FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES VOLUME 1, BOOK 9 May 17, 2011 LOFT BUILDING FIRES TABLE OF CONTENTS Glossary 1 1. Introduction 3 2. Description 3 3. Purpose 3 4. Types of Construction 4 5. Construction Features 6 6. Engine Company Operations 19 7. Ladder Company Operations 24 8. Incident Commander 30 9. Safety 31 10. Miscellaneous Challenges and Key Points 32 11. Conclusion 32 FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES May 17, 2011 LOFT BUILDING FIRES GLOSSARY Ashlar masonry Stone cut into rectangular units (most often 18” to 24” high by 2 to 3 feet long). Attached to the façade wall of a building using cement mortar or cement/lime mix. Iron plating is sometimes used to imitate Ashlar masonry. It has a similar attachment to the facade wall and may also have a hollow core. Ammonia Diffusion Fire protection system found in cold storage warehouses where anhydrous System ammonia is used as a refrigerant. System provides release valves and a siamese connection for the fire service to dilute the refrigerant flowing out of the relief device and into the city sewer system. Automatic fire door Protects horizontal openings between buildings or between sections within a building from fire spread. Doors are activated by a fusible link. Can be sliding, roll-down or hinge type. Brick arch floor Segmental brick arch floor sprung between wrought-iron I-beams. Wrought-iron tie-rods, providing needed resistance to tension, are stretched from beam to beam to keep the arch from pushing outward at the base. Tie-rods may or may not have been protected by fire resistive material. Cast-iron column In Cast-iron building construction, cast-iron columns are used as load- bearing components on the exterior front facade as well as to provide floor support on the interior. Can also be found in “hybrid” type Mill loft buildings. Cast-iron wall plate Repository for wooden floor beams; they are designed to allow the beams to collapse in a fire without pulling down the walls. Deadlights Fixed glass segments that are imbedded in cast-iron frames or masonry to provide natural light for sidewalk vaults. Enclosed stair Structurally separate from the building, contain no common floor joists with the interior floor area. Facade Gas Valve Gas main shut-off valve located on exterior wall of some Cast-iron lofts. Very rare and no longer in service. Also known as a “Star Valve.” Fire tower A “smoke-proof”, non-combustible stairway found in both Mill loft and Fireproof loft construction. Entered through an intermediate vestibule that is adjacent to a smoke shaft designed to vent the incomplete by- products of combustion. Flat slab A steel-reinforced concrete floor having no supporting beams except at “mushroom” floor the building perimeter. The floor rests directly on columns usually built with enlarged capitals. Flat floor skylights Original floor assemblies consisting of segmented glass panels, installed vertically in line with the roof skylight, to allow natural light in. Gravity tank An elevated tank for fire protection purposes, intended to store water and maintain a steady water pressure. Hose Header A bonnet with multiple valve outlets, utilizing water from the fire pumps. It is generally located on an exterior wall of the building. It can also be used as an inlet if the fire pumps are OOS. If used as an inlet, a valve located inside the building needs to be manually opened. Iron shutters Glazing protector used to inhibit fire from spreading out windows to neighboring buildings as well as help prevent auto-exposure. 1 FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES May 17, 2011 LOFT BUILDING FIRES Mortise and tenon Rectangular cavity (mortise) cut into corner posts to receive a projection joinery (tenon) on the end of the floor girders in Mill loft construction. Wooden dowels may be used to secure the connection. Also found in Cast-iron construction where mortise cuts for girders receive tenons at the end of floor beams. Monitor Raised structure above the roof level to allow light into the building. Pediment A wide, low-pitched gable surmounting the facade of a building. Pediments may also be found over windows. Pressure tank A pressurized water supply source located at or above the highest level of the sprinkler system. Tank is supplied with water through a fixed pipe that is independent of the sprinkler piping. Quoins Block masonry cornerstones usually covered with cast-iron plating located at each end of the front facade of a Cast-iron loft building. These rectangular stones can be both structural and/or decorative. Sawtooth roof A roof designed to disperse natural light uniformly throughout the interior of a structure. Utilizes a number of parallel roof sections (one per bay) of triangular shape and near vertical glazing (commonly facing due north). Scuppers Cast-iron drains built into the walls of Mill loft construction that are located at roof level and on each floor to reduce the accumulation of water. Sidewalk vault A three wall sub-surface enclosure erected beneath a sidewalk. Skywalk An enclosed walkway bridge located above ground spanning a roadway or courtyard between two adjoining buildings. Steel Tension Cables Used to strengthen and cross-tie above ground walls in brick or masonry /Rods with reinforcing buildings. plates (Stars) Stepped wall and Exterior walls and interior columns typically larger at lower levels to column system accommodate additional loading from the upper floors. Straight run stairs Commonly found in Older Cast-iron lofts that are street to street in depth. These type stairs have a linear run going from the front to the rear wall of the building. Occupant/tenant entrance doors on each floor open directly onto the straight run stairs. Some larger lofts have an additional straight run staircase going from the rear of the building to the front wall. Synthetic walls Large horizontal glazing found on the street façade of a loft building that is designed to provide natural light to first floor and sub-level areas. Terra cotta tile arch Segmented terra cotta tile arch sprung between wrought-iron beams. floor Used for warehouses where heavy loads would be supported. Terra cotta tile flat Terra cotta tile flat arch floors are true segmental arches in that all tiles arch floor are in compression and the removal of any tile (not just the keystone) may precipitate the collapse of the entire arch from beam to beam. Wall Outlets on an exterior wall supplied by a gravity tank, pressure tank or hydrant/manifold other water source for the building. Valves are opened manually at the wall hydrant for FDNY hoseline use. 2 FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES May 17, 2011 LOFT BUILDING FIRES 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Lofts were originally occupied for the storage and sale of merchandise. Subsequently, the manufacturing of goods became common place. Construction features are characterized by high ceilings, large un-compartmented spaces, and prominently located freight elevators close to the front entrance of the building. Lofts can be Class 1, 2, 3 or 6 constructions. Today, lofts may contain many different type occupancies. The legislative bill, known as the “Loft Law”, passed in 1982 led the way to establishing these properties as legal multiple dwellings. 2. DESCRIPTION 2.1 The development of cast-iron and wrought-iron structural elements in the 1840s combined with practical elevator technology, led to the construction of taller buildings. Cast-iron loft construction flourished in lower Manhattan, especially in the neighborhood now known as SOHO (South of Houston Street). This section of the city was once called “Hell’s Hundred Acres” to describe the fire ravaged lofts in the area. Significant amounts of Cast-iron construction can also be found in the “Ladies Mile” area (Broadway-6th Avenue, 8th Street to 14th Street), Tribeca (Triangle Below Canal), Chelsea, and Williamsburg. The last cast-iron front loft building was erected in NYC in 1901. 2.2 Mill (Heavy Timber) constructed lofts are the least common type. Age and lack of maintenance have resulted in many of these buildings being demolished. Originally built for manufacturing and warehousing, they are typically located adjacent to waterways and rail lines. Some areas where they can be found include Chelsea, Downtown Brooklyn, Maspeth, and Hunts Point. 2.3 During the 1880s, steel became more accessible. The use of steel columns, girders, and beams in conjunction with reinforced concrete introduced true fireproof construction into loft buildings. Fireproof lofts are the newest and most common type. Many of these buildings are well maintained and have not been altered. Fireproof lofts are found in many areas of the NYC including Bush Terminal, DUMBO (Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass) Long Island City, South Bronx, and Midtown West (Hell’s Kitchen). 3. PURPOSE 3.1 To describe the different types of loft buildings which accommodate a wide array (industrial, manufacturing, storage, commercial, educational, business, residential, public assembly, etc.) of occupancies throughout New York City. 3.2 To identify construction features and associated problem areas as they relate to fire. 3.3 To establish guidelines for operating at fires in such buildings and recommend precautions that should be taken. 3.4 To enhance overall operational safety leading to the reduction of human and economic loss. 3 FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES May 17, 2011 LOFT BUILDING FIRES 4. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION 4.1 Older Cast-Iron Lofts, 1840s – 1870s 4.1.1 Maximum 7 to 8 stories in height having front and rear exterior walls of brick, stone or iron (Photo 1). Side exterior walls are of brick construction. Frontage is usually 25 feet (indicating no interior columns) with depths reaching 90 feet and frontage on only one street. Many of these structures have first floor extensions protruding up to 10 feet beyond the upper floors of the building in the rear.