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International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) Volume 10, Issue 04, April 2019, pp. 228-247, Article ID: IJCIET_10_04_025 Available online at http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJCIET?Volume=10&Issue=4 ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316

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ARCHITECTURAL PHILOSOPHICAL TERM FROM PRE-SOCRATIC TO ENLIGHTENMENT

Kadhim Fathel Khalil Department of Architectural Engineering, University of Duhok, Kurdistan, Iraq

ABSTRACT The philosophical term is considers as a basic intellectual background of architecture throughout , but the architectural theories that touched on this subject haven’t been diagnosed this term clearly, so I bring this paper to diagnose this term in philosophical architectural knowledge through the epochs of time, what gives this paper an importance in the study of architectural theories is disintegrate the knowledge confusion about this term and thus will be the beginning for more accurately topics that related to what the philosophical-architecture term is. The problem of the current research has been represented by the lack of studies with regard to essence of the philosophical-architectural term and it’s employ in architecture. The objective of the study was defined in an attempt to discover the philosophical-architecture term and its mechanism employed in architecture. To achieve this goal the structural approach in building knowledge about the philosophical-architecture term has been adopted according to the epochs of time starting from the Pre-Socratic era down to Present era, that gives a high holistic to this study in the diagnosis of the philosophical- architecture term. This study is dividing into two main stages, first is covering the Pre-Socratic to the Enlightenment era, the subsequent study is covering modernism to the present era. Keywords: , Architecture, Term, Geometry, Form, Aesthetic. Cite this Article: Kadhim Fathel Khalil, Architectural Philosophical Term from Pre- Socratic to Enlightenment. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 10(04), 2019, pp. 228-247 http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJCIET?Volume=10&Issue=4

1. INTRODUCTION One looks at philosophers and philosophical ideas in the way that they were interpreted and utilized by architects, independent from whether their reading should be seen as a correct or even plausible interpretation. Architectural theory is nurtured by philosophical ideas, the concern and questions that move people at a certain time as much as their visions and worldviews are mirrored in their architectural design: Architecture provides functional and technical solution but is also a practical answer to philosophical questions. Yet to account for philosophy’s role for architecture, one faces a profound difficulty: Architects have often read

\http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 228 [email protected] Kadhim Fathel Khalil philosophers in ways that scholars find very problematic. Because architectural debates are embedded in wider reflection of a , they are shaped as such by clichés as by ideas that are current at any time. This attempt illustrates the relationship between and architecture. It discusses philosophy’s contribution to architecture and the way in which one can reflect philosophically about architecture, the recognition of philosophical architectural term, through which philosopher’s interpreted architecture, will enable theorists and architects to be closer to state of philosophical expression of architecture. It has been said that there is a relationship between philosophy and architecture, but it is not clear the essence of this link, however, the existentialism of the philosophy based on conventional linguistic construction, drives towards the realization that this association exists through -term- so the question came about what the most influential philosophical-architectural terms overtimes are, or what are the common terms between philosophy and architecture, which can be called the philosophical-architectural term. In an attempt to find an answer to this research question, it was necessary to analyze the studies that dealt with philosophy and architecture, where we found that the study of Śuvaković focused on the notions of “philosophy of architecture” and “aesthetics of architecture” and the differences between traditional and contemporary philosophy and aesthetics of architecture [1].While Ahmed took the major motivating tributary to descend a relation between the modalities of classical philosophy and theory of aesthetics associated with ancient Greek architecture [2]. Branko topics in his study include 's theories of "visual imagination" and their relevance to digital design, the problem of optical correction as explored by , Hegel's theory of zeitgeist, and Kant's examinations of space and aesthetics, among others. Focusing primarily on nineteenth- and twentieth-century philosophy, it provides students with a wider perspective relating to philosophical problems that come up in contemporary architectural debts [3]. Mitias study is a critical exploration of the main questions concerning the intersection of philosophy and architecture. Is architecture art? How does a building mean? What is our experience of the architectural work? Philosophical reflection focuses here on the aesthetic status, cultural value, and human significance of architecture [4]. Hendrix examines philosophical structures of Plato in their structural, spatial, and architectonic implications. It examines elements of Plato's philosophical systems in relation to other philosophical systems, including those of , , , Nicolas Cusanus, Marsilio Ficino, Georges Bataille, Jacques Lacan, and Jacques Derrida [5]. Also, Hendrix examines architectural and architectonic forms as products of philosophical and epistemological structures in selected and time periods of Western civilization, beginning in Egypt and Greece and culminating in twentieth- century Europe and America, and analyzes architecture as a text of its culture. Relations between architectural forms and philosophical structures are explored in Architecture, like all forms of artistic expression, is interwoven with the beliefs and the structures of knowledge of its culture [6]. Previous studies that have been analyzed, despite their accuracy and comprehensiveness, have left gaps in knowledge in terms of how they deal with the relationship of philosophy to architecture. Where we find that most of them confirm the obvious relationship, without addressing the problem of what this relationship, which is a whole descriptive style. So, we can say Knowledge is ambiguous about essence which stand behind the relationship between philosophy and architecture, and therefore, regard to essence of the philosophical-architectural term. The problem of the current research has been represented by the lack of studies with regard to essence of the philosophical-architectural term and it’s employ in architecture. In light of problem statement, the objective of the study was defined in an attempt to discover the philosophical-architecture term in architecture.

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 229 [email protected] Architectural Philosophical Term from Pre-Socrac to Enlightenment.

2 PHILOSOPHY First of all, it is necessary to identify philosophy, where according to Oxford English Dictionary Philosophy: Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, , mind, and language [7].[8].The term was probably coined by . Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation [9].Classic philosophical questions include: Is it possible to know anything and to prove it? [10].The term is the agreement of some people to name the thing in the name of what is transmitted from the first subject, and to remove the word from the linguistic meaning to another, for the occasion between them [11]. While the terminology of a subject according to Collins English Dictionary is the set of special words and expressions used in connection with it. And according to vocabulary dictionary Terminology is vocabulary associated with a certain field of study, profession, or activity. Know the terminology is an important part of being able to work in a given profession. The body of terms used with a particular technical application in a subject of study, profession, etc. Scientific terminology is a special words or expressions used in relation to a particular subject or activity [12][13].

3 PHILOSOPHY AND ARCHITECTURE Philosophy lies at the heart of the relationship between architecture and theory. The philosopher is someone who is always on the road, and yet who can never reach to an ultimate destination. A person engaged in philosophy always goes after various illusions and finds material for questioning in her environment, leading to continuous reproduction. The architect, on the other hand, engages in intellectual production, by coming up with ideas and concepts through the design process. She works on the problems in the environment, and feels an excitement with the development of different routes to thought. Philosophy is also a part of the act of design. Architecture, in contrast, can evolve into a space for the philosopher to develop thought. The intellectual initiatives, which a thinker brings to architects, clarify the concepts by helping locate the architect within the wider framework of architectural thought. That is why architects and philosophers, who had hitherto contributed immensely to world literature, are members of disciplines, which have now virtually amalgamated in each other [14][15]. In Architectural Forms and Philosophical Structures examines architectural and architectonic forms as products of philosophical and epistemological structures in selected cultures and time periods, and analyzes architecture as a text of its culture. Relations between architectural forms and philosophical structures are explored in civilization, beginning in Egypt and Greece and culminating in twentieth-century Europe and America. Architecture, like all forms of artistic expression, is interwoven with the beliefs and the structures of knowledge of its culture.While philosophical approaches might be seen as part and parcel of architecture practice from its most clearly defined beginnings in Vitruvius’s well-known Ten Books on Architecture (ca 27 BCE), it is particularly in the last decades of the twentieth century that philosophy took centre stage. In the late 1980s, architecture positioned itself as meaningful cultural intervention with reference to many philosophical perspectives on the social and the aesthetic. In essence, one could argue that philosophy and architecture make natural bedfellows, as they seek to understand some of the most fundamental concerns of human existence [16]. Philosophy, just as it does with other phenomena, conceptualises architectonic work each time selecting definite architectonic object symbolising a supersensory principle of the world. On the other hand, philosophy takes over from architecture the interrelationships and through them it articulates its own domain of problems. Moreover, on the basis of architectonic metaphor, it constructs a notional framework enabling presenting the world as an entity. Presence of architectonic value

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 230 [email protected] Kadhim Fathel Khalil is apparent in , the knowledge presenting principal understanding of existence as an entity. Let us have a look at the architecture and metaphysics interrelatedness with its transformations in the context of three key concepts for philosophical tradition and European culture. Firstly, the moment metaphysics was born, i.e. when Plato discovered the order of ideas superseding sensory world, secondly, identification by I. Kant a crisis of metaphysics – reformulation of traditional metaphysics, thirdly, M. Heidegger’s transgression beyond metaphysics [17]. Architecture does not mean only constructing buildings. It is also a symbol for human activity and culture. Understand the idea of architectural structure and introducing the universal architectural knowledge can be attained by probing the concepts related to architecture with the disciplines attached to these concepts and how these relationships have been established. Analyzing the relationship between architecture and philosophy assuming the constructions of renaissance, 17th and 18th century and contribute to universal architectural knowledge by this way [18].

4 METHODOLOGY The methodology of research is based on the chronological observation of Western philosophy throughout history, which has been classified into eight eras: Pre-Socratic era, Socratic era, Hellenistic era, Roman era, Medieval era, Renaissance era, Reason era, and Enlightenment era, In preparation for the survey and careful research on the term for each of these periods, as shown in the research annexes. So, Method of analysis is based on a series of steps to achieve the goal of defining the architectural term in philosophy for each era and includes: I. the Temporal survey of all philosophers from the pre-Socratic era to the pre-Modern era. II. Identify philosophers who mentioned terms related to architecture in each era. III. Identify the philosophy-architecture terms for each era.

5 PRE-SOCRATIC ERA The Pre-Socratics introduced a new way of inquiring into the world and the place of human beings in it. They sought natural explanations for phenomena. These philosophers asked questions about "the essence of things". Pre-Socratic philosophy actually refers more to a brand of philosophy, dominated by an interest in the Natural world, mathematics, form, etc. [19]. Thales of used geometry to calculate the heights of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is the first known individual to use deductive reasoning applied to geometry. Thales understood similar triangles and right triangles, while Anaximander of Miletus imagined a world both "natural", in the sense of a thing changing and growing organically, and "artificial", in the sense of having been created. His model for this thought be specifically architectural. One in which architectural structure and natural structure had not yet become distinct [20][21]. In the Pythagorean tradition, is interpreted as magnitudes in motion, geometry as magnitudes at rest, arithmetic as numbers absolute, and music as numbers applied. Linking between architecture and music and linking magnitudes at rest, with numbers applied, and of Ephesus deposited his book as a dedication in the great temple of Artemis. The implication of Heraclitus writings, with particular importance for architecture, is that fire gives the appearance of stability. Afire, just as a building, may appear to have a continuous and singular existence. This existence, however, is marked by continual change, while of Abdera best describes the basis for his civilization art and architecture when he stated. Of all thing the measure is man. Greek culture emphasized the beauty of the human body. And created idealized male and female [22][32][24].

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 231 [email protected] Architectural Philosophical Term from Pre-Socrac to Enlightenment.

6 SOCRATIC ERA developed a system of critical reasoning in order to work out how to live properly and to tell the difference between right and wrong. In the Socratic era, philosophers distinguished architecture from building, attributing the former to mental traits, and the latter to the divine or natural. It was only with Socratic irony that the name craftsman could become representative of a religious deity. The presence of some degree of formalism ale continues to be an important trait in distinguishing one architectural style from another, and thus in distinguishing the philosophy of a style [25].Socrates of thinks If building were a natural thing, it would be executed by nature no differently than it would be by architecture, and nature would be constrained to use the same rules to give it perfection: just as the very abodes of the gods were devised by poets with the skill of architects, arrayed with arches and columns, which is how they described the royal palace of of Love, transporting architecture to heaven, as well as Criteria of Athens criticized for analogizing self-knowledge with forms of productive knowledge auch as architecture. claims that some forms of specialized knowledge lack products. Critias says that its use is considerable, since its product is an excellent one, namely. Similarly with architecture, which produces building, and with the other crafts [26][27]. The objects of our perception are not, according to of Abdera, the things themselves, but "images" given off by surrounding bodies in the form of atoms, and projected onto the sense organs. The image seen by eye is not an exact likeness of the thing itself, but distorted by the intervening air, and thinks Figure and One together manifest the point from which is derived all other geometrical shapes. The geometrical entities can interact with Multiplicity to form Soul, which is defined as the form of dimensionality, the very essence of existing in space. From the Soul come the forms of the souls and bodies that form our world [28][29]. introduced the idea of non-quantified mathematical magnitude to describe and work with continuous geometrical entities such as lines, angles, areas and volumes, while Aristotle presents the four causes drawing on the example of causal roles in the architecture of a temple. For example, the architect’s idea of the temple, as realized through craftsmanship of the workers whom the architect commands, represents the efficient cause of the temple-whereas the architect’s vision of or plan for the temple provides the formal cause [30][31].

7. HELLENISTIC ERA Hellenistic philosophers, focused upon the life of the individual, independently of the as a whole, describing in detail the kinds of character and action that might enable a person to live well despite the prevailing political realities. In Hellenistic art "to represent nature as it really is. In architecture, however, naturalism is not a term usually encountered; there is no stylistic equivalent to its use in art, and its philosophical meaning is only implied in relation to terms like 'natural' or 'naturalistic'. An architecture is only termed 'natural', and therefore is seen as subscribing to a kind of naturalism, it is this synergy of the self and the un self to produce naturalistic architecture that intrigues [32]. regarded bodies, surfaces, lines, places, the void and time as all being infinitely divisible. Chrysippus was negating the of excluded middle with respect to the equal and unequal, and thus he may have anticipated an important principle of modern infinitesimal calculus, namely, the limit and the process of convergence towards a limit [33].

8. ROMAN ERA

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Roman philosophy focused on objective inquiry, asking unbiased questions that favor no particular outcome. It is often seen as humanity's first attempt to provide rational explanations for the workings of the world. Their use of logical analysis led to the rise of the scientific method. The scientific method is an approach to conducting research in which a problem is stated, data or pieces of information are gathered, a hypothesis or intelligent guess is made from these data, and this hypothesis is then tested through experiments [34]. says now carry your mind to the form and figure of human being or even of the other living creatures: you will discover that the body has no part added to its structure that is superfluous, and that its whole shape has the perfection of a work of art and not of accident. Cicero believes that the body-building connection finally is not one of analogy or metaphor but rather of identity: both the build building and living body are equally part of nature and must abide by nature's general rules of morphogenesis, while believes that architecture, like philosophy, showed the intellect at its highest. He thus used and criticized a classical authority and an authoritative classicist at one [35]. In architecture all of a buildings architectural elements, no matter their individual beauty, are used to draw the eye to appreciate a building in its entirety. Architecture is a leading idea in Plotinus's account of beauty for Plotinus the beauty of the sensuous realm is hardly the most important kind of beauty. Yet he has something valuable to say about it, and for Proclus mathematics and geometry are the means by which the motion of bodies can be applied toward the dialectical movement of understanding toward nous [36].

9. MEDIVAL ERA The principles that underlie the medieval thinkers work are: The use of , dialectic, and analysis to discover the truth, known as ratio. Respect for the insights of ancient philosophers. The obligation to co-ordinate the insights of philosophy with theological teaching and revelation. Medieval philosophers provided significant contributions to aesthetic theory during the middle ages. Certain topics, such as proportion, light, and symbolism, played important roles in medieval aesthetics, and they will be given prominence in this article. Proportion was particularly important for architecture [37]. said that the idea of numbers seen as the origin and point of return of all things, that is to say, fundamentally, a certain idea of the universe based on the power of number. The form of the markers, square or circular, could vary with the time-period, as could their color. The majority of the numbers concerned are the plane numbers according to the theory of Boethius, but there is also, in each field, a number that is solid a pyramid to be precise, as well as Al-Kindi authored works on a number of important mathematical subjects, including arithmetic, geometry, the harmony of numbers, lines and multiplication with numbers, relative quantities, measuring proportion. In geometry he wrote on the theory of parallels [38][39]. Architecture in classification of sciencesnof al-Farabi is a language and style of philosophical works, and saw what the analogy between the Music and architecture obviated any obligation to be faithful to surfaces, which in the case of the Temple would have been impossible, or to a specific plan, rather, it was essential to follow the ideal consonances of the Temple in shaping the interior spaces of the cathedral [40][41]. The writings of Robert Grossteste provide a basis for a model by which architectural geometries can be catechism for them in their intelligible geometrical structures. , was interested in discovering the nature of light. The effects of light in architecture, and he frequently associated light with their theories of color, Albert the Great chose rather to use the Aristotelian concepts of matter and form to explain how all things combine color or, more generally, the resplendence of light, with proportion and so are

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 233 [email protected] Architectural Philosophical Term from Pre-Socrac to Enlightenment. beautiful. The beautiful is the resplendence of a substantial that or accidental form over proportioned and bounded parts of matter. A well-proportioned, colored body provides an obvious example of beauty [42][43]. attempts to explain the operation of the eye and combined an extra mission theory of vision with an intromission theory, that is, vision was the product of both an act of perception on the part of the perceiver, and the light emanating from the object to the eye, and focused his comments mostly on the notion of beauty. Thomas’ definition of beauty is as follows: beauty is that which gives pleasure when seen [44][45]. For the world was created by an architecture God. God produces the forms eternally through hid eternal act of self-intellection, these constitute the intelligible order of the universe. God is like an architect who design in his mind the ideal house for its inhabitants and then actually brings the house into being. The plan is eternal, its instantiation occurs at an instant while recognize the creative dimension of mental, mathematical, geometrical and conceptual structures of the human intellect. Cusa explicitly refers to the art of building. The concept of lineaments, independent power of the mind, which, is very different from the surmises of reason that are attached to perceptible material objects. Cusa argues that the original constructive principle of the human mind makes assimilations of forms as they are in and of themselves. For example, a geometrical circle conceived within the human mind is immutable and perfect, acting as a measure of truth for a materialized circle in a patterned floor, and Marsilio Ficino compare the architecture of the building to the design of forms in nature. Ficino proposed. (If anyone asked in what way the form of the body can be like the form and Reason of the Soul and Mind, let him consider, I ask, the building of the architect), expressing the core idea of Renaissance , that the human mind corresponds to the workings of nature [46][47][48].

10. RENAISSANE ERA The renaissance represents a movement away from Christianity and medieval and towards Humanism, with an increasing focus on the temporal and personal over merely seeing this world as a gateway to the Christian afterlife. Renaissance art was driven by the new notion of "Humanism," a philosophy which had been the foundation for many of the achievements. Renaissance comment on architectures makes explicit the relationship between fiction and taste in architecture, which they believed was highly undesirable. Building was too important a matter in the lives and economies of people [49]. Petrus Ramus shows the splendour of geometry in its application because the architects, painters and sculptors of the 16th century emphasized that their art was based on drawing that is also on measurement. Ramus concern on proportionality and symmetry as with Vitruvius, and is arguably the most significant architects of the Reformation. "If Luther sounded the trumpet for reform, Calvin orchestrated the score by which the Reformation became a part of Western civilization, while Giordano Bruno call the attribution of a new morality to the heavens, the universal architecture. Which will be completely achieved by means of his comprehensive philosophy [50][51][52].

11. REASON ERA The Age of Reason saw a continuation of the move away from and faith-based arguments, and marks the shaking off of medieval approaches to philosophy. The advances in science, the growth of religious tolerance and the rise of philosophical also led to a revival in in general.The most fundamental concept of theis era were faith in nature and belief in human progress. Nature was seen as a complex of interacting

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 234 [email protected] Kadhim Fathel Khalil governing the universe. The individual human being, as part of that system, was designed to act rationally [53]. Galileo believed that nature was inherently mathematical, that mathematics was the key to understanding the reality behind the appearance of natural phenomena. Galileo disproved harmonious proportion that derive from the perfect Forms of the divine Idea are universally applicable, he shows that, proportions necessary vary according to the size and material of natural bodies. There can be no doubt that this theory and this type of reasoning revolutionized architectural thinking and practice, while rational architects, following the philosophy of René Descartes emphasized geometric forms and ideal proportions. Descartes used an architectural metaphor for knowledge – To build a great tower needs very firm foundations, when ’s Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle described a convenient tabular presentation for binomial coefficients, now called Pascal's triangle. Pascal wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry, known as-Pascal's Theorem [54][55]. According to Pierre Nicole, reason, and pleasure, should be taken as the criterion of beauty. Nicole wrote, ( there is nothing so bad as to be to no one’s taste, and nothing so perfect as to be to everyone’s taste). Unlike in music there were no natural beauties in architecture dependent on mathematical harmony and that it was therefore up to man to establish rules. The beauty of architecture was this seen as independent of transcendental givens in a far more radical way that in literature or music, and ’s philosophy consists of generative concepts persistently expressing architectural and spatial connotations. Its social actors, and its associated ecology. God is not a craftsman or an architect. Baruch Spinoza refuses any form of negativity in the construction of an of joy for which the body attempts to continuously compose harmonious relationships with its environment [56][57]. Samuel von Pufendorf drew an analogy to a building designed in disregard of the (Rules of Architecture) or which had suffered from (some great Fault) that had (been curd and made up after a strange and unseemly manner). The architecture was an important and essential part of the rituals. Issac Newton claimed that geometry is founded upon mechanic, whereas one would expect to be defined as an application of geometry to the science of motion [58][59].

12. ENLIGHTENMENT ERA The Enlightenment advocated freedom, and reason as the primary values of society. It started from the standpoint that men's minds should be freed from ignorance, from superstition and from the arbitrary powers of the State, in order to allow mankind to achieve progress and perfection. The period was marked by a further decline in the influence of the church, governmental consolidation and greater for the common people. Aesthetics flourishes in the period because of its strong affinities with the tendencies of the age. “Aesthetics” is derived from the Greek word for “senses”, because for Baumgarten a science of the beautiful would be a science of the sensible, a science of sensible cognition. Given the intimate connection between beauty and human sensibility [60]. Gottfried Leibniz is the geometrician who knows the best way to construct a problem, the architect who makes the best use of use means and his location. The criterion is so to speak an aesthetic one note in the sense of a radically different criteria from the moral, while proposed that the human imagination, not the circumstances of environment or innovations of technology, shaped culture, thought, and human institutions. Vico has lain dormant in architecture thinking. This was ironic, for Vico in his own day was “an architect’s philosophy [61]. Shaftesbury argues that beauty is a matter of harmonious proportion or “numbers.” The “beauties of the human soul,” then, are “the harmony and numbers of an inward kind”. Yet terms like “design” and “form” can be either nouns or verbs. That is, we can speak either of the form of an object or the act of forming the object. Anthony Ashley Cooper, Architecture is

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 235 [email protected] Architectural Philosophical Term from Pre-Socrac to Enlightenment. seen as contributing substantially to taste, with the virtuoso judging and educating the artist and his work, and According to Samuel Clarke, the ideas of space and time are the two “first and most obvious simple Ideas that every man has in his mind”. Clarke believed that space is necessarily infinite because “to set bounds to space, is to suppose it bounded by something which itself takes up space” or else that “it is bounded by nothing, and then the idea of that nothing will still be space,” and both suppositions are contradictory [62]. The absolute beauty of architecture provides, for Hutcheson, further evidence that the basis of beauty is in unify amidst mrieoc And Francia Hutcheson makes it clear that architecture serves here merely to exemplify what is universal to all of the fine arts, when drew a sharp distinction between `relations of ideas' and 'matters of fact'. The first—exemplified by mathematics, and presumably also by its offspring, systems of proportion—were certain, and discoverable by pure thought. But they had no necessary relation to the external world: 'Though there never were a circle or a triangle in nature [63][64]. Alexander Baumgarten aesthetics came to mean the study of good and bad taste, and was related to the judgment of what was beautiful. Good taste was the ability to judge what was beautiful by intuition and not through analysis by the intellect. Baumgarten hoped to develop nevertheless a science of aesthetics, the deduction of principles of both natural and artistic beauty based on a sense of good taste, and believes he can show that aesthetic judgment is not fundamentally different from ordinary theoretical cognition of nature, and he believes he can show that aesthetic judgment has a deep similarity to moral judgment. For these two , Kant claims he can demonstrate that the physical and moral universes – and the and forms of thought that present them – are not only compatible, but unified [65][66]. sets out from the assumption that the human spirit has learned to imitate beauty, “the self-empowered mistress of all our sentiments,” in works of art, while, as well investigated some aspects of human perception that would become relevant to the discourse of art and architecture. Burke tries to isolate the psychological causes of emotions that produce the effects of the sublime and the beautiful. His new would draw a correspondence between the notion of taste and absolute judgment. Burke determine the sources of the sublime and the beautiful. For Burke, taste is a refined form of judgment that is initiated in sensory perception, while wrote that “architecture is my delight, and putting up and pulling down, one of my favorite amusements”. As an architect Jefferson created structures of beauty and functionality [67][68][69].

13. TEMPORAL LIMITS The fact in this subject lies in the difficulty of identifying the relevant case horizontally, i.e. identifying the case within a certain period of time. So, the study, in this approach, will depend on temporal survey, whereas, Spatial-temporal reasoning is the ability to visualize spatial patterns and mentally manipulate them over a time-ordered sequence of spatial transformations. This ability is important for generating and conceptualizing solutions to multi- step problems that arise in areas such as architecture, engineering, science, mathematics and art. Table1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8.

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Table 1: Illustrates the chronological survey of philosophers in the pre-Socratic era. 1. Pre-Socratic 1-1 . c. 624 – 546 BCE 1-2 Pherecydes of Syros c. 620 - c. 550 BCE 1-3 Anaximander of Miletus c. 610 – 546 BCE 1-4 Anaximander of Miletus c. 610 – 546 BCE 1-5 Pythagoras of Samos c.580 – c. 500 BCE 1-6 of Colophon c. 570 – 480 BCE 1-7 Epicharmus of Kos c. 530 – 450 BCE 1-8 Heraclitus of Ephesus c. 535 – c. 475 BCE 1-9 of Elea c. 515 – 450 BCE 1-10 of Clazomenae c. 500 – 428 BCE 1-11 492 - 432 BCE 1-12 c. 490 – 430 BCE 1-13 Protagoras of Abdera c. 481 – 420 BCE 1-14 Antiphon 480 - 411 BCE Middle of the 5th century 1-15 BCE 1-16 . c. 483 – 375 BCE Total 1- Pre-Socratic 5/16 31% It can be seen from (table 1) that the number of philosophers who talk about terms related in some way to the architecture in the pre-Socratic era is five philosophers out of 16, which means the percentage is 31%.The most words used by philosophers in Pre-Socratic era are Geometry, Number, Human body and Form.

Table 2: Illustrates the chronological survey of philosophers in the Socratic era.

2. Socratic 2-1 Socrates of Athens c. 470 – 399 BCE 2-2 Critias of Athens c. 460 - 413 2-3 of Ceos c. 465 BC – c. 395 BCE First half of the 5th century 2-4 of Miletus BCE 2-5 of Miletus c. 459 - c. 400 BCE 2-6 Democritus of Abdera c. 450 – 370 BCE 2-7 Diagoras of Melos c. 450 – 415 BCE 2-8 2-9 Melissus of Samos. 2-10 . 2-11 . 2-12 Echecrates. 2-13 Timaeus of Locri. 2-14 c. 444 – 365 BCE 2-15 of Cyrene c. 440 – 366 BCE 2-16 Alcidamas c. 435 – c. 350 BCE

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2-17 c. 430 – c. 350 BCE 2-18 of Apollonia c. 425 BCE – c 350 BCE 2-19 c. 425 – c 350 BCE 2-20 c. 427 – 355 BCE 2-21 Plato c. 427 – 347 BCE 2-22 Speusippus c. 408 – 339 BCE 2-23 Eudoxus of Cnidus c. 408 – 355 BCE 2-24 Diogenes of Sinope c. 399 – 323 BCE 2-25 c. 396 – 314 BCE 2-26 Aristotle c. 384 – 322 BCE Total 2- Socratic (classic) 10/26 38% It can be seen from (table 2) that the number of philosophers who talk about terms related in some way to the architecture in the Socratic (Classic) era is ten philosophers out of 26, which means the percentage is 38%. The most words used by philosophers in Socratic (Classic) era are Nature, Form, Geometry, Proportion, Beauty and Number.

Table 3: Illustrates the chronological survey of philosophers in the Hellenistic era.

3. Hellenistic 3-1 c. 371 BCE–c. 287 BCE 3-2 of Elis c. 360 – 270 BCE 3-3 Strato of c. 340 BCE–c. 268 BCE 3-4 c. 341 – 270 BCE 3-5 c. 333 – 264 BCE 3-6 Timon c. 320 – 230 BCE 3-7 Chrysippus of Soli c. 280 – 207 BCE 3-8 c. 214 – 129 BCE Total 3- Hellenistic 1/8 13% It can be seen from (table 3) that the number of philosophers who talk about terms related in some way to the architecture in the Hellenistic era is one philosopher out of 8, which means the percentage is 13%. The most words used by philosophers in Hellenistic era are Line, Surface, Body, and Number.

Table 4: Illustrates the chronological survey of philosophers in the Romanic era.

4. Romanic 4-1 c. 99 – 55 BCE 4-2 Cicero c. 106 BCE – 43 BCE 4-3 c. 20 BCE – 40 CE 4-4 Seneca the Younger c. 4 BCE – 65 CE 4-5 c. 55 – 135 4-6 121–180 during the 2nd and possibly 4-7 the 3rd centuries CE 4-8 Plotinus c. 205 – 270

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4-9 c. 232 – 304 4-10 of Syria c. 245 – 325 4-11 c. 354 – 430 4-12 Proclus c. 412 – 485 Total 4- Romanic 5/12 42% It can be seen from (table 4) that the number of philosophers who talk about terms related in some way to the architecture in the Romanic era is five philosopher out of 12, which means the percentage is 42%. The most words used by philosophers in Hellenistic era are Form of human being, Art, Beauty, Geometry and Mathematic.

Table 5: Illustrates the chronological survey of philosophers in the Medievalism era. 5. Medievalism 5-1 Boethius c. 480–524 5-2 c. 490–570 5-3 Al-Kindi c. 801 – 873 5-4 John the Scot c. 815 – 877 5-5 al-Faràbi c. 870 – 950 5-6 c. 882 – 942 5-7 al-Razi c. 865 – 925 5-8 Ibn Sina c. 980 – 1037 5-9 Ibn Gabirol c. 1021–1058 5-10 Anselm c. 1034–1109 5-11 al-Ghazali c. 1058–1111 5-12 Peter Abelard c. 1079–1142 5-13 c. 1110–1180 5-14 c. 1100–1160 5-15 (Ibn Rushd) c. 1126- 1198 5-16 c. 1135–1204 5-17 St Francis of Assisi c. 1182–1226 5-18 Robert Grosseteste c. 1175–1253 5-19 Albert the Great c. 1193–1280 5-20 Roger Bacon c. 1214–1294 5-21 Thomas Aquinas c. 1221–1274 5-22 c. 1225–1274 5-23 Siger c. 1240 – c. 1280 5-24 Boetius of Dacia. 5-25 c. 1232–1315 5-26 Meister Eckhart c. 1260–1328 5-27 c. 1266–1308 5-28 c. 1270–1342 5-29 c. 1288–1348 5-30 Gersonides c. 1288–1344 5-31 Jean Buridan c. 1300–1358 5-32 John Wycliffe c. 1320–1384 5-33 c. 1320-5 – 1382

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5-34 c. 1340 – c. 1411 5-35 Nicholas of Cusa 1401–1464 5-36 Lorenzo Valla 1407–1457 5-37 Marsilio Ficino 1433-1499 5-38 Pico della Mirandola 1463–1494 Total 5- Medievalism 13/38 34% It can be seen from (table 5) that the number of philosophers who talk about terms related in some way to the architecture in the Medievalism era is thirteen philosopher out of 38, which means the percentage is 34%. The most words used by philosophers in Medievalism era are Number, Geometry, Music, Color, Nature, Perception, Beauty (Pleasure), Mathematic, Architect, Order and Design.

Table 6: Illustrates the chronological survey of philosophers in the Renaissance era.

6. Renaissance 6-1 Desiderius 1466–1536 6-2 Niccolò Machiavelli 1469–1527 6-3 Sir 1478–1535 6-4 1483–1546 6-5 Petrus Ramus 1515–1572 6-6 John Calvin 1509–1564 6-7 1533–1592 6-8 Pierre Charron 1541–1603 6-9 Giordano Bruno 1548–1600 6-10 Francisco Suarez 1548–1617 Total 6- Renaissance 4/10 40% It can be seen from (table 6) that the number of philosophers who talk about terms related in some way to the architecture in the Renaissance era is four philosopher out of 10, which means the percentage is 40%. The most words used by philosophers in Medievalism era are Building, Architecture, Geometry, Measure, and Proportion.

Table 7: Illustrates the chronological survey of philosophers in the Reason era. 7. Reason 7-1 Herbert of Cherbury. 7-2 1561–1626 7-3 1564–1642 7-4 1583–1645 7-5 Marin Mersenne 1588–1648 7-6 1588–1653 7-7 Pierre Gassendi 1592–1655 7-8 René Descartes 1596–1650 7-9 Baltasar Gracián 1601–1658 7-10 1588–1679 7-11 Antoine Arnauld 1612–1694 7-12 Henry More 1614–1687

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7-13 Jacques Rohault. 1617–1672 7-14 Ralph Cudworth 1617–1688 7-15 Blaise Pascal 1623–1662 7-16 Margaret Cavendish 1623–1673 7-17 Arnold Geulincx 1624–1669 7-18 Pierre Nicole (1625–1695) 7-19 Geraud Cordemoy 1626-1684 7-20 1627–1691 7-21 Anne Conway, 1631–1679 7-22 Richard Cumberland 1631–1718 7-23 Baruch Spinoza 1632–1677 7-24 Samuel von Pufendorf 1632–1694 7-25 1632–1704 7-26 Joseph Glanvill 1636–1680 7-27 1638–1715 7-28 1643–1727 7-29 Simon Foucher 1644–1696 7-30 1647–1706 7-31 Damaris Masham 1659–1708 7-32 John Toland 1670–1722 Total 7- Reason 10/32 31% It can be seen from (table 7) that the number of philosophers who talk about terms related in some way to the architecture in the Reason era is ten philosopher out of 32, which means the percentage is 31%. The most words used by philosophers in Reason era are Fashion, Architecture, Mathematic, Beauty, Aesthetic, Craftsman, and Architect.

Table 8: Illustrates the chronological survey of philosophers in the Enlightenment era. 8. Enlightenment 8-1 Gottfried Leibniz 1646–1716 8-2 John Norris 1657–1711 8-3 Jean Meslier 1664-1729 8-4 Giambattista Vico 1668–1744 8-5 Bernard Mandeville 1670–1733 8-6 Anthony Ashley-Cooper 1671–1713 8-7 Samuel Clarke 1675–1729 8-8 Catherine Cockburn 1679–1749 8-9 Christian Wolff 1679–1754 8-10 1685–1753 8-11 Charles de Secondat 1689–1755 8-12 Joseph Butler 1692–1752 8-13 Francis Hutcheson 1694–1746 8-14 John Gay 1699–1745 8-15 David Hartley 1705–1757 8-16 Julien La Mettrie 1709–1751 8-17 1694–1778

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8-18 1710–1796 8-19 David Hume 1711–1776 8-20 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712–1778 8-21 1713–1784 8-22 Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten 1714-1762 8-23 Claude Adrien Helvétius 1715–1771 8-24 Etienne de Condillac 1715-1780 8-25 Jean d'Alembert 1717–1783 8-26 d'Holbach 1723–1789 8-27 1723–1790 8-28 Richard Price 1723–1791 8-29 Immanuel Kant 1724–1804 8-30 Moses Mendelssohn 1729–1786 8-31 1729–1781 8-32 Edmund Burke 1729–1797 8-33 William Paley 1743–1805 8-34 Thomas Jefferson 1743–1826 8-35 1748–1832 8-36 Sylvain Maréchal 1750–1803 8-37 1753–1828 8-38 1756–1836 8-39 1759–1797 8-40 1759–1805 8-41 1762–1814 Total 8- Enlightenment 15/41 37% It can be seen from (table 8) that the number of philosophers who talk about terms related in some way to the architecture in the Enlightenment era is fifteen philosopher out of 41, which means the percentage is 37%. The most words used by philosophers in Enlightenment era are Geometry, Aesthetic, Harmony, Proportion, Number, Form, Mathematic and art.

14 RESULTS The number of philosophers is different in each era and they are between 8 philosophers in the Hellenistic era to the 41 philosophers in the Enlightenment era, and the number of philosophers who talk about term related to architecture is also different and they are from 1 philosopher in the Hellenistic era to the 15 philosophers in the Enlightenment era. Following are the number and percentage of philosophers talked about terms related to architecture in each era separately out of the number of philosophers in each era.  Pre-Socratic 5/16 31%  Socratic (classic) 10/26 38%  Hellenistic 1/8 13%  Romanic 5/12 42%  Medievalism 13/38 34%  Renaissance 4/10 40%  Reason 10/32 31%

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 Enlightenment 15/41 37%

45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0%

Figure 9: Percentage of philosophers who talk about term related to architecture in each era. Number of philosophers who talked about terms related to Architecture in all eras is 63 philosophers, they are divided in all era. The following are the numbers and percentage of philosophers who talk about terms related to architecture in each era out of total number of the philosopher only who talked about architecture.  Pre-Socratic 5/63 7.9 %  Socratic (classic) 10/63 15.9%  Hellenistic 1/63 1.6%  Romanic 5/63 7.9 %  Medievalism 13/63 20.6%  Renaissance 4/63 6.4%  Reason 10/63 15.9%  Enlightenment 15/63 23.8%

8% Pre-Socratic 24% Socratic 16% Hellenistic 2% Romanic 8% 16% Medievalism Renaissance 6% 20% Reason

Figure 10: The percentage of philosophers who talk about term related to architecture in all era together.

15. CONCLUSIONS The research concludes that whenever the philosophers interested in architectural terms is increase the quality of architecture is also increased in that era, where it is noted that it reached the highest level in the Roman era, which represents the base of classical architecture. The percentage of philosophers interested in architecture begins in the Pre-Socratic era which is 8%

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 243 [email protected] Architectural Philosophical Term from Pre-Socrac to Enlightenment. and increased to reach to the peak in the Enlightenment era which is 23%, concluded from this that philosophers interest in architecture is increasing with time.There is a lot of terms related to architecture repeated by philosophers such as proportion, aesthetic and geometry in all eras but the most repeated term is geometry. Geometry is the term which related philosophy to architecture. Eras Terms used by philosophers 1- Pre-Socratic: Geometry Human body Form 2- Socratic (classic): Aesthetic Geometry Proportion 3- Hellenistic: Line Surface Number 4- Romanic: Aesthetic Geometry Form 5- Medievalism: Geometry Aesthetic Architect 6- Renaissance: Architecture Geometry Proportion 7- Reason: Aesthetic Architecture Mathematic 8- Enlightenment: Geometry Aesthetic Proportion So, the process of proving the philosophical term of architecture is not merely a technical process, but a dialectical answer to it. Where philosophy leads to knowledge and knowledge of the higher arts, including architecture, because philosophy is the entrance to knowledge about what. It is the basis of all knowledge and science. Therefore, architecture as a Semitic shroud is not something autonomous, whatever the architect tried to do. The existence of the philosophical term consciously or unconsciously ensures the presence of the philosopher in architectural work.

16 REFERENCES

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