FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES VOLUME 1, BOOK 9 May 17, 2011

LOFT BUILDING FIRES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Glossary 1

1. Introduction 3

2. Description 3

3. Purpose 3

4. Types of Construction 4

5. Construction Features 6

6. Engine Company Operations 19

7. Ladder Company Operations 24

8. Incident Commander 30

9. Safety 31

10. Miscellaneous Challenges and Key Points 32

11. Conclusion 32 FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES May 17, 2011 LOFT BUILDING FIRES

GLOSSARY

Ashlar masonry Stone cut into rectangular units (most often 18” to 24” high by 2 to 3 feet long). Attached to the façade wall of a building using cement mortar or cement/lime mix. Iron plating is sometimes used to imitate Ashlar masonry. It has a similar attachment to the facade wall and may also have a hollow core. Ammonia Diffusion Fire protection system found in cold storage warehouses where anhydrous System ammonia is used as a refrigerant. System provides release valves and a siamese connection for the fire service to dilute the refrigerant flowing out of the relief device and into the city sewer system. Automatic fire door Protects horizontal openings between buildings or between sections within a building from fire spread. Doors are activated by a fusible link. Can be sliding, roll-down or hinge type. Brick arch floor Segmental brick arch floor sprung between wrought-iron I-beams. Wrought-iron tie-rods, providing needed resistance to tension, are stretched from beam to beam to keep the arch from pushing outward at the base. Tie-rods may or may not have been protected by fire resistive material. Cast-iron column In Cast-iron building construction, cast-iron columns are used as load- bearing components on the exterior front facade as well as to provide floor support on the interior. Can also be found in “hybrid” type Mill loft buildings. Cast-iron wall plate Repository for wooden floor beams; they are designed to allow the beams to collapse in a fire without pulling down the walls. Deadlights Fixed glass segments that are imbedded in cast-iron frames or masonry to provide natural light for sidewalk vaults. Enclosed stair Structurally separate from the building, contain no common floor joists with the interior floor area. Facade Gas Valve Gas main shut-off valve located on exterior wall of some Cast-iron lofts. Very rare and no longer in service. Also known as a “Star Valve.” Fire tower A “smoke-proof”, non-combustible stairway found in both Mill loft and Fireproof loft construction. Entered through an intermediate vestibule that is adjacent to a smoke shaft designed to vent the incomplete by- products of combustion. Flat slab A steel-reinforced concrete floor having no supporting beams except at “mushroom” floor the building perimeter. The floor rests directly on columns usually built with enlarged capitals. Flat floor skylights Original floor assemblies consisting of segmented glass panels, installed vertically in line with the roof skylight, to allow natural light in. Gravity tank An elevated tank for fire protection purposes, intended to store water and maintain a steady water pressure. Hose Header A bonnet with multiple valve outlets, utilizing water from the fire pumps. It is generally located on an exterior wall of the building. It can also be used as an inlet if the fire pumps are OOS. If used as an inlet, a valve located inside the building needs to be manually opened. Iron shutters Glazing protector used to inhibit fire from spreading out windows to neighboring buildings as well as help prevent auto-exposure.

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Mortise and tenon Rectangular cavity (mortise) cut into corner posts to receive a projection joinery (tenon) on the end of the floor girders in Mill loft construction. Wooden dowels may be used to secure the connection. Also found in Cast-iron construction where mortise cuts for girders receive tenons at the end of floor beams. Monitor Raised structure above the roof level to allow light into the building. Pediment A wide, low-pitched gable surmounting the facade of a building. Pediments may also be found over windows. Pressure tank A pressurized water supply source located at or above the highest level of the sprinkler system. Tank is supplied with water through a fixed pipe that is independent of the sprinkler piping. Quoins Block masonry cornerstones usually covered with cast-iron plating located at each end of the front facade of a Cast-iron loft building. These rectangular stones can be both structural and/or decorative. Sawtooth roof A roof designed to disperse natural light uniformly throughout the interior of a structure. Utilizes a number of parallel roof sections (one per bay) of triangular shape and near vertical glazing (commonly facing due north). Scuppers Cast-iron drains built into the walls of Mill loft construction that are located at roof level and on each floor to reduce the accumulation of water. Sidewalk vault A three wall sub-surface enclosure erected beneath a sidewalk. Skywalk An enclosed walkway bridge located above ground spanning a roadway or courtyard between two adjoining buildings. Steel Tension Cables Used to strengthen and cross-tie above ground walls in brick or masonry /Rods with reinforcing buildings. plates (Stars) Stepped wall and Exterior walls and interior columns typically larger at lower levels to column system accommodate additional loading from the upper floors. Straight run stairs Commonly found in Older Cast-iron lofts that are street to street in depth. These type stairs have a linear run going from the front to the rear wall of the building. Occupant/tenant entrance doors on each floor open directly onto the straight run stairs. Some larger lofts have an additional straight run staircase going from the rear of the building to the front wall. Synthetic walls Large horizontal glazing found on the street façade of a loft building that is designed to provide natural light to first floor and sub-level areas. Terra cotta tile arch Segmented terra cotta tile arch sprung between wrought-iron beams. floor Used for warehouses where heavy loads would be supported. Terra cotta tile flat Terra cotta tile flat arch floors are true segmental arches in that all tiles arch floor are in compression and the removal of any tile (not just the keystone) may precipitate the collapse of the entire arch from beam to beam. Wall Outlets on an exterior wall supplied by a gravity tank, pressure tank or hydrant/manifold other water source for the building. Valves are opened manually at the wall hydrant for FDNY hoseline use.

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Lofts were originally occupied for the storage and sale of merchandise. Subsequently, the manufacturing of goods became common place. Construction features are characterized by high ceilings, large un-compartmented spaces, and prominently located freight elevators close to the front entrance of the building. Lofts can be Class 1, 2, 3 or 6 constructions. Today, lofts may contain many different type occupancies. The legislative bill, known as the “Loft Law”, passed in 1982 led the way to establishing these properties as legal multiple dwellings.

2. DESCRIPTION

2.1 The development of cast-iron and wrought-iron structural elements in the 1840s combined with practical elevator technology, led to the construction of taller buildings. Cast-iron loft construction flourished in lower Manhattan, especially in the neighborhood now known as SOHO (South of Houston Street). This section of the city was once called “Hell’s Hundred Acres” to describe the fire ravaged lofts in the area. Significant amounts of Cast-iron construction can also be found in the “Ladies Mile” area (Broadway-6th Avenue, 8th Street to 14th Street), Tribeca (Triangle Below Canal), Chelsea, and Williamsburg. The last cast-iron front loft building was erected in NYC in 1901.

2.2 Mill (Heavy Timber) constructed lofts are the least common type. Age and lack of maintenance have resulted in many of these buildings being demolished. Originally built for manufacturing and warehousing, they are typically located adjacent to waterways and rail lines. Some areas where they can be found include Chelsea, Downtown Brooklyn, Maspeth, and Hunts Point.

2.3 During the 1880s, steel became more accessible. The use of steel columns, girders, and beams in conjunction with reinforced concrete introduced true fireproof construction into loft buildings. Fireproof lofts are the newest and most common type. Many of these buildings are well maintained and have not been altered. Fireproof lofts are found in many areas of the NYC including Bush Terminal, DUMBO (Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass) Long Island City, South Bronx, and Midtown West (Hell’s Kitchen).

3. PURPOSE

3.1 To describe the different types of loft buildings which accommodate a wide array (industrial, manufacturing, storage, commercial, educational, business, residential, public assembly, etc.) of occupancies throughout New York City.

3.2 To identify construction features and associated problem areas as they relate to fire.

3.3 To establish guidelines for operating at fires in such buildings and recommend precautions that should be taken.

3.4 To enhance overall operational safety leading to the reduction of human and economic loss.

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4. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

4.1 Older Cast-Iron Lofts, 1840s – 1870s

4.1.1 Maximum 7 to 8 stories in height having front and rear exterior walls of brick, stone or iron (Photo 1). Side exterior walls are of brick construction. Frontage is usually 25 feet (indicating no interior columns) with depths reaching 90 feet and frontage on only one street. Many of these structures have first floor extensions protruding up to 10 feet beyond the upper floors of the building in the rear.

4.1.2 Larger dimensional buildings can be irregularly (L-shaped) constructed (Photo 2) with frontage on two adjacent streets or 200 feet deep, with frontage on 2 parallel streets. Buildings with larger frontages (up to 50 feet) have wider windows and entranceways with cast-iron columns and arches to support heavy timber or iron girders. These girders may be supported by the rear wall and on flanges at the back of the cast-iron front wall. Ornamental cast-iron plating may also be found bolted into front facade masonry.

4.1.3 Interior support columns can be composed of cast-iron, wrought-iron, brick or wood. Wooden floor joists run from side wall to side wall, while girders and columns run front to rear. Interior walls, flooring, and trim are of wooden construction. The height between the floor and ceiling is a minimum of 8 feet.

4.1.4 The roof is built flat using wood rafters. Some top floors have dropped-ceilings below the roof creating cockloft areas. These structures have one unenclosed wooden stair, often winding around the elevator shaft or one straight run stair. Doors leading to the stairway can also be made of wood. Interior stairs leading to the cellar may be remote from the main interior stairway and of open, wooden construction. Fire escapes can be found on the front, rear, as well as the sides (corner buildings).

4.1.5 Commercial occupancies normally utilize basement areas, ground floor and second floors with residences or business offices situated above. Operable windows commonly contain air conditioners and heaters. Mechanical renovations include the installation of non-central heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Building Code revisions, which prohibited unprotected structural ironwork, has led to the installation of automatic sprinkler systems.

4.2 Newer Cast-Iron Lofts, 1880s – 1901

4.2.1 These type lofts have exterior walls made from brick, stone, framed wrought- iron/cast-iron or steel (Photo 3). They may be built higher (8-12 stories) and wider than Older Cast-iron lofts with common dimensions being 50 feet wide by 90 feet deep. There are also larger irregularly (P-shaped) constructed (Photo 4) buildings as well as buildings with conventional dimensions having up to 100 feet frontages and 200 feet depths. All exterior walls have a minimum 3 hour fire resistive rating. Windows are operable but the installation of central HVAC systems are more often found serving multiple floors of a common tenant.

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4.2.2 Interior structural elements consist of protected cast-iron columns and wrought- iron girders and beams supporting masonry or wooden floors. Generally, there are two interior stairways located inside enclosed walls having a 2 hour fire resistive rating.

4.2.3 Office buildings are often renovated to upgrade utilities. Electrical shafts and/or utility closets extending from the lowest level of the building to the top floor penetrate the floor construction. Automatic sprinkler and standpipe systems, as required by law, are connected to the city water supply leading to a roof gravity tank. Various types of fire escapes can be located on all exterior sides of the building. They are occupied in much the same way as Older Cast-iron lofts.

4.3 Mill Lofts

4.3.1 Mill Lofts (Photo 5, Figure 1) also known as Heavy Timber lofts, range from 4 to 6 stories in height having all 4 exterior walls load-bearing and constructed of brick, concrete block or stone. Exterior walls and interior columns are typically larger at lower levels. Stepped wall and column system is designed to accommodate the additional loading (machinery, manufactured goods, storage) from the upper floors. Walls will have built-in sockets to accept floor girders and joists.

4.3.2 Interior non load-bearing walls will also be of non-combustible materials. Dimensions are commonly rectangular and range from 100-150 feet frontages to up to 200 feet in depth with an abundance of large operable windows. Interior large dimensional wooden columns, chamfered with beveled corners to make them harder to ignite, and/or protected cast-iron columns in “hybrid” type Mill construction support wooden girders which are at least 6 inches thick. Exposed wood joists support 3 inch tongue-and-groove flooring or 3-4 inch wood planks.

4.3.3 Mill construction provides a large space of continuous floor area with minimal concealed spaces. High ceilings with vertical openings (chutes, freight elevators, conveyor belts, etc.) are characteristic of this type construction. Beams and girders supporting roof rafters and roof trusses are a minimum 6 inches in any dimension. Multiple skylights and monitors are built into the roof to provide additional sunlight for the top floor of the building. Fire tower stairs and elevators are placed on the perimeter of the building.

4.3.4 Automatic sprinkler and standpipe systems, as required by law, are supplied by either a city water main or gravity tank located on the roof. Scuppers (drains) are located at roof level and on each floor at the base of the wall to reduce accumulation of water. Over the years, both non-central and central HVAC systems have been installed for occupant comfort during change of occupancy or alterations. Utilities have also been upgraded. Control panels, shut-off valves, and meters will normally be located at the lowest level of the building. Today they are mainly used as warehouses or have been converted to residential, business or commercial occupancies.

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4.4 Fireproof Lofts

4.4.1 Fireproof lofts (Photo 6), have exterior walls of brick, cement block, masonry, stone or metal (steel frame) and floors constructed of steel-reinforced concrete (Figure 2), sometimes covered-over with wood or other finishes. These buildings range from 10-15 stories in height. Rectangular dimensions are usually between 50 to 100 feet or more in width and from 75 to 200 feet deep. Some, however, can span an entire block.

4.4.2 Fireproof lofts can be interconnected by automatic fire doors or joined via exterior bridges (skywalks). Many are stand alone edifices separated from similar lofts by roadways. Protected steel columns or masonry pillars support steel or wrought-iron girders and beams. Loading docks may be covered by large metal canopies supported by cables or rods tied into the exterior walls of the building.

4.4.3 Interior stairs are enclosed, one or more fire towers may be provided in buildings over 75 feet in height. Fireproof lofts may have exterior screened stairways leading either to the front or rear of the building. Windows are operable although central HVAC systems are more commonly found in these type lofts.

4.4.4 High voltage demand may necessitate the installation of power lines and step- down transformers located at roof level. Electrical service panels may be found on multiple floors servicing several different tenants. Automatic sprinkler and standpipe systems, as required by law, are tied into the city water system or roof gravity tank. Large area lofts often require one or more pressure tanks to ensure operability throughout all sections of the building. Wall hydrant/manifold outlets located at sidewalk or top floor/roof levels may also be available for engine company use.

4.4.5 Today, Fireproof lofts are commonly used for a wide array of occupancies. When used for storage, they often have their windows removed and blocked-up negating routine horizontal ventilation.

5. CONSTRUCTION FEATURES

5.1 Older Cast-iron Lofts

5.1.1 Sidewalk Vaults - are three-wall enclosures located under the front sidewalk. The vault can extend downward to all sub-levels of the building and may extend the full width of the sidewalk. An indicator of a “full” vault is a large piece of granite stone covering the sidewalk to the curb line. Vaulted sidewalks are generally supported by wrought-iron I-beams or cast-iron structural members (Photo 7). The ceiling of the vault was originally constructed of a wrought-iron or cast-iron frame with small segmented fixed glass orbs (deadlights) to allow natural light to enter (Photo 8). The frame can span the entire width of the building and extend from the building wall to the street. Today, the glass may have been totally or partially replaced with diamond plate, cubed-glass, granite, stone, or concrete.

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5.1.2 Elevator shafts - Passenger and freight elevators are normally located within the area of the front wall. They may be found on either side or in the middle of the building. If a loading dock is present, freight elevators may be found 20 feet inward from the front of the building. In residential conversions, freight elevators may have been removed to accommodate additional living space on each floor for the tenants. Frequently, freight elevator shafts were built using terra cotta tile which can be readily breached if needed. Freight elevators will not be installed with Firemen Service capabilities. They are not initially used during fire operations due to their proximity to rubbish removal areas which are commonly fire origin locations. After evaluation and approval for use by the Incident Commander (IC), these elevators will allow for greater movement of members, tools and equipment due to their large size. Passenger elevators, as required by law, will be provided with Firemen Service. They are normally enclosed within a vestibule accessed from the building’s “front door,” although some may be flush with the front facade of the building and entered directly off the sidewalk (Photo 9). When elevator shafts face the street, any window serving the shaft is required to display a “SHAFTWAY” sign across the outer portion of the window that is clearly visible from the street (Photo 10). Avoid placing aerial or portable ladders to these shaft windows or operating streams into them unless visible fire is extending up the shaft. Shaft windows may have boards across their lower portion, placed to serve as a warning of an open shaft. These windows will look identical to the other windows in the front façade. Firefighters should especially be aware of elevator shaft windows accessible from front fire escape balconies (Photo 10 A). Due to age and or neglect, many of these signs may be missing or unreadable. The elevator machinery equipment rooms can be located on the roof or lowest level served by the elevator. Elevator machinery room bulkheads on the roof may be visible from the street, vertically aligned with the shaftway. Elevators in Older Cast-iron loft buildings will be small and mainly constructed of wood and wrought-iron. Early elevator technology did not incorporate much, if any, true load engineering. Don’t overload these elevators. In many loft buildings, elevators doors can look like apartment entrance doors. Often, elevator doors do not slide into the shaftway but swing out onto the loft floor as two separate doors or as a single-hinged door. Members must be alert when forcing a door, that it does not access an elevator shaft. In residential conversions of Cast- iron lofts, elevators servicing apartments above grade can open directly into the apartment. Forcible entry may be required to exit from the elevator into the apartment. Residential floors may have been subdivided, often illegally, providing multiple living spaces. In these cases, elevators may provide access onto hallways serving apartment entrance doors. In both situations these elevators should be avoided until the location of the fire has been determined and the elevator’s use has been evaluated.

5.1.3 Enclosed air and light shafts - provide air and light to all floors. They are normally found in the center of deep loft buildings. Windows facing onto such shafts may be provided with hinged iron shutters, roll-down iron shutters or in later built lofts wired-glass to prevent fire extension. A good place to locate one of these shafts is inside the first floor bathroom.

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5.1.4 Utility shafts - these boxed-out vertical openings, containing plumbing, electrical wiring, telephone cables and ventilation ducts are commonly found in renovated loft buildings. Utility shafts terminate at the roof level and can present severe vertical and horizontal fire extension problems due to inadequate/lack of firestopping.

5.1.5 Sub-level openings - below grade areas (cellars and sub-cellars) often have openings located flush with the sidewalk to facilitate the movement of stock, storage material, and equipment. Sidewalk lifts (Photo 11), sidewalk stairs (metal, concrete or wood), coal chutes, conveyors, and hatch-covered vertical ladders are some of the most common openings serving street vault areas. Some sub-level openings provide direct access to the lone below grade level of the building which can be more than 20 feet below the sidewalk.

5.1.6 Fireplaces - usable and bricked-over fireplaces can be found on all levels. Chimneys must be checked to their termination points for fires involving or in the vicinity of active fireplaces. Defective flues and deteriorated mortar joints inside fireplace chimneys can cause fire to spread laterally to combustible flooring.

5.1.7 Flat Floor Skylights - Floor skylights were found in large dimensional lofts built on interior lots (not on a corner) without exterior air shafts. Loft buildings that were built from block to block (200 feet deep) had two on each floor. They were constructed of segmented glass panels similar to sidewalk vault ceilings. Their cast-iron frame ranges in dimension from approximately 10 square feet to 16 square feet (Figure 3). The Monarch Underwear Company (Manhattan) explosion/fire in 1958, which originated on the third floor of a 5 story, 40’ by 200’ Cast-iron loft building, killed 24 workers as fire rapidly burned through its floor skylights. This tragedy led to the enacting of necessary laws mandating full ceilings (elimination of floor skylights). These ordinances, along with the advent of electricity, caused interior floor skylights to be removed and/or covered-over. The replacement flooring may not be supported sufficiently resulting in floor collapse from either weight and/or fire.

5.1.8 Gravity Tanks - The roofs of many existing buildings had to be retro-fitted to support the weight of a gravity tank and its contents. Gravity tanks provide the primary water source for sprinkler and standpipe systems where required. A siamese connection may also be found on the front of the building for augmentation purposes. Water supply to the tank is via the city water main in the street. Section shut-off valves for gravity tanks can be located inside a gravity tank enclosure, directly below the gravity tank, and along the riser inside the building. Gravity tank control panels may be tied into the building alarm system and will supply important information to members concerning water level in the tank, water flow, and trouble signals (Photo 12). Structural supports for the tank consist of wrought-iron or steel I-beams which carry the weight to bearing walls or superimposed cast-iron columns protruding through the roof from the top floor or a combination of both. Gravity tank structural supports rust and rot away particularly at the point where I- beams penetrate walls. Tank contents (up to 20,000 gallons) add a substantial live-load to their supports.

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5.1.9 Iron Window Shutters - generally installed on the rear and side walls of lofts. They were mandated by law on loft buildings with plain glass windows situated less than 30 feet horizontally from another building or less than 50 feet vertically from the roof of an adjoining building. Originally, 6 inch round openings were cut into every third vertical row of iron shutters as well as shutters protecting windows on fire escapes, to assist firefighters in accessing the steel hook and catch to facilitate entry into the building. Today, these 6 inch openings are commonly covered over with steel plating (Photo 13). Iron windows shutters may have been completely removed during residential conversions or welded/bolted closed for security reasons in other type occupancies.

5.1.10 Cast-Iron or Wrought-iron Arches and Columns - Cast-iron and wrought-iron used for the construction of arches and columns have the following characteristics and potential hazards during fire operations:

A. Cast-iron or wrought-iron arches at the rear of buildings with extended first floors present serious wall collapse potential if compromised. The rear wall above the first floor may be carried by a cast-iron/wrought-iron arch or arches with a center pier and wrought-iron tie-rods which are embedded into the wall (Photo 14). Some masonry-front Cast-iron lofts have a similar arch at the front façade to create storefront openings.

B. Cast-iron columns cast improperly and/or not meeting the acceptable thickness commensurate to the load they are required to support are inherently weak links in the overall construction of the building. There is no reliable way to know if a column was cast properly.

C. Cast-iron columns are not designed to withstand an eccentric load.

D. Cast-iron columns are bolted into position. Bolt holes are cast when the columns are made, leading to excessively wide holes and connections that may have too much play.

E. When properly cast, these structural members will withstand a great deal of thermal stress. The statement that all cast-iron columns exposed to fire will shatter when cooled by a hoseline is a myth. However, if an improperly cast column is cooled by a hoseline it can contract disproportionately leading to potential failure.

F. When subjected to the heat from a fire for long periods of time, cast-iron columns can fracture and fail.  At 1,100 degrees Fahrenheit, cast-iron loses 58% of its original strength.  The strength lost is cumulative and is never regained.  Iron fibers (like steel) when heated elongate or extend the column. A structural cast-iron column, however, unable to move will crack.

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G. Cast-iron columns and areas behind squared-off cast-iron facade fronts are hollow (Photo 15). Some early construction techniques utilized these hollow cast-iron columns as hot air supply ducts. The void behind these cast-iron fronts allows for fire spread similar to a boxed-out channel rail. Check for fire extension in the wall on the floor above and below.

H. When used as interior columns to support girders (Photo 16) they must line up vertically (superimposed) creating a cast-iron “shaft”. Putting other structural materials (wood timbers) between the columns creates floor deflections and leads to eccentric loading. A failure of a single column can cause collapse of all columns above leading to a general collapse of the building (Figure 4).

5.1.11 Fire Escapes - egress can consist of two interior stairs or one interior stair with one or more fire escapes as a secondary means of egress. Fire escapes terminating at roof level are found on the front of the building as well as the rear. Many types of fire escapes can be found on these buildings:

A. Standard - the most prevalent fire escape found. Balconies are accessed via windows. They serve multiple residents/tenants on an individual floor of the building. They have a width of 3-4 feet and stairway angles of 45 degrees, 60 degrees, 75 degrees or steeper (Photo 17). Constructed of steel or wrought-iron and long exposed to the deteriorating effects of the weather, firefighters operating on these fire escapes should spread out and move with caution. Some fire escapes can be well over 100 years old.

B. Counter-balance stairways/ladders - can be horizontally or vertically oriented. They will be located directly below or adjacent to the lowest landing of a standard fire escape. Horizontal oriented stairways are held in position approximately 8 feet above and parallel to the sidewalk by an “L” or U-shaped iron bar. One type has a heavy box-like metal or concrete weight attached to the opposite end of the ladder descending to ground level (Photo 17A). The other type has its counterweight attached to a wall-mounted pulley system (Photo 17B). Vertical counter-balance ladders are held upright by a similar shaped iron bar. Their pulley system counter-weights are found within cylindrical housing adjacent to both sides of the ladder (Photo 17C). Once occupants or firefighters step off these counter-balance devices, they will be pulled back up again by the counter-weight.  Counter-balance stairways/ladders; require firefighters to utilize their hooks to disengage the latching mechanism or a portable ladder to gain access to the fire escape balcony in order to release it.

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 Age and rust can cause the brackets or cables holding the counter- weight to fail, allowing the stairway to violently strike the pavement. Members should not operate directly underneath these hazards. A portable ladder is the preferable means of accessing these fire escapes.

C. Vertical - serve each floor level but lack intermediate landings or balconies (Photo 17D). Their straight-up position makes these type fire escapes the most dangerous for both firefighters and building occupants to utilize.

D. Party wall balconies - serving multiple residents/tenants on an individual floor of the building or may serve more than one building (Photo 17E). Accessed via windows, it does not allow for floor to floor movement. These type fire escapes become overloaded with building occupants quickly and may lead to the failure of balcony supports.

E. Exterior screened stairway - a semi-enclosed means of egress serving all floors of the building with landings at each floor. Entry is through a doorway as opposed to a window.

5.1.12 Depressed Rear Courtyards - loft buildings 100 feet in depth will have limited rear access and maneuverability for firefighting. This is partially due to their close proximity to adjoining buildings in the rear. Rear courtyards, some with fire escape access 3 stories below grade, add to operational complexity and limitations. Other courtyard features include:

A. Wrought-iron fences and brick walls separating lot lines.

B. Window shutters, roll-down gates, sub-level entrance doors, iron window bars, commercial locking devices, hardened cubed-glass, heating and air conditioning units.

C. Lightweight sheds built to enclose depressed courtyards. To provide natural light below grade, the roofs of these sheds were constructed using wire-glass. These glass roofs may be tarred or planked over for security reasons, creating what appears to be and mistaken for a weight-bearing roof (Photo 18). These shed roofs, once removed, may provide effective ventilation points for sub-level and first floor fires.

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5.1.13 Straight Run Stairs - These stairs are constructed of wood having stairway walls covered with wainscoting. In the 1938 NYC Building Code, the stairs were required to be fire protected. Many owners covered the wainscoting with tin. This is an area that should not be overlooked during overhauling. All windows in the stairway should be wire-glass. A fire located at the front top floor of the building will require enough hose to go from the ground floor to the top floor and then travel to the front of the building. In some cases, straight run stairs do not go all the way to the rear wall. They terminate at an upper level floor where a more common return-type stair begins. This is the result of add-on floor construction. Some loft buildings may have two straight run stairs, one on each side of the building. The straight run stair entered from the rear will go up towards the front building wall (Figure 5). Older Cast-iron loft construction utilized floor joists with mortise and tenon joints abutting the framework for these stairs. The diminished cross-sectional area at the connection point, however, increases the potential for stair collapse (Photo 19). The underside of the stair passes through the interior of each apartment and could be exposed if the fire is in that area (Photo 19A). This space may be used as a closet or for storage because of its reduced ceiling height.

5.1.14 Cast-Iron Stairs - interior stairs made of cast-iron can be found in both enclosed and unenclosed exit passageways. Ornamental cast-iron stairs can also be used as remote stairs and as private access stairs from one individual floor to another. Generally, these stairs lack soffits and may have wood planking attached to their treads to provide a cushion and to protect against slipping (Photo 20). Cast-iron stairs are also constructed on the exterior of the building to provide access to sub- level, ground floor and second floor levels. These exterior stairs may or may not be protected on their underside (Photo 20A). Some are enclosed and may contain latched doors providing access to hollowed-out storage areas for refuse cans.

5.1.15 Variable Ceiling Heights - ground floor commercial occupancies have ceiling heights in the range of 14-18 feet. These high ceilings present a floor area of large volume. Original ceilings were made of tin (covering plaster on lath) to provide added fire protection for the wood beams and flooring above. Floors above, containing residential occupancies, generally have decreased ceiling heights with the top floor of the building reduced down to a conventional 8-10 feet (Photo 21). Over the years more than one drop-ceiling may have been installed creating layers of ceiling voids requiring examination for hidden fire. Water accumulation from hoselines and/or sprinkler head activation can cause drop- ceilings to collapse in large sections, endangering anyone below. Sometimes, a floor with a high ceiling is divided into two floors creating a mini-loft.

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5.1.16 Sub-Cellars - may not span the entire dimensions of the building. They have no windows and are extremely difficult to ventilate. The floor of a sub-cellar can be concrete, brick, wood planking on sleepers, or soil while the ceiling above (floor of the cellar) will usually consist of open wood joists supporting wooden planks. Interior stairs to sub-cellars often are located remote from the cellar stairway and will normally be of unenclosed, wood construction. A sub-cellar can have an outside entrance where the rear area of the building is trenched out and open to the outer air.

5.1.17 Plate Glass Facades - the utilization of slender cast-iron structural elements to replace masonry enabled designers to reduce the mass of the building. The infill within this iron grid usually ended up being glass. The 5 foot wide and 6-8 foot high windows dramatically increased the amount of natural light within the structure. Falling glass, shards still attached to windows, and large amounts of broken glass on the sidewalk are serious hazards firefighters will face during fire operations.

5.1.18 Contiguous Buildings of Different Heights - although these type structures are attached, they were often constructed at different times. Roofs of adjoining buildings may not line-up due to different size floor to ceiling heights, cornices, and pediments even though they have the same number of stories (Photo 22). Parapet walls separating these loft buildings may further prohibit the movement of firefighters from building to building at roof level. Roof fires can auto-expose into taller neighboring buildings (Exposures 2 and 4) via windows that are no longer protected by iron shutters.

5.1.19 Ornamental Roof Cornices and Pediments - large, decorative cornices are frequently used to cap roof facades located on street fronts. Cornices can be constructed of masonry, cast-iron, copper, or wood. Many wooden cornices are attached using cast-iron straps. Cornices may protrude outward from the building a substantial distance hindering or negating aerial ladder placement to the roof as well as life saving rope operations. Decorative cornices, although not as substantial as the one on the roof, can also be found at each story of the building (Photo 23). Commonly, a large, ornamental pediment is built on the front facade of the building atop the cornice rising above the roof. They are generally constructed of wood or masonry (Photo 24).

5.1.20 Mixed Occupancy-commercial occupancies are typically located on the ground floor, basement and occasionally at the second floor level. Normally, these commercial occupancies will have larger floor areas and a heavier fire load than the residential/business occupancies above. Storage space and additional stock will be located in the rear and/or on the floor below the commercial space. A loading dock and freight elevator, solely serving these commercial floors, are two features that must be evaluated during pre-planning. Residential occupancies or business offices will be found at or above ground floor levels.

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5.1.21 Mezzanines- high ceilings make mezzanine construction popular in these buildings. Mezzanines can be used for office space, merchandise displays, storage, dining areas, or as a sleeping space in residential conversions. Mezzanine areas are typically constructed along the rear wall of the commercial space but can be found anywhere. Stairs serving a mezzanine will be open and narrow, restricting hoseline advancement into this area.

5.1.22 Synthetic Walls- these low level windows provide excellent openings for access, egress, ventilation, and hose stream/foam delivery (Photo 25). Synthetic walls may be covered with cast-iron plating, metal grilling, masonry or plywood for security reasons.

5.1.23 Quoins- are used by architects to give the impression of strength and firmness to the outline of the building. They provide firefighters with a visual contrasting feature to neighboring buildings on Exposures 2 and 4 allowing members to accurately discern the width of the fire building (Photo 26).

5.1.24 Alterations/Renovations- are numerous in Older Cast-iron loft construction. Alterations and renovations can have a significant impact on fire operations. They include, but are not limited to, all of the following:  Raised flooring.  Covered over shafts and skylights. Installed skylights.  Removal/Installation of stairways or the installation of access stairs between floors.  Conversion of shafts into living spaces.  Removal/Installation of walls, columns, girders and beams.  Removal/Installation of heating units, flues and chimneys.  Change of occupancy creating an increase in fire load for which the current sprinkler system was not designed to control.  Removal of one or more means of egress.  Additional stories built above the roof and/or penthouses. Individual penthouses can be more than one story in height and be provided with only one means of egress down from the roof.  Utilization of lightweight structural elements such as metal studs, C-joists, and wooden I-beams.  Installation of roof gardens, patios and combustible decks.  Installation of modernized utilities and HVAC systems.  Installation of Exterior Insulation Finishing Systems (EIFS).

5.2 Newer Cast-Iron Lofts - Many of the construction features mentioned above for Older Cast-iron lofts can also be found in these structures. Listed below are a few features unique to Newer Cast-iron buildings.

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5.2.1 Segmental Arch Floors- found in the Newer Cast-iron loft buildings as well as some Mill construction. Arch floors were used to span the gap between cast-iron or wrought- iron I-beams. All parts of a floor arch system are in compression. Wrought-iron rods run from beam to beam to counter the outward thrust of the arch, which was exerted on the beams. Segmental arch floors should not be breached for fear of causing a general floor collapse spanning a wide area (Figures 6-9, Photos 27-28). In most cases, lightweight cinder concrete was used to level arches and later as a floor construction material. Lightweight cinder concrete used coal cinders as an aggregate. Cinders delivered in New York contained from 10 to 35 percent unburned coal. In other cases, cinders were used to level the top of the segmental arch and wooden sleepers were set into the cinders. The floor boards were nailed to the sleepers.

5.2.2 Wrought-Iron Girders/Beams/Lintels- unlike cast-iron, which is strong in compression but weak in tension, wrought-iron is equally strong in compression and tension making it a logical substitute in the mid-19th century for horizontal structural elements. By 1875, wrought-iron beams were being manufactured with depths up to 15 inches making them the only practical structural element for carrying segmental arch floors having spans greater than 20 feet. Over time and through the lack of regular maintenance, wrought-iron may delaminate as well as rust at their connections, compromising its strength and integrity. Like steel and cast-iron, wrought-iron when heated in a fire situation will elongate and lose strength. Both of these characteristics can lead to a collapse.

5.2.3 Double Columns - attempts to protect interior cast-iron columns (exterior facade columns were not required to be protected) against the effects of fire were through the use of a double shell. The outer shell may have also been constructed of cast- iron or tile. To make the tile covering adhere better to the column during the impact from hose streams or falling debris during a fire, galvanized iron wire was tightly wound around the column so as to touch each tile at least once. The intervening space between the cast-iron outer shell and the inner cast-iron column was usually filled with plaster fireproofing or left unfilled to act as a “dead air space.” Terra cotta tile has an inherent air space which was relied upon to protect the cast-iron column inside (Figure 10, Photo 29).

5.2.4 Cellars and Sub-Cellars - generally have fire protected ceilings, enclosed stairs, and adequately enclosed or protected arteries.

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5.3 Mill Lofts

5.3.1 Cast-Iron Wall Plates - large dimensional, 16 to 25 feet wooden floor beams are spaced on 8-11 foot centers. These beams are not bolted through the masonry walls, but are fixed into cast-iron wall plates (Figure 11). The wall plates are designed to allow the beams to collapse in a fire without pulling down the walls. Cast-iron wall plates, however, tend to collect moisture leading to the deterioration of the wooden beams over a long period of time. The use of cast-iron wall plates was discontinued after a soap factory collapsed due to beam dry rot in 1909.

5.3.2 Wooden Interior Columns topped with Iron Caps - large dimensional (6-10 inches in diameter) wooden columns are topped with iron caps to better distribute beam loads across the entire cross-sectional area of the column. The iron caps also simplified assembly insuring accurate column placement (Photo 30). Girder-column intersection connections utilized a cast-iron pintle (cylindrical pin) to avoid wood shrinkage problems (Figure 12). An alternate connection brought the columns through the girder at its full width. Square columns (20% stronger than round ones of equal dimension) are used on the lower floors while round columns are reserved for the upper floors. Column dimensions decrease as load carrying requirements diminish at the upper floors of the building. Some Mill “hybrid” buildings have protected cast-iron columns.

5.3.3 Heavy Timber Floors - plank floors, 3 inches thick, are laid directly onto beams and girders which are a minimum of 6-inches in any dimension. These floors were covered with three layers of resin sized building paper, mopped with tar and topped with a 1 ¼ inch, hard wood finished floor. Total floor thickness averages at least 4 inches. The underside of the floors is normally left exposed. Girders resting atop wooden or cast-iron columns are sometimes joined together using metal brackets (dog-irons) on both sides providing marginal enhanced stability. Cutting and opening these floors to facilitate the placement and operation of cellar pipes and distributors will be manpower intensive. A general rule of thumb for the run of original hardwood finished flooring is from the front to rear of the building. A firefighter lost on a floor can utilize this knowledge to find a front or rear means of egress.

5.3.4 Heavy Timber Roofs - in the 1870s roofs on Mill lofts began to mirror their heavy timber floor systems. The planks, however, are supported on smaller rafters that are aligned with the floor beams. Like the floors, the underside of the roof is left exposed. The roofs were commonly only slightly pitched (1/2 inch to the foot) so firefighters could walk and operate on them safely. Some roofs have a more pronounced pitch supported by wooden truss components (Photo 31). Roof deck material consists of felt tar and gravel. Vertical ventilation of truss roofs is generally restricted to opening up skylights and stair bulkhead doors.

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5.3.5 Fire Towers - continuous floors without openings were a key safety feature of Mill loft construction. Stairways, placed in separate enclosed towers that were attached to the building, minimized the risk of fire spreading from floor to floor. These “smoke-proof”, non-combustible stairway enclosures also give building occupants a smoke-free means of egress to the street. Fire towers are also found in fireproof loft buildings. Fire towers are ideal for fire department use as “evacuation” stairs. They should, however, not be utilized as “attack” stairs since heat and the products of combustion tend to be drawn into them hindering hoseline advancement and operation.

5.3.6 Large Open Floor Areas - a maximum of 20,000 square feet of open floor area was the general rule. Fire walls were constructed to compartmentalize larger areas.

5.3.7 Mortise and Tenon Joinery- These connections provide the lateral support for the building as the vertical load is carried by the corner posts. Wooden dowels were sometimes used as connection pins (Figure 13).

5.3.8 Steel Tension Cables or Rods with Reinforcing Plates (Stars) - These reinforcing plates, commonly in the shape of a star, can be seen on exterior walls of the building. They were installed during construction by design (indicated by a uniform pattern) or put in post-construction (irregular pattern) when floor framing cannot be relied upon to tie-in the opposing walls due to age and deterioration (Photo 32). Steel tension cables or rods can fail at 800 degrees Fahrenheit.

5.3.9 Sand Lime Mortar - used extensively in the bonding of Mill loft brick walls. The aggregate of this type mortar lacks cement and consists of one part lime and four parts sand. Mortar loses its adhesive qualities with age and sand lime mortar is water soluble. Heavy caliber exterior streams can erode the mortar, causing a collapse which can force out bricks over a large area.

5.3.10 Sawtooth Roofs - These roofs will impose unique obstacles to firefighters regarding roof access, egress, extinguishment, and vertical ventilation. Maneuvering up and over the peaks and valleys of sawtooth roofs will be difficult at best, even under non-fire conditions. Mill sawtooths are typically of wood truss design (Photo 33). A steel cable, however, may be substituted for the bottom chord. Sawtooth roofs of steel and/or reinforced concrete construction can also be found in fireproof lofts.

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5.4 Fireproof Lofts

5.4.1 Flat Slab “Mushroom” Floors - are unique to Fireproof loft buildings. Often a portion of the floor slab at the column capital is made thicker (drop panel) than the rest of the floor to enhance the load-bearing capacity of the column (Photo 34). These type floors provide a greater clear height from floor to floor than beam and girder construction thereby creating an overall reduction of building height which can equate to more stories being built. Additional advantages include improved fire resistance against spalling due to increased mass at the top of the column,

5.4.2 High Voltage Electric Service - electrical service room normally located in the basement can deliver over 660 amps. High voltage service panels can also be found on several different floors adjacent to each of the main entrances in a multi- tenant loft. High voltage power lines and step-down electrical transformers can be encountered on the roof (Photo 35).

5.4.3 Casement Windows - constructed of multiple glass panes placed in a wrought- iron or light steel frame. Approximately 8’ x 10’ in dimension, they provide an excellent point for horizontal ventilation. Access, egress, and the removal of victims during rescue operations via bucket platform, aerial and portable ladders will prove difficult, however, since they tilt open horizontally.

5.4.4 Reinforced Concrete - Concrete resists compressive loads very well but is weak in tension. Therefore, steel bars are inserted into concrete columns and floors to increase the overall load-carrying capacity of the concrete and allow it to resist bending when tensile stresses are imposed.

5.4.5 Telecommunication Sites - the height and dimensions of Fireproof loft buildings, make them ideal for the installation of telecommunication equipment.

5.4.6 Interconnected Building Areas and Floors - horizontal openings in walls are provided to create a passageway between building areas. These openings are generally protected from fire spread utilizing fire doors. Vertical interconnections between floors include unenclosed access stairs and conveyor belt systems.

5.4.7 Fire Doors - Commonly found in pairs on either side of bearing walls. These doors, activated by fusible links, can be placed anywhere throughout the building. Often they are in various states of disrepair, chocked to bypass activation or blocked open by merchandise/storage materials and therefore will not close when needed (Photo 36). Fire doors can also be found in Cast-iron and Mill loft construction.

5.4.8 Ramps - when buildings differ in date of construction they may not have the same floor height. To allow stock to move from one building to another, ramps were erected or the entire floor was raised. This void space creates an avenue for rapid fire extension.

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5.4.9 Skywalks- these bridges may interconnect adjoining buildings at one or more floors above ground level. They were designed to facilitate the movement of occupants and materials between buildings. Many of these skywalks are sealed closed at both ends or structurally unsound negating their use for occupant egress and firefighting (Photo 37).

5.4.10 Exterior Stairs - provide occupants a unique means of egress to individually aligned floors between buildings. Exterior stairs may also be constructed to attach fire towers between buildings. These interconnections should be examined thoroughly in order to pre-plan operational use at fires and emergencies (Photo 38).

5.4.11 Wall Columns - are structural elements that are totally or partially embedded into load-bearing walls (Photo 39).

5.4.12 Loading Docks - exterior openings aligned at ground level designed for trucks to load and unload stock and merchandise. They can also be found in Cast-iron and Mill lofts. They can provide firefighting units with excellent access points into the building. These openings are often protected by metal roll-down gates when not being utilized and during non-operational hours.

6. ENGINE COMPANY OPERATIONS

6.1 General Tactics (Cast-Iron and Mill Loft Buildings)

6.1.1 Initial hoselines shall be 2 ½ inch.

6.1.2 After two lines have been stretched up a stairway, additional lines should be stretched via alternate stairways (if available), exterior rope stretches, or fire escapes. Interconnected buildings may also provide access.

6.1.3 High ceilings and large un-compartmented areas can mask high heat conditions. Be aware of the possibility of heat and smoke passing overhead and fire breaking out behind the operating hoseline. The last member on the hoseline must maintain surveillance of the area to the rear. Similarly, a member positioned at the interior entrance to the fire area should monitor conditions.

6.1.4 The Engine Company officer shall announce via the handie-talkie when the initial hoseline attack is to commence. Advancing hoselines may cause conditions opposite the stream and above to worsen. Conditions in areas behind, adjoining or above the operating hoseline must be monitored for sudden possible deterioration. All members must be alert to fireground communications concerning hoseline placement and the commencement of hoseline operations so that they may seek refuge, if necessary.

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6.1.5 Large fires may require two lines on the fire floor. The second hoseline is usually stretched by way of the interior stairs to the same floor as the first line for augmentation. If not needed on the original fire floor it is then advanced to the floor above. The officer supervising the second hoseline should not advance to the floor above until assured the first hoseline is making progress and is capable of handling the fire floor. All hoseline commitment and coordination must be communicated to all officers in the Fire sector.

6.1.6 For advanced fires a quick knock-down using the engine’s deck pipe will allow for a rapid interior attack once a hoseline is in position. Outside streams should be used only as long as necessary to extinguish visible fire. Expect these buildings to be deep.

Note: The use of large caliber streams (LCS) can only be ordered by the IC. This includes the first arriving engine officer.

6.1.7 There is the potential for a backdraft on intermediate floors where vertical ventilation is not possible. Position the hoseline with firefighters to the side of the entrance to the fire area. Utilize the reach of the hose stream and begin the attack with firefighters as low as possible. This may require starting from a few steps down the stairs from the entrance. The hoseline should be immediately discharged into the fire area when it is accessed. Taking this action before firefighters and outside air enters a potentially explosive fire area, will allow the water stream to break-up and cool the ambient air. This should be coordinated with exterior ventilation.

6.1.8 Segmental arch floors exposed to fire can spall violently and possibly fail when struck by water from a hoseline below. Use the reach of the stream and do not operate the stream directly overhead.

6.1.9 Sprinkler and standpipe systems

A. Sprinkler systems may serve only the cellar and sub-cellar. These systems may be non-automatic, consisting of either dry piping with fusible link sprinkler heads, or in rare instances, perforated pipes. Non-automatic sprinkler systems depend solely upon the Fire Department for their water supply.

B. Large area automatic sprinkler systems can be supplied by one or more water sources such as city mains, gravity tanks or pressure tanks.

C. Automatic sprinkler systems protecting a small area may not have a siamese connection and may be lacking a direct connection with a city water main in the street. Sole supply is the gravity tank and/or pressure tank(s) located at roof or top floor levels.

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D. In buildings where the sprinklers serve the upper floors, section valves may be found on individual floors/areas. These valves must be checked to ensure they are in the full open position. Lofts having both sprinkler and standpipe systems can have two separate and distinct sources of water or may share a single source.

E. Lofts without standpipe systems will require hand stretching hoselines into the building via one or more interior staircases. Cast-iron loft buildings typically have only one interior stair which will limit hoseline placement options.

6.2 Specific Tactics (Cast-Iron and Mill Loft Buildings)

6.2.1 Cellar and Sub-Cellar Fires

A. The first engine company should stretch the initial hoseline via the interior to the fire area. Ensure there is enough hoseline to cover the anticipated fire area prior to advancing. In a building protected by a sprinkler system servicing the fire area, if staffing and conditions permit, a supply line shall be stretched to feed this system. If conditions prevent initial hoseline from advancing down the interior stairs, notify the IC and remain at this position to prevent upward extension.

B. The second engine company shall assist the first engine with initial hoseline. In a building protected by a sprinkler system servicing the fire area, if first engine has not supplied it, a supply line shall be stretched to feed this system.

C. The third engine company shall be assisted by the fourth engine company in stretching the second hoseline. If the first hoseline is unable to advance into the fire area, the second hoseline may need to gain an alternate access point into the fire area.

NOTE: All hoseline commitment and coordination must be communicated to the Incident Commander/Sector Supervisor.

D. Additional hoselines may be needed to:  Back up the hoseline advancing into the cellar.  Operate from other access points if initial hoseline is unable to advance.  Protect exposures (below grade areas may be interconnected).  Supply cellar pipes, sub-cellar pipes, and distributors.

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6.2.2 Lower Floor Fires

A. The first engine company shall stretch the first hoseline into the fire area to protect life and extinguish the fire. In a building protected by a sprinkler system servicing the fire area, if staffing and conditions permit, a supply line shall be stretched to feed this system.

B. The second engine company shall assist the first engine with initial hoseline. In a building protected by a sprinkler system servicing the fire area, if first engine has not supplied it and staffing and conditions permit, a supply line shall be stretched to feed this system.

C. The third engine company shall:

1. Stretch a second hoseline with the assistance of the fourth engine company and operate as ordered by the Incident Commander.

2. If present and servicing the fire area, ensure the sprinkler system is supplied.

D. The second hoseline is usually stretched by way of the interior stairs to the same floor as the first hoseline. It is meant to augment the first hoseline. If not needed on the fire floor it is then advanced to the floor above. The officer supervising the second hoseline should not advance to the floor above until assured the first hoseline is making progress and is capable of handling the fire floor

NOTE: All hoseline commitment and coordination must be communicated to the Incident Commander/Sector Supervisor.

6.2.3 Upper Floor Fires - Operate as per Section 6.2.2 with the following consideration:

A. After two hoselines have been stretched up a stairway, additional hoselines should be stretched via: alternate stairways (if available), aerial/portable ladders, ropes or fire escapes. Interconnected buildings may also provide access.

B. Consider utilization of the high-rise nozzle (HRN).

NOTE: All hoseline commitment and coordination must be communicated to the Incident Commander/Sector Supervisor.

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6.3 General and Specific Tactics (Fireproof Loft Buildings)

6.3.1 Residential Use

A. Engine company operations in residential Fireproof lofts shall be conducted in accordance with Firefighting Procedures (Volume 1, Book 1) Multiple Dwelling Fires-Section 6 (Class “A” Fireproof Multiple Dwelling Fires) with particular emphasis on the following:

1. Initial hoselines shall be 2 ½ inch.

2. Large open areas may have been compartmented during renovation/alteration. These subdivisions can create a maze of hallways and corridors leading to multiple apartments.

3. Large fire areas both above and below grade will require the coordinated operation of two hoselines. All hoseline commitment and coordination must be communicated to the Incident Commander/Sector Supervisor.

6.3.2 Non-residential Use

A. Fire operations for engine companies in non-residential fireproof loft buildings pose many of the same hazards found in high-rise office buildings. Large dimensional buildings with expansive floor areas and high ceilings necessitate a team approach when performing hoseline stretches. Coordinated effort will be required from first arriving engine companies to get the initial hoseline into operation as well as the proper positioning of a back-up hoseline, if required. Engine operations should be safely conducted based upon initial and ongoing size-up to ensure the protection of life and property, with particular emphasis on the following:

1. Initial hoselines shall be 2 ½ inch.

2. When advancing hoselines through large fireproof self-closing doors, it is vital that the door be chocked open securely preventing any possible hindrance to line advancement.

3. Hoseline advancement shall proceed with caution. Large open floor areas both above and below grade may allow the fire to travel over, around or behind operating members.

4. Possibility of fire exceeding the extinguishing/control capabilities of the sprinkler system due to heavy fire loading.

5. Proper apparatus positioning at advanced fires to facilitate engine deckpipe operations or to supply a tower/aerial ladder for effective use of elevated LCS.

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7. LADDER COMPANY OPERATIONS

7.1 General Tactics (Cast-Iron and Mill Loft Buildings)

7.1.1 The first ladder company is responsible for ventilation, entry and search (VES) of the fire floor. The second ladder company is responsible for VES of the floors above.

7.1.2 Tower ladders should be positioned for use of their LCS where needed. A position which also permits the use of an aerial ladder would be ideal. Roof access can be a challenge in these buildings. Crowned cobblestone streets, commonly found in loft areas, are often in disrepair and may negatively impact apparatus tormentor and jack placement.

7.1.3 Pediments must be avoided when positioning apparatus ladders due to uneven contact points and the prohibitive distance from the ladder to the roof surface. Small pediments situated over windows may also be found. They are often loose, cracked or broken and must also be avoided when placing ladders.

7.1.4 Improper apparatus positioning and tormentor placement have collapsed vaulted sidewalks. Vehicles falling through vaulted sidewalks could strike structural elements in sub-level areas leading to a building collapse.

7.1.5 Cast-iron lofts may have up to four doorways fronting the street (freight elevator, residential elevator vestibule, commercial entrance, and interior stairway entrance). Care shall be taken in selecting the proper entry door commensurate with task objectives to avoid unnecessary delays.

7.1.6 Some elevators are very old with limited load capacity and open-cage cabs. They are without Fireman Service and some only work in the manual mode requiring an operator.

7.1.7 Large, open floor areas require all ladder companies carry search ropes and thermal imaging cameras.

7.1.8 Multi-lock commercial steel doors within interior stairs generally still remain even after residential conversions. Floor landings are often small with limited working room.

7.1.9 Ladder Company officers must carefully evaluate the risks of entering the fire area without the protection of a charged hoseline. Conditions at ceiling level may not be readily apparent and can change rapidly.

7.1.10 Units should delay opening the fire floor door if this would expose occupants or other units on the interior stairs until a charged hoseline is in position.

7.1.11 Prior to proceeding above the fire, the second Ladder Company officer must ensure that the officers on the fire floor are made aware of his/her intention so members operating above can be warned of any situation necessitating withdrawal. 24 FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES May 17, 2011 LOFT BUILDING FIRES

7.1.12 The Ladder Company officer on the fire floor should transmit the fire conditions, layout and all pertinent features to the Incident Commander. Request additional assistance if the dimensions of the fire floor make it impractical for one ladder company to effectively and safely operate alone.

7.1.13 The need for immediate, clear, concise information is essential. The importance of continued communications, regardless of operational demands, increases with the magnitude of the fire.

7.1.14 Mezzanines can be hard to locate in low visibility. Once found, they may be difficult to access. Mezzanines present a collapse hazard when exposed to fire.

7.1.15 Large windows will provide good ventilation at ground floor level and above. Ladder company firefighters operating on the exterior of the building, must communicate with their company officer and consider wind conditions before venting. Horizontal ventilation may increase the intensity of the fire and must be carefully coordinated.

7.1.16 Fire-vented windows where wind is blowing the fire back into the fire occupancy may require the deployment of KO curtain(s) and/or the fire window blanket.

7.1.17 When sprinklers are manually shutdown, a member should remain at the shut-off valve in case the system needs to be reactivated.

7.1.18 High ceilings may be covered with tin or multiple drop ceilings added to conceal HVAC equipment and duct work.

7.1.19 Indiscriminate overhauling on the underside of segmental arch floors can cause a localized collapse.

7.2 Specific Tactics (Cast-Iron and Mill Loft Buildings)

7.2.1 Cellar and Sub-Cellar Fires

A. Inside Teams

1. First ladder company - Gain access to the fire area via the interior stairs.

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2. If conditions prevent access to the cellar or sub-cellar by way of the interior stairs communicate conditions to the IC and the second ladder company. The first ladder company will remain with the first hoseline on the floor above the fire searching for life, fire extension, and providing ventilation. The second ladder company will gain access to the fire area via alternate means (exterior, adjoining building, etc.) for the second hoseline. This must be communicated and coordinated with the Incident Commander.

3. Cellars and sub-cellars may have subdivided storage areas for each tenant/occupant creating a substantial fire load.

B. Chauffeurs

1. After completion of laddering duties, first arriving ladder company chauffeurs should assist in ventilation by opening up sidewalk access points. This should be accomplished while remaining in the front of the building, immediately available to position or re- position ladders as needed.

C. Outside Vent (OV) Firefighters

1. Fires below grade may require alternative means of access for hoseline placement. The first ladder company OV Firefighter shall communicate this possibility to the IC along with the required manpower and equipment needed to achieve this objective.

2. Second ladder company OV Firefighter should be aware of the possible need for specialized forcible entry tools and equipment in the rear.

3. The OV Firefighters should communicate their intent and be teamed with another member prior to entering an IDLH atmosphere.

D. Roof Firefighters

1. Access to the roof will be an adjoining building, aerial/tower ladder, or a fire escape.

2. Communicate conditions not visible from the street including, shafts between buildings, their size and shape, and any additional street fronts. Move cautiously, some buildings have no parapet or railing increasing the danger of roof operations.

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3. Perform vertical ventilation, as required, to relieve the upper portions of the building of heat and smoke and prevent mushrooming. Roof operations may be hindered by decks, gardens, and penthouses. Construction of penthouses may differ from the rest of the building.

4. Vertical ventilation over straight run stairs being used for attack should be coordinated with Inside Team and Engine Company officers.

5. Second ladder Roof Firefighter will reinforce the position of the first ladder Roof Firefighter.

6. After roof duties are complete, VES of upper floors should be conducted. Roof Firefighters shall communicate their intent and be teamed with another member when entering an IDLH atmosphere.

7.2.2 Lower Floor Fires

A. Inside Teams

1. First ladder company – VES of the fire floor.

2. Second ladder company – VES of the floors above the fire searching for life, fire extension, and providing ventilation. If straight run stairs are encountered notify the Incident Commander.

B. Chauffeurs

1. First ladder chauffeur should remain in the front of the building, immediately available to position or re-position ladders if needed and to perform necessary coordinated ventilation.

2. Second ladder chauffeur will reinforce the position of the first ladder chauffeur. If not needed in the front of the building, second ladder chauffeur shall contact his/her officer for further instructions. A possible subsequent assignment may entail assisting the OV Firefighter in the rear as necessary.

C. OV Firefighters

1. First ladder OV Firefighter’s primary position is the rear of the building to perform coordinated ventilation and report fire conditions. An exception to this would be assisting the chauffeur with an immediate life hazard in the front of the building. Many lofts maintain an open floor layout increasing the need and benefit of ventilation from the rear.

2. Communicate any rear access for additional hoselines. Request necessary tools and assistance to gain access.

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3. Coordinate horizontal ventilation with company officer.

4. Second ladder OV Firefighter will proceed to the rear to reinforce and ensure this position has been covered.

5. The OV Firefighters should communicate their intent and be teamed with another member prior to entering an IDLH atmosphere.

D. Roof Firefighters

1. Operate as per Section 7.2.1

7.2.3 Upper Floor Fires - Operate as per Section 7.2.2 with the following additions:

A. Inside Teams

1. First ladder company - Gain access to the fire area via the interior stairs for VES. If straight run stairs are encountered notify the Incident Commander.

2. Second ladder company – Gain access to the floors above the fire searching for life and fire extension. Provide coordinated ventilation as necessary.

B. Chauffeurs

1. Operate as per Section 7.2.2

C. OV Firefighters

1. Operate as per Section 7.2.2

D. Roof Firefighters

1. For top floor fires, the second due ladder Roof Firefighter will bring the saw to the roof.

7.3 General and Specific Tactics (Fireproof Loft Buildings)

7.3.1 Residential Use

A. Ladder company operations in residential fireproof loft buildings shall be conducted in accordance with Firefighting Procedures (Volume 1, Book 1) Multiple Dwelling Fires, (Class “A” Fireproof Multiple Dwelling Fires) with particular emphasis on the following:

1. Accurate size-up of the height and dimensions of the fire building.

2. The potential for a wind-driven event exists, even at lower floor fires.

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3. Horizontal ventilation of the fire apartment is limited and controlled by the Ladder Company officer operating inside the apartment. All other ventilation must be strictly limited and controlled by the IC.

4. Searches may be difficult due to large apartments and unique floor plans. Expansive and un-compartmented floor areas may require coordinated team searches using search ropes.

7.3.2 Non-residential Use

A. Fire operations for ladder companies in non-residential fireproof loft buildings pose many of the same hazards found in high-rise office buildings. Access onto the grounds of these structures during nighttime hours and/or weekends/holidays, may be prohibitive due to locked perimeter fencing, barbed wire, and other high security measures. Entry points may be protected by metal gates and heavy duty locking devices. Windowless buildings are not uncommon, especially in lofts being used for storage. Large building dimensions and floor areas together with high ceilings necessitate a team approach when performing VES operations. Ladder operations should be safely conducted based upon initial and ongoing size-up to ensure the protection of life and property, with particular emphasis on the following:

1. Fire operations in fireproof lofts used for storage can be particularly punishing. Heavy fuel load can contribute to high heat and dense smoke. Air management is crucial to a safe operation.

2. Large un-compartmented areas make searching for victims and fire extremely difficult. Consideration must be given to using multiple ladder companies on individual floors. Coordinated team searches using search ropes will facilitate search and enhance safety.

3. Thermal Imaging Cameras shall be utilized to assist with the search for life and fire.

4. Windowless buildings increase the need to monitor carbon monoxide meters.

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8. INCIDENT COMMANDER

8.1 General Strategy

8.1.1 The first to arrive Battalion Chief shall establish the Incident Command Post in proximity to the front of the fire building. It is imperative that the Battalion Firefighter stay with their assigned Chief and be prepared for the implementation of the Command channel. Large area lofts may require the utilization of the Post radio. The IC must be prepared to support, augment, or change current strategy and tactics based on information received. Additional Chiefs should be special called to increase coordination, supervision, and to maintain a reasonable span-of- control.

8.1.2 Major considerations should include the following:  Sufficient communications to support an ongoing operation.  HVAC systems and their effect on operations.  Utilization of LCS for a quick knock-down at advanced fires. For deep buildings, LCS streams may not reach the entire span.  Examination of adjoining buildings. Fire and combustible gases can travel through crevices at beam ends seeping through brickwork.  Reinforcement operations in the rear. Access to, and ventilation of the rear can require specialized tools. Allow for increased time for effective ventilation.  The need to relieve units responsible for large areas which may require the transmission of additional alarms.  Rebreather Units may be required for extended, post fire control search operations over large floor areas and/or below grade levels.

8.2 Specific Tactics

8.2.1 Cellar and Sub-Cellar Fires

A. The removal of deadlights and/or metal frame over a sidewalk vault can provide vertical ventilation at cellar and sub-cellar fires as well as insertion points for cellar pipes, sub-cellar pipes, distributors and foam generators. Forcible entry into these sidewalk vaults can be labor intensive. Call for additional resources early. Consider the use of SOC units with specialized tools. It may be necessary to place portable ladders into sidewalk vaults for access/egress.

B. Opening up synthetic walls may also provide an access point for entry and vertical ventilation of sub-level areas. It can additionally facilitate the use of fire extinguishing equipment during stubborn cellar or sub-cellar fires.

C. Rear entrances may provide better access to sub-cellar areas.

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D. Adjoining buildings may be interconnected at sub-grade level. Units should check for additional access points to the fire and possible fire extension.

E. The utilization of positive pressure ventilation (PPV) fans for smoke removal, when required.

F. Consider the need for additional lighting.

8.2.2 Lower and Upper Floor Fires

A. Necessity for ladder apparatus placement at each exterior building wall fronting on a street.

B. Using firefighters from tower ladder bucket platforms with forcible entry tools to provide horizontal ventilation at windowless buildings.

C. Heavy fire conditions generate intense amounts of radiated heat which can span long distances. The Incident Command Post should be established with this factor in mind.

D. Roofs and floors beyond the reach of apparatus ladders will seriously impact exterior rescue attempts as well as vertical and horizontal ventilation. Additional manpower may be required to complete these tasks from the interior.

E. Falling shards of glass are a grave danger to both firefighters and evacuating occupants. Ventilation at any ground or above ground floor must be coordinated with members working adjacent to and below.

F. Illuminating fire escapes being utilized by firefighters and occupants during nighttime hours will greatly enhance safety.

G. Communication will be required with all units on scene regarding the location of freight and passenger elevator shafts that can be accessed via apparatus ladder, portable ladder, as well as fire escapes.

9. SAFETY

9.1 Collapse Potential

9.1.1 Wide-dimensional Cast-iron lofts having front and rear walls supporting girders pose catastrophic collapse potential should they be compromised.

9.1.2 Front façade cast-iron plating is commonly bolted or screwed into front floor joists. Many of these bolts have been weakened by rust. Heavy fire conditions causing structural movement (stress) may cause them to break.

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9.1.3 Floor and/or wall collapse can be caused by excessive water use and water absorption into structural elements and building contents. Excess water may also cause dropped ceilings to collapse in large sections. Roof and floor drains should be checked by firefighters and cleared of debris, as necessary, utilizing hand tools. Water runoff needs to be constantly monitored, particularly when LCS are being utilized.

9.1.4 If the structural stability of gravity tank supports is questionable, consider draining the contents of the tank and diverting the water off the roof into a drain pipe, or by opening a standpipe outlet on a lower floor. Additionally, during winter operations, ice can accumulate on the outside of a gravity tank (Photo 40). These ice formations have broken away and fallen through the roof of loft buildings or adjoining buildings.

9.1.5 A brick wall with sand lime mortar can have this bonding material washed out by LCS dislodging bricks and seriously weakening the wall.

9.1.6 Floor collapse can be initiated by the failure of a single column. Members should avoid striking columns with LCS.

10. MISCELLANEOUS CHALLENGES AND KEY POINTS

10.1 The landmark status of some buildings requires they keep most of the original exterior features even though they are no longer functional. For example: iron shutters welded in the closed position; facade gas valve covers (Photo 41); standpipe inlet(s), riser, and outlet valve(s) at window sill level (Photo 42); and sidewalk elevator doors with the elevator car removed.

10.2 Multi-unit drills (MUD), Company drills, and the Building Inspection Safety Program (BISP) are good ways to become familiar with loft building features. The Critical Information Dispatch System (CIDS) needs to be carefully worded to communicate features not visible from the exterior. Especially important is to denote multiple street fronts available for apparatus positioning.

11. CONCLUSION

11.1 Unique construction features, varied occupancies, and numerous alterations/renovations make it impractical to develop an all inclusive operating procedure for every situation. Incident Commanders must coordinate operational variations based on knowledge and sound firefighting principles to solve individual fire problems. The need for increased situational awareness to identify, evaluate and communicate conditions is paramount to ensure a safe operation.

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