Teaching for Meaningful Learning a Review of Research on Inquiry-Based and Cooperative Learning

TM THE GEORGE LUCAS EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION

book excerpt teachING for Meaningful Learning A Review of Research on Inquiry-Based and Cooperative Learning

By Dr. Brigid Barron and Dr. Linda Darling-Hammond, Stanford University Introduction Dr. Milton Chen Executive Director The George Lucas Educational Foundation

Our Foundation began in 1991 with an school of the future? Or a hybrid car?” These Dr. Brigid Barron and Dr. Linda Darling- ambitious mission: to demonstrate how students are sifting information from many Hammond of Stanford University; Dean P. innovative learning environments in sources and producing projects to present David Pearson, Dr. Alan Schoenfeld, Dr. classrooms, supported by powerful new their knowledge, using computers and the Timothy Zimmerman, Dr. Gina Cervetti, technologies, could revolutionize learning. Internet throughout. Their teachers are and Jennifer Tilson at the University of As an organization founded by George embracing their new role as learning coach California, Berkeley; and Dr. Elizabeth Lucas, we believed that the same benefits and manager, rather than as exclusive Stage at the Lawrence Hall of Science. Dr. of technology that were transforming instructor. Darling-Hammond also served as editor for business, health care, manufacturing, As a Foundation, we have understood the the volume. entertainment, and other sectors could be critical importance of developing a research This impressive group of leaders applied in education. And this was in the basis for these innovations. In order for the in educational research has taken an days before the Internet. exemplars we have profiled to take root important step forward for the field. Nearly two decades later, the world in more places, their effectiveness must Their review of the literature on project- has moved ahead in dramatic ways, but be demonstrated in educational research. based learning, cooperative learning, our schools remain caught in a web of Importantly, policymakers investing funds and instructional strategies in literacy, educational thinking and systems that to bring these innovations to scale must be mathematics, and science summarizes originated a century ago. The instructional able to base their policies on documented what is known and what new research is model of the teacher and the textbook as the results. These beliefs led to our support for needed. While they point to studies of the primary sources of knowledge, conveyed research published in the book, Powerful effectiveness of these strategies, they also through lecturing, discussion, and reading, Learning: What We Know About Teaching for issue this important caveat: effectiveness has proven astonishingly persistent. Understanding (Jossey-Bass, 2008), from relies heavily on the readiness and quality Fortunately, this “dominant paradigm” which this article is excerpted. of teachers implementing them. Their book is showing signs of wear. In our work of On behalf of our Foundation, I express includes vignettes of schools and programs telling stories of innovative learning, we our appreciation to the authors of the book: illustrating these practices, with links to see many more examples of teachers, films and articles on our Edutopia website principals, and district administrators and other web resources. implementing new forms of project- We also thank our partners at Jossey- based curricula and performance-based Bass, editors Kate Gagnon and Lesley Iwa, assessment. In these classrooms, students for bringing this book to publication. are working in teams to address open- We hope that Powerful Learning provokes ended and complex questions, such as new thinking about the investments “What is the air and water quality in your needed to create more powerful twenty- community?” “How would you design a first century schools and school systems. Teaching for Meaningful Learning: A Review of Research on Inquiry-Based and Cooperative Learning By Dr. Brigid Barron and Dr. Linda Darling-Hammond, Stanford University “Decades of research illustrate the benefits of inquiry-based and cooperative learning to help students develop the knowledge and skills necessary to be successful in a rapidly changing world.”

ince “A Nation at Risk” application of simple algorithms—won’t implementation of new models. Indeed, was published a quarter- develop students who are critical thinkers or “learning by doing” has a somewhat checkered century ago, mountains of students who can write and speak effectively track record, in part because teachers often lack reports have been written (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; the information, support, and tools necessary about the need for more Bransford & Donovan, 2005). To develop to fully integrate and support this alternative powerful teaching and these higher-order skills, students need to approach to teaching and learning. learning focused on the take part in complex, meaningful projects that This chapter seeks to expand our knowledge Sdemands of life and work in the twenty-first require sustained engagement, collaboration, of the benefits of inquiry-based learning, as century. Consider this: In 1900, 95 percent research, management of resources, and the well as to deepen our understanding of the of all jobs were low skilled and required only development of an ambitious performance or components of an effective inquiry-based that employees could follow basic procedures product. lesson or unit. We’ll explore three approaches designed by others. In 2008, many jobs require In fact, a growing body of research suggests to inquiry-based learning: project-based specialized knowledge and skills. Today’s that students learn more deeply and perform learning, problem-based learning, and employees must be able to communicate better on complex tasks if they have the learning by design, highlighting key research and collaborate, research ideas, and collect, opportunity to engage in more “authentic” and unpacking important elements of each synthesize, and analyze information. They learning—projects and activities that require approach. need to develop new products and to be able them to employ subject knowledge to solve real- to apply different areas of knowledge to new world problems. Studies have shown a positive A Pathway to Deeper Knowledge problems and challenges. impact on learning when students participate Project-based learning involves completing In short, the nature of work has changed— in lessons that require them to construct and complex tasks that typically result in a realistic and continues to do so. According to the U.S. organize knowledge, consider alternatives, product, event, or presentation to an audience. Department of Labor, the average worker will engage in detailed research, inquiry, writing, Thomas (2000) identifies five key components hold more than 10 jobs before the age of 40. and analysis, and to communicate effectively of effective project-based learning. It is: central The top 10 “in demand” jobs projected for to audiences (Newmann, 1996). For example, to the curriculum, organized around driving 2010 did not exist in 2004. a study of more than 2,100 students in 23 questions that lead students to encounter The changing workforce and the need for so- schools found significantly higher achievement central concepts or principles, focused on a called twenty-first-century skills have changed on intellectually challenging performance constructive investigation that involves inquiry what it means to provide every child with an tasks for students who experienced this kind and knowledge building, student-driven effective education that prepares them for a of “authentic pedagogy” (Newmann, Marks, & (students are responsible for designing and full and productive life. It’s no longer enough Gamoran, 1995). Indeed, use of these practices managing their work), and authentic, focusing to simply transmit information that students resulted in stronger performance regardless of on problems that occur in the real world and memorize and store for future use. Education race, gender, or prior achievement. that people care about. today must focus on helping students learn how The research highlighting the benefits of Generally, research on project-based to learn, so they can manage the demands of authentic learning, together with a growing learning (PBL) has found that students who changing information, technologies, jobs, and interest in providing students with more engage in this approach benefit from gains in social conditions. engaging, thought-provoking learning factual learning that are equivalent or superior How do we prepare our students for these opportunities, has prompted teachers at all to those of students who engage in traditional twenty-first-century skills? grade levels to experiment with incorporating forms of instruction (Thomas, 2000). The Traditional academic approaches—narrow inquiry-based learning into their curriculum. goals of PBL are broader, however, than simply tasks that emphasize memorization or the But interest alone does not make for effective the development of content knowledge. This ideas well enough to answer the questions of others. There are many ways in which performance assessments con- tribute to learning. For example, exhibitions, projects, and portfolios provide multiple occasions for review and revision toward a polished performance. These opportunities help students examine both how they learn and how to improve their performance. Students are often expected to present their work to an audience, such as groups of faculty, visitors, parents, or other students, to ensure that their mastery is genuine. These public presentations signal to students that their work is valued and reinforce the significance of their tasks in a real-world context. In the table below, we summarize the types of assessment that can be used in inquiry-based lessons. As the table shows, assessment strategies can include rubrics that are applied to artifacts, whole class discussions, midcourse design reviews, performance assessments, and new-transfer problems. The most effective inquiry- based approaches use a combination of informal ongoing formative assessment and project rubrics that communicate high standards and help teachers make judgments about the multiple dimensions of project work. For rubrics to be useful, they must include scoring guides that specify criteria, ideally written for both teachers and students. Assessment Matters An important aspect of ongoing assessment is the development How we assess students—both formatively and summatively—has of students’ capacity to assess their own work, so that they internal- enormous implications for what we teach and how effectively we ize standards and become aware of and thoughtful about their own teach it. In collaborative and inquiry approaches to learning, three learning. The power of these approaches has been illustrated in many components of instruction—assessments, classroom activities, and studies, including a comparison group study that evaluated the im- curriculum—are interdependent components of a system that can be pact of self-assessment on student learning in twelve inquiry-based designed to promote flexible knowledge development. middle school science classrooms. The experimental groups spent Assessment systems that support cooperative and inquiry ap- half of their time in discussion structured to promote self- and peer proaches to learning share three key characteristics: assessment of cognitive goals and processes, while the control group • Intellectually ambitious performance assessments that enable used this time for general discussion of the concept. students to learn and apply desired concepts and skills in authentic The study found that students involved in self-assessment showed and disciplined ways. significantly larger gains on both a conceptual physics test and on • Evaluation tools, such as assignment guidelines and rubrics, project scores, and that students with low pretest scores showed which define what constitutes good work and effective collaboration. the largest gain on all of the outcome measures. Another analysis of • Formative assessments to guide feedback to students and to formal and informal self-evaluation processes concluded that an in- shape their instructional decisions throughout a unit. tegrated practice of self-assessment led students to assume greater As teachers of all grade levels recognize, the types of assess- responsibility for their own learning. ments used play a significant role in shaping the work students are Well-crafted performance assessments can also lead to better asked to undertake. Research suggests that inquiry-based learning teaching. For example, teachers who have been involved in scoring demands thoughtfully structured performance assessments, both performance assessments with other colleagues and discussing to define the tasks students are engaged in and to properly evalu- their students’ work have reported becoming more problem-oriented ate what has been learned. Good performance assessments are and more diagnostic in their teaching. complex intellectual, physical, and social challenges. They stretch Two final notes: For assessments to serve the critical functions students’ thinking and planning abilities, while also allowing student detailed above, they must be grounded in a conception of learning as aptitudes and interests to serve as a springboard for developing developmental and in a belief that all students will learn from experi- competence. ence and feedback, rather than being constrained by innate ability. Through these tasks, students are not only required to demon- It is also important to remember that the most effective perfor- strate their competencies, but the tasks themselves require use mance assessments are part of a related set of practices that in- of critical skills, including planning, setting priorities, organizing clude the integration of assessment and instruction, systematic use individual and group efforts, exerting discipline, determining how of iterative cycles of reflection and action, and ongoing opportunity to communicate effectively with an audience, and understanding for students to improve their work.

Type of Assessment Form of Feedback Rubrics Detailed specifications of students’ work products, with levels of progress defined. Students should understand the rubric before beginning the work and should revisit it throughout a project. Solution Reviews A public opportunity for students to show work in progress and obtain feedback from peers, teachers, or other community members. Whole Class Discussion Structured classroom discussions that provide a venue for the vetting of ideas and explanations and surface misconceptions that can be addressed mid-project. Performance Assessments Individual or small-group projects, usually of short duration, that enable teachers to assess students’ ability to apply acquired knowledge in a new context. Written Journals Students maintain an ongoing record of experiences, reflections, and problem-solving throughout a project. Portfolios Students compile a collection of their work over time, usually highlighting progress and including personal reflection. Weekly Reports Students create weekly written responses to a set of simple questions throughout the duration of a project. Self-Assessment Students evaluate their own work according to predefined criteria, often using such tools, such as a rubric or focus questions. approach aims to take learning one step further informing school officials about problems they have solved the problem. The problems by enabling students to transfer their learning faced by homeless students (Penuel, Means, are realistic and have multiple solutions and to new kinds of situations and problems & Simkins, 2000). The students in the methods for reaching them, rather than a and to use knowledge more proficiently in multimedia program earned higher scores single “right” approach. performance situations. than the comparison group on content In all problem-based approaches, Some examples illustrate this point. mastery, sensitivity to audience, and coherent students take an active role in building their Shepherd (1998) studied the results of a design. They performed equally well on knowledge, while the teacher’s role is to make unit in which a group of fourth and fifth graders standardized test scores of basic skills. thinking visible, guide the group process and completed a nine-week project to define and Other short-term, comparative studies of participation, and to ask questions to solicit find solutions related to housing shortages in traditional vs. project-based approaches have reflections. In short, the goal for teachers is several countries. In comparison to the control demonstrated several benefits from projects, to model good reasoning strategies and to group, the students engaged in project-based such as an increase in the ability to define support the students to take on these roles learning demonstrated a significant increase problems (Gallagher, Stepien, & Rosenthal, themselves. Teachers also offer instruction in in scores on a critical-thinking test, as well as 1992), growth in their ability to support their more traditional ways, such as lectures and increased confidence in their learning. reasoning with clear arguments (Stepien, explanations that are crafted and timed to A more ambitious, longitudinal Gallagher, & Workman, 1993), and enhanced support inquiry. comparative study by Boaler (1997, 1998) ability to plan a project after working on an Much of the research into problem-based followed students over three years in two analogous problem-based challenge (Moore, learning is associated with medical education, British schools that were comparable with Sherwood, Bateman, Bransford, & Goldman, where this approach is widely used. For respect to students’ prior achievement and 1996). Additional studies have documented example, physicians-in-training are typically socioeconomic status, but that used either positive changes for teachers and students presented with a patient profile, including a traditional curriculum or a the patient’s history and project-based curriculum. The “Students who may struggle in traditional symptoms. Using this traditional school featured instructional settings have often been found information, a small group teacher-directed whole to excel when they work in a PBL context.” of medical students must class instruction organized generate a diagnosis and around texts, workbooks, and frequent in motivation, attitude toward learning, and then conduct research and perform diagnostic tests in tracked classrooms. Instruction in skills, including work habits, critical thinking tests in order to identify possible causes of the the other school used open-ended projects skills, and problem-solving abilities (see, e.g. pain or illness. The instructor typically plays a in heterogeneous classrooms. Using a pre- Bartscher, Gould, & Nutter, 1995; Peck, Peck, coaching role throughout the process. Meta- and post-test design, the study found that Sentz, & Zasa, 1998; Tretten & Zachariou, analyses of studies have found that medical although students had comparable learning 1995). Interestingly, students who may students who are enrolled in problem-based gains when tested on basic mathematics struggle in traditional instructional settings curricula score higher on clinical problem- procedures, those who had participated have often been found to excel when they solving measures and on actual ratings of in the project-based curriculum did better have the opportunity to work in a PBL context, clinical performance (Vernon & Blake, 1993; on conceptual problems presented in the which better matches their learning style or Albanese & Mitchell, 1993) than peers who National Exam. Significantly more students in preference for collaboration and activity type are not enrolled in such programs. Similar the project-based school passed the National (see, e.g., Boaler, 1997; Meyer, Turner, & problem- or case-based approaches have been Exam in year three of the study than those Spencer, 1997; Rosenfeld & Rosenfeld, 1998). used in business, law, and teacher education in the traditional school. Boaler noted that, to help students learn to analyze complex, although students in the traditional school Students as Problem-Solvers multifaceted situations and to develop “thought that mathematical success rested on Problem-based learning approaches are a knowledge to guide decisionmaking (see, e.g. being able to remember and use rules,” the close cousin of project-based learning. Lessons Lundeberg, Levin, & Harrington, 1999; Savery PBL students had developed a more flexible, typically involve a specific type of activity & Duffy, 1996; Williams, 1992). useful kind of mathematical knowledge that focused on using reasoning and resources to For example, research has found that the engaged them in “exploration and thought” solve a problem. use of cases in teacher education can help (Boaler, 1997, p. 63). In problem-based learning, students work prospective teachers learn to apply theory and A third study, designed to assess the impact in small groups to investigate meaningful practical knowledge to specific school contexts of the development of multimedia projects on problems, identify what they need to learn and think through and resolve classroom student learning, showed similar gains. In this in order to solve a problem, and generate dilemmas more productively. Through the example, researchers created a performance strategies for solution (Barrows, 1996; Hmelo- use of case methods in which they analyze task in which students participating in the Silver, 2004). They also implement these their practice and its outcomes —as well as Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project and a strategies, evaluate their results, and continue the practice of others—teachers grow more comparison group developed a brochure to generate new strategies as needed until capable of framing problems, drawing lessons math’s sake, or science for science’s sake. We believe that the test scores will take care of themselves.” By test scores, or almost any account, ELS has a successful track record in education re- form. After just six years in operation, Congress hailed it as a national educational model and was signing up schools from coast to coast. In 2003, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation awarded it a five-year, $12.6 million grant to create twenty small college-preparatory high schools. That track record was one reason the Kauff- man Foundation chose to partner with ELS. An- other was diversity. “In Kansas City, we have a huge range of school settings—large, small, rural, urban, suburban, wealthy, not wealthy—so we looked hard to find an innovative program that could accom- modate our needs,” says Margo Quiriconi, the organization’s director of research and policy. “Their model has been successfully implemented in almost every kind of school imaginable.” Getting Buy-In This success is due in part to an ELS mandate regarding program buy-in: Before a school can Implementing Project-Based apply, the school board must unanimously ap- prove it, and 80 percent of school staff must Learning Districtwide agree on the proposal. “Even though this is a school-based model, Robert J. Van Maren, superintendent of the Bonner not a district-based model, we can’t pick a school if we don’t Springs/Edwardsville School District near Kansas City, Kan- have support from the top down,” says Corey Scholes, a for- sas, believes “it’s essential that learning not only be fun, but mer K–8 principal who is now the ELS representative working also be something that teachers and kids can get passionate with the Bonner Springs schools. “Changing an entire school about. culture is really hard work. You just can’t do it without the “I’ve never seen anyone be passionate about testing,” support of both administration and the teachers. The Bonner adds Van Maren, “but as a result of No Child Left Behind and Springs school system showed an intense dedication to the other like initiatives, that’s what we’ve been forced to offer.” model.” To change the paradigm, Van Maren championed a re- Joseph DiPinio, principal cent effort to bring the project-based Expeditionary Learning MOREINFORMATION of grant recipient Robert E. Schools (ELS) Outward Bound model—a type of learning that Clark Middle School, was a For more information on the Expeditionary has been very successful in other schools and districts—to Learning Schools Outward Bound Model, staunch supporter from the his own school district. In this model, the focus is on learn- go to elschool.org beginning. “As part of the ing “expeditions”—long-term student investigations that, grant process, we visited though keyed to state and federal standards, are designed to Expeditionary Learning Schools around the country, and, in ev- nurture a strong affinity for dynamic learning and a curiosity ery instance, I walked away with the thought ‘That’s how I want about the world beyond the classroom. In ELS schools, the my school to be,’” he says. “When you see something good for focus is on learning by doing, rather than the more passive kids, you want to figure out a way to make that happen, but the traditional classroom experience. costs for the professional development and the school design As a result of Van Maren’s efforts, Kansas City’s Ewing are so extensive. We wouldn’t have been able to afford to do Marion Kauffman Foundation awarded five-year, $150,000 this comprehensively on our own.” grants to four of his schools—three elementary schools and Though excitement about the new venture is evident, Bon- one middle school—to support their transformation into Expe- ner Springs’s superintendent acknowledges that the next five ditionary Learning Schools. That brought the total number of years will be challenging. ELS schools in the Kansas City area to eleven, giving the re- “Change is difficult, and it’s always easier to just keep do- gion the opportunity to become the flagship of the movement. ing what you’ve always done,” Van Maren says. “But we want Van Maren believes Expeditionary Learning is where their different results. We want our kids to reach a new level of po- schools are headed—and that they’ll get there without compro- tential and be competitive with kids all over the world. Just as mising national and state standards in the process. important, we want to bring the joy and passion back into the “I’m an old science teacher, and I know that kids learn by classroom. We want to create a learning experience that kids doing, not by sitting there doing worksheets or practice tests,” and teachers will never forget.” he says. “This grant allows us to use the best pedagogy avail- able to teach using an investigative style, so kids can discover Adapted from Edutopia article, “River Journeys and Life Without the linkages between what they’re learning—not just math for Bathing: Immersive Education,” by Laura Scholes (May 15, 2007). beyond their immediate setting, and reflecting 1998b; Schmidt et al., 1996) and to support Finally, design projects require students to set upon their work from multiple perspectives. their claims with well-reasoned arguments constraints, generate ideas, create prototypes, Cases have been found to be helpful in enabling (Stepien et al., 1993). They also experience and develop plans through storyboarding or teachers to take alternative perspectives, for larger gains in conceptual understanding in other representational practices. These are all example, to better understand and appreciate science (Williams, Hemstreet, Liu, & Smith, critical twenty-first century skills. cultural diversity. For many teachers, writing 1998). Design-based approaches can be found cases about their own practice leads to a across many disciplines, including science, kind of “reflection-on-action” that results in Learning Through Design technology, art, engineering, and architecture. professional learning and changes in practice A third genre of instructional approaches Competitions, such as the FIRST robotics (Darling-Hammond & Hammerness, 2002). is based on the premise that children learn competitions (www.usfirst.org) or the Studies of the efficacy of problem-based deeply when they are asked to design and ThinkQuest competition (www.thinkquest. learning suggest that it is comparable, though create an artifact that requires understanding org) also stress design using technological not always superior, to more traditional and application of knowledge. Design-based tools and collaborative project work. In the instruction in facilitating factual learning. This lessons have several features that make them ThinkQuest competition, for example, teams approach has been found to be better, though, ideal for developing technical and subject of students design and build Web sites on in supporting flexible problem solving, matter knowledge (Newstetter, 2000). For topics ranging from art, astronomy, and application of knowledge, and hypothesis example, design activity supports revisions programming to foster care and mental health. generation (for a meta-analysis, see Dochy, and iterative activity as students create, Student teams are mentored by a teacher who Segers, Van den Bossche, & Gijbels, 2003). assess, and redesign their work product. The gives general guidance throughout the design Additional studies have demonstrated that complexity of the work often dictates the need process, leaving the specific creative and students who participated in problem-based for collaboration and specific roles for different technical work to the students. Teams receive experiences are better able to generate accurate students, providing them with the opportunity and offer feedback during a peer review of hypotheses and coherent explanations (Hmelo, to become “experts” in a particular area. the initial submissions, and then use this

Tomorrow’s Engineers: Building a Competitive Robot Every year, thousands of students meet to put their creations parents to professional engineers—puts forth design ideas. From those through their paces in a competition that involves a wide-range of best ideas comes a basic design, which the team will spend the next twenty-first century skills: teamwork, problem solving, and perseverance, five weeks refining, fabricating, and testing on a prototype of the actual as well as imagination, creativity, professionalism, and maturity. The competition course. students, teachers, and mentors who participate in the First Robotics Although much of the work revolves around design and engineering, Competition (FRC) also have a whole lot of fun. robotics coach Sayers, who was a chemical engineer before making the Started by engineer and inventor Dean Kamen, FIRST (For Inspira- switch to teaching, is quick to point out that a successful team requires tion and Recognition of Science and Technology) is all about inspiring an eclectic mix of students with a variety of skills and interests. and motivating students to become engaged in math, science, engi- “If a student wants to be on the team, the first questions I ask them neering, and technology. Each year, teams of students, teachers, and are, ‘What do you enjoy doing? What are you good at?’” says Sayers, professional engineers respond to the FIRST challenge by designing adding that there’s “something for everyone” on the Poudre High ro- and building a robot. botics team. Students interested in computers do the programming or “To passively sit in a classroom is a nineteenth-century format,” Ka- computer-aided design and animation work. Those with an artistic flair man has said. “In this next century, you’re going to have to be creative, design everything from team T- or you’re not going to make it.” shirts to fliers to the look and feel MOREINFORMATION of the robot itself. Writers create Watch a video about Poudre Hands-On Science and Engineering the design documentation. The High School’s Robotics Team at The regional and national competitions are the culmination of six in- list of responsibilities, says Say- edutopia.org/pourdre-high-school- tense weeks, during which students, working with high school teachers ers, goes on and on. And no one robotics. For more information on FRC and and professional engineers, design and build a remote-control robot job, he is quick to add, is more First Competitions, visit usfirst.org that can complete specific tasks and maneuver through a specially important than any other. designed course. In addition to providing hands- “Mentoring plays a big role in the process right from the start,” on science and engineering experience, the robotics program teaches says Lori Ragas, senior teams coordinator for FIRST. From the first students valuable lessons in cooperation and teamwork. brainstorming session to the last match at one of the regionals or the Respect. Cooperation. Learning to be a team player. These are national competition, professional engineers work side-by-side with the just a few of the “life skills” students learn through the robotics pro- high school students, explaining the functions of different parts, provid- gram. They’re skills, say team members and adult advisers alike, that ing feedback on design options, and rolling up their sleeves to repair a students will carry with them—whether or not they decide to pursue a faulty part or tinker with a design element. career in science or engineering. For a team from Poudre High in Fort Collins, Colorado, the first week and a half after the design challenge is announced is devoted to what Adapted from Edutopia article, “Building a Better Robot: A Robotics teacher and robotics coach Steve Sayers calls “pure strategy.” Every- Competition Introduces Students to Engineering,” by Roberta Furger one—from the first-year participant to the veteran team member, from (December 3, 2001). Findings A growing body of research has shown the following: information to revise their work. To date, more One of the principal challenges for •Students learn more deeply when than 30,000 students have created more than teachers, then, is to learn how to juggle a host they can apply classroom-gathered 550 Web sites through this competition (www. knowledge to real-world problems, of new responsibilities and implementation thinkquest.org/library/). and when they to take part in projects issues—from carving out the time needed for There are relatively few studies that have that require sustained engagement extended inquiry to developing new classroom- used control-group designs to evaluate the and collaboration. management techniques. Teachers must also impact of the learning-by-design model. In •Active learning practices have a be able to design and support inquiry-based one such study, however, Hmelo, Holton, and more significant impact on student lessons that meet a variety of criteria, such Kolodner (2000) asked sixth-grade students performance than any other variable, as illuminating key subject matter concepts, to design a set of artificial lungs and build a including student background and balancing direct instruction with inquiry prior achievement. partially working model of the respiratory opportunities, scaffolding the learning of system. They found that the design project •Students are most successful when individual students through modeling and led to better learning outcomes than the they are taught how to learn as well feedback, facilitating learning among multiple as what to learn. traditional approach to instruction. They also groups, and developing assessments to guide noted that the design students learned to view the learning process (Blumenfeld et al., 1991; the respiratory system more systemically and to apply key concepts in their design work. Marx et al., 1994, 1997; Rosenfeld & Rosenfeld, understood more about the structures and They also noted a positive effect on motivation 1998; Sage, 1996). functions of the system than the comparison and sense of ownership over designs among That’s a tall order for even the most group. Researchers also observed that design both individuals and groups. experienced teacher. activities are particularly good for helping Successful inquiry-based approaches students develop understanding of complex Implementation Challenges require careful planning and the development systems, noting that the systems can be One of the most significant challenges to of strategies for collaboration, classroom presented as a united whole whose structure is the successful implementation of inquiry interaction, and assessment. Some research adapted to specific purposes (Perkins, 1986). approaches is the skills and knowledge of the has focused specifically on how to best support Echoing the findings of other classroom teachers engaging in this alternative form these new approaches to teaching and learning. research, Hmelo and colleagues (2000) of teaching and learning (Good & Brophy, For example, Puntambekar & Kolodner (2005) maintain, however, that design challenges 1986). When teachers don’t fully understand describe two studies designed to advance our need to be carefully planned. They contend the complexities of inquiry-based learning, understanding of the kinds of support students that lessons should be designed to illuminate they may simply think of this approach need to learn content in the context of design the functions of different elements of a system, “unstructured,” and may, as a result, fail to projects. They knew from earlier classroom and they stress the importance of providing provide proper scaffolding, assessment, and research (Gertzman & Kolodner, 1996) dynamic feedback, allowing students to redirection as projects unfold. that simply furnishing students with rich engage in multiple iterations of design, and Research on inquiry-based learning has resources and an interesting problem (such as giving adequate time to the entire system of identified the risks and consequences when designing a household robot with arthropod classroom activities. students lack prior experience in this approach features) was not enough. Students needed Much of the research on learning through or have insufficient support and modeling help understanding the problem, applying design-based projects has been more from teachers. For example, with respect to science knowledge, evaluating their designs, naturalistic. These studies have either focused disciplinary understanding, students can have explaining failures, and engaging in revision. on a single design activity or on longer-term difficulty generating meaningful “driving Students often neglected to use informational design experiments in which changes are questions” or evaluating their questions resources unless explicitly prompted. made to the curriculum based on observations to determine if they are warranted by the To address these problems, the researchers of learning processes and outcomes. For investigation (Krajcik et al., 1998) or they may introduced a design diary that was intended example, Fortus and colleagues (2004) lack the background knowledge needed to to explicitly introduce design process ideas conducted a study with 92 students that make sense of the inquiry (Edelson, Gordon, & and support four phases of design work: tracked their learning across three design- Pea, 1999). With respect to general academic understanding the challenge, gathering based science units that included designing skills, students may have difficulty developing information, generating a solution, and a structure for extreme environments, logical arguments and evidence to support evaluating solutions. The goal of the curriculum designing environmentally friendly batteries, their claims (Krajcik et al., 1998). As for was to help students learn about coastal and designing safer cell phones. Each unit management of the work, students often find erosion by designing a solution for a specific contained multiple design and learning cycles. it hard to determine how to work together, island off the coast of Georgia. To experiment The research team found that both higher- manage their time and the complexity of the with solutions, they had access to stream and lower-achieving students showed strong work, and sustain motivation in the face of tables, as well as informational resources on evidence of progress in learning the targeted setbacks or confusion (Achilles & Hoover, videotape and the Internet. In addition to science concepts, and that students were able 1996; Edelson et al., 1999). implementing the journal, they carried out classrooms. “This place does develop a certain hum,” admits Alan Sandler, the foundation’s executive director. “It’s sup- posed to be like a busy office.” AFSF programs director Will Fowler characterizes the ambiance as “the real sound of learning. It shocks and delights them that they are encouraged to talk to each other.” The use of the term studio rather than classroom is not ac- cidental. According to Fowler, “We want the kids to understand that Build SF is more a design studio than it is a school.” Build SF’s insistence on treating kids like adults takes some getting used to. Accustomed to dealing with hundreds of kids in a traditional high school setting, Boston-area refugee Brennan admits she was nervous in 2005 when she began instructing at Build SF. “We were trained never to leave kids alone,” she adds. “When Will Fowler first told me to ‘walk away,’ it was difficult.” “There is only one rule,” Fowler explains. “When Casey says, ‘Listen up,’ they have to listen up.”

Rising to Challenges Intelligent Design: Another central precept of Build SF is that participants be ex- posed to the unvarnished realities of life in the highly competi- Immersing Students tive and often-contentious world of design and architecture. One in Civic Education recent project involved creating a series of historically themed tiles for the city’s newly redesigned Pier 14. The students had The Build San Francisco Institute, a yearlong design to first design the tiles and then present and “sell” their idea program cosponsored by the Architectural Foundation of San to the Port Commission—a process that took several iterations Francisco (AFSF) and the San Francisco Unified School District before the Commission was satisfied. The Build SF team had (SFUSD), has as one of its core principles that subjects such as to master the complex process of tile production, from drawing, math, history, and writing have a broader context—they are es- tracing, and painting to glazing and firing, as well as overseeing sential tools for conceptualizing, understanding, sketching, and installation. building relevant and compelling real-world projects. Some projects, such as the design and building of a bridge “In a military academy, they don’t teach trigonometry; they with sets of Lego blocks, are meant to get kids from different teach navigation,” explains Build SF cofounder Richard Hannum. schools comfortable with one another. “Students tend to spend “Because you need trig for navigation, you learn it.” their entire school careers with the same kids from the same Offering accredited courses with titles such as Architectural neighborhoods,” the AFSF’s Sandler says about the goal of Design and Urban Sociology, today’s Build SF is the offshoot of opening up new vistas. “When they come here and leave their an after-school and summer program launched 13 years ago. baggage behind, they’re able to develop a different, adult, per- In 2004, as a part of the SFUSD’s Secondary School Redesign sona.” Initiative, the program was expanded to an all-afternoon, five- Comings and goings at the Build SF studio continue through- day-a-week schedule; two of those days are devoted to working out the afternoon as students arrive from their morning high with mentors from some of San Francisco’s leading architec- school classes, go to work on their various projects, or move ture, interior-design, engineering, and contracting firms, along on to their assigned mentorships. Some stay throughout the with city agencies involved in urban planning. The curriculum afternoon, and others depart for after-school activities at their was designed to develop student interest in architecture-related respective high schools. This open-endedness might strike fields and, more fundamentally, to immerse them in the process some critics as an easy way to ditch school. For the Build SF of meshing civic and business interests. team, however, it is a critical part of the program. “Maybe for “It’s not about building little architects,” says Hannum. the first time in their school careers, kids have to be respon- “Rather, we use architecture as a vehicle to give kids with no sible for their own time,” Sandler says. “Our key motto is ‘Trust community context an insight into, and a voice in, the public the kids’—treat them as professionals, and they will rise to the process.” challenge each and every time.” The ability to provide a bridge between education and busi- Adapted from Edutopia article, “Intelligent Design: Immersing Students ness is why Janet Schulze, principal at San Francisco’s John in Civic Education,” by Richard Rapaport (March 2007). O’Connell High School of Technology, is a Build SF booster. The program, she says, is the fastest way to integrate academic skills into a real-world setting.” MOREINFORMATION Schulze praised the effort San Francisco’s design commu- Watch a video on Build SF at nity dedicates to the program, particularly in terms of offering edutopia.org/learning-design mentorships. “I’d love to see the medical and finance communi- For more information on the Build San ties do something like it,” she adds. Francisco Institute, go to At Build SF’s downtown studio, the decibel level is much afsf.org/program_buildsf.htm higher than what would be acceptable in most high school careful assessment of students’ learning and connecting them with their design work. 1995). Problems varied in terms of how well observation of classroom interactions. defined they were (a single right answer versus In this first study, the learning outcomes Small-Group Learning open-ended projects, such as writing a story) were disappointing, but instructive. For Much of the work involving inquiry-based and whether they were more or less reliant on example, researchers noted that the teacher learning involves students working in pairs or language. Several experimental studies have missed many opportunities to advance groups to solve a problem, complete a project, shown that groups outperform individuals learning because she could not listen to all or design and build an artifact. Cooperative on learning tasks and that individuals who small group discussions and had decided not small-group learning, which Cohen (1994b) work in groups do better on later individual to have whole-group discussions. They also defines as “students working together in assessments as well (Barron, 2000a, b; 2003; noted that the students needed more specific a group small enough that everyone can O’Donnell & Dansereau, 1992). prompts for justifying design decisions. participate on a collective task that has been Cooperative group work benefits In their second study, the researchers clearly assigned,” has been the subject of students in social and behavioral areas as designed and implemented a broader system hundreds of studies and several meta-analyses well, including improvement in student self- of tools and processes, which greatly improved (Cohen, Kulik, & Kulik, 1982; Cook, Scruggs, concept, social interaction, time on task, the learning outcomes--notably, more Mastropieri, & Castro, 1985; Hartley, 1977; and positive feelings toward peers (Cohen et structured diary prompts that asked for design Johnson, Maruyama, Nelson, & Skon, 1981; al., 1982; Cook et al., 1985; Hartley, 1977; rationales and explanations, and insertion of Rohrbeck, Ginsburg-Block, Fantuzzo, & Ginsburg-Block, Rohrbeck, & Fantuzzo, whole-class discussions at strategic moments. Miller, 2003). Overall, these analyses come 2006; Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Ginsburg- They also added new activity structures that to the same conclusion: there are significant Block and colleagues (2006) focused on required students to publicly defend designs learning benefits for students who work the relationship between academic and earlier in the process. These processes of together on learning activities (Johnson & nonacademic measures. They found that helping students keep track of and defend Johnson, 1981, 1989). both social and self-concept measures were their thinking were very helpful. For example, in a comparison of four related to academic outcomes. Larger effects In addition, the redundancy of learning types of problems presented to individuals were found for classroom interventions that opportunities afforded by the many forms or cooperative teams, researchers found that used same-gender grouping, interdependent of support was instrumental in helping teams outperformed individuals on all types group rewards, structured student roles, and students focus on learning concepts and and across all ages (Quin, Johnson, & Johnson, individualized evaluation procedures. They

Expeditionary Learning we want to be working from—what they know and what they don’t know. At King Middle School in Portland, Maine, celebrations with everyone And working with these media allows that to happen.” from parents to community members are an important part of the learn- Ann Brown, King’s eighth-grade science teacher, likes the fact that ing process. King, like schools throughout the country, has adopted the video requires students to work in teams and to learn from each other. Expeditionary Learning Outward Bound model of personalized, project- “That adds to the final product because the different angles produce based learning. At least twice a year, students engage in extended inter- different ways of approaching the same problem,” she says. “You get disciplinary projects that culminate in a celebration of learning, during pieces of the best ideas coming together, so the final product is that which they share their newfound knowledge and skills with the broader much better, and they’re also learning from each other and thinking school community. differently.” As with other Expeditionary Learning schools, King teachers incor- King put an end to tracking and special education “pullout” classes porate a range of subjects into their projects -- from art to science to at about the same time it adopted the project approach to learning and language arts. The projects also include well-considered use of technol- began emphasizing the use of technology. Since then, test scores have ogy, due in no small part to the state of Maine’s decision to provide all shot up—a major accomplishment for a student population that is 60 seventh and eighth graders with Apple iBook laptop computers. percent low-income and 22 percent refugee and that comes to school Culminating events come in a number of forms: a performance of an speaking 28 different languages. Following years of below-average original play, a presentation to younger students of a geology kit, or the scores on the state achievement test, King students began outscoring production of a CD-ROM, book, or a video, all of which incorporate state the state average in six out of seven subjects in 1999, and they even curriculum standards. Projects at King have included an aquarium de- moved into the top third in some subjects. sign judged by local architects, a CD narrative of Whitman’s “O Captain! Adapted from Edutopia article, “Laptops on Expedition: Embracing My Captain!” by students learning English, and Voices of U.S. (a book of Expeditionary Learning,” by Diane Curtis (January 19, 2004). immigrant stories), to name a few. “The goal for us at King Middle School is to create opportunities for all kids to do representational work about their learning,” says MOREINFORMATION David Grant, King’s technology teaching strategist. He works with both Watch a video on King Middle School’s Expedition- students and teachers to ensure that any video or computer or Web ary Learning Program at: edutopia.org/maine-video. production furthers the curriculum. “It’s in the making of things that kids For more information on the Expeditionary Leaning Schools actually do their learning,” he says. Through their projects, adds Grant, Outward Bound Model, go to elschool.org students are able to demonstrate what they know. “That’s always where Definitions Cooperative Learning also found that low-income students benefited Small teams use a variety of learning Instruction, one of the best-known and well- activities to improve their understand- more than high-income students and that researched approaches to cooperative small- ing of a subject. urban students benefited more than suburban group learning. students. Racial and ethnic minority students Design-Based Instruction Complex Instruction uses carefully benefited even more from cooperative group Students create, assess, and redesign designed activities that require diverse talents work than non-minority students, a finding products through stages of revisions. and interdependence among group members. The work often requires collabora- repeated over several decades (see Slavin & Teachers are encouraged to pay attention to tion and specific roles for individual Oickle, 1981). students, enabling them to become unequal participation among group members, Most recently, the focus of research experts in a particular area. which often results from status differences has gone beyond the practical benefits of among peers, and are given strategies that collaboration for individual learning to Inquiry-Based Teaching allow them to bolster the status of infrequent A student-centered, active learning recognize the importance of helping children contributors (Cohen & Lotan, 1997). In approach focusing on questioning, learn to collaborate as necessary preparation critical thinking, and problem solving. addition, roles are assigned to support equal for all kinds of work. For example, the Science participation, such as recorder, reporter, for All Americans, Project 2061 (American Project-Based Learning materials manager, resource manager, Association for the Advancement of Science, Students explore real-world problems communication facilitator, and harmonizer. 1989) suggests that a core practice of scientific and challenges, developing cross-cur- A major component of the approach riculum skills while working in small inquiry is collaborative work and that schools is development of “group-worthy tasks” collaborative groups. Also known as should prepare students for this kind of work project learning. that are both sufficiently open-ended and through classroom activities that require joint multifaceted that they require and benefit efforts. Problem-Based Learning from the participation of every member But effective cooperative learning can Students learn through the process of the group. Tasks that require a variety of solving a problem. The approach is also be complex to implement. Research has of skills, such as research, analysis, visual also inquiry-based when students are identified at least three major challenges for active in creating the problem. representation, and writing are well suited cooperative learning in classrooms: developing to this approach. norms and structures within groups that allow There is strong evidence supporting the individuals to work together; developing tasks the continued work of the entire group. success of Complex Instruction strategies in that support useful cooperative work; and Many approaches fall between these two promoting student academic achievement developing discipline-appropriate strategies extremes. Some approaches assign children (Abram et al., 2001; Cohen, 1993, 1994a, for discussion that support rich learning of to management (e.g. Cohen, 1994a, 1994b), 1994b; Cohen & Lotan, 1995; Cohen et al., content. Each challenge is discussed in the conversational (O’Donnell, 2006; King, 1990), 1999, 2002). In recent studies, evidence of next section. or intellectual roles in the group (Palincsar this success has been extended to the learning & Herrenkohl, 1999, 2002; Cornelius & gains of new English language learners. Productive Collaboration Herrenkohl, 2004; White & Frederiksen, A great deal of work has been done to 2005). Keys to Group Work specify the kinds of tasks, accountability When designing cooperative group work, Recent research has gone beyond summative structures, and roles that help students teachers should pay careful attention to assessments of the benefits of group work to collaborate well. In Johnson and Johnson’s various aspects of the work process and to try to understand why collaboration benefits summary (1999) of forty years of research the interaction among students. For example, learning and to unpack the differences on cooperative learning, they identify five Slavin (1991) argues, “it is not enough to between more and less successful approaches “basic elements” of cooperation that have simply tell students to work together. They to collaboration. A number of social processes emerged as important across multiple must have a reason to take one another’s have been identified that help explain why models: positive interdependence, individual achievement seriously.” He developed a group work supports individual learning. They accountability, structures that promote face- model that focuses on external motivators include opportunities to do the following: to-face interaction, social skills, and group that reside outside the group, such as rewards share original insights (Bos, 1937), resolve processing. and individual accountability established differing perspectives through argument A range of activity structures has been by the teacher. His meta-analysis found (Amigues, 1988; Phelps & Damon, 1989), developed to support group work, from that group tasks with structures promoting explain one’s thinking about a phenomenon cooperative-learning approaches where individual accountability produce stronger (King, 1990; Webb, Troper, & Fall, 1995), students are simply asked to help each other learning outcomes (Slavin, 1996). provide critique (Bos, 1937), observe the complete individually assigned traditional Cohen’s review of research (1994b) on strategies of others (Azmitia, 1988), and listen problem sets to approaches where students productive small groups focuses on internal to explanations (Coleman, 1998; Hatano & are expected to collectively define projects group interaction around the task. She Iganaki, 1991; Webb, 1985; Schwartz, 1995; and generate a single product that reflects and her colleagues developed Complex Shirouzu, Miyake, & Masukawa, 2002). Inquiry-Based and Cooperative Learning in Action Here is a list of short films and articles from the Edutopia website highlighting these practices in schools around the country:

•FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology) Robotics competition for high schools, founded by inventor and engineer Dean Kamen edutopia.org/poudre-high-school-robotics

•Build San Francisco, a yearlong design program for high school students working with architects, organized by the Architectural Foundation of San Francisco edutopia.org/learning-design

•Expeditionary Learning Interdisciplinary projects by Maine middle school students, equipped with laptop computers edutopia.org/king-middle-school- Researchers of collaborative learning provide the opportunity to offer formative expeditionary-learning situations note that it is not simply the act feedback and to support the development of of asking children to work in groups that is group understandings and goals. Computer- •Anchorage Alaska’s districtwide com- mitment to cooperative learning and the essential, but rather the possibility that certain based tools can also be useful in establishing development of social and emotional kinds of learning processes can be activated ways of working and supporting productive skills (Cohen, 1994b). Group members need to find collaborative exchanges. One of the best edutopia.org/anchorage-social- emotional-learning-video ways to coordinate their attention and goals and most documented examples is the to work together productively (Barron, 2003). Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Research that attends explicitly to variability (CSILE) project (Scardamalia, Bereiter, & can be challenging to implement. They in group interaction has yielded information Lamon, 1994), which includes a knowledge require simultaneous changes in curriculum, about factors affecting productive and less gathering and improvement tool to support instruction, and assessment practices— productive collaboration. inquiry and norms for knowledge building changes that are often new to teachers, as well In an experimental study comparing the discourse. In their contemporary work, as students (Barron et al., 1998; Blumenfeld, problem-solving of groups and individuals Scardamalia and Bereiter have expanded Soloway, Marx, Krajcik, Guzdial, & Palincsar, at the sixth-grade level, Barron (2000a, this pedegogical approach to “knowledge 1991). b; Barron 2003) found that groups building communities” from K–12 to college Teachers need time—and a community— outperformed individuals and that when level and workplace communities using the to support their capacity to organize sustained students were given a new analogous Knowledge Forum software environment. project work. Without this additional time problem to solve, those who had first Beyond any specific tool or technique, however, and support, extended projects can easily solved the problems in groups performed it’s important that the teacher establish, model, become more about “doing for the sake of at a significantly higher level. However, and encourage norms of interaction that reflect doing” than “doing with understanding” more detailed analysis revealed a great good inquiry practices. (Barron et al., 1998), the true goal of inquiry- deal of variability in how well the students based group work. collaborated. Further analysis also showed Summary As schools explore and implement that the quality of the collaboration— There is strong evidence to show that inquiry- strategies to engage and prepare students how they talked and interacted with one based, collaborative approaches to learning for the complex and ever-changing world, another—was related to their group score benefit both individual and collective inquiry-based learning provides a research- and later individual scores. knowledge growth. Students engaged in proven approach withthat has the potential Given these and other findings, it’s clear inquiry-based learning develop content to transform teaching and learning. Students that the classroom teacher plays a critical knowledge and learn increasingly important develop critical academic, interpersonal, and role in establishing and modeling practices twenty-first century skills, such as the ability life skills and teachers, for their part, expand of productive group learning processes to work in teams, solve complex problems, and deepen their repertoire, connecting with and conversations. Observing a group’s and to apply knowledge gained through one their peers and their students in new and interactions can provide teachers with lesson or task to other circumstances. powerful ways. valuable insight into whether the students The research also suggests that inquiry- That’s a powerful combination for students are engaged in productive work and can based lessons and meaningful group work and teachers alike. n REFERENCES Boaler, J. (1997). 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Editor’s Note: This article, edited by Roberta Furger, is excerpted from a chapter of a new book, Powerful Learning: What We Know About Teaching for Understanding. By Linda Darling-Hammond, Brigid Barron, P. David Pearson, Alan H. Schoenfeld, Elizabeth K. Stage, Timothy D. Zimmerman, Gina N. Cervetti, and Jennifer Tilson © 2008 by John Wiley & Sons Inc. All rights reserved. Published by Jossey-Bass, a Wiley imprint. 989 Market Street More Resources: For other articles and San Francisco, CA 94103-1741 documentary films, including a video inter- josseybass.com view with Linda Darling-Hammond, go to edutopia.org/darling-hammond-video Published with support from The George Lucas Educational Foundation

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