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Rote Learning, and Cation at the University of California, Santa Barbara

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Rote Learning, and Cation at the University of California, Santa Barbara THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Autumn 2002 Revising Bloom’s Taxonomy Richard E. Mayer Rote Versus Meaningful Learning1 EARNING INVOLVES THE ACQUISITION of knowl- retention requires that students remember what they L edge. This is a commonsense view of learn- have learned, whereas transfer requires students not ing that has implications for how to teach—such only to remember but also to make sense of and be as presenting information to learners in books and able to use what they have learned (Bransford, lectures—and how to assess—such as testing to Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Detterman & Sternberg, see how much of the presented material students 1993; Haskell, 2001; Mayer, 1995; McKeough, can remember (Mayer, 2001). The revised Taxon- Lupart, & Marini, 1995; Phye, 1997). Stated some- omy is based on a broader vision of learning that what differently, retention focuses on the past; includes not only acquiring knowledge but also be- transfer emphasizes the future. After reading a text- ing able to use knowledge in a variety of new situ- book lesson on Ohm’s Law, for example, a reten- ations. When taking a knowledge acquisition view tion test might include questions asking students of learning, teachers sometimes emphasize one kind to write the formula for Ohm’s Law. In contrast, a of cognitive processing in instruction and assess- transfer test might include questions asking stu- ment—what we call Remembering. Like the origi- dents to rearrange an electrical circuit to maximize nal Taxonomy, however, the revised Taxonomy is the rate of electron flow or to use Ohm’s Law to based on the idea that schooling can be expanded explain a complex electric circuit. to include a fuller range of cognitive processes. Although educational objectives for promot- The purpose of this article is to describe this fuller ing retention are fairly easy to construct, educators range of processes in more detail. may have more difficulty in formulating, teaching, Two of the most important educational goals and assessing objectives aimed at promoting trans- are to promote retention and to promote transfer fer (Baxter, Elder, & Glaser, 1996; Mayer, 2002; (which, when it occurs, indicates meaningful learn- Phye, 1997). The revised Taxonomy is intended to ing). Retention is the ability to remember material help broaden the typical set of educational objec- at some later time in much the same way it was tives to include those aimed at promoting transfer. presented during instruction. Transfer is the abili- ty to use what was learned to solve new problems, A Tale of Three Learning Outcomes answer new questions, or facilitate learning new As an introduction, consider three learning subject matter (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996). In short, scenarios. The first exemplifies what might be Richard E. Mayer is a professor of psychology and edu- called no learning, the second, rote learning, and cation at the University of California, Santa Barbara. the third, meaningful learning. THEORY INTO PRACTICE, Volume 41, Number 4, Autumn 2002 Copyright226 © 2002 College of Education, The Ohio State University Mayer Rote Versus Meaningful Learning No learning possesses relevant knowledge, she also can use that Amy reads a chapter on electrical circuits in knowledge to solve problems and understand new her science textbook. She skims the material, certain concepts. She can transfer her knowledge to new that the test will be a breeze. When she is asked to problems and new learning situations. Carla has recall part of the lesson (as a retention test), she is attended to relevant information and has under- able to remember very few of the key terms and stood it. The resulting learning outcome can be facts. For example, she cannot list the major compo- called meaningful learning. nents in an electrical circuit even though they were Meaningful learning occurs when students described in the chapter. When she is asked to use build the knowledge and cognitive processes needed the information to solve problems (as part of a trans- for successful problem solving. Problem solving in- fer test), she cannot. For example, she cannot an- volves devising a way of achieving a goal that one swer an essay question that asks her to diagnose a has never previously achieved; that is, figuring out problem in an electrical circuit. In this worst-case how to change a situation from its given state into scenario, Amy neither possesses nor is able to use a goal state (Mayer, 1992). Two major components the relevant knowledge. Amy has neither sufficient- in problem solving are (a) problem representation, ly attended to nor encoded the material during in which a student builds a mental representation learning. The resulting outcome can be essentially of the problem, and (b) problem solution, in which characterized as no learning. a student devises and carries out a plan for solving the problem (Mayer, 1992). Rote learning A focus on meaningful learning is consistent Becky reads the same chapter on electrical with the view of learning as knowledge construc- circuits. She reads carefully, making sure she reads tion in which students seek to make sense of their every word. She goes over the material, memoriz- experiences. In constructivist learning, students ing the key facts. When she is asked to recall the engage in active cognitive processing, such as pay- material, she can remember almost all of the im- ing attention to relevant incoming information, portant terms and facts in the lesson. Unlike Amy, mentally organizing incoming information into a she is able to list the major components in an elec- coherent representation, and mentally integrating trical circuit. However, when Becky is asked to incoming information with existing knowledge use the information to solve problems, she cannot. (Mayer, 1999). In contrast, a focus on rote learn- Like Amy, she cannot answer the essay question ing is consistent with the view of learning as knowl- requiring her to diagnose a problem in an electri- edge acquisition in which students seek to add new cal circuit. In this scenario, Becky possesses rele- information to their memories (Mayer, 1999). vant knowledge but is unable to use that knowledge Meaningful learning is recognized as an im- to solve problems. She cannot transfer this knowl- portant educational goal. It requires that instruction edge to a new situation. Becky has attended to go beyond simple presentation of Factual Knowl- relevant information but has not understood it and, edge and that assessment tasks require more of stu- therefore, cannot use it. The resulting learning out- dents than simply recalling or recognizing Factual come can be called rote learning. Knowledge (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Lambert & McCombs, 1998). The cognitive process- Meaningful learning es summarized here describe the range of students’ Carla reads the same textbook chapter on cognitive activities in meaningful learning; that is, electrical circuits. She reads carefully, trying to these processes are ways students can actively en- make sense out of it. When asked to recall the gage in the process of constructing meaning. material, she, like Midori, can remember almost all of the important terms and facts in the lesson. Cognitive Processes for Furthermore, when she is asked to use the infor- Retention and Transfer mation to solve problems, she generates many pos- If you are interested mainly in teaching and sible solutions. In this scenario, Carla not only assessing the degree to which students have learned 227 THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Autumn 2002 Revising Bloom’s Taxonomy some subject matter content and retained it over some Recognizing (also called identifying) involves period of time, you would focus primarily on one locating knowledge in long-term memory that is class of cognitive processes, namely, those associat- consistent with presented material. For example, in ed with Remember. In contrast, if you wish to ex- social studies, an objective could be “Identify the pand your focus by finding ways to foster and assess major exports of various South American countries.” meaningful learning, you need to emphasize those A corresponding test item would be “Which of cognitive processes that go beyond remembering. these is a major export of Colombia? (a) bananas, What are some of the cognitive processes used (b) coffee, (c) silk, (d) tea.” for retention and transfer? As discussed above, the Recalling (also called retrieving) involves re- revised Taxonomy includes six cognitive process cat- trieving relevant knowledge from long-term mem- egories—one most closely related to retention (Re- ory. In literature, an objective could be “Recall the member) and the other five increasingly related to poets who authored various poems.” A correspond- transfer (Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and ing test question would be “Who wrote The Charge Create). Based on a review of the illustrative ob- of the Light Brigade?” jectives listed in the original Taxonomy and an examination of other classification systems, we Understand have selected 19 specific cognitive processes that As you can see from the previous section, fit within these six categories. These 19 cognitive when the goal of instruction is to promote reten- processes are intended to be mutually exclusive; tion, the most important cognitive process is Re- together they delineate the breadth and boundaries member. However, when the goal of instruction is of the six categories. In the discussion that fol- to promote transfer, the focus shifts to the other lows, each of the six categories, as well as the five cognitive process categories, Understand cognitive processes that fit within them, are de- through Create. Of these, arguably the largest cat- fined and exemplified. egory of transfer-based educational objectives em- phasized in schools and colleges is Understand. Remember Students are said to understand when they are able When the objective of instruction is to pro- to construct meaning from instructional messages— mote retention of the presented material in much including oral, written, and graphic communica- the same form in which it was taught, the relevant tions, and material presented during lectures, in books, process category is Remember.
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