, after making such to the state (since I returnbring a lotits ofmoney money back)to the statenor to afterthe Poles numerousmaking films and the society screenings to whichwe addressed. The compromiseand washuge to make a filmdistribution, which would and which132 would be, on existence. a compromise without circumstances; ideological expression be finallyelements perceived bigboth oughtto foundas an that the of their way screen to the artisticpush to against previous barriers and limitations builtcensorship thataround topic. The boldnessmanaged authors the extent what to and time, that at possible was what understand fully and as the result We Wajda’sinfluence work. can today irresistible upon 1955andbetween hadan 1957 of a compromise forced by the While on the film set, the crew needed to overcome countless obstacles and various, often time. short very in a effort intensive anextremely through being into came it 1956, of paradoxically,it proves to be a film that was perfectly organized. Shot during the summer analyses the wheninto Yet total submerges chaos. one inevitably of disintegration that a world film’s realization,apocalyptic ruins. the into changing and helpless now is that Warsaw, the perspectives, and development its production, itsliving own back,with afew years capital anormal thatwas Warsaw European the and by and occupation, oppressedWarsaw war of dying world intermixedThe with despair. all what appeared on the screen, “The film directors were torn between the duties towards the state which provided us with the money for money the with us provided which state the towards duties the between torn were directors film “The Regarding all these circumstances, it was so difficult to cover the topic. Hope 132 Kanal emanates internal energy. It tells a story of defeat, shows the Film zvani zelja [Film Called Desire]; Belgrade: Institut za film, 1990, Kanal could not have come to 82 CEU eTD Collection personal experiences of the Uprising participants, Stawinski and Lipman and Stawinski participants, Uprising the of experiences personal rightful and equal an became specificity local and landscape its itself city ruins, the in with therefore, locations, shot Warsaw authentic the film back sceneswith filmmaking.set. Outdoor into were the on 1944came existence situation mobilized many individuals, including thosewho had nothing todowhatsoever 2006, pp. 234. style characteristic acertain creating emotional culture, andits post-war Europe Western absurdities of 20 the any more. The pessimistic and fatalist way of portraying the atrocities of the war and the makingmovies be could have avoided, the didnot tobe primarily anddidactic positive Now when Stalinizationstyle. neorealist the of adaptation further the out Theycarried effects. pompous avoided was fading one. collective the saved memories Individual away, and who in helpedby Warsawinhabitants, generosity assisted with great the socialist-realistic unusual devotion and commitmentto all crew members,the and the crewin was turn molds for film- 134 133 our of voice are we “that after,years saidWajda as knew”, “We integral energy. process’ creative into itself the it contrary, transferred the focus; on their diffuse not did obstacles these overcome to effort That limitations. down-to-earth, Falkowska, Janina. See Lekcja polskjego The making of film the dealing with Warsawthe uprising in ferventthe political The narration of the film is as cold as knife and the film-makers consequently happened to the Polish nation, tothe best of us.” fate that dreadful dreadful the years, destruction, that dreadful itgive duty is ourthose regarding dead, andthat testimony to History,Politics and Nostalgia in Andrzej WajdaFilms; kina th century’s grim century’s grim history belonged to spiritualthe condition of ( 2002 ). personae dramatis 134 London; Bergham Books, Bergham London; of this film. The Kanal 135 delivered an ’s making. ’s 133 83 CEU eTD Collection below ground in film,this soon and that resulted in afterwards immensely the refined located scenes the of conceptions artistic their into inventiveness and effort much put gained from their work on the making of Lipman) and Wajda (especially filmmakers the self-inspiration specific the name also can 136 on hisfirst two post-warfilms. 135 climate, inpolitical changes general the due inHowever,to the one West. the pessimistic the had to approach compared when help of united,the working Polish people. Theyproudly stressed the“advantages” their film radiated Polish the that maintained critics positive film Polish the of majority the and authorities socialist prospects for the futureepitomized in the that Poland was going to build with the camera operator of operator camera been madeby hadthe already sewers thescenesin since Polishthe cinematography, especially in introductionthe of thefilm. Healso relied on the previous experiences from Uprising, the documentary the hethem representing actuality of when created scenes the insurrectional newsreels made by Jerzi Bossak in 1944 during the Uprising, and relied on film. the He watched the shooting while Wajdasources many used concerns, potency future film of own practice. about anew come and the style, found true” more: init “adream Truffaut even Francois init a confirmation of their own pursuit. Some of them, Anderson suchasLindsey and world thanjust anovelty from behind the Curtain. Iron European intuitivelyartists found Andersen, Lindsey, “Fresh Talents at Cannes Film Festival”, Film Cannes at Talents “Fresh Lindsey, Andersen, Ford Aleksander with Hecollaborated time. the at operator camera talented most the was Lipman Jerzy Resolute to enrich Western European neorealist style with the local Polish local stylethe with neorealist European enrich Western to Resolute neorealism Border Street Border . Asitin the wecould the. previous perceive chapter, by Aleksander When Ford. speaking about 136 Kanal Five from Barska Street. Five from became something more to the Western more tothe became something The Times May 14, 1957. Lipman and Wajda and Lipman Kanal, one 84 CEU eTD Collection Several million people saw it in several months. sawitin several million people Several issue. itbecame anational public,andsome extent the to Warsaw stirred Uprising about That does not imply that it was not accompanied with interest. The first fictional film feelings. mixed with reluctantly, and suspiciousness, rather film receivedwith the was commentaries, critical domestic the Regarding diverse. werewidely ones post-premiere 1957. Firstreactions both preview ones in(shown film capital’sthe and Prostu) club Po sewers the into before the scenesjust entrance in group especially the appears images. manner dramatic war striking, of newsreel the arranging reportage Rosellini) (especially neorealist the from adopted mainly time, the of films Kanal inorder to captivate the dramatic episodes in the last living moments of the participants in theseries Uprising. of slowing-downs, ellipsis, and discoveries, inside what R. Barthes calls hermeneutic phase, follows what is going voice to happen narrator’s in the the from end – thewe death understand of film, of the all protagonists beginning the In who will narrative. the enter and the story sewers. the directs Then the whole in makersof many that stated interviews the Wajda openly exquisite,innovative effectsin setting, directing, illuminating andcinematography. achieve very to them enabling rehearsal general aspecific experiment, for acreative Therefore, for Alain Bergala, Michel Marie, and Mark Vernet. Mark and Marie, Michel Bergala, Alain 139 138 the hallmark of Wajda’s films. fictive situations which recalls the memory about thereal and painful episodes inthe national history was Rosellini achievedwhich with effect this scene,The Wajda death. achievedhis finally, withand the whole priest, film. convict, Such convicted the naturalistic of the for description appearance chair and the of soldiers, the fixing of – the lining shooting ofthe routine whole the records Camera phenomenologically. Rosellini did not avoideven the least important trifle; without any subjective reshaping, In reportages. or documentaries the 137 poetics of such scenes in Wajda uses here what is in the film aesthetics known as “predetermined plot” (see Jaques Aumont, Jaques (see plot” “predetermined as known aesthetics film the in is what here uses Wajda Wajda is cited here from the documentary film onPolish School called for characteristic narrative the use they because documents as beclassified sometimes can films Wajda’s ’s screenings all around the country successfrom night. ’s screenings were agreat thecountry openingthe all around As I have mentioned thefilm’splace premiere took in WarsawonApril 20 Kanal ’s makers, Kanal Rome an Open City Five from Barska Street Barska from Five which actually absolutely dominate in the movie. in the dominate absolutely actually which Esthetique du Film; 140 (1946) The attendance number proved that proved number Theattendance , , in , lab a sense,became testing describing the shooting of the priest, of the shooting the describing Kanal Nathan-Universite, 1999),which Lekcja Kina Polskjego and many other Polish other many and 138 139 This again . , (2005) 137 the 85 th , CEU eTD Collection 141 140 wrote, Stawinski above. AsJerzy Stefan mentioned controversies and misunderstandings for the if itweren’t success afull been watched viewers million number4.2 of a record year screening of thefirst During public. of domestic the andinterests reception vivid the evoked it and Poland, over all screened continuously was film Wajda’s The time unfoldto the film’s deeper significance was still come.to However, all the time time. the at situation domestic the from resulting contexts social the of pressure external be might notnecessarily defendable itself whenwith to enormous, the confronted aware that both were They press. the film,using the regarding intentions own their explain to attempted director, the and scenarist the authors, both that point the to came even situation The incomprehension. or intentions bed either manifesting attacks also were There clashed. opinions different Fundamentally film. andmagazines, monthlies as well. inpublished,only film in not the periodicals, numerousnewspapers, but weekly appeared in Polishthe Reviews,letters from discussions press. viewers also, and were was unable movie Asingle enormous. were washigh andexpectations the to reception’s temperature satisfy them. “take care problem” tothe of paytribute Uprising and samethe atthe time.The After would fresco however:that Atypehad of cinematic been different Something expected, the premiere a great number of public responses Lubelski, Hendrykowski, Marek. Almost everybody Almostbridled everybody criticized, complained; few and defendedWajda’s only Everyone had ideological claims toward the movie; the many realities of the of realities many the movie; the toward claims ideological had Everyone on the street corners that corners street the on for afilmPoles Uprising. werewaiting could aboutthe give I alongscream Tadeusz. “50 lat szkoy polskiej: spory, emocje, konfrontacje”, emocje, spory, polskiej: szkoy lat “50 Tadeusz. Kanal ; Poznan: Wydawnicztwo Naukowe, 2007,pp. 36. Kanal is not supposed to solve the whole issue. Kanal in Poland. Kanal 141 ’s internal artistic dynamic artistic ’s internal Therefore, it would have Kino; No.362, April 4, 2007. April No.362, 86 CEU eTD Collection and its righteous or unrighteous political message. If we recall the debates on debates the we recall If message. political orunrighteous its righteous and film in the references social-political exclusively for looking still were intellectuals and writers film critics, some with together bureaucrats), students, workers, (factory people death. uprising and that he just wanted to deliver a dying process of the people sentenced to accordance to the author’s intentions.” author’s the to accordance ispeople.evaluate This and theonly film,if the interpret way tostay in to strives one contenta historical of is film butthis not experiencesthe fresco a specificof group against thewill of in film’smakers.Wajdathe wrote beginningthe “the of 1957that film occurred the of historical reading The of people. the group tragedy a certain of forgettingWarsaw here Uprising, that they deal based with a fiction on insurrectional the – amove wemay find very – as surprising nowadays a specific interpretation of the not the film itself. Amajority of the debaters treated it as a historical document and even uprising, lies the propaganda about of perennial trauma the people thethe collective was for painful issue was that The theme. a substituted some degree becameto Wajda’s film about disputes about uprising. historical the the andpassionate Deliberations truth Books, 2006,pp. 201. 143 142 See Falkowska, Janina. SeeFalkowska, Stefan-Stawinski, Jerzy. “Zloty sen przestepcy”, Also, only a few people noticed in the film the qualities a work of art. The ordinary The domestic discussion about discussion The domestic for afilm about the uprising!” waiting still So am I. “We’re newspaper: in a cried expert film monument…A bronze glasses, noteven attempting tosee our point of view. The majority wanted a insurgency ruinedus.Everyone hadseen Uprising through the their own 144 History, Politics and Nostalgia in Andrzej Wajda Films; Kanal 143 Later he also said that the film was not about Przeglad Kulturalny, was by dominated regardingdebate violent a 142 No.23, 1957. London: Bergham London: Five from 87 CEU eTD Collection and had attracted the most attention of the reviews. In order to express the tragedy of the 147 146 Jerzy Toeplitz; Warsaw, 1980. pp.29. 145 144 The home? at those then discerning more critics international the “Are interpretation. justPandemonium havingwere an metaphor littleauthorial todowith real history. and vision director’s the that and sake, film’s the for fabrication and fiction created was a suggestively believe screenplay the that more inclined to were Sadoul, Those whoforperceivedAdo AndreBazin example, thisKyrou, aspect, andGeorges commentators. and critics foreign of main domain the became perspective this soon after, vision transgressing the annalistic record of a given event.” treated this filmas work equipped autonomous the of art, an rightthe with individual to borders of permissible. Stanislaw Ozimek wrote after many years that “hardly any people the challenged they much how matter no films, the of wave new the assessing to applied which thaw, itpreceded the sounds logical thethat samemethodology beinitially will Barska Street Ozimek, Stanislaw: “Konfrontacje z Wielka Wojna” in Wojna” Wielka z “Konfrontacje Stanislaw: Ozimek, Ibid Glas Koszalinski, Glazgow Herald The following article shows prevailingthe responsein Poland tosuch inAfter award of and prestigious Cannes the the festival screening awarding In Poland a political and ideological significance of he film was still prevailing, still was film he of significance ideological and political a Poland In published alsoin the newest Kwartalnyk Nouvelles Filmowi.”in Lettres it wrote He School’. Film ‘Polish called style amonolith constitute can common, which are features, aesthetic artistic, films like films the that out found them among Kirou Aldo critics, English and French presented in the Chapter II, and the general atmosphere of in years of II,andthegeneral Bierut’s Chapter the presented atmosphere ; May 21, 1957 “Polska szkola filmowa”, No.136; June 9, 1957. 9, June No.136; filmowa”, szkola “Polska Generation , Kanal and Cien Historia filmu polskiego, (Shadow) according their to 145 147 vol.IV: 1956-1961. ed. 146 88 CEU eTD Collection “Packing the Winner”, the “Packing 148 soon became filmsof imagethat the the significance icon. symbolic indirect the by reading themselves, to thestory of rest tell the to wereexpected spectators imagination. realm the itinterference andopened censorship The to the spectator’s of the itfrom simultaneously protected scene, stirring this employed while directing byWajda insinuation.purposefully The rule of utilized the “inexpressiblein expressed”, the bescenes to somovingmeaningful becauseprove it has beenbasedand so on the The bars cinematographic art. nonethelessusing Vistula expresseddifferently was River, insurgents forhelp be to delivered by the Russian Army stationed on the other side of the openly at the time in a film about the Warsawproclamationshave regarding the elementwhich Uprising. The could not been told Uprising, that is, the futile waiting Noauthorial noverbal off-guardby anighttogether. comments, after down, the of the lovers caught two of conversation intimate the resembles thedialogue since whole story, two characters “caught” in a deadly trap: a spider web history.of The image here tells the are we see What dramatic. especially vision make this position camera perfectly chosen of illumination, the figures of the actors positioned in a distinct contraposition, and only barsthe that, on a semicircular wall, resemble a spider’s web. The expressive means not scene contains of that aspect metaphorical The shore. Vistula opposite they see the and light, with bars sewersflooded ofthe the injured Jackreach seriously and Daisy the Iwill very Here effectssuggestive. scene where madeafamous expressions recall the inherentcinematographic Its means of availableto expression specific art. of type WajdaWarsaw Uprising, manner, used ausually competent engagingforthis taska Hendrykowski, Marek. Birmingham Post Kanal ; Poznan, Wydawnicztwo Naukowe, 2007,pp. 47. See also Walker, Alex. : 20 May 1957, Corrierre d’informazzione: Corrierre 148 8-9May 1957, p. 17- 89 CEU eTD Collection The Silver Palm and a real triumph. After acquiring award, The Silver prestigious the Palm triumph. and areal Cocteau: Jean chairman by jury’s the was announced verdict the that after appreciation, 53-54. Wajde”, Andrzeja “Filmovi Branko. Vucicevic, and 18, Observer, DieZeit,Welt, Combat,LeFigaro, Liberation, Il Tempo, Il Giorno, Il them: among maker, 31-year-old its and film the about writing started followed. Most worldwide reviews Hundreds famewere notes within of days. comments, and press prestigious newspapers and séancesmagazines, on May shown during film two festival. film during Cannes the was competitive The screening the on 7 both side placeandThe breakthrough, point thememorableturning the really after took of the Atlantic th . First came an outstanding reception and many comments of comments many and reception outstanding an came First . Figure 4: Teresa Izewska and Tadeusz Janczar Tadeusz and Izewska Teresa 4: Figure Filmska Kultura: Zagreb, No.6, Nov., 1957, pp. The Times, The Kanal gained 90 CEU eTD Collection 149 ittold wasthat literature this of authenticity The Brandys. Kazimierz Andrzejewski, Andrzej Zofia Nalbowska, Borowski, by storiesTadeusz of likes the were short written by writers who feltscripts, into from material turned films fineliterary the resulted the Polish of School the fully responsible for that a coincidence also was There topic. main andown was their occupation and German their treatment of a givenfamous topic. directors Those like made time byWajdaandother otherfilmsof for the wasadenominator The film itself Andrzej Munk, Jerzy Kawalerowitz,the Presence thePast,Facing –Accepting Polish SchoolasanAlternativeIdeology 4.3. and Wojciech Has. The war theaters. festival. In 1958 itwas being screened in simultaneously overone hundred movie British Brazil, among them. Japan EdinburghSeptemberthe 1957thewasshownat film In Britain, Canada, Great Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Hungary,RepublicChina, Italy, of many 24countries boughttherightsas todistribute it: France, USSR,People’s the became a export successgreat for Polish the industry. film Intheyears 1957 and 1958as Georges AfterSadoul. the film memorable showing during theCannesfestival the and Anderson, Lindsey Bazin, Andre Kyrou, Ado them: among it, about wrote experts global response is enough to testify to the remarkable success of Wajda’s work. L’Humanite, ElPais,LitieraturnajaGazeta, YorkMessaggero, Times. L’Unita, New Lubelski, Tadeusz. “50 lat szkoy polskiej: spory, emocje, konfrontacje”, The foreign press generally wrote very well about well very wrote generally press foreign The 149 Kanal Kino; , . World-class film-art No.362, April 4, 2007. April No.362, This 91 CEU eTD Collection 150 certain film Wajda’s thesis. illustrate third or prove to misused was reality the when period the earlier of practice the avoiding ambience, the of cruelty hopeless the convey to expression cinematic newly-adopted Kanal. he only from made when hefeltliberated political restrictions However, the realism. emotional and personalcreation of our own Polish cinema. We were notprotest baggage of the pre-war cinema” led to films, into transpose to wanted we hopelessness against and existence gray misery, the people.“ Combination neorealistItalian of style and worldthe of German occupation,ruling esthetical scenes,beinglandscape theplot outdoor a vast playedof against andamid acrowd normativemany sceneand cinematography, miseof new en concept actors, new,of unknown of appearance canbe the features drawn; stylistic common typical some differed, sometimes the social-in authors by films theatmosphere the made different Nevertheless, although created. were films of subgroups different stylistically actually which under neorealism Italian the inquite in moment the which correspondingthe films made.were being happening whichinterest, were current of it matters the the was dealingwith past, about with the reality. Another taboo which Wajda here Armija taboo issuebroke wasthe Another Krajowa. of with reality.the confrontation final the for wish the and time, after-war the of sentiment tragic the with interwoven is film whole The years. post-war miserable first the during plights their in all feltshow howpeople planrealistically andto fulfills taboo director 1958 breaksanother Lekcja Polskjego Kina As we saw it, already in his first film influence of was an enormous of Polish school the feature characteristic Another After breaking the first taboo – the Warsaw Uprising, Wajda continued to use his to Wajda continued WarsawUprising,– the taboo breaking first the After (2002). Pepiol i Diament Pepiol i Generation from Wajdainitiated the 1955, (Ashes and Diamonds) from 150 92 CEU eTD Collection uncomfortable localities. Such ambient, characteristic for almost all films of the Polish the of films all almost for characteristic ambient, Such localities. uncomfortable churches,devastated streets yards,horrifying andclosets, purely all illuminated andother taverns, provincial dirty of the images the from actually radiated messages are These dogmatic self-determination, exclusiveness andcontinuation of warsinside the them. post-war generation. He rather appeals to his compatriots and film-goers to overcome any does not deal optimistically with social the mobility and re-education of youngthis lost church theimpaired iswhere crucifixion upsidedownasan turned symbol.Wajda ugly ishis enough life.It seehim by heto with a girl meets in chance a spooky, devastated in isuseless love The life time. of and sense filled tragic the with intoanantihero turns Wajda that hereis poses has whetherhis protagonist any infrontchoice of himself. He was to prove that he wasyouth.incarnation in However, lostof the existingthe communist order thing easiestthe a bandit, murderer, againstthepolitical attitudes and andMaciekmolds in schematism isrepressions, art. an and a contra-revolutionary.He uses toexpress alothis of andmetaphors man the andhis symbolism care about The questioninstruck people Poland. demisein that way todepictthe an alternative such acharacter evoke only ignored innow Wajda orthey were previousaccusations But the period. uses usedto tokill Such was supposed secretary. characters Party AK soldier,the former who memory of millions of Poles. In the center of the film is Maciek, a twenty-three year old rehabilitation. their for responsibility whole the over took who one the was Wajda and it to certain extent see As inLondon? inwe could from exile, government the demandsof obeyedoccupation the the previous chapters,Whodared to mention it whenbefore it was only considered whichas a group the during AK soldiers were officially the traitors, What was present, however, was a record of the dire experience residing in the 93 CEU eTD Collection off off such future.to Hewanted figureto why out life the was sounbearable, why or the start cannot world the achieved, is history recent complex the about truth the before but through the war and the revolution. freedom embrace is the society gained to which supposed chaos inthe early post-war He agreed with the socialist of the roots the trace to He tried society. in the forces accommodation the belonged to concept for the future, AK’s units duringwhoparticipated war,or the in Warsaw the Thus, uprising. Wajda death. himselfto implicitlyor Wajda had young with tothe whoreferred only fought the intoinstead beingbut by thefurther of werejust society, helpedout the they cast abyss, way; wrong the entered who young the about talks It years. post-war the in people Polish stressed the quite pillars of oppositethe new socialist society out of them. Polish School, headed by Andrzej Wajda, tendencymakeand stable road,to to therighteous youth post-war lost the redirect to capacity of the society, and Street Barska from quite degradingmotivate peoplerecognize it. to and its of society nature humanistthe people, and pattern of the their life condition once they assassinate a Party Secretary. They wanted to emphasize the improvethey assurenotpeopleviolenttryingrevolution. They were going that to to were a War,or World start acivilThird the war, encourage people to want to not School did generally. about nature thehuman truth “own” truth about the war, about the cul-de-sac of the existing system and order, and the findingssubconscious importantwhich some forcontained necessary highly reaching the pressespeople’s perceived thereality traumatized which directors as School, the However, depicting the misery of the existing order, the filmmakers of the Polish glorified the Polish socialist society glorified socialist the Polish society itassuring howhad undeniably Five 94 CEU eTD Collection the main character for the film. the for main the character couldcertain According follow. to opinions Munk usedAleksander Ford as model the for political swingsin under faster wereoften Poland any communist rule than opportunist filmis the message conveys side that planned. from The that hehadinitially what calledbe Piszczykpolitically tries into tune, buthe findshimself always on opposite the character The conformist stablepolitical devotion. rather than opportunism promoted film, ironic, his film of the warof 1945”, 151 ofso-called patterns indoctrination. Stalinist-type the of years in the subconscious their in deeply stored memories faceand the recollect to observers the facilitated which evidently documentaries, like almost plastically, and suggestively naturalistically, surroundings the show to attempting mostly, exteriors in the shot were films The works. its in posed School Polish implement itsperson subversive or a group plans? should Those possessbe honored. are somethe to life, truth and revolution wanted the indifferently. He or exclusive either obediently people acted of the important right toquestions appropriate that thethe victory and Misiak, Anna. “Politically Involved Filmmaker: Aleksander Ford and Film Censorship inPoland after Zezowate Szczescie (BadLuck) Szczescie Zezowate Kinema; There are several different streams within Polish School. Wajda followed the followed Wajda School. Polish within streams different several are There Why one? particular any start another end, to isituseful to is about If war one , the , No.17, Fall 2005. war as a memory Eroica romantic from heroism patriotism.Inanother and from Polish 1958 debunked and tragic war cinema. Other streams dealt with the 151 , the , Wojciech Has was oriented towards the past French past the towards oriented Haswas Wojciech Munk made a brilliant parody of the reality that war as a satire. war asa Andrzej Munk was malicious and wasmalicious Munk Andrzej moral 95 CEU eTD Collection myths and legends.” everything, seeksaboutwhich of for type the truth art would provide the even about life of “The realism more.possible any not were evocations heroic the and Iconography significantlyAfter the events like theRevolution in 1956in Hungary, past was feeling the towards changed. PeopleConsequently, they liked tosee those problems infilms. began reality existentialnumerous andspirit to problems. They people. the of turned to ask about and changed psychology the It bureaucratization. and of Stalinization the consequences the pricefaced political various social contradictions, economicproblems, and andthe of already region theEastern-European whole The more. any work not did identity recentcollective the and war the of vision romantic The triumphs.narrative. war epic the changed also region in the cinemas national Other circumstances. moral and political social, local the by conditioned Poland,and determined for only not characteristic was thechange However, generation. lost of account newthe provided anavant-garde post-war Rome, an Open City. Open an Rome, Rosellini’s again resembles immensely in Gdansk, office post in the fighters Polish local the of stronghold last the depicts naturalistically and dramatically he which in style, which was completely innovative from Poland. His film His Poland. from innovative completely was which style, filmmaking feature and documentary combine skill showedthe to Stanislaw Rozewicz 152 Karne. His film cinema Petla Marcel of Colic, Milutin. Other nations also began to release and address the burden of the recent past. in reality. changes the to due war the with relation new the established film The The Yugoslav War Cinema; 152 Numerous films questioned whether the currentlife was worth the Tadeusz Konwicki Titovo Uzice: Ofset stamparija –“Vesti”, 1989, pp. 189. (Noose) Ostatni dzienOstatni lata was full of mystery and melancholy. and mystery of full was (The Last day of summer) Wolne Miasto (Free City) 96 CEU eTD Collection cinematic of stiles 1950s,today the also serve sourcefor asthe comprehending the engaged socially many other and School Polish the Nevertheless, regimes. political war films used forgotten remained or by only historiansthe for reconstruction of certain is many why That dogmatization. or indoctrination for the ameans as hasserved often It enemy if we are not able to forgive him. leastunderstand the tryat to usto encourages enemy,strikes and the even monster that a Zemlja film Gale’s Joze view. of point psychological and moral the from war liberation national- Yugoslav the treated novel Cosic’s Dobrica on based Away), is Far Sun film Novakovic’s Rados individual stories. to from collective the switched topics films whose numerous were there also, Yugoslavia In history. Polish the of reminiscences gloom the to contributed specially romanticism Wajda’s with coupled Metaphors of Andrzej Munk’s parody of the revolutionary morale and false myths history. socialist” it, in over again in “liberated the repeated referring that a way Half in Times Hell) thehistory darkestthe side evoked through of Naziviolence,the country during the Second World War, for the benefit of sustaining the brotherhood and fraternity concept. fraternity and brotherhood the of sustaining benefit the for War, World Second the during country the struck had that nations constitutive Yugoslav the between war civil ofthe issue the - history recent 153 horrific experiencesin Fabri 1956, Zoltan in film his mythology of victory Viata nuiarta into the care about man.Julia atma Romeo, In Hungary of the latelike Czechoslovak The films war. the during underwent people sacrifices immense 1950s, after the Nevertheless, the Yugoslav authors still failed to address adequately Yugoslavia’s hardest burden of the I mentioned in the first chapter that the war cinema is not always regarded as art. alwaysis as warcinema regarded the not that chapter in thefirst I mentioned (Somebody Else’s Country) based on Mesa Selimovic’s novel depicts the war as war the depicts novel Selimovic’s Mesa on based Country) Else’s (Somebody (Life does not Spare) doesnot(Life (Romeo, Juliet and Darkness and Juliet (Romeo, by Iulian Mihu, tried to transpose by established the Mihu,tried totranspose Iulian 153 ) by Jizi Weiss, Jizi by Ket felidoapokolban Daleko jesunce and Romanian film (The Two Tudja (The 97 CEU eTD Collection in the 1980s, which appeared to be too late. betoo to appeared which 1980s, the in only present became camps concentration Croatian and Army Home ofSerbian issues the Poland, in Unlike Conclusion led1980-1981 national to upheaval in unprecedented history the of Communism. revoltinholdcommunistworkers in the student Poland, and and1968-1970period the undermine the to inwhich threatened in 1956 Poznan “Bread andFreedom” riots born in aform idea, a renewed of the new difficult starthrough guiding Thus, times. were sentiments fadingaway, these started Stalinization process rigorous Once when 1970s. one of the most critical, national styles and schools,whichfinallyand all resulted intheso-called School new of Anxiety,Moral some of sociallycreation motivated and andanticipated it morally that powerful artistically engaged cinemas in the worldPoland. in the However,for days decisive the in affairs state the of communicator the alternative an was School war cinema Polish of case ofin the cinema war The the time. their of Polish atmosphere general and intellectual School was so potent and vibrant, and In political sense, these movies motivated the increase of the national sentiments. of national increase the the motivated movies these sense, In political 98 CEU eTD Collection 155 157 156 154 art.” “ (b.1971), film critic. tochange we tosay,andanything that donothaveanything However, presented onlyasingleshort thePolish film cinematography. Doesitmean Hungarians, Romanians also camewith depicting theintriguing their films society. worldall over from withcountless authentic,stories. OurneighborsCzechs, the “I havebeenwas ontheBerlin FilmFestival year. films different this theexhibition It of only sponsor and produceris television." to time thatareliving aboutnowadays, themoneyand veryfind innow... the it's difficult money find - especially for thatwouldfilms liketotellsomething abouttheplaceand budget, low budget, butnobodymadeafilmcalled"nobudget".Sothatis the problem,to We called'nobudget'.havethehigh theideatomakefilm months ago,Ifound “ generations of film authors to the world famous Cinema of Moral Anxiety. The entire I havesuch mentioned already new that lednaturally pointstarting throughout society.order todescribe which in warthematic andcombined aestheticism post-war the School Polish of films by the was created model that the and aestheticism, accounts subjective renounce not did cinema thePolish constraints, these Despite resolution. ideological andfightagainstsubjectivism function andthe aestheticism followed In practice, settingfilm the newguidelinessaying that shouldcriticism the restore by Party.” the formulated assumptions, educational and ideology lacks commitment, It state. the and politics Party, needs ofthe society, educational the properly meet not does cinemabe defined cannot asone speaks for thatunambiguously ideology. socialistthe It the releases of the Polish film industry of the past three years, we hold that the Polish Socialism is a type of society which isatype becorrected,withworks of and even Socialism canevolve the of It's very difficult mostly themoney to a find It's verydifficult budget anda for films andtobuild few See quoted from quoted Quted from the TV show “Loza krytykow”, April 30, 2007 Wajda, Andrzej. –A. Wajda (b.1926) http://www.radio.cz/en/article/10507 In 1960, a resolution of the Central Committee Secretariat read: “Having Secretariat In 1960,aresolution assessed of Central the Committee Historia polskjego kina Film zvani zelja 156 154 , [Film Called Desire]; Belgrade: Institut za film,1990. (2002) June 28. 2001. Robert Glinski (b.1957), film director. ”. Bartosz Zurawiecki ”. Bartosz 155 157 99 CEU eTD Collection and discredited by the directors’ cinema, which always assumed risk and responsibility. producers’ victoriously cinema,whichwas abandoned entertaining same hatred towards the is still There cinema. in Polish debutants the from new something of expectation generationsdifferent among that see we could statement quoted from above the Thus, a change. of imperative for the filmmakersthe useto their films to alarm, tocall for an activeness, and for prominentidentified and defined in late 1950sinthe form of Polishthe School established as an SecondWorld afterthe Warandfinally Suchconceptconceited significance. and moral cinemasocial historical, had which reality, surrounding the against battle the for cinema Polish workers upcoming the also prepared and It function. challenging whatwas avery dangerous in Poland, even state. the today time remainscinema operated inseparably from the society. It was still financed and subsidized by the The artist of a Polish school was a spokesman for and conscience of the nation, the of conscience and for spokesman a was school a Polish of artist The 100 CEU eTD Collection Polska szkolafilmowa”, June No.136; 9,1957. Konwicki, “Wprawiepoezji”, Tadeusz. May 1954. No.17; September,1954. No.17, No. 23,May 1957. 20, Bibliography April April 4, 2007. 8. 7. 11. 10. 6. 1957.Nov., Wajde”, Andrzeja “Filmovi Branko. Vucicevic, Vucicevic, Branko. “Andzej Vajda: Pepeo i Dijamant”, Zagreb, No.12, Nov., 1958. 5. 4. 3. 2. filmu marginesie (na szenariusza powstaniu o wspomnien “Kilka Wanda. Jakubowska, 9. 1. Primary Sources Tadeusz Lubelski “50latszkoy spory,polskiej: emocje, konfrontacje”, No.362, Kino Walker,Alex. “Packing Winner” the 17, May No. 21, 1957. Glazgow Herald Kinema Francaises Less Lettres Glas Koszalinski Filmska Kultura Barbary Fijewskiej)”, No.29,1947. 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Stefan-Stawinski, Piatka zulicyPiatka Barskiej i Pepiol Diament Pasazerka Ostatni Etap Chapaev Boys Town Avant ledeluge Intolerance FromHere toEternity Dr. Strangelove Devojka Daleko jesunce Cien Mlodosc Chopina Los Olvidados 2002 Jud Suss Lekcja polskjego La GrandeIllusion Korczak Ket felidoapokolban Kanal (Shadow) by Andrzej Wajda – 1957 (A Girl)by Purisa Djordjevic -1965 by Andrzej Wajda – 1990 by Georgii and Sergei Vasilev - 1934 (Jew Suss) by VeitHarlan - 1940 (Passenger) byAndrzej Munk – 1961 Intellectuals and theArticulationofNation. by Norman - 1938 Taurog by David Griffith - 1919 (Last Stage) by (LastStage) -1947 Wanda Jakubowska Kieslowski on Neoreaizam uitalijanskom filmu by Luis Bunuel –1950 Film zvani zelja by Jerzy -1956 Kawalerowicz (Before theDeluge) byAndreCayatte - 1954 by Stanley Kubrick -1964 (The Sunis Far Away)by Rados Novakovic – 1953 Historia polskiego filmu Historia polskiego filmu (Ashes and Diamonds) byAndrzej Wajda – 1958 kina (Chopin’s Youth) (Chopin’s (Grand Illusion) by Jean Renoir -1937 (The Two Half Times in Hell) by Zoltan Fabri – 1962 by Fred Zinnemann-1953 by Andrzej Wajda (The Lesson in Polish Cinema) by – by Cinema) inPolish Lesson (The Wajda byAndrzej Russian War Films: On the Cinema Front, 1914-2005 the CinemaRussian WarFilms:On Front, (Five from by Barska Street) Aleksander -1953 Ford Notatki scenarzysty Notatki [Film Called Desire]; Belgrade: Institut za film, za Institut Belgrade: Desire]; Called [Film – 1952 ; London: Faber and Faber, 1993. , Vol. 4: 1945-1945; Warsaw:, Vol.4: 1945-1945; Warsaw:, Vol.3: 1945-1945; (The Scenarist’s Notes) Scenarist’s (The ; Kultura,Beograd: 1961. (eds.) Ronald Grigor ; Warsaw: 105 ; CEU eTD Collection 34. 33. 32. 31. 30. 29. 28. 27. 26. 25. 24. 23. 22. Zoya Zakazanie Piosenki Viata nuiarta Ulica Granyczna 1946 Jugoslavije U planinama Tudja Zemlja Tryasina Wars Star Pieta Senza Romeo, Juliaatma cittaaperta Rome Portiere dinotte Pokolenie (Zoia) byLeo Arnshtam - 1944 (Quagmire)by Grigori Chukhrai - 1978 byLucas –1977 George (Generation) by WajdaAndrzej – 1955 (Without Pity)(Without Lattuada- byAlberto 1948 (Somebody (Somebody Else’s Country) byJoze Gale -1957 (Life does not Spare) not (Life does (Night Porter) by (NightPorter) (Boarder Street) by (Boarder Aleksander -1948 Ford (Rome an Open City) by Roberto Rosellini – 1946 (Romeo, Juliet and Darkness (Forbidden songs) byLeonardBuczkowski – 1946 (In the Mountains of Yugoslavia) by Abraham Rom - Liliana Cavanni -1974 by 1957 Iulian Mihu - ) by Jizi Weiss -1960 106