PACIFIC ECONOMIC BULLETIN

Tackling environmental threats on Pacific atolls

Colin Hunt

Increasing population density on the main islands of both Tuvalu Colin Hunt lectures in and Kiribati is generating waste loadings that exceed the assimila- Environmental Management tive capacity of the natural systems. The resulting pollution is and Development at the lowering the quality of life and causing ill health. The renewable National Centre for resources of the atolls are being degraded and their ability to provide Development Studies at the Australian National a continuous stream of future benefits is in jeopardy. Development University. proposals pose additional environmental threats. This article (based on fieldwork conducted in Kiribati and Tuvalu in September 1995) examines the management of natural resources on these two Pacific atolls, and some of the institutional and financial implications of addressing the consequential development imperatives.

Kiribati and Tuvalu lie near the equator in Sources of fresh water the central Pacific and are both made up of groups of atolls. Kiribati is comprised of A characteristic of many atolls, including the Gilbert group, including the heavily- those that make up Tuvalu and Kiribati, is populated island and administrative the presence on larger islands of a fresh- centre of Tarawa, plus the Phoenix group water lens just below ground level. The and the distant Line Islands, which lenses are recharged by rainfall. Given the include the relatively large island of absence of rivers or freshwater lakes, the Kirimitati. Tuvalu is a smaller group of only other source of fresh water to sustain atolls, south of Kiribati, whose population human populations is collected rainwater. and administrative centre is Fongafale, on The average density of the population Funafuti atoll. The key issues for these throughout the islands of Tuvalu is four times atoll countries include fresh water supply higher than the average for Kiribati —347 and contamination, and sewage and solid persons per square kilometre compared waste pollution and disposal. with 85 per square kilometre (Tuvalu 1991;

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AusAID 1995:41). However, the density in water on South Tarawa for half of the South Tarawa (on the main island of households lies in wells that directly tap Kiribati) is high: 1600 per square kilometre, the lenses, while rainwater tanks are a main compared with 1137 per square kilometre source for a third of households. on Funafuti, the main island of Tuvalu. The rate of extraction of fresh water Moreover, in the suburb of Betio, South from lenses is unsustainable. The draw- Tarawa, the density rises to 5,400 per square down at Betio and Bairiki on South Tarawa kilometre, great even by world standards. of 1,250 cubic metres per day exceeds the While the Kiribati government can estimated sustainable yield of 1,000 cubic declare any area a water reserve, in practice metres per day (Kiribati 1995:15). Salt the lenses constitute common property water intrusion is thus a possibility. resources subject to open access through Moreover, the supply of reticulated water wells. As the density of the human from lenses in Buota and Teaoraereke on population above a lens increases, the South Tarawa has already been supply of potable water can be jeopardised discontinued because it is subject to by drawing down water at a rate faster uncontrolled use and pollution by squatters. than it is replenished and by pollution The Kiribati Public Utilities Board is through the very permeable overlying responsible for the operation and manage- soils. There are severe penalties for ment of the reticulated water supply. While pollution of the water supply but they are there is a charge of A$1.00 per square not enforced (Gangaiya 1994). metre, orderly supply of reticulated water Rainfall is relatively high and more and cost recovery is hampered by a failure reliable in Tuvalu, and in contrast to to read meters, meter tampering and Kiribati, the majority of households have illegal connections. Moreover, leakages been fitted with rainwater tanks, metal reduce supply by between 10 and 20 per roofing, plastic guttering and downpipes cent (Kiribati 1995). While the cost under a UNDP project. Substitution of recovery of reticulated water supply is, in rainwater for polluted ground-water theory, advisable through pro rata charges, supplies is one of the keys to the the charges should not be such as to prevention of water-borne disease and encourage the continued use of ‘free’ well other health threats posed by lens water. Gangaiya (1994) suggests that the contamination by bacteria, viruses, and high frequency of well use is a function of dissolved nitrogen. the charge on reticulated water. The supply of fresh water to the If sustainable potable water supply to increasing population of South Tarawa, the population of Kiribati is to be the goal, and to islands with growing populations, open access to lenses must be phased out, such as Kirimitati, is a major development drawdowns from safe lenses must be constraint. While untapped lenses can be managed and a plan for rainwater utilised, supply is limited. The freshwater collection developed. It appears that heavier lenses at Betio and Bairiki on South Tarawa supplementation by collected rainwater will presently provide an extraction rate of be necessary even though the collection of 1,250 cubic metres per day to some 3,500 rainwater is an expensive option on South connections (out of about 4,000 households Tarawa, given the atoll’s relatively low and in total) but the supply is only available erratic rainfall. Individual strategies for the for 1 to 2 hours for three periods of the development of sustainable water supplies day (Kiribati 1995:14). The main source of will be required on the outer islands of

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Kiribati; strategies will vary depending on construction of causeways has limited tidal island size, rainfall, and on actual and flushing of the lagoon and exacerbated projected population density and health risks posed by the contamination. A distribution. build-up of nutrient loads in the poorly- flushed parts of the lagoon poses a potential threat of eutrophication and Pollution algal blooms. The risk is acute during ‘doldrum’ periods or neap tides, when One of the most valuable natural resources natural flushing of the lagoon is minimal. of both Kiribati and Tuvalu are the lagoons Sewage systems that produce a solid and inshore waters. However, like the compost, rather than a liquid effluent that freshwater lenses, these resources are must be disposed of into the ocean, are subject to open access. Their safety and worthy of investigation. However, there productivity, as with freshwater lenses, is may be significant cultural restraints on dependent on prevention of contamination using compost derived from human faeces by sewage and other land-based pollutants. —such an option would need to be On South Tarawa, Kiribati, a reticulated accompanied by an education program. sewerage system was constructed in 1993 While cost recovery of an improved and to serve 9,000 people, via connections to universal sewage system should be the permanent housing, government buildings ultimate goal, it must be recognised that and to community toilet blocks in Betio, sewage charges will, in the meantime, tend Bairiki, and Bikenibeau. While householders to encourage traditional beach disposal of use the reticulated system to some extent, faeces (without cost to the individual, but a large proportion of the South Tarawa at a cost to the community). population still deposits faecal waste on Where population densities are ocean and lagoon beaches. This situation increasing on the outer islands, appropriate may, to a certain extent, be a function of the management options must be considered poor state of repair of the sewage system; for the prevention of pollution of the frequent mainline blockages are freshwater lenses and lagoons. Options for accompanied by vandalisation and the sewage treatment and disposal have been disrepair of community toilets. Management trialed by the Australian Government on problems are exacerbated by the failure of Kirimitati (AusAID 1994). local councils to accept responsibility for public toilets, or oversee the siting of pit In Funafuti, septic tanks are now latrines and septic toilets. Waste water is mandatory for each residence under Island Council by-law, and in the main population also a pollutant, but regulations governing concentration at Fongafale the containment its disposal are not enforced (Kiribati 1995). of sewage by septic tanks and pit latrines Recent studies of the Tarawa Lagoon seems to be complete enough at this stage have confirmed that coliform contamination to prevent pollution of the lagoon. The of both water and shellfish is greater than lens would undoubtedly be polluted by acceptable standards (Biosystems 1995). A the tanks and pits but rainwater collection South Tarawa study of lagoon pollution has, to date, obviated the necessity to draw emanating from land suggests that nutrient upon lenses. Lagoon and water-lens loadings amount to about 80,000 kg of management is jeopardised on both atolls nitrogen and 10,000 kg of phosphorous by the common practice of penning pigs per annum (Conrad 1993:109). The on lagoon shores.

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Solid waste still the second most important constituent of solid waste (Tulega 1992). Composting The high density of population in South would reduce the waste burden and prevent Tawara and Fongafale has exacerbated the loss of plant nutrients but it is not solid waste disposal problems. Households practised in the urbanised areas. And the are the main source of solid wastes in the separation and recycling of much of the form of garden leaves and non-biodegradable remainder of the waste stream poses a packaging of imported foods and drinks. problem because of the inherent lack of On Fongafale there is a build-up of solid economic incentives. There appear to be waste at disposal sites throughout the poor prospects of cost recovery of an main urbanised area, but particularly at improved waste collection and management random sites near the runway and in the system given that there is open access to borrow pits which occupy about a third of borrow pits or foreshore where waste can the island’s land area. On Fongafale, be disposed of at no cost to the individual. health risks are exacerbated by the siting Car and truck bodies take up a of dwellings over the dumps. significant amount of land and also pose On South Tarawa, official dump sites potential hazardous waste problems in on the foreshore have no containment walls both locations. Metallic remains can be to prevent refuse dispersal by tides. And recycled, if a market exists. If not, their while land is reclaimed through foreshore concentration in one dump would reduce dumping, in practice, the highly organic the land area occupied. The safe disposal nature of the resulting land and its continual of batteries and oil from wrecks (and from decomposition and subsidence reduces garages and electricity-generating plants) the land’s usefulness (Gangaiya 1994). is a priority. One option for generating funds for recycling is a tax on imported The creation of a sanitary land fill, such vehicles and on oil. as is often practised in situations where land is more plentiful, is very difficult on atolls The public costs attached to the because of the high water table. Meanwhile, generation and random disposal of solid the present solid waste disposal practices wastes are a concern to governments, but impose social costs on the community council by-laws—that ostensibly make the disposal of waste, to land and sea, an • the dumps provide breeding grounds for vermin, flies and mosquitos, offence—are not enforced. Rates attached adding to public health risks to occupied land and rents on government housing may be a workable method of • the leachate from decaying organic cost recovery for solid waste disposal. matter and any toxic substances can pose Charges for sewage and water could also a threat to both lens water and in-shore be levied in this way. A complementary waters adjacent to dumps strategy would be the mobilisation of non- • the waste dumps occupy scarce government organisations in campaigns land space that could be used for for community action. productive and aesthetic purposes Waste management should focus on • the aesthetic appeal of both urban three objectives: reduction of the waste and village landscapes is severely reduced. stream; central location and management While the recycling of beer and soft- of the remaining solid wastes; and the use drink cans appeared to be on a financially of technology to process it. In seeking viable footing in South Tarawa, cans were solutions to waste disposal, environmental

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impact assessments could be undertaken immigration from the outer islands, on the use of car bodies (that have had oil, averaged 3.1 per cent. The population of acid, lead and other hazardous substances the urbanised island of Funafuti, Tuvalu, removed) to form artificial reefs and on the grew even faster, at 4.8 per cent. Meanwhile, feasibility of incineration of any remaining however, the outer islands of Tuvalu (uncomposted and unrecycled) solid wastes. maintained a constant population (South Pacific Commission 1995:40, 42). The continuation of such high rates of Public health and the environment growth on the urbanised islands will increase the difficulty of making develop- The present exploitation of freshwater ment sustainable. The need for imported resources and of the assimilative capacity food and goods will rise and overcrowding of the environment is unsustainable, will worsen. The growth of squatter settle- particularly on Tarawa. The implications ments will make solutions to delivering of these practices for public health are better infrastructure and services even more profound. In fact it is difficult to over- difficult. A downside to migration of the emphasise the linkage between resource population to outer islands, such as abuse and public health risks. Kirimitati, is the threat to biodiversity. The Indicators of downward health trends elimination of groves of te buka (Pisonia in South Tarawa are the increase in the grandis), a favoured nesting tree on number of reported cases of diarrhoea and Kirimitati, has already led to a decrease in the rise in the incidence of respiratory the sea bird population (South Pacific infections. The latter is a function of Regional Environment Programme 1993:60). overcrowding in squatter areas. The incidence of diarrhoea, the major cause of death of infants and children in Kiribati, is Resource-based development high. The full complement of diseases options linked to faecal contamination on South Tarawa is listed in an Australian Government report (AIDAB 1993). Marine resources Tuvalu and Kiribati are both well endowed with marine resources—Kiribati has one Population growth and the of the largest Exclusive Economic Zones in environment the Pacific. Marine resources consist of lagoon and reef fish, readily exploitable Population growth and environmental for local consumption, demersal fish, such degradation are strongly linked. The annual as long-tailed snapper (Etelis coruscans) rate of population increase in Kiribati was which are only now being assessed and 2.3 per cent between the 1985 and the 1990 exploited, and the pelagic, migratory, censuses, a rate that will double the yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) and population in thirty years. While there are skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) that are serious consequences of such growth for exploited mainly by distant water fishing the environment, the trends of immediate nations such as the United States, Japan, concern are the rates of growth of the urban Taiwan and South Korea (the fishing effort population. The growth rate on densely- of Kiribati’s purse seine joint venture with populated South Tarawa, boosted by Japan and its own fishing fleet is minor

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compared with that of the distant water a prerequisite for management policies. fishing nations). However, the difficulty of estimating sustainable yield and, moreover, of Management of the inshore fish stocks implementing management plans in distant in both countries is crucial because of their locations for these diverse fisheries, cannot contribution to both subsistence fishing— be overestimated. A management model an activity participated in by a majority of based on the devolution of rights over households—and commercial supply to inshore fisheries to Island Councils and of the suburban population. While the fish central government support for local by- stocks of the Funafuti lagoon still provide laws could be a more successful strategy for subsistence fishing, the formerly than central control of fishing effort (Hunt abundant fish stocks of the Tarawa lagoon 1996b). have been depleted, illustrating the need for management of renewable resources. The local population is thus deprived of an Agriculture important source of subsistence. However, The most important function of the land plentiful supplies of skipjack tuna are and adjacent marine areas is the provision available at markets on South Tarawa, of subsistence to the population. However, augmented by a variety of reef and other the importance of subsistence income tends fish from a retail outlet in Betio established to be underestimated in official documents, by the Outer Island Fish Project. such as the national accounts, even though Property rights are an important the import-replacement value of the determinant of environmental management subsistence production of both the on atolls (Hunt 1996a). In the case of agricultural and fisheries sectors, even on inshore waters, government, rather than small islands, can amount to many millions customary, jurisdiction means that these of dollars per annum. Lower population ‘public’ fisheries resources are subject to density on outer islands allows a greater open access. The uncontrolled use of gill proportion of the needs of island netting puts preferred species under populations to be generated by in situ potential threat. Likewise, the species resources and also provides more exploited for niche markets—such as opportunities for those resources to be aquarium fish, bêche-de-mer, trochus and exploited sustainably. As well as pearlshell—are all potentially subject to providing for the local island population, over-exploitation. the islands can now be regarded as an increasingly important source of food and The Kiribati Fisheries Department has other goods and materials for the growing a substantial budget (approximately urban populace. (While copra exports A$500,000 in fiscal 1995) to manage and from Tuvalu had ceased, coconut remains develop fisheries and will soon have a important for domestic consumption.) presence on all the outer islands. Limited attempts are being made by the Department Overall, Kiribati’s natural environment to conserve the depleted stocks by supply- is one of the most restrictive in the natural ing large-mesh gill nets and encouraging world (World Bank 1988:51). The major local villages to suspend fishing during restraints to agriculture are the small size spawning periods. The Department is also of the land areas, poor quality soils, high gathering catch statistics in the islands and salinity levels and low and erratic rainfall. it is hoped that such base-line data will These impediments, together with distances indicate trends per unit of fishing effort— from markets, mean that the thrust of

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agricultural development will be on exploitation of its fauna and flora through increasing yields in the important scuba diving and bird watching. While subsistence sector. Because of the increasing tourism would need to be managed, density of the population on Tarawa and human migration to the islands clearly Funafuti and the consequential growing poses the main threat to wildlife habitats reliance of the population on purchased and natural resources, as mentioned food, there is likely to be an increasing above. Kirimitati has a relatively large incentive to produce food and other land area of 364 square kilometres and products for the cash economy. Greater there would seem to be scope for planning agricultural productivity would improve to ensure that any tourism potential is not the current account balance by substituting jeopardised by indiscriminate settlement for food imports. patterns and a failure to control wastes, The environmental problems associated such as have occurred on South Tarawa. with increasing agriculture on atolls include the possibility of unwise use of inorganic Industry fertilisers and pesticides, both of which The small size of domestic markets, high have the propensity to pollute groundwater, transport costs and a scarcity of materials and the clearing of mangroves and habitat, and technological skills suggest that the with a resulting reduction in biodiversity growth of private industry will be limited and fish stocks (South Pacific Regional on the atolls. This is confirmed by the lack Environment Programme 1993). The more of interest by entrepreneurs in land in the widespread adoption of composting South Tarawa industrial estate. However, techniques and the introduction of coastal the environmental consequences of even protection measures should therefore go limited industrial and extractive activity are hand-in-hand with efforts to enhance potentially severe for atoll environments. agricultural productivity. Risks do not preclude industrial develop- ment, but planning needs to include Tourism environmental impact assessments by the The natural environment is seen as the developer—private or government. These basis for the development of a tourism assessments should also be conducted on industry by both the Kiribati and Tuvalu extractive operations such as limestone for governments. The introduction of the road building and any future extraction of SAAB 200 international airline carrier, sea-bed minerals. operating from the Marshall Islands and Production and service industries, for calling at Funafuti and Tarawa, boosted example motor servicing and food tourism potential, as has the recent processing, can be successfully introduced, introduction of weekly Boeing 727 flights provided that they internalise their from Tarawa to Kirimitati. environmental impacts. The intended The depletion and pollution of the increase in transport services on Tarawa environment of the heavily populated needs to be accompanied by regulation of islands of Tarawa, suggests that the unique the handling and disposal of hydrocarbons. flora and fauna on the outer islands of Moreover, all industrial operations should Kiribati could become the focus of any be required to install effluent treatment tourism industry. There is already minor plants—at present the two photoprocessing tourism centred on fishing on Kirimitati. and printing establishments in South This island also has some potential for the Tarawa simply wash their waste chemicals

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down the sink (Gangaiya 1994). Examples Asian Development Bank is providing of the internalisation of environmental costs technical support in strengthening the unit on Tuvalu are the installation of septic (Asian Development Bank 1994). The tanks for the Vaiaku Lagi Hotel and a priorities of the bank, with respect to tertiary treatment plant for effluent from institutional strengthening, are the the patrol boat repair facility. These introduction of environmental impact measures prevent additional pollution of assessments for development projects, lagoon waters. coastal zone management, solid waste management, and data base development. Financing environmental The Asian Development Bank projects appear to be integrated with those of the management South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) (which has supported Governments and donors workshops on sustainable development for the outer islands and providing software Two documents, the National Environmental for EIAs), and with the European Union Management Strategy (Kiribati 1993) and the (which supports a waste recycling project). Urban Development Plan for South Tarawa The focus of SPREP and the Asian Develop- (Kiribati 1995), set out the planning ment Bank on institutional strengthening is priorities of the Kiribati government. Both consistent with the World Bank’s priority cover the necessity for the sustainable use for donors to provide on-site technical of the freshwater lenses and their assistance to support officials and policy supplementation by rainwater, and the implementation. The World Bank (1993) issues of sewage and solid waste disposal. also suggests that the Kiribati government The majority of the programs of National increase its participation in tackling the Environmental Management Strategies are unsustainable use of natural resources and research oriented, or fund environmental the degradation of the life-support services awareness workshops or campaigns. The of Tarawa. exception is the rainwater conservation program that contains the three phases of Australia’s aid commitment is mainly design, construction and public education, focused on infrastructure development in and is costed at US$3.5 million (Kiribati sewage and water. The Kirimitati Water 1993: 62,63). and Sanitation Project promises to be a valuable contribution in providing The Urban Development Plan pointers to environmentally-friendly ‘implementation schedule’ is aimed at methods of sewage disposal, for Tarawa as funding programs in the short to medium well as for the outer islands. Plans to assist term, following institutional strengthening. with institutional strengthening (in the A 15-year plan includes components of areas of public utilities, health education land supply, housing, urban infrastructure and land use management), complement (water, sewage, transport, electricity) solid the aid for infrastructure development. waste disposal, environmental health and However, AusAID’s allocation of A$5 education (Kiribati 1995:34–36). million to causeway construction in the The staff complement of the Kiribati outer islands up to 1997/98 can be government’s environment unit consisted queried in terms of the environmental and of only two full-time officers and three social priorities reviewed above (AusAID temporary officers in September, 1995. The 1994;1995:55).

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Financial priorities Among the main development requirements, particularly in Kiribati but The Funafuti environment is under great increasingly in Tuvalu, is the halting of the pressure from immigration. Public health unsustainable use of renewable resources trends will be linked to how well the threatening the provision of the life- government manages the growing problem sustaining services delivered by those of human and animal waste disposal. Of resources. The high infant mortality levels concern is the implementation of a public of Kiribati and its acute public health sector reform program (Tuvalu 1994) and problems are mainly associated with the reduction in public service positions degradation of the in situ environments, that have potentially serious consequences together with poor hygiene. While water for environmental and natural resource quality on Fongafale has been improved, management. There is only one waste and vermin pose potential health environment officer in the Natural problems. Resources Ministry and extra positions are unlikely to be created in the near future. Public education programs and training of officials to strengthen the institutional Nevertheless, there is a positive capacity for planning, installing and approach in the Ministry to making good maintaining the infrastructure necessary use of regional resources such as SPREP. for preventing the unsustainable practices, The National Development Strategy (Tuvalu are a priority. The benefits of investment 1995) has given priority to improving the in social/environmental infrastructure environment of human settlements, and in institutional strengthening are targeting education and training. improved health and the maintenance of A priority of the government of Tuvalu the provision of essential environmental is the infilling of the ‘borrow pits’ that were services. It would appear that these created in providing material for airstrip priorities are being comprehensively construction in World War II and take up a addressed in the planning priorities of the third of suburban Fongafale. The pits government of Kiribati. Moreover, some preclude residential or agricultural develop- major donors, including AusAID and the ment and pose a significant public health Asian Development Bank, are coordinating risk. A costing by the South Pacific their approach to these development Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) priorities by the planning of infrastructure (1995:4,5) suggests infilling could cost aid and through institutional strengthening A$3 million, and take three years to and training. complete, using dredged material from Improved health has a direct effect on the lagoon as infill. Much care will be the economy in reducing the number of needed to prevent adverse environmental working days lost and in reducing the consequences of dredging, and, while the costs of tertiary health care, while the filling of the borrow pits will have a maintenance of renewable environmental positive environ-mental outcome, it will resources will tend to reduce future costs not solve the problem of solid waste by maintaining life-support services and disposal. At September 1995, there was no keeping options open for their use (for recycling of cans or other waste on example, the maintenance of water quality Funafuti and it appeared that no priority could have a long-term pay-off from tourism). had been given to seeding such operations or investigating the feasibility of dealing However, the implementation of the with solid wastes. development priorities has significant

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recurrent funding implications for the An increasing level of recurrent government of Kiribati. Costs are expected spending in real terms is needed to enable to increase because the continuation of the new and improved services generated by increased infra- • the development priorities, for the structure investment and institutional most part, have no potential to increase revenue strengthening. Both countries have growing trust funds with a potential to • new infrastructure will tend to generate increasing levels of recurrent increase maintenance and repair costs expenditure (Duncan, Larmour and Hunt • salaries and wages are likely to 1995). increase as a result of institutional The donors and the governments are strengthening and training, and the wider now focusing on socio/environmental delivery of services. projects that prevent deterioration in, or Moreover, improved cost-recovery in improve, the quality of life. Such projects the short run is subject to the following do not generate immediate or easily- restraints: the capacity-to-pay of residents measured benefits, but they do however is limited; user-pay charges for improved lead to a predictable increase in demand services may well encourage continuation for recurrent expenditure. For a variety of of practices which have a zero cost to the reasons, including political ones, it will individual but amount to significant public continue to be more attractive for donors costs; the lack of title to land, particularly to support Pacific island states through in the case of squatters, seems to prevent development projects than through the attachment of service charges to house- recurrent spending. holds; and the lack of land-use zoning and The considerable institutional capacity its enforcement prevents the orderly necessary for the delivery of sustainable segregation and regulation of activities and land, marine and biodiversity management the differential charging for services. These is likewise dependent on education and difficulties highlight the need for an training in the public service, as well as integrated approach to the development for the local inhabitants in resource including efforts to ensure that property management programs. rights to residential, commercial and industrial land are unequivocal and that zoning is implemented. Conclusions A cost-effective approach, focusing on the cheapest method of infrastructure Halting the unsustainable use of local maintenance and service delivery, may renewable resources, which threatens the relieve budget pressures. The corporatisation atolls' human support systems, is a priority. of government services to put them on a Given that aid donors are already targeting more commercial footing, the introduction infrastructure needs and institutional of user-pays policies for services and their capacity building, a missing ingredient is contracting out (such as those provided by the provision for increased recurrent the public works departments) may be a expenditure on environmental priorities. workable least-cost approach (Tuvalu 1994). Recurrent costs will increase because These suggestions are reiterated, notwith- • development priorities in the standing the fact that there are very small environment/health areas for the most markets for services and a limited skills base. part have no potential to increase revenue

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• new infrastructure will increase South Pacific Regional Environment maintenance and repair costs Programme, Apia. • salaries and wages are likely to increase as a result of institutional Duncan, R., Larmour, P., and Hunt, C., strengthening, training and improved 1995. ‘Held in trust: the role of public services delivery funds in economic management’, Pacific Economic Bulletin, 10(2):41–47. • cost-recovery in the short run is subject to restraints. Gangaiya, P., 1994. Land Based Pollution The tipping of the balance more Sources in Kiribati: a case study, South Pacific Regional Environment decisively in favour of natural resource Programme, Apia. management requires not only an increased capacity to meet recurrent expenditure, Kiribati, 1993. National Envi but also a greater awareness of the social costs of environmental degradation and Hunt, C., 1996a. ‘Property rights and pollution, together with the assertion by environmental management on atolls’, atoll governments of their jurisdiction International Journal of Social Economics, over natural resources. 23(4/5/6):221–234.

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——, 1994. Australia and Kiribati Development South Pacific Commission (SPC), 1995. Cooperation—country strategy paper, Population Statistics—Statistical Bulletin AusAID, Canberra. No 42, SPC, Noumea.

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——, 1992. Kiribati Country Report for UNCED, SPREP, Apia.

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——, 1994. Public Sector Review and Proposed Public Sector Reform Programme, Government of Tuvalu, Funafuti.

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Tulega, L., 1992. A study report on waste management and disposal on South Tarawa, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme unpublished report, cited in Gangaiya, P., 1994. Land based pollution sources in Kiribati: a case study, SPREP, Apia.

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