sign in sign up
<<
Home , Nymphaea, Nymphaeaceae, Nymphaea odorata, Nymphaea tetragona

Final Paper: Pacific Northwest Invasive Species

Nymphaea odorata, fragrant water Lily, tuberous water lily, white water lily

Allison Northey

Autumn 2014 FISH 423: Olden

12/5/14

Figure 1: photo on left shows the of N. odorata. Photo on the right shows eradication efforts of the aquatic in a residential lake. Photo credit: https://www.google.com/search?q=fragrant+water+lily

Taxonomy stigmatic fluid, which attracts pollinators to the flower (Schneider and Chaney, 1981). Order: Family: N. odorata has bright green leathery with : a purplish lower surface that can grow up to ten Species: odorata inches in width. The leaves have a waxy outer layering called the cuticle, which protects the Identification Key plant from pathogens. The leaves are narrow and deeply cut just about the center, where the stem , under the more is attached (Wildflower Center, 2010). The common names of the fragrant water lily, sweet- flexible stem also arises from the . scented water lily, or white water lily, is a Both the leaves and the usually float on perennial flowering found in the surface of the water, especially when water freshwater environments. It is a floating leaved levels are lower. A multi-celled is also and rooted plant, thriving in about three to six developed, and the stalk of the fruit bends feet of ponds and lakes. The plant arises from downward so the fruit matures underwater. dense fleshy (King County, 2010). A (Hilty and Hogan., 2002) rhizome is a starch-storing organ that grows horizontally. They are located beneath the There are only a few species similar to the surface of the soil, and range from 2-3 cm in fragrant water lily. N. odorata can be easily diameter (Dept. of Ecology Water Program, confused with Spatterdock, or 2005). The root system is impressive; one planted rhizome can cover a massive amount of space, increasing surface area of the . Surface area is important in this circumstance for greater uptake of nutrients through the root system. Rhizomes branch out and each new portion can produce a root and shoot system of its own (Seago et al., 2000). N. odorata grows with only its leaves and flowers exposed to the air, while the rhizomes are anchored in the bottom of the body of water and remain inundated (Seago et al., 2000).

Its many-petaled flowers (can be 25 or more per flower) grow in a range of white to pink with yellow centers. The petals are roughly ¾-4 inches long, thick and pointed at the tip (Wildflower Center, 2010). These petals are larger on the outside and smaller toward the inside of the flower. Flowering occurs three days at a time from about June to October each year. These flowers are fragrant, hence the common name, and emit a sweet honeysuckle-like odor, which is equally intense during all three days of flowering (Schneider and Chaney, 1981). There can be between 72-107 , which come in Figure 2: N. odorata leaf, top and bottom. Photo credit: two forms with the differences being in the length of the filaments (Schneider and Chaney, http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/wetland//fr_w 1981). A stigmatic cup is present, which holds aterlily.htm

fixing it into ammonia for the plant to use. Other substances need for growth or ‘feeding’ are CO2 and sunlight.

Reproductive Strategies

Each flower of the fragrant water lily has both male and female reproductive parts. This allows the plant to reproduce asexually, and also with the aid of propagation of the rhizomes. The plant also reproduces sexually. When flowering, each flower lasts only three to four Figure 3: N. odorata many-petaled flower, the days; opening in the morning and closing in the reproductive organ. Photo credit: afternoon (Hilty and Hogan 2002). Fertilization processes occur first, then pollen is released http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/udata/r9ndp23q/ from the flowers second. On the first day, the white/american-white-waterlily_0624_131045.jpg flowers produce a liquid in the center of the polysepala, which can also be found in flower (in the stigmatic bowl) that attracts Washington lakes and ponds. However, once pollinators and are receptive to pollen from other blooming, they can be easily distinguished due flowers (Schneider and Chaney, 1981). Pollen- to differences in flowers- the fragrant water lily covered insects are attracted to the sweet smell having much more ‘showy’ flowers than the and fall into the liquid, washing the pollen of spatterdock (Dept. of Ecology, 2014). Another their bodies and therefore fertilizing the female similar species, the native dwarf water lily parts of the flower, the stigma (Schneider and () has flowers that are not Chaney., 1981). Insects may actually drown in fragrant, and only have about ten petals per the liquid if they continuously slip back into the flower (Dept. of Ecology, 2014). cup (Schenider et al, 1981). On the second and third days, the liquid is no longer produced, but pollen is produced on the stamens. Insects pick Life Cycle/Feeding Habits up this pollen, which is then transported to other flowers. Then, the coiling of their stalks brings The life cycle begins with a seedling the (produced one week after ) sprouting from a seed. The roots burrow into the underwater (Schneider and Chaney., 1981). The soil and gain nutrients for the plant to grow. The fruits take roughly three to five weeks to mature, entire life of a single water lily plant will take and break open when the seeds are to be released place in exactly the same location due to the (Richards and Cao 2012). The seeds within the roots being lodged in the substrate. However, fruit will subsequently give rise to new N. propagation of the lily can establish plants odorata plants. elsewhere due to water currents or other dispersal mechanisms. Photosynthesis occurs due to the clear water, and the leaves begin to Environmental conditions grow toward the surface of the water. The plant will produce flowers, forming the reproductive Optimum growing conditions of the organs of the plant. The blooming period of N. fragrant water lily include high water odorata is during the summer and early fall availability, (because most of the plant is (Hilty and Hogan., 2002). There are not many submerged) but in mostly shallow water. The novel-feeding habits of the plant, though many water should be slow moving with very slight to nutrients are essential to the growth of the plant. no contact with high winds or waves. N. odorata Nitrogen-fixing bacteria aid the plant in taking grows best in water that is between 15-18 oC, in atmospheric nitrogen in the form of N2 and and germinates most efficiently in 13 oC (Else and Riemer 1984). The seeds also have been bees. Hylaeus nelumbonis and Lasioglossum founf to germinate at a maximum depth of about nymphaearum in particular are the main 90 cm (Else and Riemer 1984). specialist visitors (Hilty and Hogan., 2002). The organs of N. odorata are a food source for The rhizome root complex of the plant prefers insects, moths, ducks, turtles, and . These soft sediment substrates so it can easily lodge include larvae of moths like Monroessa and secure itself (Seago et al, 2000). The water gyralis (Pyralid Moth sp.), and Synclita lily is flexible in that it can grow just fine in obliteralis (Water Lily Leafcutter). direct sun, part shade, or shade, and is both cold Several spp. (Water Lily Leaf ) and heat tolerant (Wildflower Center, 2010). N. feed on water lilies; the adults feed on either the odorata is able to thrive in conditions where the pollen or the leaves. (Schneider and Chaney water is as low as 6” deep or as high as 7’ deep, 1981). The foliage and rootstocks are sources of and can tolerate a wide range of pH, (Wiersema food for beavers. It has no known pathogens or 1997). commensalism relationships with other species.

N. odorata can endure many environmental conditions due to altered structural features Geographic Distribution evolved over time. N. odorata has a much thicker cuticle on the lamina and more layers of The native range of the fragrant water parenchyma cells than most aquatic plants lily is impressive. This list includes the places in (Etnier and Villani 2007). More layers of cells the Bahamas Canada, Cuba, El Salvador, permit the plant to change their mechanical Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, and properties, allowing them to withstand diverse east and central (Specimen Data- environmental conditions. Consortium of PNW Herbaria, 2014). Now, the fragrant water lily can be found in the following The pollen in the flowers of this water lily states; AK, CA, CO, DE, FL, GA, ID, IL, IN, attracts specialist visitors, many of which are IA, KA, KY, LA, MA, MI, MN, NY, ME, NV, MS, SC, SD, RI, OH, NC, TN, UT, WV, WI, VT, VA, OR and WA.

A series of surveys conducted by the Washington Department of Ecology showed the existence of N. odorata at different survey locations across Washington State in 2009-2012. This invasive aquatic species can now be found in many Washington state counties, including; Stevens, Figure 4: shows the distribution of N. odorata across the state of Washington among Okanogan, Whatcom, many survey locations. Photo credit: Skagit, King, Pierce, Thurston, Skamia, http://www.nwcb.wa.gov/siteFiles/WF_Nymphaea_odorata_June_2013.pdf

Figure 5: United States distribution of N. odorata Photo credit: http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/american-white-water-lily and Clallam (see figure 4). In developed areas of classified as a class C noxious, weed in King County from 1996-2012, 155 out of 534 Washington, the weeds are either already surveyed lakes were found to have fragrant widespread or are of use in the agricultural water lily present (NWCB, 2013). It can now be industry. A county is able to enforce control if found in many parts of the world. Figure 5 necessary, and aid in removal or control can be shows the distribution of N. odorata across the called upon to eradicate (“C Noxious Weeds”, United States, which has the highest 2010). concentration of N. odorata in the world, despite some of its native range being in other countries It has been speculated that the fragrant water lily (Cook, 1990). was first introduced into Seattle, Washington during the Alaska Pacific Yukon Exposition in The fragrant water lily can live in a range of the late 1800’s (NWCB, 2013). According to the conditions, so the estimated geographic range of Pacific Northwest Herbaria database, the first the aquatic plant is quite large. Any place with actual record of N. odorata in Washington is shallow ponds, lakes, ditches, slow streams, and from 1911 (Specimen Data- Consortium of swamps is a prime location for a fragrant water PNW Herbaria, 2014). Historically, N. odorata lily plant to invade (Dept. of Ecology, 2005). has been seen to repeatedly invade areas where N. odorata is labeled as a class C noxious weed dams have been constructed, either by humans (“C Noxious Weeds”, 2010). In order to be or beavers. (Hilty and Hogan 2002). Invasion Process motors of recreational boats and introduced by that vector (Olden, 2014). Introduction

The chief pathway of the fragrant water Establishment lily is via the horticulture trade, with the vector being shipping. Deliberate planting by humans is Once introduced to a novel area, there unfortunately the primary source of introduction are many reasons why the water lily establishes. into new bodies of water (NWCB, 2013). The The water lily is a hearty plant, despite its gentle fragrant water lily is directly transplanted by appearance. The characteristics of the plant are humans for decorative purposes, and sold very ‘plastic’ (being able to live in various commercially via the aquarium and horticulture habitat conditions) allows for probable trades (Briggs, 2006). Many ornamental ponds establishment in a novel area. (Briggs, 2006). If on golf courses or other garden areas have N. a rhizome root is broken up, the fragments will odorata placed in the ponds because the showy float to new areas and can create new patches of flowers are well sought after. At plants (NWCB, 2013). This results in high LiveAquaria.com, anyone can buy a bare propagule pressure; as more rhizomes break up, rhizome root of N. odorata for $24.99. The More N. odorata plants are spread and approximate purchase size is 8” to 16”. established in an environment. It is widely known that as more numbers of individuals are The aquarium trade has been documented to released into an environment, the larger chance make mistakes in regards to shipping invasive of establishment the said species has. N. odorata species. The magnitude of this problem was has clever fertilization tactics. Absorbing the illustrated in a study about the movement of pollen via liquid in the flower is a rather foul- invasive plants into the state of Minnesota proof way of fertilization. The sheer number of through the horticulture trade (Maki and seeds released into the water by the plant also Galatowitsch 2003). Forty aquaculture orders allows again for high propagule pressure. were placed to a variety of plant vendors across the United States. Results showed that 18% of the orders carried misidentified plants, 43% had Spread unordered seeds, and 93% contained an unordered species (Maki Galatowitsch 2003). Of Once the fragrant water lily has been the 93% unordered species in the orders, 10% established in a novel environment, it has the enclosed federal noxious weeds or Minnesota ability to proliferate rapidly. The seeds mature exotic species (Maki Galatowitsch 2003). The underwater and can sink to the bottom and transport of prohibited species is a huge risk germinate in a vegetative colony, or can be taken associated with the aquatic plant trade, and it is by a current to distribute to novel areas. highly possible for N. odorata to be introduced Waterfowls, turtles and ducks consume the fruit this way. The unintentional contamination of and also spread the seeds to new locations shipping orders with N. odorata is also a (Schneider and Chaney. 1981). probable cause of introduction through horticulture trade as well. According to a study done by Mary Jane Else and colleagues (see figure 6), N. odorata seeds As we have discussed in class, it is possible that tend to germinate in higher percentages when once an owner of N. odorata no longer wishes to large numbers of seeds were crowded into a keep the plant, they may dispose of the plant small container (Else and Riemer 1984). This incorrectly, perhaps by dumping it into a nearly phenomenon is due to the presence of an pond. This is yet another introduction route ethylene gas, which is only released when seeds however unintentional it is, of this aquatic plant are crowded together, and triggers simultaneous into novel areas. . Also, with the long stems of germination of the seeds (Else and Riemer the water lily, it can easily be wrapped up on the 1984). This is essential for the spread of N.

Impacts

Fragrant water lilies can have negative impacts that can affect both humans and other aquatic species. According to the Washington State Department of Ecology, the fragrant water lily is second to Eurasian water milfoil in regards to nuisance (Washington Dept. of Ecology Water Program 2005). As far as the effect on other species, N. odorata can have consequences on different levels of impact including population, Figure 6: germination percentage of N. odorata seeds with increasing number community, and ecosystem, also serving as an ecosystem engineer. of seeds per container (Else and Riemer 1984). Photo credit: (Else and Riemer, An ecosystem engineer means a 1984) species can destroy or modify the odorata, because as more plants germinate, physical habitat (Olden, 2014). N. more plants subsequently spread to new areas. odorata has been documented to blanket the Note that this study can also be related to the surface of water with its tendency to grow in establishment of the water lily, depending on high densities (Else and Riemer 1984). Growing what stages of invasion the water lily is in at the in high densities results in the crowding out of time of germination. native plant species, as well as less sunlight penetrating the water. Sunlight is absorbed in the Recall the rhizome root system of N. odorata. dense leaf mats, increasing the water Rhizomes can spread extremely quickly once temperature, which can have adverse affects on being established. A single planted rhizome will the ecosystem. Less sunlight means cover upwards of a 15-foot diameter over the photosynthesis is weakened or even stopped in course of five years (Seago et al, 2000). Records submerged aquatic plants. (Cook, 1990). It is were kept of the spread of N. odorata in Giffin very difficult to conduct rigorous ecosystem- Lake, a 110-acre lake in eastern Washington. In level studies, but few have been successful in 1974, open water is documented, and roughly showing the effects of invasive aquatic plants. 11-25 percent of the lake was immersed in The dispersal of macrophyte mats influences the various unknown aquatic plant species. No dispersal of zooplankton and other aquatic insect management strategies were put in place, and and fish populations (Moore et al, 1994). N. within 20 years later the lake saw a drastic odorata provides essential habitat for many change. Nearly 100 percent of the surface of the frogs, fish, and invertebrates, but there is a lake was covered with N. odorata, most likely decrease in positive influences on fish species due to the spreading ability of the rhizome root once 40% of surface coverage is exceeded (Thurston County Lakes Program, 2014). This (Washington Dept. of Ecology, 2014). not only shows the competition ability, but the extraordinary rate of spread of the plant. This Inhibition of germination or seedling also demonstrates the dire need for immediate regeneration of other species can be caused by action when it comes to controlling invasive N. odorata. These processes often times require aquatic plants such as N. odorata. high amounts of energy from sunlight, which can be limited due to mats of N. odorata (Else and Riemer 1984). According to a study done by H.A. Quayyum and colleagues, the composition roughly 4-7 mg/L of dissolved oxygen (Moore et of the leaf petioles and the rhizomes of N. al, 1994). Higher nutrient and lower oxygen odorata can suppress germination and growth of content triggers increased algal growth, which other aquatic species. (Quayyum, 1998). A decreases water quality (Yang et al, 2008). This portion of the water lily’s rhizome was extracted decrease in oxygen content has also been seen to and a bioassay was conducted, taking note of the actually facilitate other invasive species to percent germination of wild rice, and the results establish, one of which being various species of showed a far less percent germination of carp (Frodge et al. 1995). As was stated above, seedlings than the control (Quayyum, 1998). carp has the ability to live in oxygen-poor environments. This match up could potentially The mats of water lilies result in low amounts of result in more species invading and completely oxygen in the water column due to less wind throwing off the equilibrium of the aquatic mixing into the water (Civille, 2014). In turn, community. Most native species cannot adapt this alters the water pH of the littoral zone where rapidly enough to these environmental changes, key life stages occur for other aquatic species. therefore severely decreasing biodiversity of Also, when water lilies die in the fall, the precious native organisms (Civille, 2014). resulting decay processes uses up dissolved oxygen as well as adds nutrients to the water. Among other impacts, N. odorata has been When the water lilies die, they are digested and known to cause problems and concerns for decomposed by microorganisms, which require humans. The most devastating yet rare instances oxygen in the process (Moore et al, 1994). are the number of people drowning that can be Depending on the concentration of plants, N. attributed to dense plant beds of N. odorata. odorata has the ability to lower the oxygen Records of drowning due to N. odorata are content of water to 0-2 mg/L of water, which is difficult to find, but there are two documented not enough or barely enough oxygen to support deaths due to entanglement in mats of N. most animals (Moore et al, 1994). Good growing odorata in Green Lake in August of this year conditions for most aquatic species (with the (Dept. of Ecology, 2014). exception of some like carp and catfish) require Lakefront access can be restricted due to fragrant water lilies filling in shallow areas with soft sediment (NWCB, 2013). Mats of N. odorata can make recreation very difficult, activities including water skiing, swimming, fishing, boating, or even paddling in a canoe. These are non-market direct costs of N. odorata, but can also serve as market direct costs if the public pays money to rent a canoe or boat on the lake (Olden, 2014). Dense infestations of N. odorata can clog irrigation ditches, resulting in slowing water flow in streams and increasing water loss through Figure 7: dense mats of N. odorata cover this Minnesota lake in 2010. transpiration (Else and Riemer Photo credit: http://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/udata 1984).

Despite the plethora of negative effects imposed is water soluble liquid that has been shown to by N. odorata, there are benefits of the species. have excellent eradication success upon N. An aesthetic value is a benefit that goes without odorata (Westerdahl and Getsinger et al. 1988). saying. Other than that, many eastern Native A study done by Welker and colleagues shows American tribes have harvested the rhizome root the success of glyphosate on N. odorata. The of N. odorata for a variety of medicinal purposes experiment included applying different levels of (Briggs, 2006). These include the Chippewa glyphosate to the leaves of the water lily, and tribe using the root to treat sores of the mouth, recorded which level was most effective. It was common colds, and as a digestive aid (Briggs, found that glyphosate at 2.2 kg/ha resulted in 2006). Occasionally the rhizomes are used as one full year of complete eradication of mature food and the lower buds and young leaves were water lilies (Welker and Riemer 1982). This eaten as a vegetable (Department of Ecology, herbicide is applied directly onto the leaves, and 2014). In moderate amounts of coverage, N. a second application is often necessary for long- odorata cools the water, and offers shelter for term control (Westerdahl and Getsinger 1988). invertebrates and fish. It is a food source for The best time to apply glyphosate is when the many animals including , deer, , plants are actively growing, and results may be and ducks, and is an essential part of the food seen only seven days after application chain in those ecosystems. (Westerdahl and Getsinger, 1988). Unfortunately, this herbicide is non-selective The benefits do not outweigh the costs. For a and can potentially kill other vegetation, so great water quality program in 2013, the Washington care must be taken to apply on only leaves of N. of Ecology spent $25,000 on a single lake (Lake odorata (Westerdahl and Getsinger, 1988). Due Sawyer) in the city of Black Diamond to to the risk posed to other species, the use of eradicate fragrant water lily and Eurasian herbicides usually requires a permit from the watermilfoil (Aquatic Weeds Management, state as well as professionally application from 2009). The Aquatic Weeds Management Fund trained companies. dished out roughly $466,000 over the course of one year for the water quality program in an Covering the invaded sediment with opaque attempt to control various aquatic plant species sheets of fabric can accomplish localized control (Aquatic Weeds Management, 2009). in areas around docks. This technique blocks light from the plants, but it is difficult to attach the fabric to the floor (NWCB, 2013). Lowering Control Methods the water level of an invaded area has also been used to control aquatic plants, but results have The fragrant water lily has no known been variable. Studies show that this method of bio-control methods (Dept. of Ecology 2014). control only controls about 50% of N. odorata, grass carp is a commonly used biological control and the plants usually recover from propagation method for aquatic plants, but will not consume of rhizomes (DiThomaso and Kyser 2013). the water lily unless there is virtually no other food available (Civille, 2014). This is backed by Invasion control can also be done by physically a study of grass carp and the impact it had on removing the invasive organisms (Olden, 2014). various aquatic plant species. The findings show Manually, pulling out the entire plant including that the herbivorous fish had close to no impact the rhizome can be successful for a small area if on N. odorata in Washington (Bonar et al. repeated regularly (King County, 2010). 2002). However, the amount of time and manpower required to manually eradicate established Herbicidal control methods are often times used populations by pulling is usually unsuccessful. in the control of N. odorata. These herbicides More professionally done mechanical methods include but are not limited to imazapyr, and of control include cutting or harvesting. A imazamox (DiThomasio and Kyser 2013). mechanical device connected to a boat often Glyphosate (or, N-(phosphonomethyl) gylcine), carries out these actions. Harvesting uses a specialized boat with a cutting system and labor of participants, and municipal values (King collecting system all in one (Noxious Weed County, 2010). Research methods are necessary, Control Board, 2013). Underwater rototilling is as well as development of a legal framework to a strategy used to remove N. odorata, and carry out the task at hand (Veitch and Clout dislodges the large rhizome root system, which 2002). Priorities must be set, and selection of the then can be extracted from the water. Rotovation best control method must occur. is a more expensive technique, but usually results in the permanent removal of rhizomes Early detection and prevention is crucial, and (NWCB, 2013). A successful attempt at a Seattle happen to be the least expensive management lake has been documented through the use of options. Looking for fragrant water lilies and rotovation techniques. Hand held cutting tools eradicating small patches by hand is being are also used, but it has been found that relayed to the public through education outreach. harvesting N. odorata is more successful than Invasive plant identification signs are present cutting. This is mainly due to the extra step in throughout the state of Washington, and display cutting, which is the removal of the plant from the proper techniques of eradicating N. odorata the water (Dept. of Ecology 2014). Recall that (NWCB, 2013). new patches of N. odorata can arise from a small piece of a cut rhizome or stem, so cutting Professionally speaking, herbicides are the most must be done with great precision. Due to this effective management options, noting the high threat of recolonization, several treatments each success rate of glyphosate in the studies done by growing season must commence (DiTomaso et Welker and colleagues. Use of this herbicide is al. 2013). widely accepted in the state of Washington if a large area is to be removed. Monitoring these The fragrant water lily can be prevented from areas being controlled is crucial; otherwise there spreading by cleaning boats travelling between is a risk of reestablishment. infested waters, and any other gear dealing with rhizomes and seeds of the plant. Introduction of Culturally, it is necessary for people to be this aquatic plant can also be prevented by cautious when ordering the fragrant water lily selection of alternate non-invasive species to through the horticulture trade, as the system can place in an ornamental pond area for aesthetic be rather faulty. Alternate non-invasive aquatic purposes. If N. odorata must be used for these plants should be heavily advertised when ornamental ponds, the pond must not be purchasing plants for ornamental reasons. This connected to any natural body of water, to can be considered a prevention strategy of decrease likelihood of spread. In 1996-97 on management techniques. Lake Lawrence in Thurston County Washington, the Lake Management District funded an eradication effort, commercially applying herbicide to some 80 acres of water lilies (Civille, 2014). The lilies were then treated twice each year to continue the efforts, and by 2003, 98% control was obtained in the acres mapped (Civille, 2014)

Management Objectives and Current Research

In the state of Washington management methods are adaptive and incorporate many levels of actions. These incorporate time availability, financial support, goals of land use, Literature Cited Moore, B.C., W.H. Funk, E. Anderson. 1994. Water quality, fishery, and biologic characteristics in a shallow, eutrophic lake with dense Bonar, S.A., B. Bolding, M. Divens. 2002. Effects of macrophyte population. Lake and Reservoir triploid grass carp on aquatic plants, water Management 8(2): 175-188. quality, and public satisfaction in Washington State. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 22:96-105. Quayyum, H. A. "Allelopathic Potential of Aquatic Plants Associated With Wild Rice (ZIZANIA PALUSTRIS)." Journal of Chemical Cook, C.D.K., 1990. Origin, autecology, and spread Ecology 25.1 (1999): 213-15. of some of the world’s most troublesome aquatic weeds. Pp. 31-38. In: A.H. Peiterse and K.J. Murphy (ed.) Aquatic Weeds, The ecology Richards, J. H. and C. Cao. 2012. Germination and and management of nuisance aquatic early growth of Nymphaea odorata at different vegetation. Oxford University Press, New York. water depths. Aquatic Botany. 98: 12-19.

DiTomaso, J. M., G. B. Kyser et al. 2013. Weed Schneider, Edward L., and Tim Chaney. "The Floral Control in Natural Areas in the Western United Biology of Nymphaea Odorata States. Weed Research and Information Center, (Nymphaeaceae)." The Southwestern Naturalist University of California. 544pp. 26.2 (1981): 159-65. JSTOR.

Else, M.J. and D.N. Riemer. 1984. Factors affecting Seago, James L., Jr., Carol A. Peterson, Laura J. germination of seeds of fragrant waterlily Kinsley, and Jennifer Broderick. (Nymphaea odorata). Journal of Aquatic "Development and Structure of the Root Plant Management 22: 22-25. Cortex in Caltha Palustris L. and Nymphaea Odorata Ait." Annals of Botany 86.3 (2000): 631-40. JSTOR. Etnier, S. A., and P. J. Villani. "Differences in Mechanical and Structural Properties of Surface and Aerial Petioles of the Aquatic Plant Veitch, C. R., and M. N. Clout. "Turning the Tide: Nymphaea Odorata Subsp. Tuberosa The Eradication of Invasive Species." IUCN (Nymphaeaceae)." American Journal of Species Survival Commission 27 (2002): 337- Botany 94.7 (2007): 1067-072. JSTOR. 41.

Frodge, J.D., D.A. Marino, G.B. Pauley, G.L. Welker, W.V. and D.N. Riemer. 1982. Fragrant Thomas. 1995. Mortality of largemouth bass waterlily (Nymphaea odorata) control with South Coastal, Interior- Boreal Arctic-Alpine multiple applications of glyphosate. Weed Collection Site (Micropterus salmoides) and Science 30: 145-146. steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in densely vegetated littoral areas tested using in situ bioassay. Lake and Reservoir Management Westerdahl and Getsinger, H.E. and K.D. Getsinger, 11 (2):343-358. eds. 1988. Aquatic plant identification and herbicide use guide, volume II: Aquatic plants and susceptibility to herbicides. Technical report A ‐ 88 ‐ 9. Department of the Army, Maki, Kristine, and Susan Galatowitsch. "Movement Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of of Invasive Aquatic Plants into Minnesota Engineers, Vicksburg, MS. (USA) through Horticultural Trade." Biological Conservation 118.3 (2004): 389-96. Elsevier.

Wiersema, J. H. Nymphaea. In: Flora of North King County. "Fragrant Water Lily." Best America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993+. Flora of North America North of Mexico. 16+ Management Practices. King County Noxious vols. New York and Oxford. Vol. 3. 1997. Weed Control Program, n.d. Web. 2010

Yang, Xiao-e. “Mechanisms and Assessment of LiveAquaria.com Water Eutrophication .”Journal of Zhejiang http://aquarium- University. Science. B 9.3 (2008): 197– fish.liveaquaria.com/search?p=Q&lbc=liveaquari 209. PMC. a&uid=355287772&ts=custom&w=fragrant%20 water%20lily&af=cat1:pondplants&isort=score &method=and&ts=results

Other Key Sources Noxious Weed Control Board (NWCB). "Written Findings of the Noxious Weed Control Board." Aquatic Weeds Management Fund Grant Program. Nymphaea Odorata Aiton. N.p., June 2013. Web. Aquatic Weeds Grant Funding Cycle. Olympia, 28 Nov. 2014. WA: Washington State Dept. of Ecology, 2009. Web. 1 Dec. 2014. Olden, Julian. "Ecological Impacts of Invasive Species." Seattle. 6 Nov. 2014. Lecture. Briggs, Robin. "American Waterlily (Nymphaea Odorata)." Introduced Species Summary Project. Columbia University, 16 Nov. 2006. Web. 29 "Specimen Data of Nymphaea Odorata." N.d. Nov. 2014. Consortium of Pacific Northwest Herbaria: Providing Access to Specimen Data. Web. 1 Dec. 2014. "C Noxious Weeds." Noxious Weed Control Board N.p., 2010. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. Thurston County Lakes Program. “Fragrant Waterlily control on Black Lake 2014” Integrated Pest Civille, Janie. "Thurston County Lakes." Lake Managemen Prescription. N. p., 2014 Lawrence Noxious Weeds. Resource Stewardship, 18 Sept. 2014. Web. 02 Dec. 2014. Wildflower Center, Lady Bird Johnson. "Nymphaea Odorata." Wildflower Center. NPIN: Native Department of Ecology. "Non-native Invasive Plant Database - University of Texas at Austin, Freshwater Plants." Fragrant Water Lily 2010. Web. 29 Nov. 2014. (Nymphaea Odorata). Access Washington, 2014. Web. 10 Nov. 2014.

Department of Ecology, Water Quality Program. 2005. Non-native freshwater plants – fragrant water lily. Washington.

Hilty, John, and Michael Hogan. "Nymphaea Odorata." Encyclopedia of Life. Illinois Wildflowers, 2002. Web. 29 Nov. 2014.

Regional Contacts

Noxious Weed Control Program Thurston County Lakes Program

Steven Burke Janie Civille Noxious Weed Control Coordinator, Program 9605B Tilley Road S Project Manager IV Olympia WA 98512 360-867-2327 King Street Center-DNRP 201 S Jackson St Rm 700 Seattle WA 98104-3855 206-477-9333 Washington Invasive Species Council [email protected] Wendy Brown Executive Coordinator Joan Lee Section Manager Recreation and Conservation Office 1111 Washington Street SE King Street Center-DNRP Olympia WA 98501 201 S Jackson St Rm 600 360-902-3088 Seattle WA 98104-3855 [email protected] 206-477-4751 [email protected]

Noxious Weed Control Board

Alison Halpern Executive Secretary

1111 Washington Street SE Olympia WA 98504 360-902-2053 [email protected]

Wendy DesCamp Education Specialist

1111 Washington Street SE Olympia WA 98504 360-725-5764 [email protected]