THE POVERTY of DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY in AFRICA Dr Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng, Executive Director, ACTS

Home , Brazilian diaspora, Kamuku people, Milton Obote, Poverty in Africa

January 2016

VOLUME 5 ISBN: 9966 - 41-190 - 9

THE POVERTY OF DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY IN AFRICA Dr Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng, Executive Director, ACTS

AFRICA’S NEW MIDDLE CLASS A VEHICLE FOR CHANGE OR MORE OF THE SAME? Prof Michael Lofchie, UCLA

THE DATA GEOGRAPHIES THE CASE FOR REVOLUTION OF INFORMATION BIOTECHNOLOGY IN AFRICA INEQUALITY IN AFRICA IN AFRICA Prof Laura Mann, Prof Mark Graham and Dr Christopher Prof. Torbjörn Fagerström, Dr. Roy B. London School of Economics Foster, University of Oxford Mugiira and Dr. Lisa Sennerby Forsse

THE AFRICAN TRADE FOR AFRICA’S LIGHT SOURCE DEVELOPMENT INFORMATION INITIATIVE IN AFRICA “REVOLUTION” Prof. Sekazi K. Mtingwa, Professor Emeritus, Prof L Alan Winters, Dr Pádraig Carmody, Trinity College Dublin MIT and Carolina A&T State University University of Sussex and Prof James T. Murphy, Clark University

1 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN 2 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Editor -in- Chief

Dr. Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng

Editor - in- Chief Dr. Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng

Editorial Assistants Winnie Asiti Millie Ocholla Mary Muthoni Moses Owidhi

Contact [email protected]

To contribute an article or opinion, or to advertise on the African Technopolitan, please contact: [email protected]

Published by ACTS Press Nairobi, 2016.

The African Technopolitan is a biannual publication dedicated to the world of science, technology and development. It informs and provokes debate on critical issues in African development. www.africantechnopolitan.com

3 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN IN THIS ISSUE 12

6 48

THE POVERTY OF DEVELOPMENT GEOGRAPHIES OF INFORMATION STRATEGY IN AFRICA INEQUALITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 6 Dr Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng, 78 Prof Mark Graham and Dr Christopher Foster, Executive Director, ACTS Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford

AFRICA’S NEW MIDDLE CLASS: A Vehicle for AFRICA’S INFORMATION “REVOLUTION”: Progressive Change or More of the Same? Possibilities and Limitations 28 Prof Michael Lofchie, 86 Dr Pádraig Carmody, Professor of Political Science, UCLA Trinity College Dublin and Prof James T. Murphy, Clark University

HARNESSING TRADE FOR ACCELERATED THE DATA REVOLUTION IN AFRICA: DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA The Good, the Bad and the Ugly 38 Prof L Alan Winters, 90 Prof Laura Mann, University of Sussex Assistant Professor of International Development, LSE

CHINA’S CONTRIBUTION TO SKILLS GROWING THE KENYA BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA PROCESS OUTSOURCING SECTOR Dr Sajitha Bashir, 93 Prof Mark Graham (Oxford), Prof Laura Mann (LSE), 44 Dr. Nicolas Friederici (Oxford), Prof Timothy Waema World Bank Group (Nairobi)

BIOTECHNOLOGY: The Tool Africa THE MOBILE MONEY EXPERIENCE IN Cannot Afford to Ignore SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 56 Prof. Torbjörn Fagerström, 96 Dr Mrinalini Tankha, Dr. Roy B. Mugiira (State Department of Science and Postdoctoral Scholar, IMTFI, University of California, Irvine Technology, Kenya) and Prof. Lisa Sennerby Forsse (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences)

THE CASE FOR BIO-BASED ECONOMIES MOBILE TECHNOLOGY MEETS IN AFRICA SOCIAL INNOVATION Prof Nwadiuto Esiobu, 66 106 Ken Banks, Florida Atlantic University, U.S.A.; former Senior Science Founder of kiwanja.net and creator of Frontline SMS Advisor, Secretary’s Office of Global Food Security, U.S. Department of State

COMMERCIAL FAMILY FARMS ARE BIODIVERSITY INFORMATICS IN MORE PRODUCTIVE THAN PLANTATION 72 EASTERN AFRICA 110 AGRICULTURE IN AFRICA Dr Aime Tsinda, Senior Research Fellow, IPAR-Rwanda Prof Joseph Hanlon, LSE and the Open University; Prof Jeanette Manjengwa, University of Zimbabwe; Prof Teresa Smart, University College London.

4 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN 61 FARMER GOVERNANCE OF LOCAL THE ‘RESOURCE CURSE’ AND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND CONFLICTS IN AFRICA 114 INNOVATION 150 Dr Ann Waters-Bayer, Chesha Wettasinha & Laurens van Prof Jon Unruh, McGill University Veldhuizen, Prolinnova International Secretariat, Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam, Netherlands

THE CHALLENGE OF GLOBAL THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL INSTITUTIONS HEALTH PARTNERSHIPS IN AFRICA IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION 159 Prof Ogaba Danjuma Oche, 120 Prof Johanna Crane, Assistant Professor of Science, Technology, and Society, University of Washington – Nigerian Institute of International Affairs Bothell

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY RETHINKING SECURITY IN AFRICA PARTNERSHIPS IN AFRICA Prof Samuel M. Makinda, 124 Prof Clare N. Muhoro, 169 Murdoch University Townson University; Science Partnerships Advisor, US Global Development Lab, USAID

TACKLING INEQUITIES IN GLOBAL GODAN AIMS TO FILL CRITICAL SCIENTIFIC POWER STRUCTURES KNOWLEDGE GAPS FOR SDG #2 128 172 Diana Szpotowicz, GODAN Angela Okune (Ihub), Denisse Albornoz, Becky Hillyer, Nanjira Sambuli (Ihub), Leslie Chan (University of Toronto)

THE AFRICAN LIGHT SOURCE ACTS IN THE WORLD 132 INITIATIVE 174 Prof. Sekazi K. Mtingwa, Professor Emeritus, MIT and Carolina A&T State University

AFRICA, FOSSIL FUELS AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY 140 Langdon Morris, InnovationLabs

MULTINATIONALISM IN THE FACE OF A 144 GROWING TERRORIST THREAT IN AFRICA Bat-el Ohayon and Frank Charnas, AfriQue Consulting Group

5 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN COVER STORY THE POVERTY OF DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY IN AFRICA

Dr Cosmas Milton Obote Ochieng, Executive Director, ACTS

6 6 THETHE AFRICAN AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN TECHNOPOLITAN Abstract

A combination of robust economic performance and an uptick in scientific and technological indicators over the last two decades has given rise to exuberant assessments of Africa’s development prospects in the 21st century. Loose parallels are being drawn between development in Africa today and economic development in East Asia (i.e. the ‘East Asian tigers’) and the rise of ‘Silicon Valley’. This article argues that Africa’s economic and techno-scientific progress is being lionized prematurely, to the detriment of its long term development. The ‘Africa rising’ narrative masks a poverty of development strategies: lack of coherent development policies and capacity for strategic thinking necessary to consolidate recent gains and to harness future global megatrends.

The poverty of development strategy manifests itself in at least four interrelated ways. The morphing of ‘Economic Advisors’ into ‘Policymakers’ in all but name has restrained ‘development ambition’ and ‘strategic policy space’ in Africa. ‘Palliative’ or policies focused on poverty reduction have been mistaken for development policy. Africa has failed to bet big on science, technology and innovation for its development. Policy making has proceeded as if Africa is a country, yielding dubious one-size-fits-all prescriptions.

Introduction: Two Decades of Robust Economic Performance but Nothing Miraculous

n 2000, the World At the turn of the century, 40 per- veloping region’’ (World Bank, 2000, Bank published an cent of Africa’s private wealth was 1). The World Bank concluded that assessment of Sub Sa- held abroad, an amount equivalent Africa’s development challenges went haran Africa’s devel- to the size of its debt or 90 percent beyond low incomes, low savings, opment prospects in of its GDP. By comparison, only 6 slow growth and falling trade shares the 21st century: Can percent of East Asian and 10 percent to include inequality, uneven access Africa Claim the 21st of Latin American wealth were held to resources, social exclusion, and in- Century? The Bank abroad. Between 1960s and 2000, security. hedged its bets. Africa entered the Africa had lost a third of its human 21st century with dismal socio-eco- capital through emigration. In 2000, Against this background, it is easy nomic indicators. It had many of the 1 out of 8 Africans with a university to see why the broad-based and sus- world’s poorest countries and a grow- education lived in a country in the tained economic growth, falling pov- ing share of the world’s absolute poor. OECD. This was the highest rate erty rates, and the unexpected uptake Its total income was not much more among developing regions, with the of information and communication than Belgium’s, and its ‘‘average out- exception of the Caribbean, Cen- technologies in much of Africa over put per capita in constant prices was tral America and Mexico. Moreover, the last two decades has generated lower at the end of the 1990s than 30 the continent appeared in danger of a dramatic shift in elite and popular years before’’ (World Bank, 2000, 8). being marginalized by the informa- perception of Africa’s development The continent was characterized by tion revolution. In the estimation prospects. Consider the following. financial and human capital flight; of the World Bank, many develop- Over the last two decades, real eco- declining export shares in traditional ment problems had become largely nomic activity in Africa more than commodities; limited economic di- confined to Africa. These included doubled. According to Africa’s Pulse, versification; widespread civil strife lagging primary school enrollments, the economies of Sub-Saharan Af- (with one in five Africans living in a high child mortality, and endemic dis- rica grew at a relatively strong pace conflict stricken country); and limited eases—‘‘including malaria and HIV/ of 4.5 percent a year on average be- popular participation in political gov- AIDS—that impose costs on Africa tween 1995 and 2013. This is com- ernance. at least twice those in any other de- parable to that of other developing

7 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN regions (4.4 percent). Africa was out- recessions across the region dropped in 1970 to a peak of 15.3 percent in performed only by East Asia and the from 2.2 years during 1974–94 to 1.9 1990, just before the structural ad- Pacific at 5.1 percent (Africa’s Pulse, years during 1995–2011, while the justment program of the ‘Washing- Vol. 9, 2014). Over the same period, median contraction declined from 9.3 ton Consensus’ went into full bloom Sub-Saharan Africa witnessed more percent during 1974–94 to 5.4 per- across much of Africa. It has been than a 30-fold increase in foreign di- cent during 1995–2012’’ (Ibid.). Un- declining ever since. The share of rect investment (FDI), an expansion like the 1980s and 1990s, Africa’s debt manufactures in Africa’s total exports ‘‘7.5 times faster than in high-income ratios are currently lower than those fell from 43 percent in 2000 to 39 per- countries and nearly 10 times faster for other developing regions. cent in 2008. Nearly half of Sub Sa- than global GDP’’ (Ibid.). The share haran African countries had negative of the African population in extreme All these indicators confirm that Af- MVA (Manufacturing Value Added) poverty fell from 56 percent in 1990 to rica’s economic performance over the per capita growth from 1990 to 2010. 43 percent in 2012. last two decades has been robust and Even Africa’s share of low-technology broad based. What this performance manufacturing activities in MVA also While Africa’s total income was not is not, however, is anything near ‘mi- fell from 23 percent in 2000 to 20 per- much larger than Belgium’s at the raculous’ relative to successful eco- cent in 2008, while its share of low- turn of the century, according to the nomic development cases of the last technology manufacturing exports fell

IMF’s World Economic Outlook, by 60 years (e.g. Japan, South Korea, from 25 percent in 2000 to 18 percent 2014, Nigeria had become the 21st Taiwan, Singapore, China et cetera) in 2008. largest economy in the world (by or relative to what is needed to trans- nominal GDP). In global rankings (by form a majority of African countries Even on its own terms, the African nominal GDP) it was a larger econo- into newly industrialized economies, economic story of the last two decades my than: Sweden, Belgium, Norway, say by 2030-2040, going by most na- is not an unqualified success. Take Austria, United Arab Emirates, Co- tional development aspirations. In the case of poverty reduction. While lombia, Denmark, Malaysia, Singa- other words, sustained economic and poverty rates have fallen, the number pore, Israel, Finland, Ireland, Paki- techno-scientific development in Afri- of people living in poverty increased stan, Portugal and Greece. According ca is far from being around the corner. by more than 100 million, partly as to McKinsey’s study in 2010 (Lions a result of population growth. There on the Move), at $ 1.6 trillion, Africa’s The most important illustration of are now more people living in poverty combined GDP in 2008 was roughly this is the industrial stagnation or in Africa than there were in 1990. Af- equal to Brazil’s or Russia’s. The con- decline in much of Africa over the rica is also the only developing region tinent has also become less prone to last two decades. A 2011 study by to have failed to reach the UN Millen- macroeconomic instability. The ‘‘inci- UNCTAD and UNIDO (Economic nium Development Goal (MDG) of dence of sharp declines in real output Development in Africa: Fostering Industrial halving poverty by 2015. The growth per capita (peak-to-trough drops that Development in Africa in the New Global of FDI might have been impressive exceeded 10 percent) was reduced Environment) found that the share of but because of weak linkages between from 36 percent during 1974–94 to manufacturing in GDP in Africa fell foreign investors and local economies, approximately 18 percent during from 15.3 percent in 1990 to 12.8 its economy-wide spill over effect has 1995–2011...Furthermore, the dura- percent in 2000 and 10.5 percent in been limited. The lower debt-to-GDP tion and depth of recessions also de- 2008. The share of manufacturing in ratio is a result of two debt cancella- clined...On average, the duration of GDP in Africa rose from 6.3 percent tion programs (the Heavily Indebted

8 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Poor Countries initiative and the To be sure, some accounts of the led it to over-estimate Africa’s eco- Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative) ‘Africa rising’ narrative recognize nomic and techno-scientific ‘suc- and fast economic growth. There is that the continent continues to face cesses’. While the last two decades limited room for further debt relief, significant challenges. The World have been good for economic and in part because many African coun- Bank’s latest study, Poverty in a Rising techno-scientific progress in Africa, tries are back to borrowing from the Africa, notes that despite falling pov- they have also been a period of even private market (as opposed to offi- erty rates, more people in Africa are more unprecedented economic, cial lenders such as the World Bank poor today than in 1990, that vio- social, technological and political and the IMF). Personal, corporate lence is on the rise and that illiteracy transformation in the rest of the and government debts are all on levels on the continent remain sig- developing world (see Steven Rade- the rise in Africa. Since 2008, the nificantly high. Nonetheless, many let’s: The Great Surge: The Ascent of the debt-to-GDP ratio is on the rise in accounts of the ‘Africa rising’ narra- Developing World). many African countries. If econom- tive give the impression that Africa ic growth falters, the debt burden has reached the ‘economic take off’ The ‘era’ of the ‘Africa rising’ nar- might become unsustainable. stage – as in Rostow’s theory of eco- rative is also the period during Africa’s economic performance nomic development. which China became the second largest economy in the world and Brazil and India joined the club While poverty rates have fallen, the number of the 10 largest global economies. While an ‘African economy’ the of people living in poverty increased by size of Russia’s or Brazil’s is an improvement on an ‘African economy’ more than 100 million, partly as a result of slightly larger than Belgium’s, what this really tells us is that Africa is still population growth. There are now more a very poor continent. Brazil has undergone phenomenal economic people living in poverty in Africa than there change over the last few decades. Nevertheless, it is barely a ‘devel- were in 1990. oped country’. That its economy is roughly the same size as dozens of African economies combined, this over the last two decades has been McKinsey’s Lions on the Move ex- tells us more about Brazil’s current attributable to a combination of be- emplifies this. ‘‘Looking ahead, a state of economic development. nign external factors and domestic critical question is whether Africa’s Nigeria and South Africa together improvements in macro-economic surge represents a onetime event constitute 55 percent of the GDP of management. There are signs of or an economic takeoff. The con- 48 Sub Saharan African countries. changes in both fronts. ‘‘On the ex- tinent’s growth also picked up dur- When they are taken out of the ternal front, growth performance ing the oil boom of the 1970s but equation, Africa’s economic per- in the region was boosted by rising slowed sharply when oil and other formance over the last two decades commodity prices, the emergence commodity prices collapsed during begins to look less impressive. of China as an important trade and the subsequent two decades. Today, investment partner, and the surge while individual African economies In sum, the nature of economic and of foreign capital into developing could suffer many setbacks, our techno-scientific development in countries due to accommodative analysis suggests that the continent’s Africa does not measure up to the monetary policies in the advanced long term growth prospects are hype. The ‘Lion State’, ‘Silicon Sa- world’’ (Africa’s Pulse, Vo. 9. 2014, strong, propelled by both external vannah’ and related analogies are pp 25). Other than the ‘China ef- trends in the global economy and false and premature. The Africa fect’, commodity prices and mon- internal changes in the continent’s rising narrative would benefit im- etary policies in advanced countries societies and economies’’ (McKin- mensely from greater attention to are already on different trajecto- sey, 2010, 3). comparative analysis. By hyping the ries. Domestically, recent budget nature of economic progress in Af- deficits (e.g. Ghana and Tanzania), Economic development is not a ‘ze- rica, the ‘Africa rising’ narrative un- currency crises (Ghana and Zam- ro-sum’ game. Development in one der-emphasizes the complex, multi- bia), sovereign bond issues (at least country or region does not equate faceted development challenges that 16 African countries have issued to underdevelopment in another. still face the continent. In spite of ‘Eurobonds’) and growing cases of Nevertheless, theoretical thinking its recent economic and ‘techno- corruption raise questions about fis- on economic development always scientific gains, and in spite of op- cal discipline and macroeconomic benefits from comparative analysis. portunities in global megatrends management in a number of coun- The ‘Africa rising’ narrative suf- over the next decade or so (which tries. fers from a lack of keen attention according to a 2012 Report of the to comparative analysis. This has US National Intelligence Council

9 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN (Global Trends 2030) includes demo- the requisite development policies be achieved within a generation. Re- graphic patterns, diffusion of global and leadership necessary to move the gardless of its current ‘stage’ of eco- power or ‘emancipatory multi-polari- continent to the next ‘level’ of devel- nomic development, if Africa is to ty’, individual empowerment, urbani- opment. Below, I argue that Africa realize the dream of industrialization zation, disruptive technologies and lacks coherent development strategies by 2020, 2025, 2030, 2040 or 2063, food-water-energy pressures; see also and leadership required for this task. going by different national and conti- Prof Nwadiuto Esiobu’s article in this Even if the proposition that Africa has nental aspirations, at a minimum, the Issue of the Magazine), Africa faces a reached the ‘economic takeoff’ stage continent will need greater techno- number of fundamental development is correct, according to Rostow’s theo- scientific and industrial capacities. challenges, including: structural trans- ry, a country could still take anywhere This will in turn require more than formation and economic diversifica- between 50 to 100 years to transition ‘palliative policies’ or policies primar- tion; inequality and social exclusion; to the next ‘stage’ of economic de- ily focused on poverty reduction. This insecurity and political instability; un- velopment: ‘Drive to Maturity’. That will also require that the continent re- derdeveloped scientific, technological would require a long interval of sus- claims the role of ‘Policymaker’ from and innovation capabilities, to men- tained economic growth, something ‘Economic Advisors’. Finally, this tion but a few. Even after two decades that is currently doubtful given the will require that development policy- of solid economic growth, Africa is present makeup of what constitutes making recognizes that Africa is not still more or less where it was at the ‘development policy’ in many African a country: a one-size-fits-all develop- turn of the century: many develop- countries. ment approach might be counterpro- ment problems remain largely con- ductive to Africa’s development objec- fined to the continent. Rostow’s theory of economic devel- tives, whether it is deployed by ‘home opment is problematic and a critique grown’ African institutions such as the Addressing these challenges will re- of it is beyond the scope of this article. African Union, NEPAD and the Af- quire a more creative, bold and in- For our purposes, suffice it to say that rican Development Bank or Africa’s novative approach to development we know from the case studies of eco- ‘development partners’ such as the policy than currently employed by nomic development in South Korea, World Bank, IMF, UN agencies, bi- many African countries. Most ac- Singapore and Taiwan for example, lateral and multilateral ‘donors’. The counts of the ‘Africa rising’ narrative that with the ‘right set of development rest of this article discusses each of assume that African countries have policies’, economic development can these in turn.

PROMISING TECHNO-SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS BUT STILL A LONG WAY TO GO Africa’s techno-scientific progress over tional Use of Information and Communica- the last few years mirrors that of its tion Technologies in Africa) estimated that ‘economy’: impressive but nothing mi- ICTs directly contribute about 7 per- raculous in comparative perspective cent of Africa’s GDP, a figure higher or relative to its development needs. than the global average. The study This is not to diminish Africa’s recent also found that two-thirds of African techno-scientific gains. At the turn of adults now have access to ICTs. the century, there was a real concern that the information revolution would In many countries in Africa, ICT marginalize Africa. While the techno- applications are being harnessed in scientific and industrial gap between the fields of finance, education, ag- Africa and the rest of the world re- riculture, health, climate change and mains wide, today, it looks more likely public service. In 2014, the ‘mobile than not that the information and ecosystem’ supported 4.4 million jobs digital revolutions will help Africa to and ‘‘generated 5.7 percent of GDP bridge this gap. Africa’s ability to har- in Sub Saharan Africa, a contribution ness applications of information and of just over $100 billion in economic communication technologies (ICTs), value’’, according to GSMA’s Mobile especially mobile technologies and Economy, Sub Saharan Africa report the internet, is partly responsible for of 2015. It is estimated that 88 percent its current economic and techno-sci- of Africa’s population is covered by a entific dynamism. A 2012 joint study mobile-cellular signal. Africa’s mobile by the African Development Bank penetration rate now stands at 67 per- and the World Bank (The Transforma- cent while its internet penetration rate

10 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN stands at 26.5 percent or nearly 300 While the techno-scientific and industrial gap million people. The number of mobile subscribers in Africa grew from between africa and the rest of the world remains less than 25 million in 2001 to nearly wide, today, it looks more likely than not that the 650 million by 2012. According to the GSMA report, more than one-fifth of information and digital revolutions might help mobile connections in Africa are connected to a mobile money account Africa to bridge this gap. and there are ‘‘more registered mobile money accounts than banks accounts published in Africa rose by 60 percent, attempts at ‘mega projects’ in the in a number of countries’’. with Africa’s share of global publica- 1960s through the 1980s resulted in tions increasing from 2 percent to 2.6 many ‘white elephants’ or investment African mobile innovations such as percent. The number of researchers projects with negative social surplus. MPesa have given rise to a vibrant in Africa grew from 150,000 in 2009 More recently, simple plans to supply mobile economy on the continent. to 190,000 in 2013, while the conti- schools with laptops in many African There are currently over 200 tech nent’s gross expenditure on research countries have stalled. Apart from the hubs or innovation labs (also known as and development (GERD) grew from fact that without a skilled manpower co-working spaces, innovation hubs, US$12.9 billion in 2007 to US$19.9 base, proposed mega techno-scientific collaboration spaces, innovation clus- billion in 2013 or 0.36 percent to 0.45 projects are more likely to turn into ters or business incubators) across the percent as a percentage of GDP. ‘white elephants’, bureaucratic dif- continent. Among the most famous ficulties in executing relatively simple of these are Nairobi’s Ihub, Kigali’s The ICT and R&D figures are im- projects do not inspire much con- KLab, Liberia’s ILab, Nigeria’s Co- pressive relative to Africa’s histori- fidence in the fate of the proposed Creation Hub and FabLabs (i.e. en- cal performance. However, from a mega projects. gineering based hubs) in Nairobi and global comparative perspective, they Namibia. The proliferation of these don’t look as impressive. McKinsey’s Secondly, and perhaps more impor- tech hubs, together with planned or 2011 study, Lions go Digital, found that tantly, even assuming successful com- nascent formal but fairly ambitious the Internet’s contribution to Africa’s pletion, African techno cities or inno- state led science, industrial and tech- GDP at 1.1 percent was just ‘‘over vation clusters wouldn’t be the most nology parks, cities or clusters such as half the levels seen in other emerging ambitious, innovative or competitive those in Kenya (Konza Techno City markets and well below the average in the world. A number of countries or Technopolis); Nigeria (Anam New of 3.7 percent in developed econo- have either successfully developed City, Eko Atlantic, and Centennial mies’’. (There are significant varia- similar or more advanced initiatives City), Botswana (Botswana Innova- tions across African countries with (e.g. Biopolis in Singapore, Software tion Hub); South Africa (Science and countries such as Kenya and Senegal Technology Parks in India, Israel’s Technology Park) and Egypt (City of performing particularly well, at 2.9 Silicon Wadi, Edinburgh’s BioQuar- Scientific Research and Technological percent and 3.3 percent respectively). ter, Hsinchu Science Park in Taiwan, Applications (SRTA-City) is what has All the ICT related papers in this Is- Tsukuba Science City in Japan – not given rise to the concept of the Silicon sue (i.e. Mark Graham and Chris- to mention the original Silicon Valley Savannah. topher Foster, Laura Mann, Padraid and its many variants in the US). Oth- Carmody and James T. Murphy, Gra- ers are racing to complete similar pro- Africa’s surprisingly speedy uptake ham, Mann and Friederici, Mrinalini jects: Paris-Saclay (France) Skolkovo and adaptation of ICTs has done a Tankha and Ken Banks) demonstrate (Russia), Cyberjaya (Malaysia), Chi- lot for its techno-scientific image. This that the African ICT sector is still far lecon Valley, (Chile) and Tech City has somewhat overshadowed its gains from meeting its full potential. London, (United Kingdom). Many in scientific research and develop- of these projects have two advantages ment. Two new publications find that Much has been made of the proposed over those in Africa: (a) more devel- the quality and quantity of Africa’s Konza Technopolis in Kenya and oped scientific infrastructure (i.e. larg- research output increased over the last similar techno-scientific or innovation er pools of science, technology, en- decade (Andreas Blom, George Lan, cluster proposals/projects in Africa. gineering and mathematics (STEM) and Mariam Adil, Sub-Saharan African While the proliferation of these pro- graduates, world class universities and Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math- posals is a positive sign that much of research centers, heavy private sector ematics Research: A Decade of Development, the continent is finally waking up to concentration and participation, large and UNESCO Science Report, Towards the power of science, technology and outlays of both public and private sec- 2030). Sub-Saharan Africa more innovation as a driver of economic tor funding, established or functional than doubled its yearly research out- development, the hype is misguided. industry-state-university partnerships) put from 2003 to 2012. The region’s To begin with, outside South Africa, and (b) greater ‘ambition’ and ‘in- share of global research increased most countries in Africa have a dis- novation’. Each of the non-African from 0.44 percent to 0.72 percent over mal record with ‘mega projects’ in projects has a holistic talent strategy the same period. Between 2008 and general and ‘mega scientific or tech- to develop and attract world-class sci- 2014, the number of research articles nology projects’ in particular. Early entists, whether local or international

11 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN (e.g. flexible visa rules, ‘seed’ funding, class research centers and universities, telephone companies, ‘seed funding’ nationality, ethnicity and race blind many African countries seem more agencies, and thousands of entrepre- immigration policies). For example, interested in expanding the ‘quantity’ neurial Africans who congregate in Singapore’s A*STAR Program pro- rather than the ‘quality’ of university the more than 200 innovation hubs or vides scholarships for the best students education. If Africa is not going to labs across the continent. in Singapore to pursue undergraduate compete aggressively for global tal- and graduate scientific training at top ent, including Africa’s own talent, it Considering that the entire mobile universities in Singapore and around is unlikely that many of the planned ecosystem in Africa is still a loose, in- the world. It also allows brilliant inter- techno-cities and innovation clusters formal and precarious infrastructure, national postdocs to conduct research will succeed. despite its vibrancy and dynamism, in Singapore. Singapore is also able perhaps a more innovative and ap- to attract many capable and talented The point is not that Africa should propriate ‘industrial policy’ in Africa foreign students into its national sci- cede mega scientific and technological would be for the state to ‘follow’ its ence ecosystem through its world projects to others. On the contrary, entrepreneurs and focus investments, class higher education system. Brazil’s the point is that in terms of economic research and development and re- Scientific Mobility Program (BSMP) development, Africa can longer af- lated infrastructure on the ‘mobile is a government initiative designed ford to leave, in the famous words of technology and solutions sector’. This to grant 100,000 Brazilian univer- Thandika Mkandawire, ‘‘the think- might still require the building of a sity students the opportunity to study ing, planning, experimenting, and Technopolis but it would be a very therefore learning, to foreign institu- different Technopolis, one perhaps tions’ (quoted in Seyoum Hameso’s better suited to Africa’s already world 2001 book: Development, State and Soci- class innovation capabilities and eco- ety: Theories and Practice in Contemporary systems in mobile technologies and Africa). The continent already has lim- innovations. A mobile, virtual or cy- ited scientific and research infrastruc- ber Technopolis might help overcome ture. This acts as a major obstacle to many of the barriers to scientific and attracting global talent. Africa has to technological development in Africa, find creative and innovative ways of including the challenges associated making itself an attractive ‘hub’ for with financial and human capital. scientific research and technological innovation. Achieving this will re- African entrepreneurs and innovators quire a coherent development policy, have demonstrable expertise and in- focused leadership and capacity for terest in this type of challenge. That strategic thinking. Notably, this will is partly the logic and method behind require some world class mastery of the mobile revolution in Africa. It is ‘industrial policy’: ability to success- also partly the logic and method be- fully identify and to effectively sup- hind the self-selection and location of port sectors, industries or even firms, the more than 200 ihubs across Afri- with the potential to fundamentally ca. Many of these are already associ- transform the structure of an entire ated with leading African universities, abroad at the world’s top universities. industry or country. It is not clear that global researchers and the private sec- ‘Start-Up Chile’ is a Chilean gov- many of Africa’s planned mega tech- tor, both local and foreign. In other ernment funded start-up incubator no - scientific and technology projects words, many of the tech hubs might program that since 2010 has spent are embedded within strategic and be low cost and small scale but they US$40 million in grants to attract the coherent national development poli- are already ‘functional innovation best and brightest entrepreneurs from cies. clusters’. Why build a ‘formal’ inno- all around the world by providing vation cluster from scratch? Why not them with a one year residency visa, Africa’s promising ICT story over build on these pre-existing innovation US$ 40, 000 in seed funding, office the last decade has occurred with hubs? After all, many of the pre-exist- space, and opportunities for mentor- limited state or government support ing hubs focus on generating innova- ing and coaching. – outside of the provision of requi- tions with social applications. site infrastructure (e.g. investments By comparison, many of the African in broadband, STEM training) and A fundamental problem with Africa’s initiatives lack coherent strategies to enabling regulatory frameworks. n techno-scientific development is that either build and/or to attract the best spite of this, Africa has emerged as a the continent is yet to bet big on sci- global talent. It is estimated that Af- global leader in mobile technologies ence, technology and innovation for rica needs 10,000 STEM graduates and innovations. Much of the mobile its economic development. Scientific over the next 10 years. Nothing much technology and innovation work in development is at the heart of techno- has been done about this so far. While Africa has been done through an in- logical change and innovation. Since other countries are investing in world teresting combination of universities, the industrial revolution, developed

12 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN countries have had the most science Africa’s GERD of US$ 19.9 billion Sub-Saharan African research. and technology capacity and have in 2014, was just slightly bigger than Investments in African research and grown fastest. More recently, returns Spain’s (US$ 18 billion). development over the last few years to research and development (R&D) have been partly driven by interna- have been shown to be consistently While Africa has done well in re- tional partnerships and external fund- positive and high across many indus- search and development over the ing. While this is welcome and needs tries in both developed and develop- last few years, it is worth putting this strengthening, it can be problematic, ing countries, suggesting a correlation in comparative perspective. Africa’s absent a coherent development strat- between innovation and growth. De- research and publication indicators egy. According to Andreas Blom et al, veloped economies have continued to might be trending upwards but Sub- in 2012, 79 percent, 70 percent, and invest heavily in research and devel- Saharan Africa still accounts for less 45 percent of all research by South- opment but many of the fastest grow- than 1 percent of the world’s research ern Africa, East Africa, and West and ing developing countries of the last output. More importantly, despite the Central Africa, respectively, were pro- few decades have recently joined this realization that to achieve economic duced through international collabo- league. According to Batelle’s Global transformation, Sub-Saharan Africa rations. By comparison, 68 percent, R&D Funding Forecast, in 2014, the requires more and better STEM skills 45 percent, and 32 percent of Viet- US invested 2.8 percent of its GDP and knowledge, its research output in nam, South Africa, and Malaysia’s to R&D. In the same year, the figure STEM significantly lags behind that research output, respectively, were was 2.0 percent for China, 3.4 per- of other subject areas. The share of produced through international col- cent (Japan), 2.9 percent (Germany), STEM research in Africa declined laborations. 3.6 percent (South Korea), 2.3 per- marginally by 0.2. percent annually cent (France), 1.3 percent Brazil, 2.7 over the last decade. While STEM This suggests that Sub Saharan Af- percent (Qatar), 2.7 percent (Singa- pore), 4.2 percent (Israel) and 2.4 percent (Taiwan). By comparison, all the African initiatives lack In 1980, African leaders pledged that each African country would spend coherent strategies to either build and/or to at least one percent of its GDP on R&D. This pledge was not met. In 2007, African leaders renewed this attract the best global talent. pledge. There has been little movement so far. Africa’s R&D expenditure as a percentage of GDP grew from 0.36 percent in 2007 to 0.45 constituted the largest share of Ma- rica lacks internal research capacity percent in 2013. The 1 percent target laysia’s and Vietnam’s total research and the critical mass to produce inter- isn’t sufficiently ambitious to begin output at an average of 68 percent, national quality research on its own. with. That no more than 3 African it was only 29 percent of all research Blom et al also argue that the transi- countries have met this target since in Sub Saharan Africa. According to tory nature of many researchers in the renewed pledge in 2007 speaks to Blom et al, ‘‘in 2012, the quality of these international partnerships ‘‘may misplaced development strategies in STEM research in Sub-Saharan Af- prevent researchers from building Africa. Africa’s gross expenditure on rica, as measured by relative citation relationships with African firms and research and development (GERD) impact, was 0.68 (32 percent below governments, reducing the economic might have increased from US$12.9 the global average). This is below impact and relevance of research’’. billion in 2007 to US$19.9 billion in that of all disciplines in Sub-Saharan More importantly, they conclude that 2013 but in comparative terms all Africa (0.92) and the global average there ‘‘appears to be little knowledge this tells us is that Africa is yet to bet (1.00), and it has virtually stayed the transfer and collaboration between on science, technology and innova- same since 2003. In contrast, STEM Sub- Saharan African academics and tion. Consider this. With nearly half research in Malaysia, Vietnam and the corporate sector, as measured by a trillion dollars in R&D investments South Africa in 2012 was slightly corporate downloads of and patent ci- annually (or about 2.8 percent of its above the world average (1.02) and tations to African academic research, GDP), US annual R&D investments has improved 15 percent since 2003’’. especially for STEM disciplines… are just over the size of South Africa’s The growth in Sub-Saharan Africa’s Such trends suggest that corporations GDP. In 2014, South Korea’s gross research has been largely driven by do not rely much on African-generat- expenditure on research and devel- the Health sciences, which grew at ed knowledge and research for their opment was $ 63 billion, about the an impressive rate of 4 percent annu- competitiveness.’’ size of the entire Kenyan economy. ally and accounts for 45 percent of all

13 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN THE POVERTY OF DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

Many African countries lack strategic development policies to consolidate their recent economic and techno-scientific gains and to capitalize on potentially favorable global megatrends in the future. In the absence of strategic development policies, recent gains and any potential fortunes in future megatrends are not as useful as ‘enabling development conditions’ as they otherwise would be. Development strategy is here defined as ‘‘an economic conception that defines the priority goals, coherently explains how set goals can be reached, identifies the policy tools and explores trade-offs and the time frame’’ (Priewe, 2015, 27 in UNCTAD’s Rethinking Development Strategies After the Financial Crisis: Making the Case for Policy Space). In their assessment of successful development strategies of Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and China (or the Beijing- Seoul-Tokyo (BeST) Consensus for development), Professors Keun Lee, John Mathews and Robert Wade caution that development policies are not to be confused with ‘palliative policies’ focused on poverty reduction, such as the Millennium Development Goals.

‘‘Development policies take as their touch- stone building capacities of (local or joint venture) firms, especially technological capacities; and strengthening the links from profits to investment and investment to profits. In tackling the task of building the capacities of firms, public agencies can help compensate for deficiencies in the existing structure -of mar kets - agencies such as export-import banks, export processing zone administrations, development banks, technology institutes, and high-level state coordinating)’’ (http://www. ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/0a9462ee-7e36-11dc- 8fac 0000779fd2ac.html#axzz3uUJnuWx0). Lee, Mathews and Wade stress that BeST Consensus is not a matter of either constructing a ‘developmental state’ or choosing ‘free markets’. Rather, it is about the national leadership embracing the norms behind the BeST Consensus, and applying these precepts in line with available capacity.

Broadly speaking, three approaches have underpinned development policy in many Afri- can countries over the last 55 years: • 1960s -1970s: ‘Dirigiste Dogma’: the use of indicative economic planning to supplement the market system combined with substantial state-directed investments and incentives to promote particular strategic sectors or industries (i.e. various elements of industrial policy. See Deepak Lal’s The

14 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Poverty of Development Economics). and the ensuing Great Recession, conformed to the tenets of this neo- • 1980s-1990s: The ‘‘Washington have led to a growing body of work liberal doctrine, the literature probes Consensus’’: privatization, liber- in economics that (a) questions the the question as to why a country that alization and deregulation of mar- efficacy and relevance of the neoclas- dutifully carried out the policy con- kets. sical economic paradigm not only for sensus did not reap the expected ben- • 2000 – 2015: ‘Palliative’ (i.e. pov- developing countries but also for de- efits. China is different. Much of the erty reduction) and ‘Institutional veloped ones and (b) seeks economic China literature addresses a contrary Strengthening’: This approach or development ‘lessons’ that both puzzle: with institutions and policies builds on the ‘‘Washington Con- developing and developed countries that have deviated greatly from estab- sensus’’ by adding a focus on pov- can learn from the success of ‘het- lished orthodoxy, how could China erty reduction and commitment erodox economies’. The Chinese be performing so well?’’ (Jefferson, to private property rights, rule of development experience, like that of G. (2008) in ‘How Has China’s Eco- law, independent judiciary and the ‘East Asian Tigers’ and other suc- nomic Emergence Contributed to the other institutions that facilitate cessful ‘heterodox’ economies suggest Field of Economics?’ Comparative Eco- greater marketization, to the prin- that there are many successful visions nomic Studies, pp.168). cipal elements of the ‘‘Washington of market economy and as many suc- Consensus’’. This is what Ha-Joon cessful policy and institutional paths The success of the ‘heterodox econo- Chang has called ‘Hamlet with- to achieving them. ‘‘Much of devel- mies’, the global financial crisis and out the Prince Developmentalism’ opment economics had been viewed the Great Recession, have forced or the substitution of the concept as asking how developing countries consideration - ever so grudgingly of economic and social structural could successfully transition toward - of the validity of alternative devel- transformation in development the kinds of market-oriented policy opment or economic theories, insti- discourse with marginal improve- frameworks that came to be called tutions and policies. In the wake of ments in socio-economic indica- “American style capitalism.” The de- the global financial crisis, the bastions tors. bate was not about the goal, but the of the ‘Washington Consensus’ – the

The ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ and ‘Palliative cum Institutional’ Ap- Unfortunately, much of the new thinking proaches have a lot in common. Both On development is not happening in Africa. draw their inspiration from ‘mainstream’ neoclassical economic think- Much of Africa appears to be staying the course ing, although the ‘Institutional’ approach also pays heed to tenets of of palliative’ and ‘institutional’ approaches to ‘new institutional economics’. Wide- development. spread criticism of the ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ partly led to the rise of ‘Palliative and Institutional Strength- path to that goal, with some advocat- IMF and the World Bank – are going ening’ approaches. Increasingly, the ing “shock therapy,” while others fo- through what Grabel has termed an Palliative and Institutional Approach- cused on pacing and sequencing—a interregnum of restrained ‘neolib- es have come under fire for being ill- more gradualist tack. The global fi- eralism coherence’ amidst ‘produc- suited to the task of economic devel- nancial crisis has now raised questions tive incoherence’: ‘‘the proliferation opment, if economic development is about that model even for developed of responses to the crisis by national defined in terms of structural change countries’’ (Joseph Stiglitz (2011) in governments, multilateral institutions and transformation. Japan, China, ‘Rethinking Development Econom- (particularly the IMF) and the eco- Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, ics’, The World Bank Research Observer, nomics profession that to date have Malaysia and a few other countries pp. 230). China’s economic policies not congealed into any sort of con- have upended economic orthodoxy and institutions in particular, have sistent strategy or regime’’ (Grabel, by ‘developing’ phenomenally well been unambiguously un-orthodox Ilene, 2011. ‘Not your grandfather’s in spite of (or perhaps because of) in- that little attempt has been made IMF: global crisis, ‘productive inco- stitutions and policies that markedly (so far) to ‘package’ them otherwise. herence’ and developmental policy deviated from the principal elements ‘‘Many country economic analyses space’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, of neoclassical and new institutional address the issue of why a particular 35: 5, pp. 806). The IMF’s response economics or entailed significant cre- country has not lived up to its perfor- in the wake of the global financial ativity or ‘allowances’ within the neo- mance expectations. Usually, the an- crisis and the Great Recession has ex- classical/new institutional economic swer is deemed to be obvious. That is, hibited a rare lack of attachment to a paradigm. the country did not follow the appro- rigid, one-size-fits-all strategy of glob- priate policy; it deviated in fatal ways al neoliberalism. (The same could be The development success of ‘hetero- from orthodox policy prescriptions said of the actions of major advanced dox economies’ (e.g. China, Taiwan, associated with the so-called ‘Wash- economies during the Great Reces- South Korea, Japan and Singapore), ington Consensus’. Alternatively, if sion, including particularly the US). the global financial crisis of 2008 the country indeed did appear to have For example, the crisis has had the ef-

15 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN fect of ‘normalizing’ capital controls ment in development, particularly in development lies in the implementa- in developing countries which Grabel facilitating technological innovation, tion of ‘experimental and learning considers ‘‘to be the most significant entrepreneurship, social and physical approaches’ rather than narrow and expansion of policy space in the de- infrastructure. Unfortunately, much rigid general guidelines. A key mes- veloping world over the past several of the new thinking on development sage of the UNCTAD report is that decades’’ (Ibid. pp 807). is not happening in Africa. Much developing countries can benefit from of Africa appears to be staying the learning from each other and from Grabel also points out that IMF’s con- course of Palliative’ and ‘Institution- their own historical experiences more. ditionality programs while still ‘harsh’ al’ Approaches to development. This (Jan Nederveen Pieterse, writing in and mostly faithful to neoliberalism, is problematic because if Africa is to Development and Change (‘Global display ‘incoherence’ in two notable consolidate and sustain its recent eco- rebalancing: crisis & the East-South ways. ‘‘First, while the Fund continues nomic and techno-scientific gains, it is turn’) sees a global rebalancing that is to advocate fiscal retrenchment, it also going to have to rethink its develop- not only redefining North-South rela- now routinely emphasizes the need ment strategies. tions but also South-South relations. for ‘pro-poor spending’ to protect Developing countries might benefit the most vulnerable from economic In ‘Rethinking the Millennium De- from greater South-East relations). In hardship. Second, there is a striking velopment Goals for Africa’, Harvard its Economic Report of 2011, the United lack of consistency in conditionality University’s Stephen Peterson, joins Nations Economic Commission for programs across countries. Indeed, Professors Lee, Mathews and Wade in Africa (UNECA) endorses a ‘devel- the IMF’s crisis response strategy is challenging ‘palliative policies’, specif- opmental state’ approach, based on marked by ad hoc measures that re- ically, the Millennium Development lessons from East Asia, Malaysia and flect all sorts of differences across the Goals, as effective development strat- Brazil, as the best strategy for advanc- countries where the IMF has asserted egies for Africa. Peterson proposes an ing sustained infrastructural, institu- its influence’’ (Ibid). Grabel is careful alternative strategy for Africa called tional and social development in Af- to emphasize that these ‘deviations’ DIGS or Decade Infrastructure Goals rica. For UNECA, a developmental from orthodoxy are far from sufficient where ‘I’ stands for transportation, state consists of five major elements: indicators of either fundamental in- power, agriculture and revenues. Pe- purposeful leadership and a devel- tellectual or policy shifts within eco- terson argues that the DIGS prioritize opmentalist coalition; transformative nomics in general or ‘mainstream’ investments with proven abilities to act institutions; industrial policy; invest- ‘development institutions’ in particu- as growth multipliers, alleviate pov- ment in research; and enhanced social lar. Any development policy space erty and promote sustainability. “By policy. they might embody is presently fragile starting D for decade, DIGs avoids and easily reversible. Moreover, neo- the shifting fads that blow through de- ‘Palliative’ and ‘Institutional’ policies liberalism has a vaunted reputation velopment and will force a discipline have succeeded in generating margin- for resilience even in the face of com- of direction with a time scale that al improvements in socio-economic pelling empirical evidence. promotes accountability’’. One need indicators in African countries. How- not agree with Peterson to appreciate ever, they have failed to deliver struc- While no one is advocating a whole- that many of Africa’s current ‘mega- tural transformation (e.g. industri- sale return to the policies of the 1960s infrastructure’ projects would likely alization). In general, ‘palliative’ and and 1970s, or even a replication of the yield greater economy-wide spill-over ‘institutional’ policies are insufficient exact policies employed by the BeST effects, if they were part of coherent to (a) consolidate socio-economic and countries (the global development, national development strategies. institutional gains in much of Africa policy and institutional landscape has and (b) to convert opportunities posed changed significantly over the last 30 In ‘Rethinking Development Strategies af- my global megatrends into material years), three interrelated themes are ter the Financial Crisis, UNCTAD ar- development gains. A new develop- emerging from a new strand in devel- gues that countries need a ‘strategic ment policy mind-set is needed for opment thinking: (a) there are many compass’ or development strategy this. At a minimum, this will require successful visions of market economy for long-run economic development. a re-evaluation of ‘national develop- and as many successful policy and in- This can be explicit or implicit but ment ambition’ in Africa, the roles of stitutional paths to achieving econom- it must include a focus on institution Economic Advisors vis-à-vis Policy- ic development (b) notwithstanding building, sectoral policies (including makers and the role of industrial pol- the changed global institutional and industrial and trade policies), mac- icy. The rest of this article examines policy landscape, there is still space roeconomic policies, ‘development- two interrelated cases to illustrate this: and scope for successful exploitation friendly global governance’, and pol- (a) a one-size-fits-all policymaking at of industrial policy and critical ele- icy space to adjust to the specific (and the continental level which conveni- ments of the ‘developmental state’ by evolving) social, historical and insti- ently ignores that Africa is not a coun- both developing and developed coun- tutional contexts. UNCTAD reflects try and (b) and the role of ‘Economic tries, and (c) there remains a great on the Asian development experience Advisors’ as ‘Policymakers’ in all but and constructive role for the govern- to conclude that the key to successful name in many Africa countries.

16 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN AFRICA IS NOT A COUNTRY: THE LIMITS OF ONE-SIZE-FITS-ALL POLICIES

Economic development is often na- sectoral planning, strategic planning century (Can Africa Claim the 21st tionally defined, for it is inextricably and ‘grand visioning’. Together with Century?) captures this concession. linked to a country’s national value African governments, development The report found a modicum of hope systems, norms and ethos. Individual partners and non-state actors, these for Africa in the 21st century, subject countries get to define their own ‘vi- ‘stakeholders’ have produced conti- to certain conditions, including most sions’ of development. Historically, nental ‘policy frameworks’, ‘strate- notably, ‘policy ownership’. The cen- the pursuit of national economic de- gies’, ‘programs’, ‘visions’ and ‘action tury offered a ‘‘window of opportu- velopment has been a very explicit plans’ that individual African coun- nity to reverse the marginalization of and ‘nation-state’ centered process. tries are then supposed to ‘domesti- Africa’s people—and of Africa’s gov- There is a reason why there isn’t a cate’, ‘mainstream’ or ‘implement’. ernments, relative to donors, in the single version of capitalism or social- These include: Comprehensive Af- development agenda’’ (World Bank, ism. The ‘Liberal Market Economies’ rican Agricultural Development 2000, 2). The end of the Cold War of the US, UK and Australia, differ Program (CAADP); African Mining and growing participatory democracy in critical ways from the ‘Coordinat- Vision 2050; Program for Infrastruc- in Africa suggested that the continent ed Market Economies’ of Germany, ture Development in Africa (PIDA); would no longer be an ‘ideological’ Japan or Sweden although both sets Science, Technology and Innovation and ‘strategic’ battleground between of countries are still capitalist econo- Strategy for Africa (STISA); and Af- competing powers in which ‘trusted mies (see Peter Hall and David Sos- rican Union Agenda 2063. allies’ received ‘‘foreign assistance kice, 2001. Varieties of Capitalism: The regardless of their record on govern- Institutional Foundations of Comparative The first thing to say about this eco- ance and development’’(Ibid.). Advantage). nomic policymaking is that it traces its origins from the fight for African According to the Bank, with an Af- Africa is not a country, a common ‘policy ownership’, waged at the rican designed and owned ‘Business currency area or even a customs un- height of the structural adjustment Plan’ aimed at (a) improving govern- ion. However, since the early 2000s, programs. In the late 1990s and early ance, resolving conflicts and manag- much development policymaking on, 2000s, pressure from African ‘renais- ing states; (b) addressing poverty and and for the continent, has proceeded sance’ leaders such as Thabo Mbeki, inequality (c) investing in people; (c) as if it is a country. Firstly, the ‘inter- Olusegun Obasanjo and Abdoulaye lowering infrastructure, information, national community’ has facilitated Wade as well as from development and finance barriers (d) spurring ag- this type of policymaking through the thinkers and civil society organiza- ricultural and rural development; (e) UN MDGs. Secondly, since at least tions both within and outside Africa diversifying exports, reorienting trade 2003, some organs of the African forced a concession, if a rhetorical policy, and pursuing regional integra- Union (e.g. NEPAD - New Partner- one, in the ‘global development es- tion; and (f) reducing aid dependency ship for Africa’s Development - and tablishment’ that ‘policy ownership’ and debt, and strengthening partner- the African Union Commission) have was critical for policy outcomes. The ships, Africa could ‘claim’ the 21st led similar efforts through continental World Bank’s report at the turn of the century (i.e. reverse years of social

17 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN and economic marginalization in an gies and action plans is that they do indexed on the Euro), while 5 coun- increasingly dynamic and competitive not constitute coherent (national) tries currently use the South African world). ‘Policy ownership’ in the form development strategies. Few African Rand: Lesotho, Namibia, South Af- of the vaguely worded African ‘Busi- countries implement them. Take for rica, Swaziland and Zimbabwe). ness Plan’ constituted a major conces- example, CAADP, the longest run- sion. ning such initiative. Ten years into In spite of the many continental pol- CAADP, only 13 African countries icy frameworks, programs, plans and Can Africa Claim the 21st Century managed to meet or exceed the visions, African countries continue was written in collaboration with vari- CAADP target of allocating 10 per- to individually design and imple- ous African institutions and econo- cent of the national budget to the ag- ment their own national development mists under the leadership of a ‘Steer- ricultural sector. Similarly, in the first initiatives. In theory, these are sup- ing Committee’ comprising of Ali decade of CAADP, the continent was posed to be ‘aligned’ with continental A.G. Ali (United Nations Economic unable to meet the CAADP target of initiatives. In practice however, rarely Commission for Africa), Tesfaye Din- agricultural GDP growth rate of 6 is there coherence, coordination or ka, (Global Coalition for Africa), Ibra- percent per year. The continent sur- harmonization between national and him Ahmed Elbadawi (World Bank), passed the target of 6 percent agricul- continental development initiatives. Augustin Fosu (African Economic tural GDP growth only three times: in The content and sequencing of conti- Research Consortium), Alan Gelb 2003 (6.1 percent), in 2009 (7.5 per- nental and national policies are often (World Bank) and Kupukile Mlambo cent), and in 2012 (6.9 percent). out of sync. For example, many na- (African Development Bank). Perhaps tional development visions (e.g. Vision the most interesting of its many ob- The African Union is not a political 2020 (Rwanda; Nigeria), Vision 2030 servations was the notion of a ‘Busi- federation or an economic union. No (Kenya; South Africa); Vision 2040 ness Plan’ ‘‘conceived and owned by African state has ceded any of its sov- (Uganda), precede the AU’s Vision Africans, and supported by donors ereign functions, including economic 2063 which did not necessarily build through coordinated, long-term policy making to any organs of the on these visions. As I argued in this partnerships’’. Coming at the end African Union, or to any other third column in the last Issue of this Maga- of nearly two decades of structural parties for that matter (including the zine (i.e. July 2015) these ‘national vi- adjustment programs in which the World Bank, IMF, the UN system or sions’ are in many cases merely wish World Bank and the IMF had come any donor agency). African govern- lists of worthy goals, with no clear to be viewed as calling the shots in ments do seek advice and advisors ways and means or ‘capabilities’ to economic policy making in many Af- from these and other bodies. bring about their realization. While rican countries, this is as close to an long term development thinking in explicit discussion on the appropriate On paper, the continent has a calen- Africa needs all the encouragement roles of Economic Advisors and Poli- dar for creating an African Economic it can get, the proliferation of unful- cymakers in Africa as the Bank has Community by 2028. The Abuja filled and likely unfulfillable ‘national ever engaged in. Treaty of 1991 lays out a multi-step visions’ or more aptly ‘wish lists’ gives process for this: establishment of re- meaning to Helmut Schmidt’s famous What followed in terms of econom- gional economic communities fol- admonition that people who have ‘vi- ic policy making in Africa over the lowed by the establishment of a free sions’ should seek medical advice! last 15 years is not exactly a ‘Busi- trade area and customs union in each ness Plan’ ‘‘conceived and owned by regional economic community by The third thing to say about this poli- Africans, and supported by donors 2017 and across the entire continent cymaking is that it amounts to a one- through coordinated, long-term part- by 2019. A continent-wide African size-fits-all approach. African coun- nerships’’. This is true to some extent Common Market is planned to go tries and peoples enjoy strong cultural in a few African countries (e.g. Ethio- into effect in 2023. Finally, the Abuja and historical links – even economic pia and Rwanda). However, the de- Treaty provides for the establishment relations in a few cases. So ingrained gree to which this is true in all African of a continent-wide economic and in the African psyche is the feeling of countries is debatable. What is not monetary union and parliament by ‘oneness’ or ‘togetherness’ of African debatable however, is the ‘policy coor- 2028, with a single currency to be peoples that anything deemed ‘Pan dination and long term partnerships managed by an African Central Bank. Africa’ is almost always looked upon between donors and African govern- Apart from the creation of regional fondly, almost by default. For this rea- ments’ especially in the case of con- economic communities many of the son, economic policymaking at the tinental initiatives such as CAADP, other elements of the calendar are continental level runs the risk of ‘poli- PIDA and Africa Mining Vision 2050. still far from implementation and it is cy compromises’ that might lower de- This is also true in the case of ‘global not entirely clear that the Abuja plan velopment ambition on the continent, development’ initiatives such as the remains on schedule as per the Treaty. collectively or in terms of individual MDGs (e.g. ‘palliative’ and ‘institu- (For historical and political reasons nation states. Differences among Afri- tional’ strengthening policies). not related to the Abuja Treaty, 14 can countries can be quite stark. Any countries currently use the West Af- serious development strategy would The second thing to say about these rican CFA and Central African CFA not paper over them. continental programs, visions, strate- currency (in place since 1945 and now

18 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Consider the following: ‘framework’ might work for the con- • Some African economies are ‘large’ tinent as a whole. Arguably, there are If one wouldn’t lump together Swe- while others are either ‘medium’ areas where a collective or common den, Belgium, Finland, Malaysia, or ‘small’. According to the IMF’s African approach might be superior Singapore, Pakistan, the Gambia and World Economic Outlook, in 2014, to state based ‘go it alone’ approaches. the Central African Republic in a ‘sin- Nigeria, Africa’s largest economy, Common trade, foreign, defense, cli- gle economic policy’, why would one was the 21st largest economy in the mate or even science and technology lump together Nigeria, South Africa, world (by nominal GDP). By con- policies would appear to be potential- Egypt, Cape Verde, the Comoros, trast, the Comoros, Gambia, Sey- ly good candidates for the ‘common’ Benin and Lesotho in such a policy? chelles and Djibouti and the Cen- one-size-fits-all approach. Apart from There are many reasons why a one- tral African Republic were among trade and arguably climate change, size-fits-all policymaking might not the 25th smallest economies in the these are not typical areas for collec- be the best development policy for world. The Nigerian economy was tivist policies in Africa. In trade and Africa. Perhaps the strongest is the nearly 10 times as large as Kenya’s, or regional integration where this ap- proposition that 54 different coun- the 8th largest economy in Africa. proach has been attempted for much tries provide excellent laboratories • Some African countries are natural of the last five decades, the record is for development thinking, experi- resource rich while others are natu- not great. Economic policymaking at mentation, learning and policy in- ral resource poor the continental level in other sectors novation. Whether a one-size-fits-all • Some are ‘mono-crop’ or mono- (e.g. agriculture and infrastructure) policy approach is superior to policy commodity’ economies while oth- seldom grapples with this problem. experimentation and learning at the ers are relatively diversified. There might be very good reasons national level should be an empirical • Some are landlocked, others are why Kenya might allocate 10 percent question which should be debated and not. of its national budget to its agricul- examined at national and continental • Some are democracies, others are tural sector over a 10-year period. It levels. However, partly as a result of not is not entirely clear why Djibouti or the triumph of Economic Advisors Seychelles or even Mauritius (given over Policymakers in Africa, even the Even with this level of diversity, there its current state of economic devel- policy space for discussing this has be- might well be very good reasons why opment) should do exactly the same come increasingly diminished. a common development ‘strategy’ or thing, at the same time.

ECONOMIC ADVISORS ARE NOT POLICYMAKERS The triumph of the ‘‘Washington To be sure, there were problems with Consensus’’ in the 1980s and 1990s development policies in Africa (and ended - by fiat - a major contestation other developing countries) in the in economic policy making in Africa: 1960s and 1970s. Part of this had to the role of economic advisors vis a do with the substance of these policies, vis policymakers. The triumph of the a case well made by many proponents ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ also ush- of the ‘Washington Consensus’. Sub- ered in the role of ‘Economic Advi- stance of policy was just one part of sors’ as ‘Policymakers’ in all but name, the problem however. Analysis of the which continues to this day, in many conflicts between Economic Advisors African countries. A central premise and African Policymakers in the 1960s of the ‘‘Washington Consensus’’is and 1970s suggest far more complex the proposition that poor challenges to development in Africa, countries are poor many of which remain unresolved in primarily because no small part because in conflating the of ‘bad’, ‘wrong’ or roles of ‘Economic Advisors’ and Poli- ‘poor’ policies – as op- cymakers and in enforcing a rigid set posed to ‘history’, ‘geog- of policies, proponents of the ‘‘Wash- raphy’ or other ‘context’ ington Consensus’’ have succeeded in dependent explanations. stifling development policy debate in Consequently, the key to Africa. solving their development problems lies in ‘policy advice’ or Many African countries started out getting them to implement the with relatively clear national devel- ‘right policies’, which for the opment strategies at the time of their ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ essen- independence. Indeed, there were tially came down to ‘greater marketi- nearly as many visions of the market zation’: privatization, liberalization economy and as many policy and in- and deregulation of markets. stitutional paths to achieving them as

19 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN there were of the socialist economy. ‘Policymakers. An analysis of this con- until late 1970s and early 1980s, when Moreover, these strategies were hotly testation reveals a complex, multifac- it converted itself, towards the end of contested, both within the policymak- eted nature of development challenges the McNamara presidency, into a ‘de- ing process, academia and the body in Africa. Parts of these challenges re- velopment agency’ and a ‘knowledge politic. The ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ quired economic solutions and would bank’. Its approach to the economic succeeded in reducing the complex benefit from the tools of economic advisory role – in the 1980s and 1990s and multi-faceted nature of develop- analysis. However, other parts re- – was very different from the approach ment in Africa to one of simply getting quired a broader set of solutions, be- employed mostly in the 1960s and the ‘policies right’, without offering yond economic expertise and analysis. 1970s. The Bank’s approach through much insight into how to get govern- The Economic Advisors who were structural adjustment programs was ments to implement ‘good’ or even most successful in Africa of the 1960s backed by policy or aid conditionality. ‘sound’ economic policies. Rather and 1970s either understood or were than deal with this problem intellec- sympathetic to this complexity. We fo- The Economic Advisor-Policymaker tually (as Prof. Michael Lofchie does cus on the relationship between Eco- conflicts in Africa in the 1960s and brilliantly elsewhere in this Magazine), nomic Advisors and Policymakers in 1970s are instructive. In terms of pow- proponents of the ‘Washington Con- early postcolonial Ghana (1957-1966) er dynamics, the ‘Advisors’ and ‘Poli- sensus’ opted to use foreign aid as lev- and Kenya (1964-1976) to illustrate cymakers’ were relatively ‘matched’. erage to force reluctant governments this. The Ghanaian case study focuses The ‘Policymakers’ needed the ‘Advi- to take their ‘policy advice’. Appar- on the relationship between Ghana- sors’. All early postcolonial African ently, the ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ is ian leader Kwame Nkrumah and his governments faced the problem of all for ‘free markets’, except when it handpicked Chief Economic Adviser, economy-wide lack of skilled labor. comes to the ‘market’ for ‘economic ideas’ or ‘policies’. (The ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ had a more narrow identification of the problem than I have allowed above. The essence of the ‘Consensus’ has been reduced to simply ‘getting the prices right’).

While much of the development scholarship and popular discourse in the 1960s and 1970s tended to char- acterize development policy making in Africa along the Cold War divides of ‘capitalist’ and ‘socialist’ approaches, the reality was more complex. (See for example the ‘Kenyan Agrarian Debate’ and the works of Birth of Robert Tignor (W. Arthur Lewis and the Development Economics);Tony Killick (Development Economics in Action: A Study Prof. W. Arthur Lewis (who would lat- This problem was particularly acute of Economic Policies in Ghana); Michael er win the Nobel Prize in Economics in what one might call the Economic Lofchie (The Policy Factor: Agricultural in 1979). The Kenyan case focuses on Service, or Economic Planning units. Performance in Kenya and Tanzania; The the Ford Foundation Economic Advi- Building competence in these areas Political Economy of Tanzania: Decline and sory Service Program that sponsored a was urgent and critical because this Recovery) and Robert Bates (Markets and rotating group of Economic Advisors capability was essential to formulat- States in Tropical Africa ; Beyond the Mira- to Kenya between 1964 and 1976. ing and implementing policies aimed cle of the Market: The Political Economy (The Ford Foundation also provided at solving many other development of Agrarian Development in Kenya). For Economic Advisors to other countries problems, including that of economy- popular illustration, the first Cabinets in Eastern and Southern Africa. Many wide shortage of trained manpower. in postcolonial Ghana and Kenya in- of the Economic Advisors also worked Early postcolonial African govern- cluded ministers with ‘capitalist’ incli- in more than one Africa country. ments approached this problem in two nations as well as those with ‘socialist’ Tony Killick worked in both Kenya interrelated ways. They hired external predilections. National development and Ghana. Lewis went into Ghana, economic advisors to provide them strategies in both countries were hotly under the UN auspices e.g as a UN with economic advice in the short contested although this would not last Economic Advisor to Ghana) and the term and to help build a local or infor long, in either country. UN did supply quite a few Economic digenous cadre of economic experts Advisors to a number of African coun- in the medium to long term. That A key part of policy contestation in tries, including Zambia. The World their expertise was urgently needed early postcolonial Africa took place Bank did not get into the Economic gave the early Economic Advisors sig- between ‘Economic Advisors’ and Advisory Support Function Properly nificant power. This was reinforced by

20 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN the seniority and professional accom- 1980s and early 1990s. example in a request to the Ford Foun- plishments of many of them. Many of dation for an Economic Advisor in the them were distinguished, celebrated African Policymakers had leverage 1960s, Uganda insisted on an econo- economists who enjoyed independ- too. Unlike the situation today, many mist from a ‘socialist’ country, while ent professional prestige. Among the early Economic Advisors were hired Tanzania was so determined to main- scholars who served in different capac- in their individual capacities, with lim- tain its strategic policy sovereignty (i.e. ities as ‘Economic Advisors’ to African ited, if any, organizational support. In ‘independence’) that it insisted on get- governments in the 1960s and 1970s most cases, they ‘spoke’ for themselves ting advisors from multiple countries. include: W. Arthur Lewis, Albert O. rather than for their ‘sponsoring’ or ‘‘It was Tanzanian policy to diversify Hirschman, Nicholas Kaldor, Dud- ‘parent’ organizations. There was their sources of development assis- ley Seers, Tony Killick, Josef Bognar, no aid or policy conditionality to use tance in order not to become depend- Edgar Edwards, Michael Roemer, as leverage. For the most part, all the ent on any single country or agency. Tom Easterbrook, Brian Van Arkadie, Advisors had was their professional At one point in the preparation of Reginald Green, Ben Lewis, Bevan standing. This wasn’t insignificant in- the 1969/74 Plan, advisors from 13 Waide, Tim Aldington, Alan Sim- fluence when dealing with newly in- countries were working in DevPlan. mance, Charles Slater, David Davies, dependent countries with hardly any The price of this independence from and John Powelson. locally trained economists, let alone single-donor influence must have been experienced national planners and a rather confusing mix of policy-ori- Development policies in many Afri- statisticians. It simply wasn’t over- ented advice; but the policy definitely insulated the Tanzanians from undue donor pressures’’ (Ford Foundation, ‘‘Administration and Economic Plan- ning in Eastern Africa: A Ford Foun- The proper role of dation Program Evaluation’’, 1977, political leaders was to pp. 10). In spite of all of this, there were still speak truth to the people serious conflicts between Economic Advisors and Policymakers. At the and to promote realistic heart of these conflicts are two fundamental questions, which remain as views of what economic central to economic policymaking in Africa today as they were in the 1960s experts told them their and 1970s: 1. Who gets to set the ‘national am- countries could accomplish bition’ for development? Is it Eco- nomic Advisors (local and foreign) or Policymakers (i.e. national political leadership)? Should national de- can countries in the early postcolo- whelming power when placed against velopment ambition be determined nial period drew heavily from what the moral force of ‘strategic policy sov- only by what is ‘economically feasi- constituted mainstream development ereignty’ in newly independent states ble’? economics thinking at the time. This run by popularly elected leaders who 2. What is the proper balance be- is not to hold any of these advisors or enjoyed, at least for a time, massive tween ‘politics’ and ‘economics’ in early development economists respon- popularity and prestige. development policy making? Is de- sible for Africa’s development failures velopment primarily an economic in the 1960s and 1970s. It is also not In any case, the differences between enterprise or does it entail political to hold their ‘ideas’ responsible for early Economic Advisors and Policy- and social dimensions? these failures either. That criticism makers were not so much ideological is the entire case for support for the as they were ‘operational’ or ‘tactical’. The relationship between Kwame Nk- ‘‘Washington Consensus’’. Our point As Tony Killick argues in Development rumah and his Chief Economic Advi- here is make the observation that a Economics in Action: A Study of Economic sor, Prof. W. Arthur Lewis, and the dif- majority of development policies in Policies in Ghana, a remarkable con- ferent viewpoints that each held with early postcolonial Africa was well gruence existed between the ideas of respect to these questions captures this within the ‘mainstream’ of economic mainstream development economists, problem. development policy and practice. It is socialism, and nationalism in the early also worth mentioning, if only in pass- 1960s. Early Economic Advisors and To Kwame Nkrumah, the job of set- ing, that many African countries had Policymakers were seldom ideologi- ting the national development ambi- better economic performance in the cal ‘opposites’. Countries initiated tion or economic agenda belonged 1960s and 1970s compared to the era requests for Advisors. They could be to the political leadership. The job of of the ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ in the quite specific in their preferences. For the Economic Advisor or the Econo-

21 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN mist was to design mechanisms for Nkrumah didn’t always follow Lewis’ toys, the Development Commission achieving or realizing that ambi- advice, particularly with respect to has had to cut down severely on wa- tion or agenda. On the other hand the Volta River Project which Lewis ter supplies, health centers, technical ‘‘Lewis believed that only the econo- felt was not the most cost-effective schools, roads, broadcast redifusion… mists could determine what could be method for achieving Ghana’s objec- It is not possible to make a good de- achieved, and only they could deline- tive of becoming ‘industrialized’. In a velopment plan for £100 million if ate the appropriate methods for real- now famous letter to Lewis in 1958, the Prime Minister insists on inserting izing these goals. The proper role of Nkrumah, explained the situation £18 million of his own pet schemes political leaders was to speak truth to thus: “The advice you have given me, of a sort which neither develop the the people and to promote realistic sound though it may be, is essentially country nor increase the comfort of views of what economic experts told from the economic point of view, and the people’’(Ibid.). them their countries could accom- I have told you, on many occasions, plish’’ (Robert Tignor, 2006. W. Arthur that I cannot always follow this advice According to Lewis, ‘‘Nkrumah regarded economists as mere technicians, whose task it was to realize the economic dreams of the public and politicians, no matter how unrealistic’’ (Tignor, 2006, 174). Throughout his time in Ghana, Lewis objected to this view. He held firm to his advice on the Volta River Project. In the end, Nkrumah asserted his role as ‘Policy- maker’ and claimed ‘strategic policy sovereignty’ for Ghana: “My mind is finally made up and irrespective of anybody’s advice to the contrary, I am determined to see that at all cost the dams at Ajena and Bui are built’’ (Murphy, C. N. 2006. The United Nations Development Program. pp.128).

For the most part, the relationship Lewis and the Development Economics, pp. as I am a politician and must gamble between Lewis and Nkrumah, how- 174). on the future” (Tignor, 2006, p. 173). ever, unfortunate it might appear to Political leaders in newly independent those who admire both men, speaks Nkrumah conceived of national but fragile states, Nkrumah argued, to what the ideal nature of the rela- development as a broad enterprise ‘‘had to build coalitions, use patron- tionship between an Economic Advi- with economic as well as social and age to solidify their political authority, sor and a Policymaker should be. The political dimensions. He thought even coerce the opposition, and be re- Policymaker should set the economic that economists under-estimated and sponsible to the high hopes that their agenda, and make final decisions on misunderstood the relationship be- peoples carried about the meaning national priorities and policies, taking tween politics and economics and of political independence’’ (Tignor, into full account expert economic and the broader dimensions of ‘national 2006, 174). other advice. The Economic Advisor development’. In fact, in the first few should provide unvarnished expert ad- months of Lewis’ appointment as Lewis refused to buy this argument, vice and provide the Policymaker with Chief Economic Advisor, Nkrumah seeing it as an excuse by Kwame Nk- ‘feasible options’ or ‘tools’ for pursu- did instruct Lewis to review Ghana’s rumah to use ‘agencies of economic ing national development priorities. If economic, financial and social poli- development’ for ‘political jobbery’ or the Economic Advisor feels that they cies. Lewis had been hired on a two what is today formally known as ‘rent have lost the trust of the Policymaker year contract as the Chief Economic seeking’ or corruption. (Prior to tak- or that the Policymaker is not follow- Advisor to Nkrumah. However, due ing up his appointment, Lewis had ing their advice, or that the Policy- to policy disagreements between extracted a promise from Nkrumah maker is morally or ethically compro- them, he only served 18 months in that economic agencies would be mised, the Economic Advisor should the post. In that time, he helped draft sheltered from political corruption, resign, as Lewis did. The Economic the country’s 1958-59 Budget and the Tignor, 2006, 170-71). He made his Advisor should not insist on his or her 2nd Five Year Development Plan, in views clear to the Prime Minister: advice carrying the day. Certainly, the addition to debating and offering ad- ‘‘Alas, the main reason for this lack of Economic Advisor should not resort vice on many other development poli- balance is that the Plan contains too to ‘extra-professional’ measures (e.g. cies and projects including the Volta many schemes on which the Prime aid or policy conditionality) in order River Project. Minister is insisting for ‘political to prevail. reasons’…In order to give you these

22 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN In principle, on the role of Economic ment in a newly independent state (in Program wasn’t run out of a univer- Advisors, Nkrumah was right. Na- which the very concepts of ‘political sity department. For much of this pe- tional development ambition need and economic independence’ had to riod, Harvard University’s Develop- not be determined only by what is be given material meaning) was going ment Advisory Service (DAS), which ‘economically feasible’. National de- to ‘conflate’ national political, social would later become the Harvard velopment ambition can transform and economic ambitions. Under the Institute for International Develop- what is ‘economically feasible’ by in- circumstances, economic policymak- ment (HIID) and later CID (Centre spiring technological, organizational, ing was inevitably going to be a politi- for International Development), was institutional or policy innovations. cal process. National development is the ‘administrator’ or ‘manager’ of This is the point that Lewis appears broader than economic development: choice for most Ford Foundation and to have missed or under-emphasized. social and political considerations other donor based ‘Economic Advi- There is of course no guarantee that always come into play. How to deal sory Programs’. For all the 15 years an ambitious national development with this in a ‘rational’ manner is the that the Ford Foundation provided Economic Advisors to Kenya, these Advisors were hired in their individ- “The advice you have given me, sound though it ual capacities and mostly operated as may be, is essentially from the economic point such. An independent evaluation of the Program in 1977 described the of view, and i have told you, on many occasions, situation: that i cannot always follow this advice as i am a ‘‘The Foundation has had a general politician and must gamble on the future.” policy that the professional loyalty of an advisor assigned to a government is to the government itself, and that no matters of a confidential nature are expected to be divulged to agenda will inspire innovation. How- fundamental challenge of successful the Foundation’s representatives. Ed- ever, the process of economic devel- economic policy making. wards and subsequent advisors ad- opment consists of experimentation, hered strictly to this policy, a fact that innovation, learning and capabilities Secondly, Lewis was perhaps a little continues to be fully appreciated by accumulation. Even an ambitious de- too willing to play ‘Policymaker’. He the Kenya Government. In addition, velopment agenda that fails might still also had perhaps a little too much the advisors supplied by the Founda- generate valuable lessons, innovations faith in the superiority of the tools of tion were not considered to be a team and capabilities accumulation that economic analysis. By insisting only and, although there was often a recog- might still ultimately solve the original on what was ‘economically feasible’ nized senior economist among them, development problem. This seems to in the formulation of development there was no designated team leader be one key lesson from the experience ambition and plans in Ghana, as Nk- Throughout the life of the program, of the successful ‘heterodox econo- rumah alluded to, he risked failing to no professional meetings were held mies’. tap into the vast energy of a newly in- in which only Foundation advisors dependent country (i.e. he did not ap- were in attendance, and no attempt In practice, Lewis was right that Nkru- pear to allow room for ‘innovation’). was made to coordinate the views or mah did, in fact, on several occasions, All this combined to ultimately un- advice of the advisory staff’’ (Ford use economic policy and institutions dercut his influence, as the Nkrumah Foundation, 1977, 6). for ‘political jobbery’ or corrupt aims. government increasingly resorted to Lewis was always rightly concerned making key decisions without consult- This arrangement more than ‘levelled about abuse and misuse of public re- ing him. the playing field’ between policy- sources. Developing countries can ill makers and their economic advisors. afford abuse and wastage of public Where Economic Advisors were care- It meant that the Government was resources. Lewis was also rightly keen ful not to play ‘Policymaker’, were more likely to receive independent to restrain ‘showy’ massive projects sensitive to political and social con- and unvarnished advice from each or ‘white elephants’ that were either siderations and accepted the limits Economic Advisor as they were not un-necessary to the development ef- of their own craft, the outcome was encumbered by organizational ide- fort or which the Ghanaian economy a lot more productive, all things held ologies or ‘positions’. From the outset, could not absorb at the time. He did constant. both the Foundation and individual the right thing by resigning as soon as Advisors were keen not to play ‘Poli- he deemed that he had lost the confi- The Ford Foundation Economic Ad- cymaker’. Prof. Edgar Edwards’ (the dence of Nkrumah. visory Program in Kenya from the first Economic Advisor in Kenya un- 1960s through to 1976 is a good ex- der the Program) early reluctance to Nonetheless, Lewis’s problems were ample of this. The Program was assume an official position within the two fold. Firstly, he did not sufficiently unusual in many ways. Firstly, unlike Kenyan civil service, set the tone and appreciate that economic develop- many other programs, the Kenyan captures the overall nature of the pro-

23 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN gram throughout its 15 years. ‘‘In July been adjusted for credibility and po- objectives. Nonetheless, the Advisors 1964, a new Directorate of Planning litical acceptability’’ (Ford Foundation had the humility to recognize that within the Treasury was officially es- 1977, 8). their presence could introduce a ‘bias’ tablished with Edwards at its head, an in the process. With reference the arrangement that made the Founda- The Ford Foundation Advisors also Third National Development Plan: tion’s representative distinctly uneasy. took a more humble approach to both ‘‘it is quite possible that the plan does It was one thing to provide advice on their abilities and the strengths of the not fully reflect political realities in economic planning issues, but for a national development plans. Firstly, Kenya. Indeed, it would be surprising Foundation employee to be responsi- the Advisors recognized the impact if it did, because the major drafting ble for the planning mechanism was of external factors on the Kenyan of this and all previous plans was by outside the bound- the hands of foreign aries of its own advisors. The drafting definition of its was, of course, under assistance….This Kenyan supervision, potential difficulty and both Cabinet and was overcome Parliament reviewed when Kenya be- and approved the fi- came a republic on nal version, but some the anniversary of departure from reality its independence, is inherent to the pro- and a Ministry of cess’’. Economic Plan- ning and Develop- The Kenya Govern- ment (MEPD) was ment wasn’t as hands- created. Edwards off as the humility of became senior ad- these Ford Founda- visor to the Per- tion Advisors might manent Secretary suggest. Throughout of MEPD…’’. much of the 1960s, economy and allowed that a National including when Sessional Paper no Besides being reluctant to play ‘Poli- Development Plan might not be ex- 10 of 1965 on African Socialism and cymaker’, Foundation Advisors in ecuted faithfully due to factors out- its Application to Kenya was pub- Kenya were, unlike Lewis in Ghana, side Kenya’s control. Assessing the lished, perhaps the most important very mindful of and sensitive to the prospects of Kenya’s Third National economic policy document in 20th political considerations of their policy Development Plan (1974-1979), an century Kenya, the planning process bosses. In particular, they understood independent review of the Ford Foun- was led by Kenya’s first Economic very early on that economic develop- dation Program notes: ‘‘Another fac- Planning Minister, Tom Mboya, one ment plans in Kenya served multiple tor lessening the likelihood that the of the ablest and intellectually capa- purposes, besides shaping government document as approved will be followed ble cabinet ministers Kenya has ever policy. ‘‘Plans serve several functions: faithfully is the enormous influence of produced. While the first draft of they are a means of communicating the outside world on an economy the Sessional Paper no 10 of 1965 was economic accomplishments and in- size of Kenya’s. This was dramatically written by Edgar Edwards, before it tentions to the people; they fulfill the demonstrated by the drastic rise in oil reached Parliament, it was ‘‘intensive- requirements of donors like the World prices, and the subsequent world rely reviewed and revised, first by an in- Bank who wish to see projects in a cession, which occurred immediately formal group chaired by Mboya with larger economic perspective; and they after the plan was drafted, throwing Mwai Kibaki, Ndegwa, Knowles and serve as a guide for government action its forecasts seriously out of kilter’’ Edwards as members, and then by the for the succeeding five years…More (Ford Foundation, 1977, 7). Ministers sitting in the Development recently, doubts have arisen about the Committee’’ (Ford Foundation 1977, seriousness of Government intentions While they were reluctant to play 3). to use the current plan as a guide to ‘Policymaker’, the Ford Foundation action. One of the principal drafters Advisors acknowledged the limita- The Advisors readily acknowledged of this plan felt that the document tions of their own process in the Ken- for example that Sessional Paper No had become more of a political than yan development planning process. 10 of 1965, to some extent, repre- an economic instrument. He doubted Kenyan policymakers, led by the Eco- sented ‘‘the Government’s answer to that Government seriously meant to nomic Planning Minister (and in the the insistent voices in Parliament, led pursue the rural development and in- early 1960s, a Standing Development by Oginga Odinga and Pio Pinto, de- come redistribution objectives stated Committee of the Cabinet) played manding more radical social change. in the plan, and he felt that balance of an active ‘policymaker role’ in setting The Sessional Paper sought to eluci- payments and growth estimates had national ambition and development date its philosophy that dignity, jus-

24 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN tice and equity need a firm basis of exchange rates encouraged imports employing cost-benefit analyses. They economic growth’’. It is this sensitivity (especially of capital machinery were also helpful in curbing the strong to ‘political reality’ (i.e. intra-govern- which could also be labor-saving ma- tendency to tailor projects to meet mental, and in-country contestation chinery) while discouraging exports donor requirements, to accept aid for of the ‘vision of national develop- (which consisted mostly of labor- imported goods that could be pro- ment’) that W. Arthur Lewis appeared intensive goods from the agricultural duced domestically, and to finance im- to have underappreciated in Ghana. commodities, which employed the ports through aid even though higher bulk of the population. Low interest costs would result… Such projects as In spite of the relatively functional rates, encouraged capital-intensive a major steel-works and a motor car relationship between Ford Founda- production at the expense of the em- assembly plant were either avoided, tion Economic Advisors and Policy- ployment of labor. Tax incentives for delayed until the economy could ab- makers in Kenya, the sorb them, or reduced in two still had significant scale as a result of eco- conflicts. Like Lewis in This mindset allowed nomic analysis. In other Ghana, there were many cases, the economists lost instances in which the foundation advisors to ‘live the argument and the Economic Advisors felt Government made large that their advice was be- to fight another day’. In the investments in dubious ing ignored. Like Lewis, projects such as the fer- the Advisors in Kenya process, they helped keep the tilizer plant and sugar conceived of their jobs kenya government on a sound refineries’’ (Ford Foun- as using the tools of dation, 1977, 8). Self- economic analysis (espe- economic management path. critically aware to the cially cost benefit analy- end, the Ford Founda- sis) to advise the Kenya tion Program held that it government on what was was quite possible that its economically feasible. economic advisers were They lost as many arguments as they investment and low import duties on wrong in their judgments. won this as they won on this stance. capital goods had the same effect. They key difference between them The Ford Foundation Economic Ad- and Lewis is that the Foundation Ad- Foundation Advisors had recom- visory Service Model has not been visors conceived of their roles as being mended changes to these policies be- replicated anywhere in Africa since it separate and independent from that fore the ILO report but the govern- ended in the early 1980s. The ‘Lewis of policymakers. The ultimate deci- ment had ignored them. However, the experience’ was, and continues to be sion making rested with Policymak- Kenya government did change these replicated in many African countries ers. This mindset allowed Foundation policies between 1973 and 1976 (fol- with the critical exception that nowa- Advisors to ‘live to fight another day’. lowing the ILO Report), in order to days, Economic Advisors do not nec- In the process, they helped keep the enhance the competitiveness of its essarily have to worry about winning Kenya government on a sound eco- agricultural sector. The 1974-1979 over Policymakers: many of them rely nomic management path. National Development Plan in Kenya on aid or policy conditionality for this was perhaps the first five-year plan purpose. ‘Economic Advice’ today is To illustrate, Foundation Advisors in in the world to be based on the ‘Re- mostly provided through institutional the early 1970s - Charles Slater, Da- distribution with Growth’ paradigm arrangements. For the most part, Eco- vid Davies, and John Powelson - had following the landmark ILO report nomic Advisors represent ‘institution- been highly critical of various aspects and Hollis Chenery’s influential 1974 al views’ or positions. Their economic of the Kenyan development model book: Redistribution with Growth: Policies advice is often ‘tied’ - to grants, loans (import-substitution industrialization) to Improve Income Distribution in Develop- and other forms of foreign aid. ‘The that would come under heavy criti- ing Countries in the Context of Economic policy advice’ being given is relatively cism from the ILO Mission Report Growth. uniform and predictable (i.e. one-size- of 1972 authored by Hans Singer, fits-all). For all intents and purposes, Richard Jolly and Charles Cooper: On the whole, the Ford foundation many Economic Advisors in Africa Employment, Income and Equality: Economic Advisory Program and today (i.e. those aligned to organiza- A Strategy for Increasing Productive the relationship between Economic tions rather than ‘consultants’) are Employment in Kenya. By the early Advisors and Policymakers in Kenya ‘Policymakers’ in all but name. This 1970s, Kenya’s strategy of import- worked well. Here is how the inde- sums up what I call the poverty of substitution and capital intensification pendent review of the Ford Founda- development strategies in Africa. It had the result of promoting economic tion Program summarized its achieve- diminishes the continent’s ability to growth, while perpetuating the dual- ments: ‘‘they were able to help Kenya creatively confront the full range of istic economy that the country inher- resist showy, plaque-hanging projects development opportunities and chal- ited at independence. Over-valued and inefficient turn-key operations by lenges it faces in the 21st century.

25 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN CONCLUSION

There are multiple pathways to suc- try at any given point in time is up to and practice in Africa? Of course. cessful economic development. A that country to decide, based on its Does this warrant more power to relatively diverse set of policies from independently determined national Economic Advisors over Policymak- a diverse cast of once poor but now ambition and its prevailing capabili- ers? Absolutely not. Policymakers are developed countries has demon- ties and potential for technological, subject to various checks and balanc- strated this. These policies encom- social, institutional, organizational es. The Economic Advisory function pass elements of both ‘orthodox’ and and policy innovation. is just one, albeit relatively informal, ‘heterodox’ economics. Economi- part of the overall checks and balanc- cally successful countries appear to On the balance of empirical evi- es that policymakers are subject to. be those that have found the right dence, it appears that any success- ‘mix’ of these policies in different sec- ful development in Africa will entail What is ‘economically feasible’ should tors or industries at different points in some element of ‘industrial policy’. certainly be a key consideration in the their economic development, usually The sooner African countries realize determination of national develop- through the process of experimenta- this and reformulate their development ambition. However, this should tion, innovation, learning and capa- ment policies accordingly, the sooner just be one, among other considera- bilities accumulation. Those countries their development ambitions or ‘nations. Just as important should be the that have struggled appear to have tional visions’ are likely to be met, question of whether any development employed rigid or ‘dogmatic’ policies, and vice versa. However, whatever policy being proposed has a demon- devoid of experimentation, innova- form of ‘industrial policy’ this takes, strable record of success either in a tion and learning, both from their it will almost certainly be quite un- country’s economic history or else- own economic histories but also the like anything implemented in Africa where. Policies that work only in theo- history of economic development in in the 1960s and 1970s if it is to be ry and not in ‘practice’ should not be other countries. successful. Many elements of ‘pallia- ignored out of hand (see the empha- tive’, ‘institutional’ and ‘‘Washington sis on experimentation, learning and After more than 50 years of first ex- Consensus’’ set of policies will have to innovation above), but they should perimenting with dirigisme policies be part of the mix of any successful be subject to ‘greater scrutiny’, dur- followed by those of the ‘Washington development strategy in Africa. Most ing formulation, and should they be Consensus’ and then ‘palliative’ and notably, the ‘‘Washington Consensus’’ adopted, ‘experimentation’. It should institutional policies, the development has a key proposition that has gone not take more than 20 years before a debate is increasingly turning back under-appreciated by both its propo- country realizes that a piece of policy to the merits of ‘industrial policy’, a nents and opponents alike: whatever is not working. key component of the dirigisme poli- else it means, ‘greater marketization’, cies that many African countries at- must include the ‘market for ideas’, Africa faces unique development op- tempted to implement in the 1960s including policy, theoretical and em- portunities and challenges. If it maxi- and 1970s. Rather than govern fruit- pirical ideas that might be diametri- mizes these opportunities it is more lessly in circles, African policymakers cally opposed to those proposed by likely than not that it will consolidate and intellectuals should have enough the ‘’Washington Consensus’’. If for its recent economic and techno-sci- ‘material evidence’ now, from the his- nothing else, such competing ‘markets entific gains and given material and tory of economic development in Af- for ideas’ should help strengthen the sustained meaning to the narratives rica and in other regions, to learn that rigour and clarity of all ‘policy pre- of Africa rising, lion states or silicon the process of economic development scriptions’. savannah. If it does not, the Africa does not necessarily require them to rising narrative will constitute just choose one of these approaches over Should African policymakers pay at- another false start in African develop- the others. Any successful develop- tention to Economic Advisors? Abso- ment. ment strategy will almost certainly lutely. Should both economic advisors require components of all of these and policymakers be mindful of and We have assembled some of the approaches. What the ‘right set’ of work to avoid ‘white elephants’ and world’s leading scholars in develop- policies is for any given African coun- rent seeking in development policy ment to assess how Africa might con-

26 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN solidate its recent economic and tech- electronics had in the 20th’’. Prof. jengwa, Deputy Director, Institute for no-scientific gains and harness future Nwadiuto Esiobu, Professor of Micro- Environmental Studies, University of global megatrends for its sustained biology and Biotechnology, Florida Zimbabwe; and Prof. Teresa Smart, economic growth and techno-scien- Atlantic University; and former Sen- Institute of Education, University tific progress. They focus on different ior Science Advisor, Secretary’s Office College London argue that commer- thematic areas: of Global Food Security, U.S. Depart- cial family farms are more productive ment of State, joins them in making than ‘plantation’ agriculture in Africa. On the Emerging Africa Middle the case for bio-based African econo- Dr. Ann Waters-Bayer, Chesha Wetta- Class mies. Dr. Aime Tsinda, Senior Re- sinha & Laurens van Veldhuizen focus Prof. Michael Lofchie of University search Fellow, IPAR-Rwanda reviews on Farmer Governance of Local Ag- of California, Los Angeles reminds us policies that promote biodiversity in- ricultural Research and Innovation in that entrenched political oligarchies formatics in Sub-Saharan Africa. Africa. do not willingly surrender power and privilege out of a benevolent concern On information and On Research and Science and for the greater good. ‘‘African devel- Communication Technologies Technology Collaboration opment challenge is not a scarcity of Dr. Pádraig Carmody, Trinity Col- Prof. Johanna Crane, School of Inter- economic resources; nor is it a scarcity lege Dublin and University of Johan- disciplinary Arts & Sciences Universi- of policy options that will distribute nesburg and Prof. James T. Murphy, ty of Washington – Bothell highlights those resources more broadly. Nor is Clark University, assess the opportu- the challenges of global health part- it a lack of administrative capacity nities and challenges posed by the ’Af- nerships in Africa while Prof. Clare to implement alternative policies. It rican Information Revolution’. They N. Muhoro, Jess and Mildred Fisher is the reluctance of dominant elites argue that whereas ’’an ICT enabled School of Science and Mathematics, to adopt policies that might require “Africa Rising” narrative has domi- Towson University, and Science Part- them to share their privileges’’. The nated much of the media discussion nerships Advisor, US Global Devel- role that the emerging African Mid- over the last decade, financialisation opment Lab, USAID looks at Science dle Class plays will to a large extent, and informationalisation have not and Technology Partnership options determine the nature of development been inevitably or universally positive that might be beneficial to Africa. An- policies that African countries adopt trends for the region’’. Prof. Mark gela Okune (Ihub), Denisse Albornoz, and the resulting social, economic and Graham and Dr. Chris Foster of the Becky Hillyer, Nanjira Sambuli (Ihub) political outcomes. Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford and Leslie Chan (University of To- University look at the geographies ronto) tackle inequities in global sci- On Trade, China and Skills of Information Inequality In Sub- entific power structures. Prof. Sekazi Development in Africa Saharan Africa. Prof. Laura Mann of Mtingwa, Emeritus Professor, MIT, Prof. Alan Winters of the University the LSE examines the ’Good, the Bad makes the case for an ‘advanced light of Sussex examines ways through and the Ugly’ of Big Data in Africa. source’ in Africa. which Africa might harness interna- She cautions that while the mobile tional trade for its structural transfor- phone will bring revolutionary chang- On Natural Resources, Conflicts mation and economic development es in Africa, ’’we should not be naïve and National Security through a strategy focused on ‘mobil- or complacent about whom is being Langdon Morries (InnovationLabs) ity’. Dr. Sajitha Bashir of the World empowered... behind every new trend looks at the future of fossil fuels, Af- Bank examines how Africa might in international development, there is rica and the global economy. Bat-el benefit from skills or capacity develop- a business opportunity’’. Prof. Mark Ohayon and Frank Charnas both of ment from a more coherent strategic Graham (Oxford) , Prof. Laura Mann AfriQue Consulting Group assess the engagement with China. (LSE), Dr. Nicolas Friederici (Oxford) growing threat of terrorism in Africa. Prof. Timothy Waema (University of Prof. Jon Unruh, McGill University, On Biotechnology and Bio- Nairobi) critically examine the Busi- revisits the concept of Resource Curse Economies ness Process Outsourcing Sector in and conflicts in Africa while Prof. Prof Torbjörn Fagerström (Sweden), Kenya. Dr. Mrinalini Tankha, IMTFI Ogaba Oche, Nigerian Institute of Dr. Roy B. Mugiira (Directorate of (Institute For Money Technology And International Affairs, looks at the role Research Management and Develop- Financial Inclusion), University of of traditional institutions in conflict in ment, State Department of Science California, Irvine, highlights lessons resolution. Prof. Samwel Makinda of and Technology, Ministry of Educa- from the Mobile Money Experience Murdoch University reviews security tion, Science and Technology, Nairo- In Sub-Saharan Africa. Ken Banks, strategies in select African countries. bi, Republic of Kenya) and Prof. Lisa founder of Founder of kiwanja.net Sennerby Forsse (Swedish University and creator of FrontlineSMS, exam- of Agricultural Sciences) argue that ines the relationship mobile technol- Disclaimer: The views and opinions ex- biotechnology is a tool that Africa ogy social innovations. pressed in this article are those of the author cannot afford to ignore. ’’Research and not necessarily the views and opinions in life sciences will have equal impor- On Rethinking African Agriculture of the African Centre for Technology Studies tance for society in the 21st century Prof. Joseph Hanlon, LSE and the (ACTS). as research in physics, chemistry and Open University; Prof. Jeanette Man-

27 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN AFRICA’S NEW MIDDLE CLASS A VEHICLE FOR PROGRESSIVE CHANGE OR MORE OF THE SAME?

Prof. Michael Lofchie, Department of Political Science, UCLA

istory offers sobering tive capacity to implement alternative African societies in binary terms, as lessons for those con- policies. It is the reluctance of domi- consisting of two social strata, the cerned with the pros- nant elites to adopt policies that might very rich and the very poor. The point pects of broad based require them to share their privileges. here is not to deny the importance of development in Af- Political reforms do not come about this cleavage. Few would doubt the rica. Entrenched po- because governing elites undergo an reality of Africa’s entrenched elites litical oligarchies do intellectual epiphany. They emerge or the yawning chasm between them not willingly surrender their power because changing economic realities and the mass of the continent’s poorer and privilege out of a benevolent con- give rise to new social forces with an citizens. The oligarchies that preside cern for the wellbeing of the many interest in different policies and the over many African countries enjoy a because they fear that, if they do, they capability to demand change. His- level of wealth unimaginable to pre- might erode the basis of their domi- tory’s lesson is clear: the adoption of vious generations. Their affluent life- nance. Africa’s incumbent oligarchies fairer economic strategies in Africa is styles compare to those of dominant share the political anxiety of oligarchs unlikely to originate from above; it is elite groups almost anywhere; their everywhere; if they widen the circle more likely to originate from below grasp on political power enables them of citizen engagement and distrib- as emergent social groups acquire the to increase their wealth in virtually ute wealth more widely, this would resources to insist upon reforms. The unrestrained fashion. Africa’s poor empower those who wish to contest question of overriding importance are among the world’s most desper- their hold on power. Their determi- for Africa is not whether its govern- ate, often living at the barest margin nation to retain power helps explain ing elites can be persuaded to adopt of survival. Their poverty constrains the scarcity of development policies policies that improve the conditions their ability to participate on equal that share the benefits of Africa’s of their fellow citizens. It is whether terms in the political realm. growing wealth with poorer Africans. there are new, countervailing social This two-part vision of Africa is no Africa’ development challenge is not forces with the ability to wrest reforms longer adequate. Africa is no longer a a scarcity of economic resources; nor from those who hold power. continent inhabited only by the very is it a scarcity of policy options that To address this question, it is critically rich and the very poor. The process of will distribute those resources more important to move beyond a prevail- economic growth has brought into be- broadly. Nor is it a lack of administra- ing imagery of Africa that portrays ing a growing middle class consisting

28 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN of skilled professionals and independ- as the by-product of the neo-liberal agriculture to industry. This experi- ent business entrepreneurs. The foun- economic policies, sometimes termed ment, which these economists termed dation study of this middle class is the structural adjustment, that were put import-substituting industrialization African Development Bank (AfDB) in place during 1980s . There is firm (ISI), was perhaps the most important monograph, The Middle of the Pyra- basis for that view. To understand the cause of Africa’s economic stagnation mid: Dynamics of the Middle Class in emergence of the new middle class, during the two decades following in- Africa. The AfDB study calls attention however, it may be helpful to entertain dependence. The ISI approach failed to the expanding size of this class, its a mixed appraisal of the neo-liberal virtually everywhere, not only in affluence, and its autonomy from state reforms, which have brought both Sub-Saharan Africa but also in Latin control. Many of the members of benefits and challenges to African America and South Asia. In Africa, it the new middle class enjoy a lifestyle countries. The principal benefit was not only failed to bring about industri- similar to that of middle classes in in- that structural adjustment brought alization, it resulted in faltering agri- dustrial societies in Western Europe, an end to the roughly twenty-year cultural performance as farmers were Asia and North America. Their deep- experiment in state-sponsored indus- called upon to bear an unsupportable ening political involvement in their trialization, which had lasted in most burden of taxation to help defray the countries’ politics has the potential cases from the early 1960s to the early costs of the new industries. to transform the continent. It could 1980s. reinforce democratic trends that are When the planned industrial experi- already underway; it could result in Following the advice of such prestig- ment ended, Africans with entrepre- economic policies that might improve ious economists as W. Arthur Lewis, neurial ambitions, whose skills had the lives of the majority population, Gunnar Myrdal and others, many been smothered during the era of and it could avert the tendencies to- African countries had sought to state-centered economies, were free ward civil disruption that are inherent transform the basis of their nations’ to play a larger economic role. The in polarized societies. economies from agriculture to indus- businesses they built have provided try. The policy pillars of their indus- an important impetus to today’s eco- The Old and the New Visions trial strategy were central planning, nomic recovery and to class formation The older conception of Africa pre- protectionism and taxpayer-provided in the middle of the social pyramid. sents extremes of wealth and poverty subsidies that transferred wealth from By almost any standard of measure-

29 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ment, the poor economic perfor- brought disappointment, however. es and skills to extract reforms from mance of the 1960s and 1970s has The arrival of competitive, multi-par- a reluctant elite. The most hopeful been replaced, in many countries, by ty systems had encouraged those who answer to this question has to do with a process of multi-sectorial economic hoped this might provide an opportu- the rise of the new middle class and expansion. Currency devaluations ac- nity for poorer Africans to challenge the expectation that it will introduce companied by trade liberalization and the oligarchic tendency. That hope a new set of interests, aspirations and the end of costly taxes on agriculture has, on the whole, been frustrated. capabilities to the political process. have stimulated a broad-based recov- The same neo-liberal policies that This viewpoint permeates the impor- ery. This recovery began with tradi- helped to nurture democratic com- tant volume edited by Mthuli Ncube tional agricultural exports but quickly petition have also insured its greatest and Charles Lufumba, The Emerging embraced a range of other sectors deficiency, the tendency for wealth Middle Class in Africa. including non-traditional exports, and power to reinforce one another. commercial real estate, retail sales, Throughout the continent, those at The essays in this volume demon- professional services, and housing. the bottom of the social hierarchy strate critical differences between Multi-sectorial growth has helped Af- face daunting obstacles in challeng- the new middle class and the old. rica attain rates of economic growth ing their dominant elites. If global Although the earlier vision of Afri- that are presently higher than those political processes hold out any les- can social structures made provision in any other developing region. The son, it is that those with large financial for the presence of a middle class, its dramatic reversal of economic for- resources enjoy decisive advantages conception was more limited. There tune has begun to change the world’s over those who lack them. The social were valid reasons for this. During the image of the African continent, from outcome is unmistakable: Twenty- decades following independence, the an impoverished region dependent five years of more open politics, con- African middle class consisted princi- upon donor nations to a scenario of ducted in a policy environment domi- pally of government employees or the rising prosperity worthy of large-scale nated by the neo-liberal ethos, has not employees of parastatal corporations investment. brought about a better distribution of that were an integral part of the gov- wealth. ernmental apparatus. Africa’s older The relationship between the neo- middle class consisted largely of the liberal reforms of the 1980s and the The economic wealth that flows from clerical, technocratic, and supervi- democratic reforms that followed a political elite’s grasp on political sory personnel in government offices during the 1990s is less clear. Africa’s power helps insure the status quo by or those employed in businesses that democratic transitions had numerous placing opposition groups at a finan- depended on the government. During causes, both internal, such as a rising cial disadvantage. The wealth po- the era of state-led industrialization, democratic ethos, and external, such litical leaders accumulate and their which lasted in most cases through the as pressures from international do- ability to deploy it in the political mid-1980s, most private firms, such as nor agencies. The neo-liberal reforms arena insulate them from pressures banks, insurance companies and ac- were one factor among many. The from below. There is a negative cycle: counting firms conducted the bulk of best interpretation is that the transi- those who hold political power use it their business with government agen- tion to market-based economies re- to acquire economic resources; those cies. Even the smaller firms such as moved an obstacle to democracy since who have those resources then have those that provided office equipment, the effort to build planned economies an infinite variety of techniques they information technology, or custodial necessitated the suppression of com- can use to maintain their status. They and catering services, did most of petitive politics. A centrally planned can create extensive patron – client their business with governmental en- economy is inherently authoritar- networks; they can fund supportive tities such as schools, universities or ian: countries that permit opposition organizations; and they can offer parastatal bodies. The all-pervasive groups to derail critical features of the tempting incentives for influential po- pattern of dependence upon the gov- industrial plan risk its failure. Central litical leaders to join them rather than ernment meant that their white-collar planning was inimical to democratic oppose them. The neo-liberal ethos employees, even those with advanced politics because it presupposed the described in Cosmas Ochieng’s es- university degrees, were limited in planners’ strict blueprint for the allo- say, “kick back, relax and wait for the their ability to operate as an inde- cation of resources must be enforced invisible hand,” serves the economic pendent political force. for the life of the plan. With the adop- and political interests of the dominant tion of more open economies in the elite; it discourages the idea that gov- The middle class documented in 1980s, this deterrent to democratic ernment policies can be employed to Ncube and Lufumba does not suffer politics was set aside. Greater eco- make things better. those constraints. Its members are the nomic openness did not bring about employees and owners of private sec- democracy but it removed the idea The New Middle Class tor firms that do not derive the major- that democratic opposition could not Absent effective challenges to the oli- ity of their business from government be allowed to challenge the planners’ garchic system by the poorer strata, agencies; they are members of skilled economic blueprint or the burden- the central question of modern Af- occupational groups such as doctors, some tax policies it required. rican politics repeats itself: where to attorneys and academics that have Africa’s democratic transition has look for a social class with the resourc- global professional opportunities and

30 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN can exit regimes that seek to constrain attention has focused on its three-tier commercial real estate, infrastructure their freedom. Many are the employ- conception of the middle class with construction, and retail sales. ees of multi-national businesses that an upper tier of those enjoying con- possess great economic leverage over sumption levels of between $10 and The AfDB’s depiction of Africa as local governments. For this new class, $20 per day; a middle tier of those a place where a new middle class is exit and voice are not opposite choic- enjoying consumption levels of be- bringing about fundamental changes es: members of a middle class who tween $4 and $10 per day, and a bot- in the shape of the social structure has have the option to exit are also freer tom tier, which the AfDB study terms gained the support of several of the to speak with a more audible voice; the “floating class,” which consists world’s most prestigious and conserv- they are freer to pursue political and of individuals with a daily per capita ative financial institutions. The Mc- economic interests that conflict with consumption of between $2 and $4. Kinsey Global Institute, the research those of the dominant oligarchy. Critics have questioned the idea that arm of the international consulting Many have begun to do so. members of the floating class, who firm McKinsey & Company, for ex- comprise approximately 20 percent ample, has also called attention to

The most hopeful answer to this question has to do with the rise of the new middle class and the expectation that it will introduce a new set of interests, aspirations and capabilities to the political process.

Estimates of the size and dynamics of the continent’s population, should economic growth and social change of the middle class are intrinsically be included at all. The AfDB study in Africa, publishing a major study subject to definitional difficulties and acknowledges that members of the Lions on the Move: The Progress and the AfDB’s analysis, which divides the floating class are barely above the Potential of African Economies. The African middle class into three sepa- poverty line and, in the event of eco- McKinsey study also portrayed Africa rate tiers, has been controversial. The nomic difficulties such as exogenous as the locus of a rapidly expanding authors of the AfDB study utilize an shocks, would be vulnerable to slip- consumer population. absolute definition; middle class per- ping back into poverty. If the floating sons are those with a daily per capita class is removed from the definition, In 2008, roughly 85 million African consumption of $2 to $20 in 2005 Africa’s middle class would comprise households earned $5,000 or more purchasing power parity (PPP) USD. only about 13.4 percent of African — the level above which they start By that standard of measurement, society, not 34 percent. spending roughly half their incomes Africa’s middle class has grown by on items other than food. The num- more than 3 percent per year since The debate about absolute numbers, ber of households with discretionary 1980. The AfDB study estimates that however, misses the major point, income is projected to rise by 50 per- the new middle class may comprise as which has to do with the dynamic of cent over the next ten years, reaching much as 35 percent of the total popu- socio-economic change in Africa. The 128 million. lation of Sub-Saharan Africa, nearly basic facts are not in dispute. Since 350 million people. The tangible in- the beginning of this millennium, The international consulting and ac- dicators of the growing presence of many African countries have enjoyed counting firm Deloitte has painted a this class are everywhere to be seen favorable conditions for both tradi- similar portrait. Between 2000 and and include such diverse factors as tional and non-traditional commod- 2012, Africa’s aggregate household cell phone use, automobile ownership ity exports. The earnings from these final consumption expenditure grew and the rise of private services in are- exports have alleviated the foreign at an average annual rate of 10.7 per- as formerly provided by governments exchange scarcities that were such a cent, rising by more than $850 billion including universities and medical fa- conspicuous and damaging feature of and reaching nearly $1.3 trillion… cilities. the pre-reform economic crisis. This The emerging middle class is more has permitted a surge of imports, optimistic, brand conscious and con- It would be a gross understatement making it easier to provide for the nected. In 2013, there were over 375 to suggest that AfDB’s optimistic sce- import requirements of Africa’s high million middle class people living in nario has gone unchallenged. Much growth sectors, especially housing and Africa. By 2030, over half a billion Af-

31 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ricans are projected to be middle class. The political potential of the new middle class contrasts with the lesser influ- This pattern of social change will be ence of Africa’s poorer strata, which buoyed by a high rate of economic have generally been unable to use their growth, expected to exceed 7 percent numerical strengths to gain policy im- per year over the next decade, about pacts. Smallholder farmers, for exam- double that of the world’s industrial ple, are among the most numerous of countries. Africa is already a major ac- the poor. However, Africa’s farmers tor in world markets as a source of raw have rarely been able to translate their materials and primary commodities. large numbers into corresponding po- Its importance as a market for goods litical influence. Poor farmers face col- The new Africa, and services will grow commensurately. lective action difficulties long familiar to Both Mckinsey and Deloitte describe African observers; they are spread out sometimes termed Africa as one of the world’s most at- over vast distances, making it difficult tractive regions for foreign investment. to meet together; they lack the dispos- “Africa rising,” As this occurs, it will further reinforce able cash income necessary to help de- the expansion of the new middle class. fray the expenses of political organiza- has generated a tion; and existing farmer organizations, These transformations have changed such as producer cooperatives, seem different imagery, the visual face Africa presents to the especially prone to principal – agent world. The historic poster image of Af- issues. Sectoral differences have also the resplendent rica was hungry children in food-deficit hampered African farmers from acting countries. The new Africa, sometimes together; farmers in the export sector, shopping mall, termed “Africa Rising,” has gener- such as those producing cotton, tobac- ated a different imagery, the resplend- co, cocoa, coffee or tea, do not share populated with ent shopping mall, populated with a policy preferences with those producing bewildering variety of high-end stores food staples for domestic consumption. a bewildering that cater to an increasingly affluent population. Even the most casual visi- Although Africa’s rural and urban poor variety of high-end tor to the YouTube web site can gain have a common cause in the remedia- a glimpse of this prosperity by viewing tion of their poverty, protest movements stores that cater the luxury shopping malls that have that link the two groups in a united arisen in practically all of the major cit- worker-peasant alliance have been the to an increasingly ies of Africa. The middle class custom- rare exception. The common explana- ers who frequent these malls have im- tion points to the underlying difference affluent population. portant socio-economic characteristics: in economic interest between the two. they are urban and do not generally de- Food-producing smallholders have an rive their income from farming or other interest in higher farm gate prices for rural activities; they have high levels their crops whereas the urban poor are of university education, often leading concerned about the cost of food items, to specialized and valuable skills such which consume a major part of the as medicine, law, accounting, financial family budget. Perhaps more impor- services, information technology, or tantly, the policies that might address business management; they have fewer rural poverty are different than those children per family than rural residents that might improve the conditions of or poorer urban families; they hold the urban poor. These differences have high salary positions in large business made it difficult for Africa’s farmers to enterprises or they own lucrative busi- enlist support from urban-based politi- nesses of their own. The higher levels cal organizations. of income enjoyed by members of this class make it possible for them to own Africa’s urban poor face challenges of automobiles and other expensive con- their own in creating broadly based sumer goods; to live in housing that is political movements, with the result spacious, comfortable and well built; to that the political potential of Africa’s afford high quality privately-provided working classes remains unfulfilled. medical services, and to opt for private There are several explanations. One is education for their children. Africa’s that there is not necessarily a crosscut- new middle class enjoys a lifestyle com- ting sense of worker economic interest. parable to that of middle classes any- Workers in the export sector, such as where. agricultural workers, railroad workers, mine workers, and dock workers, for

32 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN example, have benefitted more from powerful common interest in policies dize their wealth, and in turn, they the new atmosphere of openness to that will ameliorate poverty. The dif- use their wealth to aggrandize their trade than industrial workers, whose ference between the two strata lies power. Lower strata seek to use their conditions may have worsened due to in their differential capacity to bring numerical strengths to pursue changes the surge in manufactured imports. about meaningful political change. in the existing order but are all-too- Workers in the service sector, such Members of Africa’s rising middle often in a weak position. Throughout as household workers, custodial em- class are not only aware of the wealth too much of the African continent, ployees and workers in catering and and power of the governing elites; the political weaknesses of the poorer laundry services are not well organ- they are in a strong position to build strata have made it possible for the ized. Even where unions have begun political organizations that will chal- gap between the wealth of the wealth- to gain traction, worker poverty may lenge the status quo. iest and the poverty of the poorest to necessitate a focus on the material go uncorrected. necessities of day-to-day life, such as The new middle class has many po- wages and benefits, rather than such litical assets. Middle class Africans There is no mystery about how to re- distant and seemingly abstract con- can well afford the expenses entailed verse this; the first step is to strength- cerns as the unequal distribution of in building modern political parties, en the democratic process. Africa’s privilege across society. which require offices permanently new middle class holds out the best staffed by professional administrators, prospect of bringing this about. Bar- The cumulative effect of these factors not to mention the costly equipment rington Moore’s famous dictum, “no is unmistakable. In contrast to the required in the digital age. Since the bourgeois, no democracy,” holds as political limitations of the rural and middle class is overwhelmingly urban true today as it did when first articu- urban poor, Africa’s middle class has and is generally concentrated in only lated 50 years ago. The extended ver- great potential to become an influen- one or two major cities in each coun- sion of Moore’s argument was more tial political force. The members of try, geographical dispersion is not a cautious, however. He did not believe this class are aspirational, confident constraint on forming organizations. that the greater inclusiveness brought and, perhaps most importantly, well Africa’s cities are already densely about as the rising middle class gained situated to express their economic populated with the numerous civil traction in the public realm would interests in the political realm. The society associations of business and necessarily benefit strata in a less ad- difference between the middle class professional groups. These provide vantageous socio-economic position. and the poor is not one of political the base of the organizational pyra- For Moore, the working class did not consciousness. Members of Africa’s mid on which political movements enter the political equation at all and, poorer strata are deeply aware of are constructed. Since members of in his various case studies, the even- the extreme inequalities in their so- the middle class generally have high tual fate of politically weak peasants cieties. Their difficulty lies in trans- levels of university education, and are was the outcome of conflict between lating that consciousness for the most part already en- other, more powerful political actors, into effective political gaged in the management the rising bourgeoisie and the landed action. Nor is the of large bureaucratic aristocracy. critical difference organizations, the con- a lack of com- stitute a reservoir of This viewpoint has utmost relevance mon interest. the administrative for modern Africa. It remains uncer- The poorer and technical skills tain whether the middle class’ pursuit citizens of Af- necessary to build of greater political and economic rican coun- effective political influence will generate benefits that tries have a movements. Mem- extend downward to poorer elements bers of the middle in society. There is no simple answer. class are also united In several respects – reinforcement in a powerful shared of democratic practices, the struggle cause; their interest in against corruption and improvement policies that will protect of property rights, middle class po- their share of national from litical involvement may provide col- invasive behavior by lateral benefits to the very poor. In the the very powerful. supremely important areas of income distribution and poverty alleviation, it Africa’s democratic may not. challenge is all-too- clear. It is the same Democracy is not an either – or prop- as that in countless osition. Its meaningfulness can be en- countries across the hanced or degraded depending upon globe. Dominant the conduct of the key actors. For now, classes use their the principal class dynamic of Africa power to aggran- is conflict of interests between the ris-

33 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ing middle class and the entrenched economic playing field that is predict- All about the Share of the Rich” sur- oligarchy at the very top of the conti- able and transparent and in which the veys income distribution for 135 of nent’s class structure. Members of the courts enforce contracts in a fair man- the word’s countries for the twenty- middle class are anxious to stabilize ner. Above all else, Africa’s fledgling year period 1985 to 2005. This time their newfound affluence by breath- business entrepreneurs need an envi- frame is of utmost relevance to Sub- ing greater life into the more open ronment free from monetary extrac- Saharan Africa because it coincides political arenas that were created dur- tions by rent-seeking officials, where with the economic transition to neo- ing the 1990s. Those at the top of the they can conduct day-to-day business liberal policies and the democratic class system are more reluctant part- without the burdensome side pay- transition to more open regimes. ners in a political process that could ments that are so pervasive in many result in loss of incumbency. They countries. Palma’s findings show that the politi- prefer to remain in power. There is cal involvement of Africa’s new mid- nothing unfamiliar about this pattern, Africa’s new middle class also has a dle class has not provided spillover which resonates with trends in other stake in the creation of a more secure benefits to the poor. In the countries world regions. The great uncertainty property rights environment. The he surveyed, the middle class — de- in modern African politics is whether economic benefits of an improvement fined as the middle five income deciles the middle class’ challenge to incum- in this area have been argued by a host — has been secured its economic po- bent elites will result in collateral im- of development theorists; it is a policy sition by capturing about 50 percent provements for those at the very bot- area in which the neo-liberal ethos of national income. Worldwide, mid- tom of the class pyramid. presents convincing arguments. Few investors will There is a basis for optimism and a risk resources in an eco- basis for pessimism. On the optimistic nomic environment where On the pessimistic side, side, members of the new middle class the normal uncertainties of have a vital stake in building a more the business cycle are com- There are unanswered level political playing field. To pro- pounded by the absence tect their interests as entrepreneurs of secure property rights. questions as to whether the and professionals, the members of Improvements in this area this class require a political environ- could trickle down to other political muscularity of the ment in which opposition parties can classes. Increased invest- organize openly, recruit members, ad- ment could result in great- middle class will help address dress their supporters, and contest er demand for workers and elections. They have an urgent stake hence in improvements in the continent’s persistent in freedom to access the media and to wages and working condi- criticize government officials without tions. More secure prop- problems of socio-economic harassment or intimidation. If Af- erty rights could offer im- inequality and absolute rican’s new middle class can play an portant benefits to farmers; instrumental role in bringing about it would encourage those poverty. these improvements, members of all farmers able to do so to in- social strata would benefit. vest in their farms and offer better protection against A further basis for optimism lies in dispossession by the large the middle class’ interest in lowering land concessions that have become a dle classes have been able to resist corruption because corruption trans- growing source of farmer insecurity encroachment on that income share fers wealth from the bottom and mid- in some rural regions. from above and prevent policies that dle strata of society to the very top. share their income with those below. It makes industrial investment more Inequality and Poverty Owing to their higher levels of educa- insecure and expensive, slowing the On the pessimistic side, there are un- tion, which makes it possible to attain growth of industries that might gen- answered questions as to whether the the better-rewarded positions in the erate employment growth for work- political muscularity of the middle division of labor, as well as their owners. To defray the cost of corruption, class will help address the continent’s ership of business firms, the middle investors may be tempted to reduce persistent problems of socio-econom- tiers in each country have been able other costs such as workers’ wages ic inequality and absolute poverty. to carve out and defend a 50 percent and benefits. Corruption also diverts The best evidence on these matters is share of national income. What var- a nation’s economic resources away not encouraging. One of the most de- ies across the globe is not the share of from investments that improve gen- tailed studies of income distribution national wealth going to the middle; it eral wellbeing, such as education, in- across countries is that by the Cam- is the way the very rich and the very frastructure, and educational institu- bridge University economist, Jose Ga- poor divide the remaining 50 percent. tions, toward private consumption by briel Palma. His article, “Homogene- In Africa, the two sides in that strug- members of the dominant oligarchy. ous Middles vs. Heterogeneous Tails, gle are as unequal politically as they Business entrepreneurs require an and the End of the ‘Inverted-U’: It’s are economically. This manifests itself

34 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN in Palma’s data and in other research Afrobarometer has been collecting though Africans living in countries that supports his conclusions. In the data on this topic for more than a where there has been civil conflict are majority of African countries, the decade. Its major recent study of lived especially vulnerable to lived poverty, wealthiest decile of the population poverty offers telling evidence that some of the worst poverty conditions may receive as much as 45 percent of economic growth in Africa has not also appear in countries with a repu- national income, leaving only about improved economic conditions for the tation for democratic stability, includ- 5 percent for the bottom 40 percent very poor: “we find little evidence for ing Lesotho, Togo, and Tanzania. of the population. This represents systematic reduction of lived poverty extreme inequality. The Economic despite average GDP growth rates of Afrobarometer’s household surveys Commission for Africa sustains this 4.8 percent per year.” The Afroba- suggest that economic conditions for viewpoint, showing that Africa’s track rometer data portray a continent in the poorest Africans may be wors- record in reducing inequality is poor- which the conditions of poverty have ening. The majority of the African er than all the world’s regions except not been ameliorated by economic poor are small farmers who engage in Latin America. growth. [R]oughly one in five Afri- semi-subsistence agricultural activity cans still experiences frequent (‘many that combines household production Advocates of the neo-liberal ethos times’ or ‘always’) deprivation with with production for the marketplace. sometimes question the importance respect to their most basic needs for A variety of factors have worsened of these comparisons, arguing that in- food (17%), clean water (21%), and their situation. One is sheer popula- equality is less important than chang- medicines and medical care (20%). tion growth in the countryside, which decreases the amount of arable land per family and forces families to move to less arable districts. Another is urban expansion, which in some areas gobbles up valuable farmland. The variable with the greatest influence on the conditions of small farmers is weather: when rainfall is adequate, conditions improve. During periods of drought, they suffer. Because of global climate change, drought has become more frequent. Those who still have farms to cultivate are not the worst off. Throughout Africa’s rural areas, the poorest es in real material conditions of the Approximately half experience at stratum consists of a growing popula- poor. In the neo-liberal viewpoint, ex- least occasional shortages.” tion of landless persons who support panding the size of the economic pie themselves as migratory workers or as could provide improvements for the Afrobarometer’s findings have found squatter-settlers on farms owned by poorest stratum, even if its share of partial corroboration in World Bank others. The troublesome feature of national income is not increasing. To research on global poverty. According rural poverty is that so many of the address this issue, the survey organiza- to the Bank’s PovcalNet research pro- rural poor seem beyond the reach of tion Afrobarometer has created an in- ject, Africa’s economic growth dur- the most commonly utilized anti-pov- dex of poverty called the Lived Pover- ing the twenty-five year period 1990 erty programs. ty Index (LPI), which is an attempt to – 2015 reduced the percentage of the assess the conditions of poorer social population living on less than $1.25 In Africa’s cities, the poorest stratum classes in absolute terms, rather than per day by about 10 percent, from ap- consists of unemployed, unskilled, relative to other social strata. The LPI proximately 57% of the population to and semi-skilled workers, a heteroge- measures whether an African family 47%. However, owing to population neous grouping that includes house- may have gone without enough food growth, Sub-Saharan Africa is the hold workers, custodial workers in of- to eat, without clean water for home only world region where the number fices and hotels, and workers in food use, or without needed medical care of people living on $1.25 per day or services. Africa’s industrial workers during the course of a year. less increased during this period. Al- also face strong downward pressure.

35 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN The willingness of Africa’s elites to embrace hybrid policy arrangements may have portentous implications for the democratic process.

The booming commodity exports is possible: Africa’s embrace of neo- the poor. that have yielded such favorable fig- liberal policies has not improved the ures on economic growth have been share of national income going to the In the search for workable hybrid accompanied by trends toward de- poor; it has probably made their situ- arrangements, there is no single for- industrialization and worker lay-offs ation worse. Even assuming that the mula. The precise mix of hybrid poli- as neo-liberal approaches to trade growth data is real — not a universal cies may vary greatly across countries have resulted in a surge in manufac- assumption — its benefits have been and, indeed, within a single country tured imports. The figures on youth concentrated among the more well to over time. Adaptation to local condi- unemployment in large African cities do Africans at the top and middle of tions is critical, as is the willingness to are especially troubling: they foretell a the social structure. This explains why be flexible as between market forces generation of Africans whose hopes the emergence of an affluent middle and policy interventions. Economists for the future are especially bleak. class is consistent with a trend toward refer to this viewpoint as heterodox more and more Africans living in economics, to distinguish it from the Conclusion: Heterodox deep poverty. neo-liberal tradition. For those con- Economics cerned to promote more equitable The persistence of absolute poverty There is no mystery about how to development in Africa, hybrid policy in Africa is a painful reminder of ba- reverse these patterns. The countries arrangements merit the most serious sic truths. The encouraging figures with the most equitable income distri- consideration. on economic growth, which may also bution, the Nordic countries, Japan, show increases in GDP per capita, are and Netherlands, have tax systems The willingness of Africa’s elites to not an indicator of better conditions and welfare programs that redistrib- embrace hybrid policy arrangements for citizens, nor a proxy for the ame- ute income downward. The impli- may have portentous implications lioration of socio-economic inequal- cation for the development debate is for the democratic process. Although ity. African economic statistics show unmistakable. The most productive poor Africans continue to participate a glaring inconsistency between mac- conversation is not about the abstract actively in their countries’ democratic roeconomic data, which show impres- merits of market forces versus state institutions, their faith in democracy sive growth, and household surveys, interventions; it is about how to com- could easily diminish if they are un- such as those conducted by Afroba- bine market forces with state interven- able to use their democratic rights rometer, which reveal stagnant or tions in hybrid arrangements that pro- to bring about policies that improve declining incomes among the poorest mote economic growth while, at the their lives. African families. Only one conclusion same time, improving the welfare of

36 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Further reading: mocracy (Beacon Press, 1966), p. 418. 1. AfDB, The Middle of the Pyramid: Dynamics of the Middle 11.See, for example, Hernando de Soto, The Mystery of Capital Class in Africa (Market Brief, April 20, 2011.) (Basic Books, 2000). http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/ 12.Palma G. DeHomogeneous Middles vs. Heterogeneous Tails, and Publications/The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid_ the End of the ‘Inverted-U’: It’s All About the Share of the Rich. The%20Middle%20of%20the%20Pyramid.pdf. Development and Change, Vol. 42, No. 1, 2011, pp. 87 – 153. 2. The use of the term “neo-liberal” here follows that of Dr. Cos- 13.United Nations, Economic Commission for Africa, MDG 2014 mas Ochieng’s introductory essay, “Africa’s Last Best Chance for Report: Assessing Progress in Africa toward the Millennium De- Development.” velopment Goals (United Nations, Economic Commission for Af- 3. Shantayan Devarajan and Wolfgang Fengler, “Africa’s Economic rica, n.d.), p. xv. URL is http://www.uneca.org/sites/default/ Boom,” in Foreign Affairs, May/June 2013, p. 68. files/PublicationFiles/2014_mdg_report.pdf. 4. Acha Leke, et. al., “What’s Driving Africa’s Growth,” (McKin- 14.Afrobarometer, Lived Poverty in Africa: Desperation, Hope and sey & Company, 2010). Patience (Afrobarometer Briefing Paper No. 11, April 2004. 5. McKinsey Global Institute, 2010, p. 3. Available on-line, http:// 15.Boniface Dulani, et. al., After a Decade of Growth in Africa, www.mckinsey.com/insights/africa/lions_on_the_move. Little Change in Poverty at the Grassroots (AfroBarometer, 2013), 6. Deloitte, The Deloitte Consumer Review Africa: A 21st Century http://www.afrobarometer.org/publications/pp1-after-decade- View (Deloitte, 2014), p. 2. Available on line, http://www2. growth-africa-little-change-poverty-grassroots, p. 1. deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/ng/Documents/consumer- 16.Dulani, p. 2. business/the-deloitte-consumer-review-africa-a-21st-century- 17.Figures on smallholder incomes must be approached with a level view.pdf. of caution. It is practically impossible to assign cash value for 7. Acha Leke, et. al., “What’s Driving Africa’s Growth” (McKinsey certain estimates, such as the subsistence portion of a farm house- & Co., 2010). hold’s income. 8. This term was popularized in the Economist article, “The Hope- 18.The population reference bureau anticipates that Africa’s popula- ful Continent: Africa Rising.” (Dec. 3, 2011). tion will approximately double, from 1.1 billion to 2.4 billion in 9. See, for example, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1hJlHJ0- the next 35 years. nVI, which shows the re-opening of a major shopping mall in http://www.prb.org/publications/datasheets/2013/2013- Nairobi, Kenya. The web site https://www.youtube.com/ world-population-data-sheet/data-sheet.aspx watch?v=Q1eB_QpJYtY shows the famous Palms shop- 19.Kathleen Caulderwood, “Sub-Saharan Africa Falls Behind in ping mall in Lagos, Nigeria. Soweto, South Africa boasts Fight Against Extreme Poverty: World Bank Report,” Interna- the Maponya Shopping Mall, https://www.youtube.com/ tional Business Times, April 14, 2015, http://www.ibtimes. watch?v=wQV4FDKyN_k. com/sub-saharan-africa-falls-behind-fight-against-extreme-pov- 10.Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and De- erty-world-bank-report-1881460

37 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN HARNESSING TRADE FOR ACCELERATED DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA THINK MOBILITY Prof. L Alan Winters Professor of Economics, University of Sussex, also of CEPR, IZA and GDN

38 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN obility would to capture international transporta- services one needs competition. Tera- seem to be the tion costs. They found that 50% of vaninthorn, and Raballand (2009) very essence of the variation in transportation costs looked at the likely returns to invest- trade: if things between different routes could be ex- ment in each of five road corridors in don’t move, plained by differences in infrastruc- Africa and found that they vary sig- there is no ture (a combination of roads, rail and nificantly with the institutional situa- trade. This is telephones) and only 10% by distance. tion. In particular, they found that in true, and it informs the parts of this Raising the quality of a country’s in- west and central Africa transportation article that talk about efforts to reduce frastructure from the 75th to the 50th costs could be significantly reduced by the costs of doing international trade, percentile was equivalent to taking reducing fuel costs, improving road including trade facilitation and aid for approximately 3,500 kilometres off quality and reducing border-cross- trade. But there are three other as- the average sea trip or 400 km off the ing-times. However, they argue that pects of mobility that I want to stress: average land trip that its exports and the trucking sectors are so cartelised mobility between sectors – notably imports had to face! and heavily regulated in these regions structural transformation - and mobil- that any cost savings so produced will ity between areas – internal migration More recently, Portugal-Perez and just go into truckers’ pockets rather and urbanization. Third, I shall argue Wilson (2012) have examined bilat- than stimulate trade and enterprise. that mobility lies not only at the heart eral trade between a large number of The moral is that until regulation en- of generating more output and in- partners and find that infrastructure sures sufficient competition to ensure come, but also at the heart of sharing quality is a key constraint on devel- that cost savings are passed on, road that income in a more equitable and oping countries’ exports, along with and border-crossing improvement sustainable ways. In a sense the last is ‘soft’ infrastructure (essentially trade schemes will tend to be unequalis- about social mobility and I recognize regulations). They use this observa- ing because they will increase rents. this as one of the most important ele- tion to argue passionately for trade fa- These results refer to the mid-2000s ments of achieving a sustainable so- cilitation – which potentially address- and things are changing fast in Africa, ciety; however, as an economist I do es both aspects - as a policy priority but the moral is general: fixing the kit not have the skills to move beyond the for development. Vijil and Wagner is one thing, fixing the problem is an- analysis of incomes, so I will concen- (2012) carry this line of reasoning one other and it takes careful analysis to trate on that. step further and show that infrastruc- identify exactly what is going wrong. ture constrains developing country The third caution is that trade costs Facilitating Trade exports and that aid for trade devoted also include policy barriers to trade. Trade matters. This is most true to infrastructure has a material effect For sure in most cases the burden that within a country – a village that had on the latter’s quality. From this they transportation costs impose on im- to be wholly self-sufficient would be argue that a 10 percent increase in aid ports is greater than the burden im- grim, or perhaps impossible, to live for trade flows to a developing coun- posed by tariffs. However, the critical in. But in the modern economy, it is try could raise the recipient’s (export/ difference is that transport costs can- also true between countries, especially GDP) ratio by 2.3 percent, which they not be reduced to zero (ever!) and in small ones. Trade allows specializa- calculate is equivalent to a cut of ap- fact can usually be reduced only at tion and the reaping of economies proximately 2.7 percentage points in considerable expense, while tariffs can of scale, and it generates competition the tariff and non-tariff barriers that be reduced to zero at the stroke of a and, via that and by allowing larger those export face. pen: I may have to pay hundreds of markets, incentivizes innovation. All dollars to have a critical input deliv- of these dimensions allow us raise ef- It is obvious from this glance at the ered to my factory, but that is not as ficiency and live better. Thus reducing research literature that trade facilita- reason to increase its costs even fur- the costs of international trade has tion and aid for trade could make a ther by taxing it. While we work hard become a major objective of some great contribution towards higher on trade facilitation, let’s not forget governments and most donors over incomes in Africa. I would, however, the (technically) easy and cheap stuff the last couple of decades. Achieving offer three cautions. First, aid has to – trade policy. such reductions requires both hard be well spent – both technically and and soft infrastructure as well as effec- in terms of carefully identifying pri- Structural Transformation tive current operations, and is no easy ority projects – either hard or soft. For two hundred years or more econ- task. However, there are large reduc- The latter requires a close engage- omists have understood that opening tions to be made and the benefits of ment with the private sector – they up to international trade allows spe- making them are large. are the people who trade – coupled cialisation – concentrating on pro- with rigorous attention to ensure that ducing what you produce best, selling The seminal contribution on the ef- they do not capture the process mere- some (lots) of that to other countries fects of transportation costs in the ly for private gain. Second, investing and buying the rest of what you need modern world is Limao and Venables in infrastructure reduces the costs of on the world market. The key insight (2000) who used the quoted prices trade but to translate that into reduc- is that an economy that does not trade for transporting a 40-foot container tions in the prices of traded goods and is obliged to produce all that it con-

39 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN sumes and consume all that it produc- Laureate Arthur Lewis’s classic work The arguments about the need for es. International trade breaks that tyr- in 1954. Lewis characterised devel- structural change provide the ration- anny and allows producers to break opment as the reallocation of factors ale for the Aid for Trade initiative free of the shackles of the domestic of production and employment from which was launched at the Hong market and so to produce far greater low productivity “traditional” sectors, Kong Ministerial Conference in De- quantities of certain goods (the ones such as agriculture, to high productiv- cember 2005. Although its origins the economy is good at) than consum- ity “modern” sectors, such as manu- owed at least as much to the desire to ers could possibly absorb. But taking facturing. This increases average pro- keep developing countries inside the advantage of trade in this way is not ductivity and hence average incomes. tent of the Doha Development Agen- necessarily a painless process: it starts These two processes go together – no da as to long-run economic reasoning, by cutting back on some activities in country has developed in the modern it was aimed at addressing whatever order to concentrate on others; in era without engaging increasingly governments thought might be pre- other words, on inter-sectoral mobil- and eventually heavily in internation- venting developing countries from ity. Anything that hinders this process al trade. However, there is a poten- developing their exports and particu- is likely to delay or even prevent the tial disconnect in the medium term: larly their export bundles (the goods gains from trade emerging. Some hin- what if international trade encour- and services which they actually able drances are natural, like geographical ages countries to specialise in primary to export). This was an obvious first barriers, but many are man-made in products, so that factors of produc- step towards inducing positive struc- terms of regulations and restrictions. tion move towards lower productivity tural change. While the issue is far from closed sectors (e.g. agriculture) or sectors in among academic economists, there is which there are very few jobs (min- Last year the Commonwealth Sec- certainly some evidence that countries erals)? While this may generate high retariat asked Xavi Cirera and me that have restrictive labour market income growth while primary prices whether Aid for Trade (AfT) had ac- regulations, restrictions on firm en- are high, and indeed can provide a tually stimulated structural change in try and exit or serious capital market basis for long-run progress (think of Africa – Cirera and Winters (2014). failures benefit less from international the USA, which counts as a primaries Looking across Sub-Saharan African trade than more liberal societies – for exporter on most measures), it is not countries since 1995, we first sought example, Chang, Kaltani and Loy- sufficient for development. For devel- to relate AfT to the costs of conduct- oaza (2009). opment, one looks also to see move- ing international trade and to trade ment towards ‘modern’ sectors, not performance and then we looked for Economic development is similarly only manufacturing, but also in terms traces of the effects of AfT on the seen as hinging around the idea of of services. structure of the African economies. switching sectors, at least since Nobel With the minor exception that maybe

40 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN policy-related AfT reduces the clear- provide and likely to be of higher qual- ance times of goods in customs, we ity where population density is higher. found no relationship between AfT Moreover, there are very strong rea- The key and exports or economic structure at sons why production is more efficient all. One should not necessarily con- there too – cities allow for deeper and insight is that clude from this that AfT is a waste, more frequent interaction, better co- however. First, our analysis faced for- ordination, a quick spread of ideas midable data problems which could and large local markets to encourage an economy easily have clouded the results. For economies of scale. Bettancourt and example, it is the donors who label an West (2011) summarise the evidence that does aid flow ‘Aid for Trade’, rather than drawing on both developed and de- the recipients who could do so in the veloping country experience to sug- light of what the money is actually gest that a doubling of city size is as- not trade spent on. Second, given the huge dif- sociated with an average increase of ferences across countries and the ar- around 15 percent in measures such is obliged ray of forces that influence economic as wages and patents produced per structure (including the primaries capita. Their data also reveal that as to produce price boom), our tests based on rela- city-size doubles, ‘its material infra- tively small amounts of relatively poor structure -- anything from the number data may just be too weak to find an of gas stations to the total length of its all that it effect. On the other hand, our results pipes, roads or electrical wires -- does do suggest that recipients should make not’. And even better, perhaps, cities consumes greater efforts to make sure that AfT is in developed countries are greener well directed and well spent and then than other areas because people liv- well evaluated. And the argument of ing closer together require less energy and consume this article is that this ought to include to get about. Of course, cities can be thinking seriously about what it is that unpleasant – lawless, dirty, crowded all that it allows people and resources to move – but this is not inevitable if they are between sectors. suitably planned and governed. produces. The Mobility of People Africa has low population densities on Arthur Lewis’s model of development average, which makes industrializa- depends on moving people between tion an uphill struggle, and most coun- sectors, but this also depends to a large tries have low rates of urbanization, extent on moving them between plac- which suggests that they are not does. If we consider Britain’s economic ing the best they can to overcome this. history as the first industrial nation, Moreover, in many African countries rural-urban migration lay at the very the prevailing attitude is that rural- heart of the industrialisation process. urban migration is a problem which It contributed an increase of about 1 needs to be minimized. For sure, the percent per annum to the urban pop- difficulties of managing large inflows ulation every year over a century from of migrants are challenging and there around 1776, and reduced the rural may sometimes be a case for tempo- population by about 0.8 percent per rarily slowing the flow; however, over annum in 1776 rising to about 2 per- the medium run deciding to facilitate cent in 1866 partly because the num- and then manage this form of mobil- bers of migrants increased but mainly ity can only be beneficial. because the rural population actually fell – Williamson (1990). Likewise, the In the University of Sussex we have remarkable growth of China has been a Research Consortium (Migrating accompanied by a dramatic increase Out of Poverty Research Program in urbanisation, and now over half Consortium, http://migratingoutof- of China’s population lives in urban poverty.dfid.gov.uk/index ) that stud- areas. ies internal (as opposed to international) migration. Work in several The role of cities in development is African countries has revealed that not a surprise. Even a little reflection even if migration to the town or city suggests that the provision of many of is uncomfortable and often danger- the services that characterise develop- ous for the poor and less skilled (espe- ment such as health, education and cially for women), a large majority of law enforcement are much easier to the people we have interviewed see it

41 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN as a way of improving their economic recent literature – Winters and Martus- Further reading fortunes. Plenty also see it as a way of celli (2014) – uncovered several instanc- Bettancourt, L. A., and West, G. B. improving their lives in other, social di- es in which mobility played a key role in (2011). ‘Bigger Cities Do More with mensions, and, again, especially young spreading (or otherwise) the benefits of Less’, Scientific American, 305(3), 52- women who see migration as a route to trade reform. For example, in Vietnam 53. greater independence than traditional (as in most places) unskilled workers are rural societies provide. less mobile that skilled ones and so the Chang R, Kaltani L and Loayza NV. export benefits that Vietnam reaped 2009. Openness can be good for growth: Mobility and Sharing the Gains from its 2001 trade agreement with the The role of policy complementarities. from Trade USA, which greatly improved access Journal of Development Economics, My final paean to mobility is to observe to the US market, were geographically 90(1):33-49 that mobility is key to sharing the gains more concentrated for unskilled than from trade – or, indeed, the pain and for skilled workers. In Indonesia, work- Cirera X and L A Winters (2014) Aid thereby mitigating it. If a sector receives ers are not very mobile across firms and for Trade and Structural Transforma- a boost in demand from a trade reform, so trade liberalisation strongly benefits tion in Sub Saharan Africa, Common- the demand for labour will go up. If people in export industries and does lit- wealth Trade Policy Discussion Papers, the labour force cannot be expanded, tle for those in import-competing firms. No 2015/01, London,Commonwealth the existing workers will experience a Similarly, the evidence shows that the Secretariat. strong rise in wages but nobody else will impact of India’s trade liberalisation in see any benefit: you get a narrow but 1991 was most pronounced among the Limao, N. and Venables, A.J. 2001, large impact on welfare. If, on the other least geographically mobile sections of “Infrastructure, Geographical Disad- hand, the sector can bid workers away the population - those at the bottom of vantage, Transport Costs, and Trade”, from other sectors, more people will the income distribution - and in Indian World Bank Economic Review, vol. 15, benefit but wages will increase by less; states where inflexible labour laws im- no. 3, pp. 451-479. the effect will be broader but smaller – peded the reallocation of factors of pro- i.e. less unequal. Similarly – and this is duction across sectors. Portugal-Perez, Alberto, and John S. important – when a sector suffers from Wilson. “Export performance and trade a trade reform because import competi- Conclusion facilitation reform: hard and soft infra- tion causes it to decline, if the workers Mobility is by definition the sine qua structure.” World Development 40.7 have no alternative employment they non of international trade – you have (2012): 1295-1307. will probably suffer a large wage de- to move goods or services across borders cline, whereas if there are other sectors before you see any international trade. Teravaninthorn, Supee, and Gaël Rabal- they can go to, the wage decline will be Policies that increase such mobility by land. Transport prices and costs in Af- mitigated. reducing its costs have a strong effect rica: a review of the main international on trade and, through this, welfare. But corridors. World Bank, 2009. International trade typically raises liv- mobility is also key within the trading ing standards by reducing the prices of country: the main gains from trade arise Vijil, Mariana, and Laurent Wagner. the goods that people consume and by from changing your production bundle “Does Aid for Trade Enhance Export stimulating economic growth overall, – you have to be able increase activity in Performance? Investigating the Infra- but nonetheless there are bound to be certain sectors and reduce it in others. structure Channel.” The World Econo- sectors that have to contract. Hence If this is thwarted, you do not get great my 35.7 (2012): 838-868. the fact that mobility reduces the hit gains and may even record losses from a on workers in such sectors, is important trade liberalisation. But moving sectors Winters, L Alan and Antonio Martus- both in reducing the burden of adjust- often entails moving places, and if such celli (2014) ‘Trade Liberalisation and ment (because both theory and experi- movement results in agglomeration into Poverty: What have we learned in a ence suggests that halving the size of a large groups – cities or large towns – decade?’Annual Review of Resource Eco- shock more than halves the welfare costs you get not only gains from trade but nomics, vol 6, 2014, DOI: 10.1146/ of bearing it) and in increasing the like- also gains to productive efficiency, inno- annurev-resource-110713-105054 lihood that the net effect of the negative vation and the effectiveness of services. specific shock plus the positive general Moving places means migration and it benefit is positive. is important that African governments start to see internal migration in a more I have spent some time studying the ef- favourable light. Finally, mobility helps fects of international trade on extreme to share the benefits of trade (and other poverty in developing countries, and economic activity) more equitably and have concluded that mobility is a key so both fosters development and in- consideration not only in reaping aggre- creases its sustainability. gate benefits from trade reform but in achieving a moderately equitable – and Thus, as the title of this article says: if hence politically more sustainable – dis- you are thinking about trade, think also tribution of those gains. A survey of the about mobility.

42 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN An African Economic Development Company

Consulting Projects Capacity Development

“Expanding Private Sector Participation in Africa’s Development Agenda”

Group Services Consulting • Economic Development Consulting • Business Development Consulting • Business Publications • Knowledge, Trade and Investment Design and Event Management

Projects • Sectors: Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency, Agriculture, Agribusiness, Tourism, Real Estate, Manufacturing, Extractive Industries • Project Design Development and Management • Value Chain Development and Expansion • Investment Strategy and Facilitation

Capacity Development

• Status Quo Analysis / Benchmarking • Environment Research Assessment: Economic, Political and Institutional • National and International Best Practice Assessment • Participatory Programme / Project Development and Implementation • Monitoring and Evaluation: Framework Development and Project / Programme Review

Selected Past Clients

43 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN CHINA’S CONTRIBUTION TO SKILLS DEVELOPMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Dr. Sajitha Bashir, World Bank

The scale of China’s engagement in Sub-Saharan Africa is impressive and is expected to grow substantially if future projections of Chinese investments materialize. By 2013, China accounted for a quarter of all SSA trade. Estimates of the stock of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) vary from the official estimate of $ 24 billion to $ 61 billion. (The China Global Investment Tracker estimated the stock of FDI to be $ 61 billion in 2013 and the value of Chinese contracts, a proxy for committed investment flows, to be US$82 billion in the same year - Pigato and Tang, 2015).

44 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Introduction During his visit to Af- which used FDI and integration into provides a platform to align the in- rica in 2014, Premier regional production networks to em- vestments and efforts of different Li Keqiang predicted bark on a process of sustained struc- partners, including with new Partners. that trade volume with tural transformation. The emergence Under the PASET framework, Chi- Africa would double by of ‘export capable’ domestic firms, as nese academic institutions have par- 2020 to US $400 billion. key feature of this process was strong- ticipated in various regional Forums, Further, Chinese foreign direct invest- ly driven by FDI in the initial stages in analytical work and in sharing the ment (FDI) is expected to increase to (Yusuf, 2014). However, broad-based experiences of China in the develop- US$ 100 billion in the same time pe- economic transformation required ment of capacity in vocational train- riod. Not only are the levels of invest- other key policy ingredients, including and science and technology. This ment rising but they are also becoming the creation of the appropriate article synthesizes the current role of ing more diversified and expanding business environment and investment China in skills development in sub- in manufacturing and services, com- in infrastructure, as well as, quite criti- Saharan Africa, drawing on many of pared to the past when investments cally, investment in skills of the labor these studies. focused primarily on infrastructure force. and energy. Although the recent Chinese Firms in SSA countries slowdown in the Chinese economy In East Asian countries, government At present, Chinese firms, like many has repercussions on the demand for policy often included provisions for foreign firms operating in sub-Saha- commodities and hence for growth employment and training of local ran African (SSA) countries encoun- in resource dependent SSA econo- workers as well as encouraging foreign ter serious skills constraints. Such mies, the re-balancing of the Chinese firms to invest in broader training ef- skills shortages are encountered even economy towards greater domestic forts that benefit an industrial sector in low skilled jobs, where many work- demand and rising wages in China as a whole, rather than just the indi- ers lack basic competencies such as offers new opportunities for exports vidual firm. This reinforced the direct literacy, numeracy and non-cognitive of labor-intensive manufactures. The effects of FDI in raising the skill level skills required for the work place such December 2015 Forum on China- of the labor force, as foreign firms as punctuality and discipline. This Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) Sum- tend to invest more in training of their arises from the low level of educa- mit, held in Johannesburg, provided own workers and of their suppliers, tion attainment of the domestic labor further impetus to these trends, given and these trained and more produc- force and the low quality of basic edu- the new pledges of financing made by tive workers start getting employed in cation. Skills shortages are even more China. domestic firms. severe at the level of technicians and higher level skills of professionals such Despite China’s growing role as a Hence, a central factor in ensuring as engineers, scientists, accountants, trade and development partner for that China’s investments deliver on and others. Africa, little is known about China’s economic and social returns for both current contribution to skills devel- China and Africa depends on com- In the short term, and especially in opment in SSA countries, whether plementary investments in the skills of order to deliver large scale infrastruc- through the private sector or through the local labor force. Given the scale ture projects on time, Chinese firms the government. In a situation where of China’s investments in African have often resorted to importing most traditional bilateral partners fo- economies, both the direct investment skilled labor, in addition to qualified cus on aid for basic education in SSA by Chinese firms in skills development professionals such as engineers and countries, the role of new Partners, as well as Chinese government sup- architects. This reliance on Chinese including from the South, can be both port for skills development are impor- skilled workers is a distinctive feature impactful and catalytic, especially in tant. The creation of an appropriate of Chinese investment in Africa and building up critical higher level tech- policy framework in SSA countries to has social ramifications for host coun- nical/scientific skills. leverage increasing Chinese FDI to tries. Chinese firms have sometimes invest in training of young workers also taken African workers to China China’s investments and growth in will also be critical. for training, but this is not a viable foreign trade could contribute sig- long term strategy, because of the as- nificantly to economic diversification The Partnership for Skills in Applied sociated high labor costs. in SSA countries, and the creation Sciences, Engineering and Technol- of better quality jobs in the non- ogy (PASET), a regional initiative Chinese FDI flows into Sub Saha- agricultural sectors that could ab- launched by several African countries ran African countries are channeled sorb the growing numbers of young and the World Bank which focuses through four main types of firms (Ka- people who enter the labor market specifically on building the skilled plinsky and Morris, 2009). The differ- every year. Many SSA countries are labor force in sub-Saharan African ences between these firms, which is an looking to emulate the experience of countries (from technical, vocational essential feature of Chinese FDI, also China and other East Asian countries, to higher education and research), has implications for what the Chinese

45 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN government can do to encourage Figure 1: China’s FDI stock in Africa by end of 2011 Chinese firms to invest in skills development. The four broad categories are (i) Central government State Owned Enterprises (SOEs); (ii) Provincial government SOEs; (iii) private owned enterprises, incorporated in China and Sub Sa- haran African countries; and (iv) small firms, incorporated in Sub Saharan African countries, often started by Chinese individuals living in the countries. Investment by the latter is probably not captured at all in official FDI statistics.

This proliferation of investor types also accounts for the broad sectorial distribution and segmentation of Chinese FDI and its distinctive impact on local economies. The large SOEs invest primarily in natural resources, infrastructure and construction, receiving Source: financing from China Develop- http://www.wri.org/blog/2014/05/where-are-chinese-investments-africa-headed. ment Bank, China’s EXIM Bank and other Chinese banks, and of- Very little is known about the employ- eral perception that Chinese firms ten supported by government to ment impact of Chinese FDI or the bring in their own labor instead of government agreements. The pri- employment profile of Chinese firms using local labor is not necessarily vate owned enterprises are largely operating in Sub Saharan African true. However, local workers tended self-financed and invest in manu- countries. A recent review, based on to be “predominantly employed as facturing and services (such as the estimate of jobs created by green- unskilled, casual workers”. telecommunications). The share field projects, suggests that the em- of private firms in Chinese FDI ployment impact is larger for manu- Ethiopia: How Chinese Firms in Africa has increased from neg- facturing and construction, as might Meet Labor and Skills needs ligible amounts in the early 2000s be expected, and for government-led A recent World Bank study of labor to about 45 percent. The fourth projects compared to private projects, and skills issues in Chinese firms in category consists of very small largely due to the size of the former Ethiopia sheds some light on the im- Chinese investors who operate (Pigato and Tang, 2015). There pact of Chinese firms on job creation in small scale manufacturing and is even less data about the ratio of and skills development. Ethiopia has retail trade, who are likely to have Chinese to domestic workers in these been very proactive in attracting Chi- come to Africa to work on FDI firms. One estimate indicates that in nese investors to promote labor-in- projects. 2013, approximately 215,000 Chi- tensive industries as a part of a strat- nese workers came to Africa to work, egy to diversify its economy. Together The total number of Chinese which was 18 percent higher than in with heavy investments in infrastruc- firms operating in Sub Saharan 2011.An early study on China’s role ture, the government has also sought African countries is not accurate- in infrastructure development in Af- to leverage its inexpensive labor force ly known but is estimated to be rica, which drew on field work with to attract FDI, especially from China, about 2,200 (UNCTAD, 2014). construction companies in Angola, into manufacturing and other sectors. These firms operate in a range of Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Zambia and While the overall educational attain- sectors, as mentioned above. Fig- China, noted that: “Labour has been ment of the labor force is low, due ure 1 provides an estimate. an extremely contentious issue in all to the low base from which Ethiopia the countries surveyed” (Corkin et al, started, the country has made target- 2008). The study found that the gen- ed investments in technical/ vocation-

46 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN al education and training, as well as in higher education, This relatively small number of Chinese firms are, how- with a special focus on science and technology. ever, significant employers in Ethiopia. Chinese firms accounted for 18,368 full-time (FT) jobs equivalent to 6.5 The study draws on a survey of the universe of Chinese percent of the total FT permanent jobs (282,306) in the firms known to the Chinese Embassy to be in operation formal non-agricultural sector in Ethiopia. Of these full- in Ethiopia in 2012 and compares this to a sub-sample of time jobs, 86 percent are held by Ethiopians as are 99 per- domestic firms in the World Bank Enterprise survey for cent of the temporary jobs created in these firms. Median 2011 to highlight differences between Chinese and do- wages in Chinese firms (US$ 2296) are higher than in domestic firms. Despite the fact that Chinese FDI has likely mestic firms (US$1380). changed in its volume and possibly in its composition since 2011, this study still provides some important insights. Despite this significant creation of better quality jobs, relatively few of the skilled and professional positions are held The Chinese firms in the sample were overwhelmingly by Ethiopians. Table 1 presents the occupational and skill privately owned (the third category of the four categories profile of Chinese firms that responded to these questions. described earlier) with only 14 percent being government- 93 percent of all professional positions and 67 percent owned. Government owned firms operated in construc- of skilled production workers in these firms are Chinese. tion and transportation sectors. The privately owned firms Among all Chinese employees, 46 percent are professional were in manufacturing as well as services. There were rela- workers while 20 percent are skilled production workers. tively few joint ventures with Ethiopians.

Table 1: Occupation and Skill Profile in Chinese Firms in Ethiopia.

Variable Obs Mean Sd Min Max Percentage professional employees 30 44.0 26.7 4.3 100 Percentage skilled production workers 31 23.1 27.1 0.0 100 Percentage of professionals among Chinese employees 59 46.2 28.8 0.0 100 Percentage of skilled production workers among Chinese employees 58 19.7 27.2 0.0 100 Percentage professionals staffed by Chinese employees 30 92.9 17.4 40.0 100 Percentage skilled production workers staffed by Chinese employees 18 66.9 48.2 0.0 100

This may indicate the preference of firms operate in different markets and for whom, hence information about Chinese firms for home workers, but operate on a large scale, and hence securing better quality workers is pre- another explanation is that there is demand a different type and quality sumably not a problem—indicate that an insufficient supply of skilled Ethio- of skills. Overall, as stated earlier, the the quality of skills is a constraint. A pian workers for the types of jobs that Ethiopian government’s investments significantly greater proportion of are required. There are some indica- in basic education, TVET and higher Chinese firms (75 percent) invest in tions that Chinese firms experience education is sufficient for the domes- training of workers compared to do- such shortages. More than 50 percent tic sector, given Ethiopia’s relatively mestic firms (27 percent) (see Figure of Chinese firms indicated that an small manufacturing basis. However, 2). Furthermore, a greater percent- inadequately educated workforce is a these investments may not be provid- age of Ethiopian workers (69 percent) major or severe constraint to their oping the kind of quality that is required benefit from training, compared to erations. Only 4 percent of domestic for foreign firms that are competing Chinese workers (40 percent). Larger firms indicated that this was a serious globally. firms tend to offer more training, and constraint. This perception is stronger training is also positively correlated among Chinese firms in the manufac- What is equally interesting is that even with several measures of education— turing and construction sectors. This those Chinese firms that have oper- both findings are consistent with find- may indicate the fact that Chinese ated in Ethiopia for a long time—and ings from the broader literature, sug-

47 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Figure 2: Incidence of training by worker nationality in Chinese FDI firms (sector and size)

gesting that Chinese firms operate Firm-based training is useful for firm- China’s Contribution to Skill De- according to similar parameters. specific skills, but if Chinese firms velopment in Africa are also investing in training of local China’s involvement in providing as- The study’s findings, although based workers in generic skills or broader oc- sistance to education, training, and on a small sample, throw some light cupational skills, there is an argument research, particularly in science and on commonly held perceptions about for policy intervention to encourage technology, in Sub Saharan African the operations of Chinese firms. In more of such training. Further, trans- countries has long historical roots. Ethiopia, indeed, there has been a ferring the training in such skills to Traditionally, it has been provided high level of dependence by Chinese local institutions (rather than taking by the Chinese government through firms on skilled Chinese labor, wheth- workers to China) could both lower bilateral agreements. Since 2000, er due to preference or lack of local the costs of training to firms and help this assistance has been undertaken supply. This can limit the “spillover” local training institutions upgrade within the framework of the Forum benefits from Chinese FDI to domes- and adjust their training programs to on China-Africa Cooperation (FO- tic industry. On the other hand, the meet employer needs. Such interven- CAC). As stated earlier, a new set of significant employment creation - ef tions could benefit a broader group of actors comprises the Chinese SOEs fects as well as firm level investment firms in the sector, both foreign and and private firms who are investing in training contradict general percep- domestic, and thus contribute to im- in the continent. Figure 3 provides a tions about low domestic impact. proving productivity across the board. schematic overview of the channels for assistance/investment in education and training.

48 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Figure 3: China – Assistance for Education and Technical/Vocational Training

Note: Author’s representation based on China’s Foreign Aid White Paper, various years; Brautigam (2011); King (2011); websites of various Chinese Ministries and agencies.

Chinese Government Assistance and agriculture technology centers). ments between China and various Af- for Education and Training The larger figure of US$ 850 million rican countries. Focusing on the government’s direct includes aid given for agriculture and aid (ODA), education and training, industry. Five key modalities are used by the broadly defined, is estimated to have Chinese Government: received between US$ 432-850 mil- The contribution to education and • Chinese governmental scholar- lion in the period 2010-2012, based training is therefore not insignificant. ships for Sub Saharan African stu- on the latest White Paper on China’s A striking feature of the various aid dents and providing places in Chi- foreign assistance (State Council of programs in education and train- nese universities for self-financed China, 2013). There is no separate de- ing which have burgeoned since the students from African countries; marcation for education sector, which launch of FOCAC, is the increase • Providing training for Sub Saharan is included under the ambit of Hu- in the number of Ministries that are African officials and professionals man Resource Development (HRD). involved. The main ministry coordi- technicians in a range of fields; The figure of US$ 432 million relates nating foreign assistance is the Minis- • Sending professional experts to directly to the human development try of Commerce; however, sectorial Sub Saharan African countries to cooperation element of the foreign Ministries are involved in designing undertake specialized training; aid appropriation for 2010-12 and implementing the specific programs. • Building education infrastructure represents about 5.6 percent of total A rising trend of cooperation in edu- and providing equipment; official foreign during this period. In cation and training by the Chinese • Partnership programs implement- addition to this, a significant amount government can be seen since the ed by various governmental minis- of training is provided under the pro- launch of Forum on China-Africa Co- tries such as the Ministry of Edu- grams for agriculture and industry (for operation (FOCAC) in 2002, which is cation, Ministry of Science and instance, programs under agriculture the main institutional mechanism for Technology, Ministry of Foreign support technical/vocational centers determining aid to African countries. Affairs etc. This is in addition to bilateral agree-

49 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Scholarships: The number of scholarships has grown rapidly since 2006, ment, provincial governments and some enterprises also especially for Africa. (Figure 4). The annual increase in provide scholarships but the numbers are not available. scholarships has averaged 835 and in 2011, a total of 6316 scholarships were given to Africans. About 40 percent of Equally striking is the rapid growth in self-financing stu- these scholarships are in the applied sciences, engineering dents, which increased from almost zero in 1989 to over or technology fields, reflecting the demands from the Afri- 26,000 in 2013. Cumulatively, close to 95,000 African stu- can countries to build up skills in this areas. The remaining dents have studied in China in this period, constituting 78 scholarships continue to be in humanities, social studies percent of all students. and Chinese language. In addition to the Central govern-

Figure 4: Chinese Government Scholarships for International Students, by Region (1999-2011)

Professional training: This segment has also seen a signifi- cost of $14 million to train TVET stu- cal equipment in universities and re- cant rise, with 27,000 people (mainly dents, which has since 2011 become search institutes as well as building of administrators and others) being an institute to train TVET teachers. technical/vocational centers. trained in China through short-term Tianjin University of Technology and courses. The training covers econom- Education is the partner Chinese in- New partnership programs: ics, foreign affairs, energy, industry, ag- stitution. The most significant partnership ricultures, forestry, animal husbandry programs for education and training and fishing, medicine and health care, Education infrastructure and are those related to higher educa- inspection and quarantine, climate equipment: tion under the Ministry of Education change, security and other subject Chinese investment in building (the 20+20 university partnership areas. However, the majority of train- schools, technical institutes and uni- program), the China-Africa Science ing is for African government officials; versities has also been undertaken. and Technology Partnership Plan only about 20 percent of trainees are While the number of primary and (CASTEP) under the Ministry of technicians or professionals. secondary schools is relatively small Science and Technology (which pro- (about 150 during 2010-2013), there motes joint research), the Agricultural Professional experts: have been significant investments at Technology Demonstration Centers China has also dispatched profes- the post-secondary level. The details under the Ministry of Agriculture and sional experts to African countries, of total funding and distribution of the China-Africa Joint Research and especially in the areas of agriculture, this aid, which is mostly concentrated Exchange Program under the Minis- vocational and technical education, on infrastructure and equipment, is try of Foreign Affairs . and health. A particular striking case not available. Examples of new uni- is the close cooperation with Ethiopia versities are those which are being China Development Bank’s As- in technical and vocational education. built in Senegal and Malawi. In Mala- sistance for Skills Development Over 400 teachers were sent to Ethio- wi, the Export-Import (EXIM) Bank in Africa pia to train local teachers working in of China provided a loan of $70 mil- In addition to assistance provided agricultural, vocational and technical lion in 2010 to establish the Malawi by the Chinese government, China education during 2010 to 2012. Fur- University of Science and Technol- Development Bank (CDB), which is ther, China has established the Ethio- ogy. Several countries have obtained China’s leading cross-border finan- pia-China Polytechnic College at a aid for scientific and techni cier, has invested mainly in short-term

50 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN training through different modalities. center in South Africa. An especially growth is relatively slow, and certainly These included (i) CDB Training ses- interesting example is the agreement does not match the rapid increase in sions for management-level staff from between the government of the Dem- investment in physical infrastructure various government departments, ocratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in recent years. financial institutions, and corporate and Chinese enterprises in 2007-8 partners in Africa. (ii) Joint Training relating to investment in the mining One measure of the stock of human Sessions covering China’s experience sector, which included agreements on capital is the average years of educa- with economic reform and develop- local content so that no more than 20 tion of the population, aged 25 years ment as well as on the financial sec- percent of the workforce is Chinese; and more (that is, when most peo- tor (iii) Corporate Leadership Pro- at least 0.5 percent of the investment ple have completed their education). One estimate, based on a world-wide dataset, projected that the average years of education for SSA as a whole would be about 3 years in 2010. Us- ing more recent household surveys for selected SSA countries, the average educational attainment may have increased to as much as 5.4 years. This dramatic improvement is largely due to the rapid expansion of access to primary education. Nevertheless, SSA countries lag behind other regions such as East Asia and Latin America (8 years) and Middle East and North Africa (about 10 years).

The overall average education attainment hides significant variations across SSA countries. In general, many countries show a slow improvement, in particular middle income countries such as South Africa and Mauritius, which have an average of 8-9 years of education, and Kenya gram under which CDB funded an is allocated to training, and 12 percent and Ghana, which are in the range Executive MBA program for African of the work is sub-contracted to local of 5-6 years. Some have commend- entrepreneurs (particularly women firms. China also agreed to build 2 ably accelerated their education at- entrepreneurs) at the China Eu- universities along with hospitals and tainment, albeit starting from a low rope International Business School health centers, and other social in- base, such as Uganda, Tanzania and (CEIBS) and (iv) CDB Scholarships frastructure (Kaplinksy and Morris, Rwanda. Their average years of edu- for African students to study MA and 2009). cation ranges between 4-5 years. At PhD courses in Chinese, economics, the other extreme, the average edu- finance, and management. Between The Magnitude of Skill Shortage in cation level in Mozambique is still 2007 and 2014, CDB organized a Africa: Current Status and Priorities only about 3 years, while in conflict total of 57 such programs for benefi- The educational and skill challenges affected countries, of which there are ciaries from 52 countries. in Sub Saharan Africa continue to be several in SSA, the pace of increase significant despite important improve- would have been seriously disrupted Investment by Chinese firms in ments in access to basic education in if not reversed. TVET and higher education the past decade. The new challenge There is some evidence that Chinese is expanding the provision and qual- Providing quality basic education firms are starting to invest in these ity of post-basic education, especially (8-9 years) to all African children will, areas, in addition to firm-specific secondary, technical and vocational, therefore, continue to be a priority for training; however, comprehensive and tertiary, education. Success here African governments, as most new information is lacking. Two such ex- will be a critical to ensuring that the employment opportunities during the amples are ZTE and Huawei, both continent continues to undergo struc- next decade will require relatively low telecommunications firms. ZTE Uni- tural transformation. skills (basic literacy and numeracy and versity has set up training centers in non-cognitive traits will suffice). The a number of countries and a telecom Sub-Saharan Africa lags behind other increase in years of education attain- college in Equatorial Guinea. Hua- regions in the average skill level of its ment mask the effect of poor quality wei has built seven training centers population. Although this has been of education, which has deteriorated and one research and development increasing in recent years, the pace of in many SSA countries. Poor learning

51 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN outcomes at the basic education level also limit the number instance, 20 percent of the population in Malaysia has and quality of students who can access post-basic educa- achieved more than secondary education. In South Af- tion and tertiary education. rica, this proportion was 14 percent and in Zambia, just 5 percent. Both countries are significantly behind Malaysia However, over the next 10 years, several of the larger SSA in the proportion that has attained secondary education countries, which could potentially diversify into more so- (24 percent and 12 percent, respectively, compared to 33 phisticated higher technology activities, will be in need of percent in Malaysia). In Botswana, the proportion of the more advanced skills beyond basic education, and espe- population with secondary education and above was 19 cially in the applied sciences, engineering and technology percent, compared to 54 percent in Malaysia (Figure 5a). (ASET). Moreover, even in the near term, a “critical lev- Figure 5 (b) compares the educational pyramid of Viet- el” of these skills will be needed to initiate the process of nam, a lower middle income country, with SSA countries technological absorption and prepare the groundwork for that have recently attained that status (Ghana) and Tanza- a broadening of the industrial base. This requires train- nia and Mozambique, which are aspiring middle income ing of workers in tertiary level and technical/ vocational countries. Clearly, the differences are stark, not only at the institutions. base of the pyramid, where significant proportions in SSA countries are illiterate, but also at the secondary education Currently, the proportion of the population with post-sec- and post-secondary levels. Tanzania and Mozambique ondary education is extremely small, even in the middle- have roughly 4 % and 1 % of the population with more income SSA countries, as well as in aspiring middle in- than secondary education compared to 8 percent in Viet- come countries, compared to comparator countries. For nam.

Figure 5a: Malaysia and Selected SSA countries - Proportion of Population Aged 25 years or more with different levels of education

Figure 5b: Vietnam and Selected SSA countries - Proportion of Population Aged 25 years or more with different levels of education

52 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Note to Table 5a and 5b: The proportion of the Population Aged 25 years and over with different levels of education in each country is based on author’s calculations using harmonized micro data from the International Income Distribution Database-I2D2 version 6 (World Bank 2013). South Africa estimates are calculated using and older version of I2D2 (December 2011). Tanzania attainment by levels is estimated using aggregated data by age and school attendance (never attended, currently attended, completed) from the 2012 Tanzania National Census. Malaysia levels of attainment are estimated using micro data from the 2010 Malaysia Labor Force Survey.

Using data from the most recent household surveys, we can over the last 20 years. Tanzania, Zambia and Ghana have also look at the rate at which SSA countries are upgrading slowly increased the proportion of the population with at their higher level skills. Figure 6 shows the proportion of least 12 years of education in the same period, after a peri- different age cohorts that have at least 12 years of educa- od of stagnation. Nevertheless, the gap with countries such tion for various countries in the SSA region compared to as Vietnam and Malaysia has widened, as these countries Malaysia and Vietnam. In Mozambique, one sees no ap- have accelerated their accumulation of skilled labor. preciable increase in investment at higher education levels

Figure 6: Percentage of different age cohorts with at least Grade 12, Selected SSA and comparator countries

Note: Except where indicated the Percentage of Attainment of at least Grade 12 (secondary complete and over) for different age cohorts is based on author’s calculations using harmonized micro data from the International Income Distribution Database-I2D2 version 6 (World Bank 2013). Survey year is rounded to the closest year multiple of five. For Malaysia the percentages are estimated using micro data from the 2010 Malaysia Labor Force Survey

Further disaggregation shows that the Sub Saharan African countries have because they lack the specialized com- proportion of secondary students en- only a few hundred students enrolled petencies and skills required by firms. rolled in technical- vocational courses in science courses. Further, enroll- The poor quality of their training re- is significantly below that in other re- ment in the science and engineering lates to the fact that curricula are out- gions, although consistent data are not courses is not aligned to the sectors of dated, most faculty lack Ph. D train- available for many countries. Among growth, with students taking general ing, and students gain little practical those who reach higher education, the science courses that have limited em- experience during their courses. proportion who enroll in science and ployment potential. engineering courses is less than 25 The poor quality of the training of Faced with the enormity of the chal- percent; those enrolled in engineering technical/ scientific personnel is as lenges in basic education, it is easy to constitute about 8 percent of the total much of a constraint as the limited overlook the critical needs of higher (Saint, 2014). At the postgraduate numbers of professional and techni- levels skills in the process of economic level, except in very large countries cal labor. Many Sub-Saharan scien- transformation and structural trans- such as Ethiopia and Nigeria, most tists and engineers are unemployed formation.

53 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN THE POOR QUALITY OF THE TRAINING OF TECHNICAL/ SCIENTIFIC PERSONNEL IS AS MUCH OF A CONSTRAINT AS THE LIMITED NUMBERS OF PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL LABOR.

The lack of technological capabil- tivity enhancing technological know- Conclusion ity of African firms as a constraint how is often through movement of Economy wide skills constraints take in improving productivity was high- individuals across firms and through about 10-15 years to emerge after pe- lighted two decades ago in a synthesis sub-contracting of firms that can riods of sustained growth. If Sub Sa- study of the World Bank’s Regional meet quality standards for inputs. A haran African countries are to contin- Program on Enterprise Develop- recent study noted that the lack of ue on their sustained growth path, the ment (Biggs and Srivastava, 1997). adequately trained engineers is affect- time to address the skills constraints is The availability of technically skilled ing development in every field, from now. Targeted investments in better manpower is critical not only for in- rural sanitation to reduction of pov- quality technical/vocational educa- dividual enterprises but also for the erty (Royal Academy of Engineering tion and training, higher education, emergence of competitively viable (2012). and research are required for creating industries, as the diffusion of produc-

54 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN skills for the emerging growth sectors the China Development Bank, Shuilin Wang and Africa: Expanding Economic Ties in an across the continent. Sub-Saharan Af- (World Bank), Aileen Marshall (World Evolving Global Context. Background Paper for rica could benefit from better coordi- Bank) and Peter Materu (World Bank) for the “Investing in Africa” Forum, Addis Ababa (June 30-July 1, 2015) nation with development partners to comments provided on the background paper. ensure that investments in these areas The findings, interpretations, and conclusions Pinghu, Zhung. May 5th 2014. “Trade with Af- are well targeted and well-coordinat- expressed in this paper are entirely those of rica will double by 2020, Li Keqiang tells Ethio- ed. the author. They do not necessarily represent pian Conference.” Retrieved November 6, 2014 the views of the International Bank for Re- from South Morning China Posthttp://www. scmp.com/news/china/article/1505388/ Although China’s assistance in this do- construction and Development/World Bank trade-africa-will-double-2020-li-keqiang-tells- main has increased, and is indeed sub- and its affiliated organizations, or those of ethiopia-conference stantial, it is still small relative to Chi- the Executive Directors of the World Bank or nese FDI and trade with Sub Saharan the governments they represent. Royal Academy of Engineering. 2012. ‘Engi- African countries. Further, at present, neers for Africa: Identifying Engineering Capacity Needs in Sub-Saharan Africa’. China’s approach to foreign assistance Further Reading: Bashir, Sajitha and Reehana Raza 2014. The to Sub Saharan Africa involves many Imperative of Skills Development for the Struc- State Council of China. 2013. White paper on government bodies and is channeled tural Transformation of Sub-Saharan Africa: China-Africa Economic and Trade Cooperation. through various modalities. Although Potential for China-World Bank-Africa Collabo- Beijing. August, 2013. the Ministry of Commerce is the lead- ration. Background Paper for “Investing in Africa State Council of China. 2014. White paper on ing coordinating body for foreign aid Forum”, Addis Ababa (June 30-July 1, 2015) Biggs, Tyler and Pradeep Srivastava (1997). China’s Foreign Aid. Beijing. July, 2014. and assistance, human resource de- Structural Aspects of Manufacturing in Sub- velopment projects are implemented Saharan Africa: Findings from a Seven Country UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade across a number of ministries, higher Enterprise Survey. and Development). 2014. World Investment Re- education intuitions, enterprises and port 2014: Investing in the SDGs: An Action Plan. Geneva: United Nations other agencies. While the involvement Bräutigam, Deborah. , 2011. Aid ‘With Chinese Characteristics’: Chinese Aid and Development of a range of entities allows for spe- Finance Meet the OECD-DAC Regime. Journal Yusuf, Shahid. 2014. Sustaining Ethiopia’s cific areas of expertise to be drawn of International Development23 (5): 752–764 Growth Acceleration. George Washington Univer- upon, greater coordination is required sity, Washington DC. March 12, 2014. to avoid fragmentation and impact on Corkin, L Christopher Burke and Martyn Davies World Bank (2013). “International Income Dis- outcomes. (2008). China’s Role in the Development of Af- rica’s Infrastructure. Centre for Chinese Studies, tribution Database (I2D2)” Washington, D.C.: This also requires efforts on the part Stellenbosch University. SAIS Working Papers in World Bank. of SSA countries to align the contri- African Studies 04-08. butions of different partners, as has Background Studies done for the Partnership for been done in the case of basic edu- Farole, Thomas and Winkler, Donald (Eds). Skills in Applied Sciences, Engineering and Tech- nology (Mimeo) cation. African governments can take 2014. Making Foreign Direct Investment Work for Sub-Saharan Africa: Local Spillovers and the lead in ensuring coordination and Competitiveness in Global Value Chains. Wash- Banerji, Pradipta. 2014. India’s Current Ac- complementarity of development ington D.C. The World Bank. tivities and Contributions to Education, Training, partner investments. At the same and Research in Science and Technology in Africa. time, greater sharing of information Lacovone, Leonardo, Vijaya Ramachandran and World Bank, Washington, DC. among partners themselves could also Martin Schmidt. 2014. Stunted Growth: Why Don’t African Firms Create more Jobs? CGD Carrillo, Susana and Karin Costa Vazquez. lead to greater synergy among invest- Working Paper 353. Washington, D.C. Centers 2014. Brazil – Sub Saharan Africa: Partnerships ments and enhanced results on the for Global Development. for Human Development. World Bank, Washing- ground. ton, DC. Leung, Denise and Lihuan Zhou. May 15 Sajitha Bashir is Practice Manager in the 2014. “Where are Chinese Investments in Africa Cheng, Ying and Nian Liu. 2014. A Benchmark- ing Study of Selected Applied Sciences, Engineer- Education Global Practice, World Bank. Headed?” Retrieved on November 6th 2014 from http://www.wri.org/blog/2014/05/where- ing and Technology (ASET) Oriented Universities This article draws upon a background pa- are-chinese-investments-africa-headed in Africa and China, Shanghai Jiao Tong Univer- per prepared by Sajitha Bashir and Reehana sity. Mimeo. Raza for the “Investing in Africa Forum – Kaplinsky, Raphael and Morris, Mike. 2009. Partnering to Accelerate Investment, Industri- Chinese FDI in Sub-Saharan Africa: engaging Song, Yingquan 2014. China’s Contribution to Education, Training, and Research in Science and alization and Results in Africa” organized in with large dragons. European Journal of Devel- opment Research, 21(4), pp. 551–569. Technology in Africa – An Assessment of Current Addis Ababa (June30 - July1, 2014). The Activities. World Bank, Washington D.C. Forum was organized by the Government of King, Kenneth. 2011. China’s human resource the People’s Republic of China, the World engagement with Africa: a new voice, new values, Saint, William. 2014. Applying Science, Engi- Bank Group (WBG), China Development and a new partnership? Paper presented at “Re- neering and Technology for African Competitive- ness and Development. World Bank, Washington, Bank (CDB), the China-Africa Develop- thinking Development in an Age of Scarcity and Uncertainty, New values, Voices and Alliances for DC. ment Fund (CAD-Fund), the Government of Increased Resilience”, 19-22 September 2011 Ethiopia (GoE) and United Nations Indus- University of York. Tran, Trang. 2014. Labor and Skills in Chinese trial Development Organization (UNIDO). FDI Firms in Ethiopia. World Bank, Washing- The author wishes to thank reviewers from Pigato, Miria and Wenxia Tang. 2015. China ton, DC.

55 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN BIOTECHNOLOGY

THE TOOL AFRICA CANNOT AFFORD TO IGNORE

Prof. Torbjörn Fagerström, Dr. Roy B. Mugiira and Prof. Lisa Sennerby Forsse a) Värtavägen 39, SE-115 29 Stockholm, Sweden, b) Directorate of Research Management and Development, State Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Nairobi, Republic of Kenya, c) Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7070, Uppsala, S-750 07 Sweden.

56 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Our vision Research in life sciences will have equal importance for society in the 21st century as research in physics, chemistry and electronics had in the 20th. We will introduce biological production systems, which are ultimately driven by the sun. These will give us not only fuel and food, but also a multitude of novel products including a sustainable flow of raw materials to many industrial processes. This will be achieved by putting science and technology in its rightful place, in order to reach its full potential. We share this vision with the US President Barak Obama, who in his inauguration speech said “We’ll restore science to its rightful place ... We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories”.

Introduction

evelopments in cellular the field of experimental biology. Ap- tics. Through genetic engineering, it and molecular biology plications of biotechnology in plant is possible to determine which genes give us greater possibili- breeding thus follow well-trodden should be carried over to the plant. ties to control processes paths in which different techniques Other technologies that are expected of the photosynthesis- come together to form the tools avail- to have great impact in the next 5-10- driven chemical factory able to the breeder. The first moderni- year period are different techniques and to select which end products it zation of plant breeding took place in for mutagenesis of individual genes. will deliver. Knowledge of the genes the early 1900s, marked by Darwin’s and proteins that control different theories and the rediscovery of Men- Sustainability and Productivity biosynthesis pathways opens oppor- delian genetics. The majority of tech- Too often the term “sustainability” in tunities to create plants that produce nological breakthroughs in genetics an agriculture context is decoupled entirely new products through genetic and cell and molecular biology have from discussions about productivity. engineering. This technological leap is come during the latter part of the This is unfortunate as it is obviously an excellent example of how basic re- 1900s, which has affected the breed- not a problem to create production search, often conducted on non-coming methods used. Examples of tech- systems that are sustainable - in an mercial model organisms, relatively niques are cell and tissue cultures for ecological sense - if you do not have quickly can be converted into new in- virus-free propagation, chromosomal- any requirements for them to be pro- novations of high societal relevance. doubling to enable polyploidisation, ductive. If, for example, an acceptable crosses of closely related species, so- return of a cereal crop were 500 kg The breeding objectives are not en- matic hybridization to enable hybrid per hectare, there would be no need tirely new, many have been central seed production, and mutational to cultivate the soil, add nutrients or to plant breeding throughout history breeding using ionizing radiation and employ pest and weed control meas- and are continued in today’s breeding mutagenic substances. ures. Such a system would obviously programs. These include improving not be sustainable in the other im- the plant’s qualitative characteristics, During the past decade, advances in portant dimensions of sustainability, productivity and resource efficiency, DNA sequencing technology, com- namely, socially and economically. which combine to strengthen agricul- bined with the ability to handle large The challenge for the future is to cre- ture and forestry production. The use amounts of data, set the stage for ate production systems that are so- of technology gives us the possibility large-scale methods to identify par- cially, economically and ecologically to apply these breeding objectives to ticular genes carried by an organism, sustainable, while simultaneously both plant growth, including interactions and determine when and under what environmentally friendly and produc- with the surrounding abiotic and bi- conditions the different characteris- tive. One of the central tasks in plant otic environment. tics are expressed. This technology is biotechnology is to meet that chal- only in its infancy, and further devel- lenge. Plant breeding and biotechnol- opment will likely provide increased ogy opportunities to both understand and Photosynthesis The development of plant breeding control various biological processes, The total energy reaching the earth has largely been made possible by the and to use molecular markers to select from the sun is about 10 000 times advancement of methodology within for increasingly complex characteris- greater than the total energy sup-

57 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN plied to all human societies in the to abiotic stress factors. These factors temperature, as well as average tem- form of oil, coal, gas, hydropower, include high or low temperature, in- peratures that are higher or lower nuclear power and biofuels. When sufficient water supply, improper pH, than those normally preferred. All this energy is transferred to biomass elevated salinity or insufficient nutri- these properties are of course also more than 90 % is lost, with slight ents available in the soil. Results from important when it comes to adapting variation between C3 and C4 plants. studies on eight of the most impor- our farming systems to future climate It has long been understood that if tant agricultural crops in the United change. you could increase this efficiency States show that it should be possible there would be tremendous gains in to increase the yield considerably by terms of productivity, in all forms of increasing the plants’ tolerance to one C3 plants photosynthesis-driven production. It or more of the major abiotic stress Plants using the most com- has, however, proved very difficult to factors. In many important farming mon form of photosynthesis achieve any substantial improvements systems, access to water has decreased in which atmospheric CO2 is using traditional breeding methods. sharply, which requires both bet- used to build 3-phosphoglyc- With biotechnology’s advanced and ter management of water resources erate; a sugar molecule with more accurate methods the situation and development of crop varieties three carbon atoms. is now different. There are possibili- with improved tolerance to drought. ties to alter certain parts of the pho- The Water Efficient Maize for Africa C4 plants tosynthetic machinery. One example (WEMA) project is designed to deliv- Plants using a form of pho- is a well-established project supported er a maize variety that is tolerant to tosynthesis in which atmos- by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foun- drought. pheric CO2 is fixed into a dation and a major initiative by the sugar molecule comprised International Rice Research Institute Recently, several breeding companies of four carbon atoms instead IRRI. The project aims to transform have introduced transgenic drought- of 3-phosphoglycerate; in- rice from being a C3 plant into a C4 tolerant varieties of maize. Other creasing the photosynthetic plant, which is expected to raise the crops that have been designed to be efficiency in hot and dry envi- yield of this important staple crop by grown with less water are soybean, ronments. Several companies 50%. cotton, rice, sugarcane and wheat. have introduced transgenic, Furthermore, there are varieties de- drought-tolerant varieties of Abiotic stress veloped that are capable of growing corn. Corn is an example of a In practice, agriculture and forestry in soils with salinity levels too high C4 plant that generally has an can miss out on as much as 60-65% for the “regular” varieties, or that advantage over C3 plants in of the potential biological returns due can handle increased fluctuations in hot and dry climates.

58 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Biotic stress Fungal diseases ticides is another direction which has Globally, the losses from disease, pests Virtually all crops are attacked by proved very successful, but biotech- and weed competition, termed biotic one or more severe fungal diseases, nology is also open to other, perhaps stress, are significant. On-going re- which are usually controlled chemi- even more elegant methods. search against a broad range of biotic cally using fungicides. It is important stress factors may confer resistance to combat fungal infections, as many against several diseases that affect im- fungi produce toxic substances called To date, most development work is portant crops and trees. mycotoxins, which we do not want in focused on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a our food. soil bacterium that produces a crystal- Viruses and bacteria line protein that when broken down It is often difficult to achieve satisfac- A plant disease that has long attracted in the digestive tract of susceptible tory resistance to viruses with tradi- particular interest is late blight (Phy- insects forms a toxic substance. The tional plant breeding methods, and tophthora infestans) in potatoes. The majority of Bt strains produce toxins resistance is often controlled by sev- pathogen, which according to the tax- that are specific to a group of related eral genes. The most common ways onomy belongs to the group Oomy- insect species. There are, for example, to prevent the spread and damage cete and thus is not closely related to Bt strains only affecting butterflies and of viruses in crops include the use of the true fungi that cause many other moths. Similarly, there are Bt strains insecticides to combat the insects that fungal diseases, attacks the leaves that are specific to the beetles, mean- spread the virus, weed control, since first and then moves into the tubers ing they are effective against every weeds can serve as host plants, and where it induces brown rot. Almost all pests like the Colorado beetle and cot- the use of certified, virus-free plant- current varieties of potato are sensi- ton weevil. Other strains produce tox- ing materials. With modern plant tive and must be sprayed extensively ins that are specific to species within biotechnology techniques, however, during the entire growing season to the order of flies and mosquitoes. acceptable results can be achieved to keep the fungus away and secure the produce resistant varieties. Currently, harvest. It has long been known that Genes encoding a number of Bt resistance against over 20 different many wild potato species in the Andes proteins have been cloned and intro- viral diseases has been induced in a of South America are resistant to late duced in, for example, tobacco, cot- large number of plant species includ- blight. The first field trials of the va- ton, maize and potato. Since 1996 ing tobacco, melon, squash, rice, pa- riety Fortuna, developed by Swedish maize with Bt resistance to European paya, potatoes and sugar beet. The researchers, containing two resistance corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) has been Virus Resistant Cassava for Africa genes from Solanum bulbocastaneum, available and in 2003 varieties with Project seeks to develop and deliver were carried out in 2006. The variety resistance to the beetle Western corn cassava varieties that are resistant to was planned to be marketed in 2013- root worm (Diabrotica v. virgifera) were the main virus diseases that affect the 2014, but was withdrawn prior to introduced. Bt maize was grown in crop. commercialization in large due to the 2012 on 75 million hectares globally. politically slanted approval process for The cultivation of Bt cotton with re- A bacterial disease – Yellow Dragon GM crops in Europe. This conferred sistance to cotton weevil (Anthonomus Disease – causes oranges to remain a great loss to both farmers and the grandis) has also been grown exten- green and fail to become sweet in the environment. sively. The global total acreage in commercial plantations in Asia, Af- 2012 was almost 19 million hectares, rica and recently also in the US. The Insects mainly in India, China and Pakistan. bacteria are spread by leaf hoppers, Insecticides are globally the most and oranges made resistant to these widely used group of agricultural Another way to provide insect resist- leaf hoppers avoid the disease. chemicals. Despite the fact that the ance in plants is based on the intro- chemical control of insects in agri- duction of genes that control the Another bacterial disease has almost culture has been very successful, crop production of specific plant proteins wiped out the American chestnut losses caused by insects in the field that disrupt insect digestion. Exam- tree, which previously dominated the and during storage account for almost ples are “Cowpea trypsin inhibitor” forests of the eastern United States. 25% of total world agricultural pro- which stems from the legume black- The bacteria secrete oxalic acid (the duction. Many insecticides are highly eyed bean (Vigna unguiculata) grown in acidic substance found in rhubarb) toxic and major health and environ- West Africa and South America, and that damages plants and allows the mental benefits are obvious if these a lectin from snow drop (Galanthus ni- bacteria to spread. Many plants have could be replaced by a strategy that valis) that confers resistance to sucking the enzyme oxalate oxidase that de- is based on insect resistant plants in- insects. grades oxalic acid, but this is lacking stead of chemical spraying. Identifica- in the chestnuts. Through inserting a tion, isolation and transfer of genes A third way is based on influencing gene from wheat, chestnut trees have conferring resistance is a central focus insect behavior through pheromones. been created that are able to degrade within plant biotechnology. Synthetic pheromones are already oxalic acid, rendering them resistant used successfully for species-specific to the bacteria. Plants that produce their own insec- and environmentally friendly pest control, and are a viable alternative

59 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN to conventional insecticides. The cost Despite the fact it is ten years since Modern agricultural biotechnology of synthetic pheromones is very high– the introduction of Golden Rice, and is viewed as an additional tool in the from 600 to 4,000 Euros per kg. This new varieties with more than 10 times breeder´s tool box, which presents an limits the use of insect pheromones in as much β-carotene have been devel- opportunity for increased agricultural pest control to crops with high value. oped, cultivation has been modest, productivity through mitigation of bi- Researchers in Sweden have shown mainly due to extensive propaganda otic and abiotic stresses that constrain that it is possible to develop oil crops from anti-GMO activists. Many other production. Further, the technology where the seed produces pheromone projects are underway aiming to in- has found application in enhancing or components in the oil. crease the nutritional value of vari- unleashing the full nutritional value ous crops. Examples include sweet of food crops through bio-fortification Using simple chemistry these can be potatoes with a higher content of and silencing of genes responsible for converted to active pheromones at less β-carotene, “multivitamin-maize”, the synthesis of anti-nutritional com- than 20 percent of the cost of current carrots with doubled calcium, toma- pounds. In recognition of this oppor- cheapest synthesized pheromone. toes with 20% more antioxidants, and tunity and potential, African political, Many insect pheromones are based cassava with higher content of iron, business and civil society leadership on substances that can also be syn- protein and vitamins. A global project have invested in deliberate efforts to thesized by plants. The same research with cassava began in 2005 aimed at harness science and technology gen- group has successfully introduced the developing varieties with both higher erally, and modern biotechnology in synthetic pathways for insect phero- levels of vitamins and minerals and to agriculture specifically through dedi- mones in plant leaves with a combina- provide resistance to major diseases. cated programs that address specific tion of plant and insect genes. They needs in the application of the tech- have further shown that the phero- Where is Africa in the Modern nology, including stewardship to en- mones produced in the plant are as, or Agricultural Biotechnology De- sure its proper deployment. almost as, effective as synthetic phero- velopment? mones when it comes to capturing the Africa’s development narrative is Agricultural biotechnology has been actual pests in pheromone traps. In characterized by a rising population billed as the single technology that addition, an even more elegant meth- with its commensurate demand for has witnessed phenomenal growth od is within reach, where plants emit more food; deficiencies of vital di- in adoption within a very short time. pheromones that confuse male insects etary nutrients in the continent’s pop- This is testament to biotechnology’s so they are prevented from finding ulation; the continent’s vulnerabil- great potential in delivering real bene- and mating with females. This means ity to the negative impacts of climate fits to humankind. Besides direct ben- no eggs are laid and no caterpillars change such as droughts; the reducing efits derived from tangible products of develop that can damage the plants. area of arable land due to rapid ur- modern biotechnology in commercial banization; the declining soil fertil- production systems, there are many Nutritional fortification ity in the continent’s hither-to bread other benefits from its application as a It is often argued that the use of ge- baskets; and the tropical biotic con- tool in various processes such as plant netic engineering in plants so far only straints to agricultural productivity. breeding and study of gene function. has resulted in improvements in the In view of this narrative, the adoption In this ever expanding agricultural interest of the farmers and major of modern agricultural biotechnology biotechnology enterprise, Africa has plant breeding companies. According to mitigate against these impediments however remained largely hesitant to to this view, there would be a greater to human wellbeing and development adopt the technology. acceptance of the technology if the cannot wait any longer. modifications were of direct interest To support the development of the to the consumer and society. The re- Agriculture is one of the major users nascent biotechnology enterprise in ality, however, is quite different. One of modern biotechnology and world- the continent, African governments obvious example of a GM crop im- wide adoption of the technology in will need to partner with private sec- peded, despite obvious consumer and commercial planting of genetically tor and civil society actors who are societal benefits, is “Golden Rice”. modified (GM) crops continues to working to deliver agricultural bio- This rice has the ability to synthesize be rapid. However, despite the tre- technology benefits to the people of β-carotene (provitamin A) in the grain mendous outputs of the various Pan Africa. Examples of such potential when it is usually only found in the African programs in form of institu- partners include the African Agricul- green parts of the plant. The idea be- tional capacity building for research, tural Technology Foundation (AATF) hind Golden Rice is that by making training, product development, policy which was established to negotiate it a vitamin A source it can combat and regulation, as well as practical royalty free agricultural technology the deficiency of vitamin A that leads recommendations by expert groups, (including biotechnology) and the to blindness in children in countries the adoption of modern biotechnol- Golden Rice project, which is work- where rice is staple food. ogy in Africa remains low, resulting in ing towards delivering the Vitamin A minimal participation of Africa in the bio-fortified rice to Africa. global biotechnology enterprise.

60 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Governance of Modern Bi- tory frameworks however, otechnology Development The idea behind golden have leaned heavily on and Biosafety Regulation in the extreme precautionary Africa rice is that by making it approach of the Protocol The governance of modern as guided by the African biotechnology stems from the a vitamin a source it can Model Law and drawing Cartagena Protocol on Bi- combat the deficiency of from the European ap- osafety to the Convention on proach. Biological Diversity (CBD), a Vitamin A that leads to protocol that was globally ne- But while Africa continues gotiated and adopted in Cart- blindness in children in to hold on to the extreme agena, Colombia in 2000. The precautionary approach, core objective of the Protocol countries where rice is ostensibly taking cue from is to ensure the safe handling, Europe, the European transport and use of GMOs staple food. Union (EU) has moved on resulting from modern bio- to re-invent its approach Africa is characterized by an extreme technology that may have adverse ef- to modern biotechnology precautionary approach. This has be- fects on biological diversity, taking also development and biosafety regula- come a major hindrance to the devel- into account potential risks to human tion to facilitate importation of Ge- opment and application of modern health. To reinforce the legal liability netically Modified (GM) soybeans for biotechnology in the continent. provisions of the Protocol, a supple- processing animal feeds from Brazil mentary protocol on liability and re- and Argentina. It is therefore unwise In compliance with the provisions of dress was negotiated and adopted in for Africa to keep shunning modern the Protocol, individual party states Nagoya, Japan in 2010. agricultural biotechnology assuming embarked on the development of that it is in line with the EU approach. their domestic policy, legal and regu- The majority of African countries are latory frameworks to govern modern parties to the Cartagena Protocol on Africa should therefore adopt the co- biotechnology. African states are at Biosafety and a number have ratified evolutionary approach where con- various stages of developing their bio- its Supplementary Protocol on Liabil- sumer and biodiversity safety goes technology policy and biosafety regu- ity and Redress. Taking cue from the hand in hand with the development latory frameworks, having benefited Protocol, the African Model Law and of the technology. This calls for the re- from the United Nations Environment drawing from the European approach view and adjustment of national and Program – Global Environment Facil- to modern biotechnology, the gov- regional policies together with their ity (UN-GEF). Most of their regula- ernance of modern biotechnology in related legislation to provide a condu-

61 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN cive environment for the development Africa should pursue a dynamic 21st government leaders have acknowl- and application of agricultural bio- century, home grown biotechnology edged the benefits of agricultural technology. In conducting the review, policy and biosafety regulatory re- biotechnology and expressed positive African governments are encouraged gime that assures the maximum ben- sentiments in support of its adoption. to lay emphasis on maximizing the efits from modern biotechnology and However, despite these positive policy benefits associated with modern bio- takes advantage of the continent’s pronouncements, biosafety regulatory technology and science based risk as- youthful, well-educated population to regimes of most African states remain sessment to inform decision making. support the deployment of the tech- extremely restrictive to the develop- At the regional level, the Common nology and its associated stewardship. ment and adoption of modern bio- Market for Eastern and Southern Africa’s biosafety regulatory institu- technology. Africa (COMESA), the West African tions need high quality scientific ca- Economic Community (ECOWAS) pacity to be able to regulate quickly, Concerns and Perceptions and the East African Community safely and effectively. This will ensure The most frequently expressed con- (EAC) have initiated harmonization that Africa does not miss out on the cern over modern biotechnology, and of biotechnology policy and biosafety Gene Revolution in the same way she which informed the negotiation and regulation. Harmonized approaches missed out on the Green Revolution. adoption of the Cartagena Protocol are cost effective, uniform in approach on Biosafety, is the environmental and to risk assessment, assure seamless A positive political will and drive is health safety of the technology. The intra-regional trade and help address critical to the adoption of agricultural precautionary principle portends that the unique informal exchange of biotechnology in Africa. The enthusi- modern biotechnology is inherently commodities across national bounda- asm with which African governments risky to human and animal health ries. African governments need to ratified the Cartagena Protocol on and the conservation of biodiversity. facilitate and actively participate in Biosafety and the commitment to the Experience over the past two dec- the process of regional biotechnol- development of their national policies ades with modern biotechnology in ogy policies and biosafety regulation and regulatory frameworks testifies to agriculture, environment and health harmonization initiatives to reduce their positive will and drive to ensure applications, with over 180 million the cost of regulation, leverage on that Africa is fully integrated into the hectares cultivated with GM crops, synergies and support the growth of global biotechnology enterprise. In has demonstrated beyond any reason- regional biotechnology businesses. spoken and written policy statements, able doubt that modern biotechnol- the current generation of African ogy does not present any health or en-

62 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Finally, and most dear to the african socio-cultural setting,is the ethical question in which genetic engineering has been equated to playing God by altering the original creation or even creating new organisms.

vironmental risk. To the contrary, given to the European Union by India and other parts of the world it has been demonstrated that the the European Academies Science have however dispelled these argu- technology presents real health and Advisory Council (EASAC) goes to ments. environmental benefits. As early reinforce the previous one, stating as 1999, the Nuffield Council on thus: “There is no validated evi- Finally, and most dear to the Af- Bioethics concluded that “There dence that GM crops have greater rican socio-cultural setting, is the is a compelling moral imperative adverse impact on health and the ethical question in which genetic to make genetically modified crops environment than any other tech- engineering has been equated to readily available to developing nology used in plant breeding. playing God by altering the origi- countries who want them, to help There is compelling evidence that nal creation or even creating new combat world hunger and poverty” GM crops can contribute to sus- organisms. Although this argu- and that “…genetic modification tainable development goals with ment is difficult to conceptualize of plants does not differ to such benefits to farmers, consumers, the from a scientific point of view, it an extent from conventional plant environment and the economy”. stems from the technology’s abil- breeding that it is in itself morally ity to overcome species barriers in objectionable”. The other issue of concern is so- exchange of genetic material. It cio-economic in nature, with the makes sense to a religious adherent Opinion expressed by the Euro- argument that modern biotechnol- for example whose religious beliefs pean Commission Research Area ogy is a frontage of multinational forbid using some organisms as – Food, Agriculture and Fisheries agribusiness companies with the food and may therefore consider and Biotechnology has put the is- intention of dominating the global trans-genes from such organisms sue of safety of modern biotech- seed system thereby impoverish- to have transferred the taboo. The nology to rest, stating thus: “The ing the masses. The argument question is whether transferring a main conclusion to be drawn from goes further to posit that modern DNA fragment amounts to trans- the efforts of more than 130 re- biotechnology is not beneficial to ferring the whole organism’s traits. search projects, covering a period small scale resource poor farmers. This fixed mind set can only be of more than 25 years of research, To reinforce these arguments cas- overcome by effective public edu- and involving more than 500 ines have been cited of increases in cation programs to debunk myths dependent research groups, is that farmer suicides in India following and counter deliberate distortion biotechnology, and in particular the introduction of GM crops due of facts by anti-biotechnology cru- GMOs, are not per se more risky to frustrations resulting from their saders. than conventional plant breed- inability to afford GM crop seeds. ing technologies”. Further advice Formal case studies conducted in

63 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN The Global Agricultural Biotech- nology Enterprise The global hectarage of GM crops has increased more than 100-fold from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to over 180 million hectares in 2014, making GM crops the fastest adopted crop technology in recent history. This adoption rate is a clear testimony of the technology’s resilience and the benefits it delivers to farmers and consumers. Africa continues to make progress with Burkina Faso and Sudan increasing their GM insect resistant Bt. Cotton hectarage substantially. What should be of great concern to African government and business leaders is the fact that in international trade, Europe imports GM products from South Africa, Brazil and Argen- tina and a lot of food imports into Africa including emergency food aid are sourced from countries growing GM crops. This demonstrates that the commonly held fear of losing the EU as an export market if Africa adopts modern biotechnology is unfounded. The first generation GM crops target- cies that are geared towards the trans- Several African countries (Uganda, ed herbicide tolerance, which was not formation of their economies into Kenya, Ghana, and Nigeria) have seen as beneficial to Africa. The situ- knowledge driven economies. Collec- been conducting confined field trials ation has since changed with a focus tively African governments, under the on various GM crops for far too long on crops and traits of great relevance AU have launched specific initiatives without moving to the commerciali- to Africa including nutrient bio-forti- to position the continent in the global zation stage. They have therefore re- fication, drought and insect tolerance knowledge economy through science, mained at the periphery of the global and overcoming the aflatoxin prob- technology and innovation generally biotechnology enterprise. There is an lems in storage. In this emerging sec- and biotechnology specifically. As a urgent need and farmer demands to tor, China has become a key player in result, Africa’s contribution to the move these crops to commercializa- the provision of seeds in partnership global knowledge index through inno- tion since the trials have demonstrated with local seed associations and public vations and patents has seen a steady their potential to positively impact on institutions. This kind of partnership increase. the continent’s macro- and micro-eco- is important in addressing Intellectual nomics. The potential for enhanced Property Rights (IPR) and demands Inadequate infrastructure, human cotton production through the use of of other international trade standards and institutional capacity for agri- GM insect resistant Bt. cotton will po- such as the CODEX alimentarius. cultural biotechnology research and sition Africa to reap maximum ben- product development is a major ob- efits from the provisions of the Africa Despite the demonstrated safety and stacle to Africa’s desire of becoming Growth Opportunity Act (AGOA) of potential for agricultural biotechnol- a key participant in the global bio- the United States of America. ogy, Egypt has since 2012 suspended technology enterprise. The ability of the cultivation of GM maize after African countries to effectively use ex- AFRICAN COUNTRIES LEAD- health concerns were raised in re- isting and emerging biotechnologies ING IN BIOTECHNOLOGY RE- sponse to the controversial publica- depends largely on the level of invest- SEARCH tion by a group of French scientists ment in building physical, human and South Africa led by Séralini. Kenya also responded institutional capacities. More specifi- Sudan to the publication by banning impor- cally, Africa needs to focus on creating Burkina Faso tation of GM foods. and reforming existing knowledge- Uganda based institutions, especially universi- Kenya Capacity for Biotechnology Re- ties and national science academies, Ghana search, Product Development to serve as centers of new technology Egypt and Deployment diffusion into the economy and to Nigeria African governments have developed develop a comprehensive continental Malawi robust science and technology poli- biotechnology curriculum for all lev-

64 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN els of education, focusing on specific areas that offer high vate: Biotechnology in Africa’s Development. A Report of High-Level economic returns for the continent. This can be achieved African Panel on Modern Biotechnology. African Union (AU) and through effective partnerships and collaborations for Re- Partnership for African Development (NEPAD). Addis Ababa and search and Development (R&D) in Biotechnology product Pretoria. development. Minde I.J. and Kizito M. (2007) The Economics of Biotechnology Article 20 and 23 of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafe- (GMOs) and the Need for a Regional Policy: The Case for COME- ty provide for a global information sharing mechanism SA Countries. AAAE Conference Proceedings (2007) 377–381. through the Biosafety Clearing House (BCH) and public awareness and participation respectively. Public awareness Mugiira, R. B. and Miano D. (Eds) (2015). Harnessing Agri- and engagement in matters of biotechnology is needed at cultural Biotechnology for Africa’s Economic Development: recom- all levels in Africa to be able to roll-out the technology for mendations for policymakers. Network of African Science Academies application in commercial and subsistence production sys- (NASAC), Nairobi, Kenya. tems in Africa. Nicolia A., Manzo A., Veronesi F. and Rosellini D. (2013) An Final remark overview of the last 10 years of genetically engineered crop safety re- Without exaggeration, one could argue that the technolog- search. Critical Reviews of Biotechnology, Early Online 1-12. DOI: ical developments in experimental biology and its applica- 10.3109/07388551.2013.823595. tions in medicine, agriculture and forestry are comparable to developments in computer science. It is impossible to OAU (2002) African Model Law on Safety in Biotechnology. OAU, predict which specific techniques that will dominate in the Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. future, but the aim of the proposed agenda is to point out the possibilities and the importance of supporting a con- Qaim M. (2009) The economics of genetically modified crops. An- tinued technical development of plant breeding based on nual Review of Resource Economics 1:665–693. doi: 10.1146/ the scientific discoveries of the1900s and 2000s. If we are annurev.resource.050708.144203. to meet the challenges to feed an increased population and at the same time achieve the goal of a bio-based economy Sasson A (2008) Agricultural biotechnology applications in Africa. we need the best knowledge available and cannot afford to In: Taeb, M.; Zakri, A. H. (eds.) Agriculture, human security and rule out modern science but instead let it work for us. peace. A crossroad in African development, pp. 157-187. Purdue University Press. West Lafayette, Indiana. Suggested further reading Bailey R., Willoughby R. and Grzywacz D. (2014) On trial: Séralini G-E., Clair E., Mesnage R., Gress S., Defarge N., Malat- Agricultural Biotechnology in Africa. Energy, Environment and Re- esta M., Hennequin D. and De Vendômois J.S. (2012) Long term sources, July 2014. toxicity of a roundup herbicide and a roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize. Food and Chemical Toxicology. http://dx.doi. Chambers J.A., Zambrano P., Falck-Zepeda J., Gruère G., Sengupta org/10.1016/j.fct.2012.08.005. D. and Hokanson K. (2014) GM Technologies for Africa: A state of affairs. International Food Policy Research Institute and African Sundström J. and Fagerström T. (2014) The Warped World of Development Bank. Washington, USA. Parallel Science. The Wall Street Journal. Wednesday, October 29, 2014. European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) (2013) Planting the future: Opportunities and challenges for using crop genet- Traore H., Hema S.A.O. and Traore K. (2014) Bt cotton in Burki- ic improvement technologies for sustainable agriculture. Policy Report na Faso demonstrates that political will is key for biotechnology to 21. DVZ-Daten-Service GmbH, Halle/Saale, Germany. ISBN: benefit commercial agriculture in Africa. In Biotechnology in Africa 978-3-8047-3181-3. (Edited by F. Wambugu and D. Kamanga). Science Policy Reports 7, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-04001-1_3 European Union (2010) A decade of EU-Funded GMO Research 2001–2010. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Un- Wambugu F.M. (2014) The importance of political will in contri- ion, 2010. butions of Agricultural biotechnology towards economic growth, food and nutritional security in Africa. In: Biotechnology in Africa (Edited James C. (2014) Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM by F. Wambugu and D. Kamanga). Science Policy Reports 7, DOI crops: 2013. ISAAA Brief No. 46. ISAAA Ithaca, NY. 10.1007/978-3-319-04001-1_3. Juma C. and Serageldin I. (Lead Authors) (2007) Freedom to Inno-

65 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN THE CASE FOR BIO-BASED ECONOMIES IN AFRICA Prof. Nwadiuto Esiobu Professor of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Florida Atlantic University, U.S.A.; former Senior Science Advisor, Secretary’s Office of Global Food Security, U.S. Department of State, Washington DC

At their historic summit in September, 2015, the member states of the United Nations unanimously adopted the new Sustainable Development Agenda (SDA) to end poverty by 2030 and pursue a sustainable future. The SDA is composed of seventeen Sustainable De- velopment Goals (SDGs) with specific targets and indicators; all of which underscore the critical role of science, technology and innovation (STI).

his unprecedented rica and the need to radically revamp the need to increase capacity building pledge for partner- education and systematically build ca- and regional research and develop- ship and action by pacity of Africa’s workforce in emerg- ment centers. Each country should the 193 member ing technologies such as biotechnol- embrace, own and implement its own states replaces the ogy cannot be over-emphasized. biotech policies for a sustainable de- largely successful Having been closely involved in efforts velopment agenda. Millennium De- on workforce training, capacity build- velopment Goals (MDGs) and coming and consultancy in biotechnology Bio-economy refers to all economic mits every country to addressing the and biosafety on the continent, I de- activity that encompasses the use and root causes of poverty and meeting scribe in this article the potential and production of renewable biological people’s health, education and social promise of biotechnology. I identify resources and their conversion into needs while protecting the environ- key areas for improvement, and make food, feed, chemicals, energy and ment. the case for country-specific, localized healthcare products and environ- bio-economy strategy beyond agri- mental sustenance via innovative and Alas, the future has caught up with Af- cultural biotechnology, emphasizing efficient technologies. As the world

66 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Drivers of Underdevelopment in Africa approaches the third countries have jumped into decade of the 21st Counterfeit % many ‘development para- Climate Substandard Century -- a cen- Change Food Products digms’ without the enabling tury which has been Insecurity environment, strategic di- marked by quantum rection and human capac- leaps in scientific and High ity to drive these visions of technological advanc- Low crop Disease development into reality or Yield Burden es, renewable energy material outcomes. The re- debates, financial cri- sult is that ambitious trans- ses and globaliza- formative agenda declared tion -- it is generally Impared by various African countries Low Quality Poor Child agreed that innova- Input (Seeds, Resource Development wind up in the cyclic loop tion and technology Fertilizers) Management & Adult of underdevelopment or Productivity will remain the key non-sustainable growth. Al- engines for the sort of though Africa ranks second multi-faceted econo- tions. Internet, and computer revo- to none in the vastness and mies that will survive global competi- lutions have led to the emergence size of its bio-diversity, minerals and tion and remain viably resilient in the of “the Global Mind,” which links natural resources, it is still plagued by face of daunting challenges that will the thoughts and feelings of bil- widespread poverty, rising inequality, arise from climate change and demo- lions of people and connects intel- food and nutrition insecurity, and en- graphic transitions. For many coun- ligent machines, robots, ubiquitous vironmental degradation. tries and regional blocks including sensors, and databases. the United States of America, China, 4) The balance of global political, Biotechnology can be harnessed and the European Union, there has economic, and military power is to effectively address many of been a new emphasis on bio-based shifting more profoundly than at these challenges: economies. Between 2007 and 2012, any time in the last five hundred more than ten countries and region- years—from a U.S.-centered sys- al blocks including Canada, China, tem to one with multiple emerg- Agricultural biotechnology holds USA, European Union, Australia and ing centers of power, from nation- the key to increasing and sustaining Switzerland established strategic bio- states to private actors, and from production of more nutritious food, economy initiatives. The Organiza- political systems to markets. while reducing environmental pollution for Economic Cooperation and 5) A deeply flawed economic com- tion by herbicides and pesticides. Se- Development (OECD) estimated in pass is leading us to unsustainable lectable marker-assisted plant breed- 2009 that bio-economy’s global con- growth in consumption, pollution ing is used to identify specific genes tribution will climb to 2.7% of global flows, and depletion of the planet’s that code for desirable crop traits for GDP by 2030. strategic resources of topsoil, fresh- a quicker and precise production of water, and living species new genetically modified (GM) vari- The future belongs to nations that 6) Radical disruption of the relation- eties. For example, maize has been recognize their natural / bio resourc- ship between human beings and engineered with high quality pro- es, and invest heavily in building insti- the earth’s ecosystems, along with tein, and the introduction of the yel- tutional infrastructure and the human the beginning of a revolutionary low cassava which is rich in vitamin capacity to mine and manage them transformation of energy systems, A is helping to alleviate nutritional effectively and sustainably. In his agriculture, transportation, and deficiencies among African children. treatise on the drivers of the future, Al construction worldwide. Agricultural biotechnology has been Gore aptly identified six major forces harnessed to breed stress tolerant and that will reshape our world: It is clear that genes and genomes will disease resistant crop varieties, which 1) Ever-increasing economic glo- mean to this century what oil and gas when fully embraced by African coun- balization-“Earth Inc.”—an inte- meant to the last. The multi-discipli- tries would allow crop production all grated holistic entity with a new nary science of biotechnology and year round - eliminating the current, and different relationship to capi- the life science revolution in bioinfor- inadequate single cropping practice, tal, labor, consumer markets, and matics will undoubtedly remain part available to resource-limited farmers. national governments than in the of the core of sustainability for both Micro-propagation and tissue culture past. developed and developing countries. are bio-techniques used to rapidly se- 2) Genomics, biotechnology, neuro- Africa and Biotechnology: Current lect and clone copies of desired plant science, and life sciences revolu- realities and opportunities material, such as disease resistant and tions are radically transforming the From striving to achieve Millennium high yielding varieties without genetic fields of medicine, agriculture, and Development Goals (MDGs) to ad- manipulation. In East Africa, tissue molecular science—and are put- vocating Sustainable Development culture was used to rescue banana ting control of evolution in human Goals (SDGs) - all of which are laud- production from the deadly Black Si- hands. able in themselves - many African gatoka fungus which plagued farmers 3) The worldwide digital communica- before 1995. More importantly, these

67 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN simple techniques could be used to conserve and save numerous medicinal herbs and rare food crops indigenous to Africa, which are on the brink of extinction.

Furthermore, forestry, livestock production and aquaculture are improved dramatically in an environmentally friendly way using biotechnology. Exploiting nitrogen fixing abilities of microbial symbionts of woody shrubs can improve soil fertility and agroforestry yields, while reducing nitrogen fertilizer use. These are just a few proven technologies that Africa might harness to tackling current and future threats to food and nutrition security. Biotechnology and related genomics is perhaps the only conceivable science that will allow for rapid and precise modification of crop plants to simultaneously address potential impact of climate change, protect the environment and feed the burgeoning African population. The likelihood Environmental biotechnology is storative projects will benefit from that close to half of the world popula- a multi-disciplinary science that aims cutting edge environmental DNA tion of children will be African by the for optimal use of plants, animals (eDNA) technologies which could pro- end of the 21st century makes proper and micro-organisms to produce ben- vide faster rapid impact assessment sustainability planning a moral obli- eficial goods, renewable energy and indices than flora and fauna diversity, gation for African leaders. other useful products in an integrated allowing for prompt adjustment of re- process that preserves environmental mediation protocols. Also, fresh water This is not to underappreciate the health and the biosphere. rivers – Nile, Niger, Senegal, Congo, laudable milestones that have been Zambezi, hot springs and Lake Tang- achieved through numerous partner- Techniques spanning chemical / in- anyika contain unique aquatic ani- ships and programs on agriculture dustrial engineering, microbiology, mals and microbes from which poten- and food and nutrition security on genomics and bio-techniques are used tially useful genes and products such the continent. At least 10 African to harness biological resources and as enzymes can be derived. A casual countries have passed Biosafety laws processes for commercial uses and perusal shows that less than 10 % of authorizing the commercial use of exploitation in such areas as environ- literature on biotechnology in Africa genetically modified organisms. But mental remediation and restoration addresses environmental biotechnol- there are few ambitious or strategic of impacted habitats. Innovations ogy (other than ‘characterization’ ex- plans for the future. Increasing nu- of environmental biotechnology also ercises). Yet therein lies some of Afri- tritious food production is as impor- power sustainable agriculture through ca’s strategic economic and ecosystem tant as thinking through the entire plant growth promoting soil microbes advantages. The genetic resources in value chain, including post-harvest which replenish soils during intensive Africa’s tropical forests, deserts and technologies. It is critically important cultivation. Majestic tropical forests unique terrestrial habitats have yet to that each country takes ownership of of Iroko trees, Khaya spp. and diverse be studied and mined. the development of their technology flora and fauna need to be barcoded policies and invest heavily in capacity and protected as their contents are The need for capacity in environ- building. The science of biotechnol- harvested. In addition to terrestrial mental biotechnology is much more ogy is not amenable to imprecision, treasures, the African continent boasts acute now that genetically modified short-cuts, guesswork or myths. Tech- of a coastline length of 26,000 Km products are being introduced into nology adoption should co-evolve (7.3% of global coastline) with free ac- many African countries. Despite the with knowledge-guided regulatory cess to marine resources whose organ- widespread use of Round-up resistant practices based on science conducted isms have been rarely explored. GM crops, there are limited studies on indigenously to protect environment their effects on the environment. Re- and human safety. The mangrove ecosystems around ports of increasing resistance of weeds Nigeria for example are vanishing at to glyphosphate (the active ingredient alarming rates due to pollution. Re in round-up) in corn, cotton and soybean fields could mean higher agro-

68 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN production costs for weed control for endonucleases, oligonucleotides, cul- trait or are sick. Indeed 90% of this poor African farmers, if similar effects ture media, plastic wares, and micro deadly genetic hematologic disorder occur in African farms. Similarly, Cot- pipettes. There are more than 300 occurs in Africa, affecting its labor ton, corn and other crops containing an college level educational and training productivity. insect-specific toxin gene from Bacillus institutes across the country which of- Sub-Saharan African countries thuringensis (Bt) have improved yields fer degrees and diplomas in biotech- should invest in point-of-care (POC) exponentially but the threat of Bt re- nology, bio-informatics and the life devices for accurate and affordable sistant pests is a challenge. sciences, producing nearly 500,000 genotype diagnosis to stop sickle cell graduates on an annual basis. Inno- (SCD) propagation; and implement New genetic hybrids must be intro- vative products and services draw on new treatment technologies. The duced frequently. This raises the ques- renewable resources and bring great- noble efforts of emerging regional R tion of whether Africa is prepared for er efficiency into industrial processes, & D initiatives such as the African the science and stringent monitoring check environmental degradation and Network for Drug Discovery and In- and surveillance necessary to protect deliver a more bio-based economy. In novation (ANDI), whose focus is the its environment and people in the age terms of job creation, biotechnology neglected diseases of Africa, should of biotechnology. Training indigenous employs more than 10,000 people be supported. scientists for environmental biotechnol- and contributes significantly to the ogy / biosafety regulations and man- country’s GDP. agement has to become a top priority for the increasing number of African The revenue of the Indian biotech- Industrial Biotechnology (IB) is countries embracing GMOs. nology sector grew 33% in 2011 and the least known and exploited in Af- is projected to reach US$ 10 billion by rica and the need to radically reverse 2015 from US$ 3 billion. The Indian this situation is urgent. In IB, living Association for Biotechnology Led systems like microorganisms, animal Enterprises (ABLE) seeks to make and plant tissue culture and other liv- biotech a US$ 100 billion industry by ing systems or their components are 2025 (see: Indian Biotechnology: The used to manufacture useful products Roadmap to the Next Decade and Be- like enzymes, paper, detergents, ani- yond).India’s success could be attrib- mal feed and biofuel needed in medi- uted to many factors, including: cine, food and agriculture and other • A strategic plan for integrated bio- human activities. Industrial biotech- technology development nology promotes the use of renewable • Government investment in training raw materials for a sustainable planet. a strong scientific work-force and The SDG 9 aims at building resil- creation of institutes for research ient infrastructure, promoting inclu- and development, sive and sustainable industrialization • Deliberate focus on importation and fostering innovation. Industrial of knowledge in genomics, bioin- biotechnology can be harnessed to formatics, genetic engineering, na- achieve this goal in Africa. notechnology, diagnostics, prophy- laxis and commercialization, and In the state of Wisconsin in the Unit- • Effective use of its Diaspora and ed States of America, one bacterium private sector. - Lactococcus lactis for example, is used in several aspects of biotechnol- Opportunities for growth in Africa ogy – as cheese starter culture, in food Medical and Pharmaceutical abound. The new UN SDG 3 on preservation, production of lantobiot- Biotechnology is one of the fastest health provides a concrete action plan ics and development of vaccines or growing and revolutionizing arms of for healthy lives and well-being for all probionts. Cheese-making with this biotechnology, spanning disease di- by 2030; including ending the epi- bacterium yields almost 20 billion US agnostics, vaccine development, and demics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria dollars annually to the state’s revenue. treatment of diseases to drug discovery. and neglected tropical diseases. It tar- The opportunities for manufactur- The advances in medical biotechnolo- gets hepatitis, water-borne diseases ing and exporting new bio-products gy in a developing country like India il- and other communicable diseases in from Africa are enormous. Highly lustrate how biotechnology can be har- developing countries. For Africa, the nutritious indigenous fermented foods nessed to improve health and economic curve is steeper and rugged. Many in- like Nunu and Kindormo, and Ugba outcomes. India is ranked among the digenous diseases like sickle cell ane- would be revolutionized when starter top 12 biotechnology destinations mia (SCD) did not make it to the listed cultures are identified and packaged. worldwide and the third largest in the targets, yet it is perhaps one of most To-date, almost all enzyme raw ma- Asia-Pacific region with bio-enterpris- subtle threats to Nigeria’s blooming terials in many African industrial es that produce and export vaccines, economy where 55% of the popula- processes like brewing, bread-making blood products, antibodies, restriction tion either carry the genetic sickle cell

69 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN and ethanol production are imported. security in Africa is under constant Maintenance of typed culture collec- threat of poorly defined plant patho- What Africa needs to do now that tions to drive industrial processes has gens and adequate mitigation can the future is here been erratic at best. only be made when the organisms African leaders have long recognized are well understood. For example, (at least in theory) the need for science Governments should create incen- Cocoyam yield in West and Central and innovation as drivers of sustain- tives for partnerships with private Africa (the world’s largest producers able development. What Africa lacks companies to help mine the many of these nutritious crops) has declined is the vision, human capital and infra- bio-resource treasures of the conti- sharply in the past 7 years due to Co- structure to plan, promote, and imple- nent. These sorts of bio-based eco- coyam root rot disease (CRRD) and ment science for development. At the nomic activities are cost-effective and more recently, a leaf blight whose eti- first African Congress of Scientists sustainable. Microbial Inoculant in- ology is poorly defined. Applications and Policymakers (CASP) in Alexan- dustries helps Brazilian agriculture to of genomics might identify the patho- dria Egypt (8), heads of state and their remain productive while minimizing gens, their mode of pathogenesis and science ministers re-iterated their impacts to natural ecosystems by con- help to treat and predict their evolu- commitment to advancing science, trolling plant root pathogens without tion. technology and innovation in their the need for pesticides. Acetobacter Scientific innovation is indispensable countries. It was remarkable that the (Glucanoacetobacter) spp - a nitrogen for sustainable development in Africa. 2006 Congress ended with the same fixing bio inoculant was isolated from Any sustainable development agenda conclusions as other meetings held 15 the rhizosphere of sugarcanes by in- in Africa should be anchored in har- years prior. So, rather than repeat the digenous scientists. Its use rapidly nessing applications of science, tech- litany of reasons and proposed inter- transformed Brazil into one of the nology and innovation. Consider this. ventions, I will devote this section to world’s largest sugarcane producer China manages 7% of the world’s key recommendations based on les- which fueled its success as the world’s surface area to feed 20% of the global sons from my active involvement in leading bio-ethanol manufacturer. population using biotechnology. In- CASP, technology training workshops There are niches for every country dia produces 66% of children’s vac- and consultancy in science and tech- to engage in bio-innovation and bio- cines and dominates the market of nology applications to development in enterprises. Strategic investment in enzymes. Agro-biotechnology cata- Africa. Governments at the level of human capacity is key to finding and pulted Brazil into a leading producer the Presidency and Ministers should: valorizing those niches. of citrus, sugar and bio-ethanol. And of course, the United States leads the • Reset the button and try to under- world in all dimensions of science, stand the strategic importance of technology and innovation. biotechnology in sustainable de- Genomics and bio-informatics are rapidly growing disciplines in the life sciences that employ recent advances in recombinant DNA and DNA sequencing techniques to se- quence, annotate and analyze function and structure of whole cell DNA information (the genome). It includes metagenomics, functional genomics, epigenomics and computational genomics. These sub-disciplines are applied to all aspects of biotechnology for a deeper understanding of life processes and for precise management of genes, cells, organisms and even ecosystems. Research and development employing these tools to solve problems in Africa are extremely rare because the subject is alien to its scientific community. Meanwhile, it was genomics that turned the Brazil- ian citrus industry around in 2000, when Brazilian Diaspora working with many other indigenous scientists published the first complete DNA se- quence of Xylella fastidiosa, a bacterium responsible for significant damage to the region’s citrus crops. Food

70 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN velopment. I learned that there is levels – vocational and University. a huge gap in understanding mod- Because knowledge is abounding ern STI among the leadership. A at incredibly fast rates in the 21st critical first step is to invite a cred- century, these otherwise brilliant ible team of scientists who will workers will naturally get outdated make personalized presentations in without continuous retraining. an altruistic spirit. • Overhaul education from primary, • Identify a non-political champion through secondary to tertiary lev- with full government support to els. Most of the students and in- lead the crafting of a national vi- deed their teachers lack proper sion for bio-based economy. Such foundation in science. Build knowl- a candidate must be able to foster edge-based societies. technical cooperation and collabo- • Develop R & D Infrastructure rate with indigenous and interna- • Partner with the talented African tional experts to provide a strong Diaspora across the globe. They leadership and direction for bio- are transnational actors who un- tech with local context. Xeroxing derstand two worlds, capable of the plans written by consultants for shaping development relationships other countries will perpetuate me- across regions and continents diocrity. • Engage the youth broadly, invest • Radically transform the life science in their future and tap from their curriculum in tertiary institutions talent, energy and zeal. They rep- to reflect contemporary science. resent Africa’s greatest hope for de- Many African graduates are obso- velopment. lete before they graduate, having • Aggressively pursue importation Additional Reading been taught by teachers who them- of knowledge and de-emphasize The White House (2012), National Bio selves are rusty. product importation economy Blueprint, Washington DC 2012 • Invest heavily in human capital de- • Institutionalize strategic transfor- OECD (2009), The Bio economy to 2030: velopment on a continuous basis, mation agenda for the bio-based designing a policy agenda building capacity of the workforce economy with minimal strings to Al Gore (2013) The Future: Six Drivers of – technicians, professors and lec- the government bureaucracies. Global Change. NY: Random House, 558p. turers in the life sciences, engineer- This does not require proliferation Esiobu, Nwadiuto (2012); A Fresh Look ing agriculture and medicine at all of ministries or agencies, rather an at Africa: Technologies for Advancing Sus- enabling institutional environment tainable Agricultural & Health Outcomes. (i.e. intellectual property protection www.state.gov/e/stas/series/212182.htm; policies) will work. http://agrilinks.org/events/fresh-look- • Measure performance by cultivat- africa-technologies-advancing-sustainable- ing a strong sense of impact assess- agricultural-health-outcomes ment of biotech programs under a Arthur WB, 2009 The Nature of Technol- transparent monitoring and evalu- ogy: What It is and How it Evolves. New ation scheme. This will help track York: progress and challenges with the Free Press. goal of maximizing return on in- UNICEF 2014, Generation 2030 AF- vestment. RICA – Child demographics in Africa. • Promote and facilitate private sec- http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/ tor involvement in research and UNICEF_Africa_Generation_2030_ development, service and manu- en_11Aug.pdf Accessed Nov 11, 2015 facturing sectors of the bio-econo- Esiobu, Nwadiuto 2013; Bio-enterprise my. The private sector is a major Development for Job Creation and Poverty catalyst in sustainable development Alleviation. A Lead Paper presented at 26th and Africa needs to create the rule Annual International Conference of the Bio- of law and technology transfer technology Society of Nigeria. August 25 – framework for it to thrive. Encour- 30, 2013 age multi-national research collab- Africa Union. Report of the first African orations and partnerships in order Congress of Scientists and Policymakers not to re-invent the wheels. (CASP) • Embrace the promise of biotech- First ordinary session, Alexandria, Egypt, nology and take ownership of the 27-29 October 2006 http://www.unesco. effort. org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/ HQ/SC/pdf/sc_1st_african_congress_ en.pdf accessed November 11, 2015.

71 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN BIODIVERSITY INFORMATICS IN EASTERN AFRICA

Dr. Aime Tsinda Senior Research Fellow, IPAR-Rwanda Dr Aime Tsinda is principal investigator of a project entitled “Reviewing policies that promote biodiversity informatics in Sub-Saharan Africa”. This project is being funded by JRS Biodiversity Foundation and is being carried out by the Institute of Policy Analysis and Research (IPAR-Rwanda). The author would like to thank Dr Don S. Doering, the Executive Director of JRS Biodiversity Foundation and his team for their invaluable support

72 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Introduction

his article reviews velopment, (3) informatics Infrastruc- and technical factors that inhibit or policy and institu- ture development and (4) capacity promote human and institutional ca- tional frameworks building, outreach and open access pacity in this domain. that constrain initiatives. This article reviews the biodiversity in- policy and institutional frameworks Methodology formatics in East- in Eastern Africa that either promote This study focuses on Eastern Africa ern Africa, with a or hinder initiatives in each of these and the countries were purposively se- particular focus on Ethiopia, Kenya, areas. lected. Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania Rwanda and Tanzania. Conserva- because of their biological or ecologi- tion and utilization of biodiversity There have been a number of initia- cal richness. Kenya was also selected directly depend upon access to infor- tives undertaken in different regions because of the availability of technical mation. The Eastern Africa region of the world to mobilize biodiversity infrastructure among institutions such is known to harbor rich and diverse data, as this forms the basic constitu- as the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), biotic resources. However, data and ents of all biodiversity informatics re- National Museums of Kenya (NMK) information regarding these resources lated activities (Hobern, 2013). How- and Jomo Kenyatta University of Sci- remains scattered among several or- ever, most of the initiatives often focus ence and Technology. Rwanda was ganizations and individual scientists, on developed countries and relatively selected because of its high scores for making it difficult to easily and effi- little is known about biodiversity in control of corruption and govern- ciently access adequate and accurate developing countries, including East- ment effectiveness and also because it biodiversity information. Efficient ern Africa. Secondly, several initia- is one of the fastest growing African access to data and information about tives have been directed towards the countries in terms of the use of tech- these natural resources and processes development of standards and pro- nology, particularly, information and is essential for their effective conserva- tocols, collection management tools, communication technologies. tion and sustainable use (Tandon and geo-referencing and mapping tools, Bhattacharjee, 2010, Pettorelli et al., data cleaning tools, modeling tools, The study employed content analy- 2014). Although biodiversity informa- as well as web services and compu- sis to identify policies that impact tion is critical to a wide range of sci- tational frameworks. Again, much of the field of biodiversity informatics entific, educational and governmental this work has tended to sidestep many in Eastern Africa. Content analysis uses, it is often shaped by the existence African countries. looks for the presence of concepts in a of adequate policy and institutional text, condensing many potential con- frameworks (Canhos et al., 2004b, Thirdly, many countries have already cepts into fewer broad categories, as a Guralnick and Hill, 2009, Nativi et built or are seeking to build informat- means of discovering patterns in the al., 2009, Paton, 2009). ics infrastructure with exponential analyzed media, and thus better un- technological capacities, computa- derstanding the underlying phenom- Biodiversity informatics is defined tional power, storage capacity and ena (Matthews and Ross, 2010). as the computerized handling of in- analytical capabilities. East Africa formation on biodiversity and its and more generally Sub-Saharan Af- The starting point for this study was management. This may include both rica lags behind in this field. Last but to identify existing policies and stra- processes and technology for data not least, open access to primary bio- tegic documents that impact the col- capture, curation, storage, analysis diversity data is essential both for ena- lection of biodiversity information. In and visualization. Biodiversity infor- bling effective decision making and the second stage, policies and other matics has come about as a result of for empowering stakeholders involved strategic documents were reviewed the implementation of international with and affected by the conservation with a view to identify the degree to agreements, availability of informa- of biodiversity (Chavan and Ingw- which they were either drivers of, or tion in text, images, maps, videos ersen, 2009, Reichman et al., 2011). barriers to: 1) mobilizing biodiver- and the technology to record, link Efficient exchange of information has sity data; 2) standards, protocols, and and archive such diverse types of in- been recognized as one of the neces- tools development; 3) informatics information, combined with the ever- sary preconditions for improvement frastructure development; 4) capacity increasing power of computers and of global biodiversity conservation building, outreach and open access the internet to facilitate access and re- (Laihonen et al., 2014). However, initiatives. The effectiveness of these trieval (Agrawal et al., 2012). The sta- many existing primary biodiversity policies was also analyzed through a tus of biodiversity informatics can be data are neither accessible nor discov- review of available peer-reviewed ar- assessed by looking at four key areas: erable (Chavan et al., 2004, Moritz ticles, policy briefs, and working pa- (1) mobilization of biodiversity data, et al., 2011). Furthermore, there is pers. References of key peer-reviewed (2) standards, protocols, and tools de- scarce knowledge of legal, policies articles were scanned to identify other

73 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN literature that could provide relevant • Kenya: Forest policy (2006), Wild- informatics in these countries in the information. The titles and abstracts life Policy, National Biodiversity same policy and institutional frame- (if available) of this second set of Strategy and Action (2007-2012), works examined. While a few policies articles/documents were critically Biodiversity Strategic Plan (2013- and laws have some elements of bio- scanned to identify those that could 2018); National Environment Ac- diversity informatics, there is a gen- provide some relevant information, tion Plan framework (2009-2013); eral lack of clarity and specificity with for inclusion in the review. • Rwanda: National Constitution regard to biodiversity informatics. In Findings (2003); Biodiversity Policy (2011), Ethiopia for example, sectorial laws Wildlife Policy (2013), Organic dealing with biological resources tend The study identified a number of Law No. 04/2005 on protection, to address biodiversity and not biodi- drivers and barriers to the mobiliza- conservation and preservation of versity informatics per se. The For- tion of biodiversity data, development the environment in Rwanda; estry Law (Proc. No.94/94) has proof tools, standards and protocols, in- • Tanzania: National Environmental visions for ensuring the conservation formatics infrastructure development Policy (1997), National forest proof forests (Federal Democratic Re- and capacity building, outreach and gram (2001-2010), the National public of Ethiopia, 1994) but fails to open access. Biodiversity Strategy and Action address the issue of biodiversity data Plan (2001-2006), the Forestry and management. In Kenya, the National The first key driver is the commit- Beekeeping Divisional Program Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan ment by all countries studied to sev- (2001- 2010). (2005-2010) highlights the need to de- eral international conventions that velop indicators for and subsequently emphasize the protection and conser- Some biodiversity informatics related monitor biodiversity. Specific ways vation of biodiversity, particularly the programs were initiated based on the of achieving this are, however, not UN Convention on Biological Diver- above policies, strategies and plans. highlighted. In Rwanda, biodiversity sity (CBD). The CBD’s ‘2010 targets’ For example, in Ethiopia, the Institute informatics is not mentioned in any highlighted the importance of tech- of Biodiversity Conservation Germ- policy document. As a result, it is not nology in biodiversity management plasm Database Management System surprising to note that out of nineteen and triggered the creation of national (IBC DMS) grew out of the require- national targets for biodiversity con- and global biodiversity monitoring ments of the Environmental Policy. In servation which were defined in line systems to monitor and measure pro- Rwanda, the Rwanda Environment with the Aichi Targets of the Strategic gress towards the various targets. The Information Network operating un- Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, there establishment a Biodiversity Informa- der Rwanda Environment Manage- was no single target focusing on bio- tion Database as a central repository ment Authority (REMA) has been es- diversity data management. It should of data generated by inventories and tablished. However, there is currently also be noted here that even though surveys in Kenya is a direct response no national biodiversity data man- some policies and regulations make to the country’s UN CBD commit- agement system in place although a specific reference to the biodiversity ments. few sporadic and isolated efforts have informatics framework, this reference been made in the recent past. In Tan- is very brief and general, suggesting The second key driver in all countries zania, the Forest Policy (2008) places limited usability of the policy. is prevailing policy and legislative an emphasis on biodiversity research frameworks related to biodiversity, and information dissemination and Secondly, the extent to which existing environment and natural resources. the importance of access to biodiver- policies and legislation have fulfilled These include in: sity data. expectations in practice in the area • Ethiopia: National Biodiversity of biodiversity data management is Strategy and Action Plan (2005) The study also found ‘gaps’ or barri- mixed. In Tanzania, there is a robust and Environmental Policy (1997) ers to the development of biodiversity evidence that many programs (al-

74 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN though not specifically related to bio- These include the establishment of of Natural Resources and Tourism, diversity informatics) did not achieve Regional Biodiversity Units, Biodiver- National Environment Management the expected results (United Republic sity Centers and the Ministry of Envi- Council. However, responsibilities of Tanzania, 2006, United Republic ronment and Forest (Government of of Vice President’s Office through of Tanzania, 2007, Jacqueline and the Federal Democratic Republic of its Division of En¬vironment and Stacey, 2014). One of the reasons for Ethiopia, 2014). the National Environment Manage- this is the lack of effective monitoring ment Council (NEMC) are some- and evaluation (Jacqueline and Stac- In Kenya, many government agen- how conflicting. The NEMC sits in ey, 2014). In all countries, different in- cies that are in charge of environment the Vice President’s Office where its stitutions are involved in biodiversity and biodiversity. These include min- main role is to provide advice on all and environmental information man- istries of Environment and Mineral matters pertaining to environmental agement and conservation. These Resources, Forestry, Lands, Finance, conservation and management. In include ministries, and institutions of Special Programs in the Office of order to improve and strengthen for- higher learning and a number of na- the President, and the National En- est management, the Government tional and international Non-Govern- vironmental Management Authority has established a stand-alone agency, ment Organizations (NGOs). (NEMA). In spite of this, the coordi- the Tanzania Forest Services Agency nation of environmental matters, and (TFS), newly established under the In Ethiopia, the constitution man- in this instance biodiversity conserva- Ministry of Natural Resources and dates the Prime Minister to exercise tion, remains elusive. There are few Tourism (MNRT) (United Republic management of the environment in- linkages or even awareness of what of Tanzania, 2014). However, the re- cluding biodiversity throughout the each ministry is or should be doing. lationship in terms of coordination country (Negarit Gazeta of the Fed- Whereas the Ministry of the Environ- between TFS and NEMC is wanting eral Democratic Republic of Ethio- ment has primary mandate for bio- (Jacqueline and Stacey, 2014). pia, 1995b). Proclamation No 9/1995 diversity conservation, the National (EPA Establishment Proclamation) Museums of Kenya holds the legacy Conclusion prescribes a range of environmental biodiversity data and emergent infor- The review found that all countries in management (including biodiversity) matics capacity but is housed under the region are committed to interna- tasks (Negarit Gazeta of the Fed- the Ministry of Culture and Heritage. tional and regional conventions that eral Democratic Republic of Ethio- Similarly, in Rwanda, the responsibili- emphasize the protection and conser- pia, 1995a) while Proclamation No ties of Rwanda Environment Man- vation of biodiversity. However, the 120/1998 Institute of Biodiversity agement Authority (REMA) and the existing policies are deficient in terms Conservation and Research Estab- Department of Tourism in Rwanda of biodiversity data management. lishment Proclamation establishes the Development Board (RDB) are not Measures that can be taken to ensure biodiversity protection responsibilities entirely clear. REMA is responsible the success of biodiversity informatics (Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Demo- for the governance of environment in Eastern Africa include the follow- cratic Republic of Ethiopia, 1998). In management (including biodiversity), ing: applying the general term of biodi- but it is not clear whether it has pow- Identify and avoid overlaps but pro- versity protection to each institution, ers over the management of wildlife mote complementarities within and/ there is a lack of clarity of language in parks which is under the Depart- or between the different institutions used, which results in confusion in ment of Tourism and the Rwanda and/or stakeholders that are involved identifying and demarcating institu- Development Board (RDB). in biodiversity. The roles of various tional mandates. Recently, Ethiopia In Tanzania, the major institutions stakeholders should be clearly de- recently addressed this problem by include the Vice President’s Office scribed and formalized. Considering restructuring and establishing insti- through its Division of En¬vironment, that, NEMA (in Kenya), REMA (in tutions at federal and regional levels. Ministry of Environment, Ministry Rwanda) are in charge of coordinat-

75 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN forecasting. Biodiversity Informatics, 1. The existence of sensitive data CARO, T. 2008. Decline of large mam- mals in the Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem of cannot serve as an excuse for western Tanzania. African Zoology, 43, 99-116. a broad withholding of data. CHAVAN, V., WATVE, A., LOND- Vast amounts of biodiversity HE, M., RANE, N., PANDIT, A. & KRISHNAN, S. 2004. Cataloguing In- information are not sensitive, dian biota: the electronic catalogue of known Indian fauna. Current Science, 87, 749- and can be shared to the 763. CHAVAN, V. S. & INGWERSEN, P. benefit of all. 2009. Towards a data publishing framework for primary biodiversity data: chal- ing the exercise; these institutions is resistance to share both spatial data lenges and potentials for the biodiversity in- should be strengthened to offer guid- as well as spatial data products such formatics community. BMC bioinformatics, ance on biodiversity data manage- as shape files. The existence of sen- 10, S2. ment (i.e. the National Biodiversity sitive data cannot serve as an excuse CHRÉTIEN, J.-P. & STRAUS, S. 2003. Monitoring Unit and an operational for a broad withholding of data. Vast The Great Lakes of Africa: Two thousand Clearing House Mechanism to guide amounts of biodiversity information years of history, Zone Books New York. access and utilization of data). In are not sensitive, and can be shared to DE ROSNAY, M. D. & GUADAMUZ, Rwanda, there is an urgent need for the benefit of all. A. Open Access to Biodiversity Scientific developing a web based interoperable Data: A Comparative Study. 17th Interna- and collaborative framework for in- Further Reading tional Consortium on Applied Bio economy terconnecting the distributed and het- AGRAWAL, R., ARCHAK, S. & TYAGI, Research ICABR Conference on Innovation erogeneous databases by establishing R. 2012. An overview of biodiversity infor- and the Policy for the Bio economy, 2013. resource discovery and access control matics with special reference to plant genetic 20. mechanism. resources. Computers and Electronics in Ag- DHETCHUVI, M. & GAKWAVU, R. riculture, 84, 92-99. 2006. Etude préliminaire de la régénéra- Put in place clear, complete and us- ARIÑO, A. H., CHAVAN, V. & KING, N. tion en forêt de montagne du Rwanda: cas er-friendly policy documents. In all 2011. The biodiversity informatics potential de huit espèces d’arbres illégalement exploitées countries, the policy and legal frame- index. Bmc Bioinformatics, 12, S4. en forêt de Nyungwe. Etudes rwandaises, 11, works relative to biodiversity infor- BASKAUF, S. J. 2010. Organization of 7-21. matics need to be further developed biodiversity resources based on the process of EWANGO, C. 2001. Flore et végétation de by specific regulations for implement- their creation and the role of individual or- la forêt naturelle de Nyungwe, Rwanda. Sys- ing, executing and monitoring each ganisms as resource relationship nodes. Bio- tematics and Geography of Plants, 1009- step of the management process. Fur- diversity Informatics, 7, 17-44. 1015. thermore, regulations on biodiversity BREHM, G., PITKIN, L. M., HILT, N. FAO 2003. National Strategy and Action informatics should be complemented & FIEDLER, K. 2005. Montane Andean Plan for the Conservation of Biodiversity in by a policy document, and technical rain forests are a global diversity hotspot of Rwanda. Kigali: Food and Agriculture Or- guidelines developed for its imple- geometrid moths. Journal of Biogeography, ganization of the United Nations. mentation. Accordingly, the policy 32, 1621-1627. FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUB- documents should outline the ration- BURGESS, N., BUTYNSKI, T., CORD- LIC OF ETHIOPIA 1994. Forestry Proc- ale of the legislation, plus national EIRO, N., DOGGART, N., FJELDSÅ, J., lamation (NO.94/1994). goals and the key steps essential for HOWELL, K., KILAHAMA, F., LOAD- FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUB- the achievement of these goals. The ER, S., LOVETT, J. & MBILINYI, B. LIC OF ETHIOPIA 2013. Population technical guidelines associated with 2007. The biological importance of the Projection of Ethiopia for All Regions at the legislation should be practical and Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania and Wereda Level from 2014 – 2017 Addis directly applicable. This review re- Kenya. Biological conservation, 134, 209- Ababa: Central Statistical Agency. veals that sufficient skills and tools are 231. GILLHAM, B. 2005. Research interview- important requirements to adequately CANHOS, D., UHLIR, P. & ESANU, ing: The range of techniques: A practical implement biodiversity informatics. J. 2004a. Access to Environmental Data: guide, McGraw-Hill International. There is need for capacity building Summary of an Inter-American Corkshop. GOVERNMENT OF KENYA 2010a. in various components of biodiversity Committee on Data for Science and Technol- Kenya State of the Environment and Out- informatics. ogy, Paris. look 2010. Nairobi: National Environment CANHOS, V. P., DE SOUZA, S., DE Management Authority. Document the benefits of sharing data GIOVANNI, R. & CANHOS, D. A. L. GOVERNMENT OF KENYA 2010b. to scientists and to institutional ad- 2004b. Global Biodiversity Informatics: set- Summary of the Decisions of the Conference ministrators and policymakers. There ting the scene for a “new world” of ecological

76 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN for the Key Areas of Focus Outcomes of the Conference of the Parties 1998. to the Convention on Biological Diversity. 18-29 October 2010 in PATON, A. 2009. Biodiversity informatics and the plant conserva- Nagoya, Japan. Nairobi: National Environment Management Au- tion baseline. Trends in plant science, 14, 629-637. thority. PETERSON, A. T., KNAPP, S., GURALNICK, R., SOBERÓN, GOVERNMENT OF THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC RE- J. & HOLDER, M. T. 2010. The big questions for biodiversity PUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA 2014. Ethiopia’s Fifth National Report informatics. Systematics and Biodiversity, 8, 159-168. to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Addis Ababa: Ethiopian PETTORELLI, N., SAFI, K. & TURNER, W. 2014. Satellite Biodiversity Institute. remote sensing, biodiversity research and conservation of the future. GURALNICK, R. & HILL, A. 2009. Biodiversity informatics: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sci- automated approaches for documenting global biodiversity patterns ences, 369, 20130190. and processes. Bioinformatics, 25, 421-428. RDB 2010. World Environment Day & Kwita Izina. Kigali: HOBERN, D. Delivering biodiversity knowledge in the Information Rwanda Development Board. Age. Biodiversity Informatics Horizons 2013, 2013. REICHMAN, O., JONES, M. B. & SCHILDHAUER, M. P. IGAD 2007. IGAD Environment Outlook. Djibouti Intergovern- 2011. Challenges and opportunities of open data in ecology. Science, mental Authority on Development. 331. JACQUELINE, S. & STACEY, N. 2014. Reviewing the coher- REMA 2009. Rwanda State of Environment and Outlook Kigali: ence and effectiveness of implementation of multilateral biodiversity Rwanda Environment Management Authority agreements in Tanzania. Nairobi, Kenya: Stockholm Environment REPUBLIC OF KENYA 2005. State of the Environment Report Institute Africa centre. for Kenya 2004. Nairobi: National Environment Management Au- LAIHONEN, P., KALLIOLA, R. & SALO, J. 2014. The bio- thority diversity information clearing-house mechanism (CHM) as a global REPUBLIC OF KENYA 2009a. Fourth National Report to the effort. Environmental Science & Policy, 7, 99-108. Conference of Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Nai- MAIER, D., LANDIS, E., CUSHING, J., FRONDORF, A., robi: National Environment Management Authority. SILBERSCHATZ, A., FRAME, M. & SCHNASE, J. L. Re- REPUBLIC OF KENYA 2009b. National Environment Research search Directions in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Informatics. Report Agenda for 2008-2030. Nairobi: National Environment Manage- of an NSF, USGS, NASA Workshop on Biodiversity and Ecosystem ment Authority. Informatics, JL Schnase, Ed., NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, REPUBLIC OF KENYA 2011. Kenya State of the Environment Greenbelt, Maryland, 2001. and Outlook 2010. Nairobi: National Environment Management MATTHEWS, B. & ROSS, L. 2010. Research methods: A prac- Authority. tical guide for the social sciences, Pearson Education. REPUBLIC OF RWANDA 2014. Fifth National Report to the METZGER, K. J., KLAPER, R. & THOMAS, M. A. 2011. Convention on Biological Diversity Kigali: Rwanda Environment Implications of informatics approaches in ecological research. Eco- Management Authority. logical Informatics, 6, 4-12. SCHNASE, J. L., CUSHING, J., FRAME, M., FRONDORF, MORITZ, T., KRISHNAN, S., ROBERTS, D., INGWERSEN, A., LANDIS, E., MAIER, D. & SILBERSCHATZ, A. 2003. P., AGOSTI, D., PENEV, L., COCKERILL, M. & CHAVAN, Information technology challenges of biodiversity and ecosystems in- V. 2011. Towards mainstreaming of biodiversity data publishing: formatics. Information Systems, 28, 339-345. recommendations of the GBIF Data Publishing Framework Task TANDON, P. & BHATTACHARJEE, P. 2010. Bioinformatics Group. BMC bioinformatics, 12, S1. in biodiversity management. MYERS, N., MITTERMEIER, R. A., MITTERMEIER, C. UNDP 2012. Africa Human Development Report. Toward a food G., DA FONSECA, G. A. & KENT, J. 2000. Biodiversity hot- secure future. United Nations Development Program spots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403, 853-858. UNDP 2013. Human Development Report 2013.The Rise of the NATIVI, S., MAZZETTI, P., SAARENMAA, H., KERR, J. & South: Human Progress in a Diverse World. New York: United Na- TUAMA, É. Ó. 2009. Biodiversity and climate change use scenarios tions Development Program. framework for the GEOSS interoperability pilot process. Ecological UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA 2006. Third National Informatics, 4, 23-33. Report on Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity. NEGARIT GAZETA OF THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Vice President’s office-Division of Envi- REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA 1995a. Proclamation No 9/1995. ronment. A Proclamation to Provide for the Establishment of the Environmen- UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA 2007. Assessment and tal Protection Authority, 1st Year, No. 9, Addis Ababa, 24 August Evaluation of the Wildlife Management Areas in Tanzania. Dar 1995. es Salaam: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism-Wildlife NEGARIT GAZETA OF THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC Division. REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA 1995b. Proclamation No. 1/1995. UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA 2014. Fifth National Constitution of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 1st Year Report on the Implementation of the Convention on Biological Di- No.1, Addis Ababa, 21st August 1995 versity. Dar es Salaam: Vice President’s Office, Division of Environ- NEGARIT GAZETA OF THE FEDERAL DEMOCRAT- ment. IC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA 1998. Proclamation No. YIRGA, G. 2010. Assessment of indigenous knowledge of medicinal 120/1998. Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and Research Es- plants in Central Zone of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. Afr J Plant tablishment Proclamation, 4th Year No. 49, Addis Ababa, 25 June Sci, 4, 6-11.

77 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN GEOGRAPHIES OF INFORMATION INEQUALITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Prof Mark Graham and Dr Christopher Foster Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford

Introduction:

ub-Saharan Africa increasingly be linked into global net- been conducted into the impacts of has traditionally works - interacting, selling and using ICTs on older economic processes and been characterised knowledge through this connectivity practices, there remains surprisingly by stark barriers (Graham & Mann 2013). little research into the emergence of to telecommunica- the new informationalized economy tion and flows of This has also been reflected in new in Africa. As such, it is precisely now information. Rates ambitions and policy in SSA. For ex- that we urgently need research to for long distance phone calls through- ample, in Rwanda (a strong advocate understand what impacts are observ- out Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) used to of upgrading connectivity to drive de- able, who benefits, who doesn’t, and be some of the highest in the world, velopment) the stated policy goal has how these changes match up to our and Internet costs and speeds simi- been to: “transform her subsistence expectations for change. We need to larly were out of the reach of all but agriculture dominated economy into ask if we are seeing a new era of de- the most privileged citizens. However, a service-sector driven high value- velopment on the continent fuelled in the last few years, there have been added information and knowledge by ICTs, or whether Sub- Saharan radical changes to SSA’s international economy that can compete on the Africa’s engagement with the global connectivity. Fibre-optic cables have global market” (GoR 2001 p.7). knowledge economy continues to be been laid throughout the continent on terms that reinforce dependence, and there are now over one hundred Changing connectivity thus is articu- inequality, underdevelopment, and and fifty million Internet users and lated as a core driver of wider eco- economic extraversion. over seven hundred million mobile nomic change in SSA (Graham et. al. users in the region. 2015; Graham 2015). It is seen as pro- We begin to address this issue by syn- viding a path for the region to move thesising the outputs of two multi-year This rapid transformation in the re- away from reliance on agriculture and research projects that we have carried gion’s connectivity has encouraged extractive industries and towards a fo- out which provide in-depth analysis politicians, journalists, academics, and cus on the quaternary and quinary of SSA connectivity use. The first citizens to speak of an ICT-fuelled sectors (in other words, the knowl- one addresses the effects of changing revolution happening on the conti- edge-based parts of the economy). connectivities on global geographies nent. Individuals and firms would However, while much research has of voice, representation, and partici-

78 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN pation, particularly through exploring the dynamics on- The suggestion that changing connectivity as a result of the line platforms, tools and databases. The second project is laying of fibre-optic cables would lead to an improvement grounded in in-depth qualitative research, examining the in internet availability and a reduction in costs in SSA is effects of changing connectivity on firms in core sectors of well supported. Changes in physical connectivity have, in the economy (tea, tourism, and Business Process Outsourc- part, led to upwards growth in subscription numbers, as ing) in Kenya and Rwanda (see Foster and Graham 2015a, highlighted in Figure 1. However, the degree of catch-up 2015b, Mann et. al. 2015 for full details). in SSA appears limited, Internet use is still limited and well behind the rest of the world. BARRIERS AND EXCLUSIONS

Figure 1: Changing Internet Penetration per Country Source: Straumann& Graham (2015) Changing Internet Penetration per Country. Geonet: Investigating the Changing Connectivities and Potentials of Sub-Saharan Africa’s Knowledge Economy http://geonet.oii.ox.ac.uk/blog/regional-perspectives-on-internet-penetration/

This jump in internet access and use, however, does not egories that conceptualise these barriers: Representation, appear to have been as impactful as many had hoped. In Contribution, Access-to-information, Connectivity and our qualitative work in SSA, existing sectors such as ex- Non-neutral networks/technologies. Each of these is de- port-orientated commodities and tourism, growing inter- tailed below: net use has not fundamentally transformed relationships of production and the distribution of value. Meanwhile, Representations new knowledge sectors articulated as the cornerstone of We found not only stark inequalities in the amount of in- economic ‘leap-frogging’ appear to comprise of a small formation produced from and about different parts of the number of often struggling firms. Similar outcomes were world, but we also discovered indications that older pat- found in examinations of the geography of coverage and terns of informational inclusion and exclusion were being contributions to online platforms. Research on presence of reinforced. The issue is not just that much of SSA left out SSA locations within Google searches and Twitter contri- of the representation on online platforms, tools, and da- butions represented minuscule proportions, even allowing tabases. It is also that internet users from SSA often focus for the low penetration. their attention on the global informational cores (North America and Western Europe): resulting in patterns of in- Our work, in significantly different domains, highlighted creasing informational poverty and richness (Graham et. barriers that limited the effectiveness of connectivity- re al. 2014). ducing information inequality. We outline five core cat-

79 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Even as fibre-optic Connections allowed better backbone connections for the region, there was a vast difference between those firms able to link directly to fibre or resilient broadband options, and those who survive using mobile Internet access.

80 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Figure 2: Maps of Articles in Arabic (top) and English (bottom) Wikipedia Source: Graham et. al. (2014). Note there are more Arabic articles about many European countries than many predominantly Arabic-speaking countries.

Work in the Rwandan tea sector also ities. Rural actors involved in tea pro- ing by subtle balances of power and revealed uneven online representation duction are often left relying on guess- choices as highlighted in the tea sec- of processes and products at a more work, norms or downward edicts to tor. Representation of knowledge can local level. At the level of tea process- orientate their growing activities (Fos- determine the extent to which infor- ing and logistics, extensive automa- ter and Graham 2015a). mation can be employed, applied, put tion and connection has rendered into practice, and integrated into pro- many parameters of tea production At the broadest level, uneven repre- cesses. People, places, and practices (weight, grade, location of batches) sentation is without a doubt one out- absent from representations not just visible online and thus compliant to come of the uneven global distribu- lose voice, but also potentially become be analysed, compared and managed. tion digital connectivity. At the same invisible. Yet, this was less true for farmer activ- time, it can also be brought into be-

81 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Contributions

We explored a range of platforms and information reposi- average in the Middle East and Africa is one domain for tories and found that only a relatively tiny amount of con- every fifty internet users (see map below). Similar patterns tent hosted in online repositories comes from Sub-Saharan are evident on every platform that we looked at (e.g. on Africa (many of our results and maps can be found at ge- Wikipedia there are more contributions that come from ography.oii.ox.ac.uk). Much of this imbalance can’t simply Hong Kong than all of Africa combined). Furthermore, be explained away by uneven levels of online access. For this small amount of participation from Sub-Saharan Afri- instance, if looking at the registration of domain names, ca has meant that much of the content created about Sub- there is a domain for every two internet users; whereas the Saharan Africa comes from the global informational cores.

Figure 3: Geography of top level domain names Source: Graham &Sabatta (2013) drawing on World Bank data

These findings were also mirrored These findings not only point to a lack was difficult to access or inappropri- in research on use of the Internet in of representation, but also author- ate to the context. For example, in the agriculture in East Africa related to ship, voice, contributions, and partici- East African tourism sector, Rwandan farming processes and information. pation; and highlight the need to pay tour firms are increasingly connected Whilst some farmers and intermedi- attention to a more subtle politics of online, but they have been slow in ary representatives (i.e. Co-operatives, knowledge. directly linking to tourists. For tour NGOs) were aware of the Internet as firms, one limit is lack of access to a source of new information, a lack Access to information information on customers and activi- of locally created knowledge often Being able to access ICTs does not im- ties to allow them to build compelling skewed the types of advice and solu- ply that relevant information is sud- products. Sometimes information is tions available online. Information denly available. In the economic sec- hidden behind paywalls not accessi- about planting and quality control tors that we looked at, we found cases ble to these firms but there were also available online often came from ge- where certain groups were intention- cases where useful information (e.g. neric, global resources with less rel- ally excluded from information. More sources of tourist to the region) were evance to the specificities and context often though, lack of access related hidden within complex statistics and of the region. to issues where suitable information difficult to understand.

82 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Source: Graham, Hale & Stephens (2013) drawing on flickr data

Connectivity smaller firms and entrepreneurs who in order for data to be standardised Even though much infrastructure to are looking to interact more directly and relatable. Such templates often support digital connectivity has been with customers internationally. Net- poorly fitting to the needs of users in built, the ability to digitally connect work dropouts and saturation can be SSA. One instance of this is in the has distinct geographies. This is es- detrimental to clear consumer inter- Rwanda tourism sector. Rwandan pecially true if you compare average actions and trust. As some of the bar- firms were frequently unable to ef- broadband prices with average yearly riers to accessing backbone connectiv- fectively digitally link up with global income (as we do in the figure below). ity barriers are reduced, what we are travel agents because of their inabil- Doing so reveals stark remaining bar- therefore seeing is a move from global ity to digitally codify their complex riers to connectivity that are particu- to new local inequalities around digi- activities (Foster and Graham 2015b). larly experienced in Sub-Saharan Af- tal access. rica. TOWARDS DEEPER INTERRO- Non-neutral networks/technolo- GATION OF POWER In East Africa, for instance, even as gies In sum, changing connectivity has not fibre-optic connections allowed better Barriers to effective use of informa- fully unleashed the effects that many backbone connections for the region, tion also exist in the way that ICTs or expected it to. These outcomes will there was a vast difference between networks are ‘non-neutral’. That is, come as no surprise for those famil- those firms able to link directly to fi- they may privilege generation or use iar with some of the critical literature bre or resilient broadband options, of certain forms of information over on the ‘digital divide’ (Norris 2001, and those who survive using mobile others. For instance, the lower user Selwyn 2004, Warschauer 2003, Gra- internet access. The latter experi- contributions to Wikipedia from SSA ham 2011). As Warschauer outlined enced inconsistent and often saturat- might be linked to the very govern- over a decade ago, for digital inclu- ed connections. These were prone to ance of Wikipedia: which allows only sion, it is necessary to centralise the dropouts and problems related to mo- certain kinds of sources and neglects wider contexts of development, “an bile coverage, service provider issues others (e.g. oral sources). overemphasis on the mere presence and liable to be affected by weather of computers or Internet connections, conditions. In similar way, digital systems often without a corresponding emphasis on work within structured templates (e.g. social mobilization and transforma- This was particularly problematic for the design of systems and databases) tion, can squander resources while

83 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Figure 5: Broadband Affordability. Source: Graham &S De Sabatta (2013) drawing on ITU/World Bank data

leaving inequity intact processes that and creation of value. As the next generation of connectivity underlie social development and in- projects (e.g. 4G, Facebook’s drones, clusion” (Warschauer 2003. p.303) From such a perspective, many of the Google’s balloons etc.) again draw barriers in online representation, con- on the same skewed expectations and These critiques form the foundation tribution, access and connectivity that goals, we need to loudly call for a of our understanding of inclusion in we have observed appear to represent more critical approach to understand- network societies. We need to think a shift in power away from Sub-Saha- ing such projects. Rhetoric about con- about connectivity as not just a tech- ran African firms and individuals. nectivity needs to be accompanied by nical challenge (i.e. concerns about a wider debate about how changing ‘penetration’), but a socio-technical CONCLUSION connectivities might actually facilitate one (i.e. skills, costs, culture, etc.). Ultimately, this work is a beginning to change in the world, and who chang- think about what connectivity means ing connectivities might ultimately Our work highlights a further step to inclusion in the ‘network society.’ benefit. needed, that goes beyond these rath- Connectivity certainly isn’t a suffi- er functional and instrumental ap- cient condition for inclusion and eq- Acknowledgements proaches to connectivity, towards uity, and we need to ask whether it is a This work was also made possible by re- more dynamic perspectives on pow- necessary one. search grants from the International Devel- er within the network society (Prey opment Research Centre, the ESRC/DFID 2012). Put differently, the focus should Connectivity, rather, tends to be an (Grant reference (RES-167-25-0701) not necessarily be on simple measure amplifier: one that often reinforces and ESRC reference (ES/I033777/1)), of inclusion or exclusion - but rather rather than reduces inequality. We and the European Research Council under on power in networks. therefore need to move towards deep- the European Union’s Seventh Framework er critical socio-economic interroga- Programme for Research and Technological Our very understanding of ‘connections of the barriers or structures that Development (FP/2007–2013) / ERC tivity’ could therefore be broadened limit activity and reproduce digital Grant Agreement n. 335716. This paper to incorporate both the ways that inequality. The categorisations devel- was originally conceived as part of the IT for links/connections/connectivities con- oped here offer an empirically-driven Change/IDRC Network Inclusion Roundta- solidate or distribute power, and the and systematic way to understand ble workshop in Bengaluru, India, October ways that that power in manifested in these barriers in more detail. 2014 voice, representation, and the capture

84 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Further Reading

Foster, C. G., and Graham, M. 2015a. The Internet and Tourism Sector. Environment and Planning (in press). in Rwanda. Oxford Internet Institute Report, Oxford, UK. Foster, C. G., and Graham, M. 2015. Connectivity and the Tea Graham, M. 2011.Time Machines and Virtual Portals: The Sector in Rwanda. Oxford Internet Institute Report, Oxford, UK. Spatialities of the Digital Divide. Progress in Development Studies. GoR (2001) National ICT Strategy and Plan NICI, Government 11 (3). 211-227. of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda. Mann, L., Graham, M., and Friederici, N. 2015. The Internet Graham, M., Andersen, C., and Mann, L. 2015 Geographies and Business Process Outsourcing in East Africa. Oxford Internet of Connectivity in East Africa: Trains, Telecommunications, and Institute Report, Oxford, UK. Technological Teleologies. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 40(3) 334-349. Norris, P. (2001) Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide. Cambridge University Press. Graham, M., Hogan, B., Straumann, R. K., and Medhat, A. Prey, R. (2012) The Network’s Blindspot: Exclusion, Exploita- 2014.Uneven Geographies of User-Generated Information: Patterns tion and Marx’s Process-Relational Ontology. TripleC (Cognition, of Increasing Informational Poverty. Annals of the Association of Communication, Co-Operation): Open Access Journal for a Global American Geographers 104(4). 746-764. Sustainable Information Society, 10(2).

Graham, M. & Mann, L. (2013) Imagining a Silicon Savannah? Selwyn, N. (2004) Reconsidering Political and Popular Under- Technological and Conceptual Connectivity in Kenya’s BPO and standings of the Digital Divide. New Media & Society, 6(3), p. Software Development Sectors. The Electronic Journal of Informa- 341. tion Systems in Developing Countries, 56. Warschauer, M. (2003) Dissecting the “Digital Divide”: A Case Graham, M. 2015. Contradictory Connectivity: Spatial Imaginar- Study in Egypt. The Information Society, 19(4), pp. 297–304. ies and Techno-Mediated Positionalities in Kenya’s Outsourcing

85 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN AFRICA’S INFORMATION“REVOLUTION” POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS

Dr. Pádraig Carmody, Trinity College Dublin and University of Johannesburg, Prof. James T. Murphy, Clark University

he world economy spread diffusion of mobile phones investment on the continent has been is characterised and, increasingly, smart phones have heavily concentrated in extractive by a number of signalled to some that the region is industries such as mining and petro- trends; foremost ready and able to “plug in” effectively leum. Also recent reports have shown amongst which are to the global networks of capital and the extent of illicit and legal capital financialization and information, and to thus empower it- flows out of the continent. The min- informationaliza- self in the world system. ICTs offer ing and oil sectors are capital, rather tion. Financial services have become particular hope as tools to support than labour-intensive, and are often highly significant drivers of economic development interventions in educa- associated with significant environ- globalization, transnationalizing in- tion, health, and governance, and as mental and social problems. Moreo- vestor/investment relations and ex- means to help integrate African firms ver, financial services and investment tending the reach of finance capital into global value chains and interna- markets are on the rise throughout far beyond traditional centres such as tional markets. For many in the ICT the region but speculative trading can New York, London, and Tokyo. In- for development (ICT4D) community, have highly negative impacts, par- formationalisation – the increasing the diffusion of mobile phones, com- ticularly when it is accompanied by ability to access, manage, and process puters, and internet access is a game dramatic swings in commodity prices. information at a distance – has ena- changer, one that will dramatically The Zambian kwacha lost 44% of its bled firms to fragment and/or coordi- increase the quality and accessibil- value in 2014-2015 so far on foot of nate their production, exchange, and ity of social services, facilitate growth the decline of the copper price, which service-delivery activities across space and innovation, and help to transform accounts for about three quarters of such that offshoring and outsourcing African economies such that conver- Zambian exports. Financialization have become common in most eco- gence with the West/North is possi- has occurred in lock-step with infor- nomic sectors. ble. mationalization, as trading and investment activities depend heavily on These two trends are linked as new While an ICT enabled “Africa Ris- the ability to manage information and information and communication ing” narrative has dominated much communications through the use of technologies (ICTs) – mobile phones, of the media discussion over the last ICTs. computers, and the internet - have decade, financialization and informa- greatly facilitated financial trading tionalization have not been inevitably As finance and information reshape and, of course, the informationali- or universally positive trends for the the pace and direction of globalisa- zation of business activities. In the region. Capital flows into Africa have tion, it is not clear that real, progres- case of Africa, the rapid and wide- increased but to date multi-national sive economic transformations are

86 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN occurring in conjunction with recent is partly funded by large corporations, opment of other capabilities in pro- growth spurts throughout Africa. such as Microsoft, seeking to open duction, marketing and other infra- ICTs have become commonplace and up new market opportunities in the structure, for example. What basic the region’s connectivity to the World Global South. Likewise, European, ICT diffusion does do, in part, is make Wide Web has increased dramati- Asian, and American states are also Africans consumers of these technol- cally through the installation of new keen to open up new markets for their ogies and consequently dependent undersea cables. For many commen- companies’ products in the “develop- upon foreign producers, particularly tators in the ICT4D community, the ing” world and have been supportive China. Moreover, many of the larg- time is thus right or fast approaching of initiatives to diffuse mobile phones est mobile phone service providers in for Africa to become a more equal and other new ICTs in Africa and else- Africa are multinational corporations partner in, and beneficiary from, eco- where. The academics, entrepreneurs, who repatriate profits to their home nomic globalisation. But how might corporations, and non-governmental and other advanced countries, to the this progressive, ICT-driven, develop- organisations (NGOs) that constitute detriment of the balance of payments ment dynamic play out in reality and the ICT4D community have devel- of the countries where the services are what are the signs that economic and oped numerous technologies and ap- provided. For example, Safaricom, industrialization transformations are plications that are making important, which pioneered the iconic M-Pesa taking hold? Our recent book, Africa’s innovative and scalable contributions mobile money system in Kenya, is Information Revolution: Technical Regimes to improving people’s lives and stand- largely owned by Vodafone, UK. and Production Networks in South Africa ards of living in Africa. However, it and Tanzania, takes on these questions is unclear whether ICT diffusion is What this means is that Africa is pri- with an emphasis on African-owned resulting in economic diversification marily integrated into the global in- enterprises in one manufacturing and and transformations to the structural formation economy as a consumer one service sector. conditions that have governed the re- rather than a producer of these prod- gion’s (largely extractive) relationships ucts and services, thereby replicating In the book our focus is on small, mi- with the global economy for centuries. technological and other forms of de- cro, and medium-sized enterprises as As we describe, Africa has and does pendence. While there are time and many argue that the continent’s eco- play an important role in the global other savings and efficiencies from nomic transformation is likely to be information economy, but its present the ability to transfer money from one driven by upgrading in, and innova- economic structure raises questions place to another, this by itself does tion by, these firms. ICTs are thought about the prospects for ICTs to help not necessarily promote investment to serve as levelling technologies and transform its economies. Specifically, or substantial local business develop- some research has sought to highlight there are three principal roles that ment. The most fundamental devel- the benefits they bring in relation to the continent plays in the economic opmental need on the continent is marketing, finance, production man- changes associated with globalized economic diversification, industrial agement, and service provisioning. informationalization. First, it is an es- deepening and job creation. This re- We examined this issue in detail in sential provider of the raw materials quires African businesses and workers order to see what the actual impacts (e.g., coltan – an electrical capacitator) to improve their positions in the world of ICTs have been on small-business needed in the manufacture of ICTs. economy – one increasingly driven development on the continent. Are Second, African consumers generate by ICT-driven information access, mobile phones and growing inter- significant demand for ICTs, driving flow, and distribution. ICT diffusion net access allowing small businesses manufacturing-led growth in Asia, in then is a potentially promising devel- to transcend geographic constraints particular. Third, Africa serves as a opment for the continent but, as yet, and to produce cheaper, better qual- way-station in the life-cycle of ICTs is not substantially changing Africa’s ity products and services and market through the importation and process- place in the world system, a circum- them overseas? We and our field as- ing of second-hand equipment and stance that looks unlikely to change sistants interviewed more than 200 e-waste that is generated within and anytime soon, particularly with the small, micro, and medium-sized en- outside. Although there are a few “in- end of the commodity boom. terprises in South Africa and Tanza- formationalized” niches in the region, nia to answer this question. We looked e.g., the i-Hub in Nairobi, the digital The challenge for Africa is to con- at firms in the wood products sub-sec- media industry in Cape Town, these struct economic bases which can tor, primarily in furniture production, remain marginally positioned in glob- fund social services and public and and then one of the biggest service al innovation networks and unable to other institutions that are supportive industries in both countries – tourism. generate technological spill overs that of their further deepening and devel- might help to transform their national opment. If ICTs are quintessentially There is now a huge literature on the economies. disruptive technologies in an age of applications of information and com- informational capitalism they should munication technology for develop- Technology diffusion and adoption be contributing to significant im- ment (ICT4D), ranging from health alone cannot be expected to ensure provements in the scope, scale, and care to farming. While not often con- economic and industrial transfor- quality of social services. Social ser- ceived of in these terms, ICT4D is mation, absent structural (political, vices must be paid for, either through fundamentally a social movement that institutional) changes and the devel- tax revenues or aid, and economic re-

87 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN structuring and transformation are a One of the main benefits of new niche markets (e.g., boutique tour- prerequisite to their sustainable fund- ICTs are meant to be that they facili- ism, high-quality/custom furnishings) ing. For example, one study a number tate disintermediation, or the cutting protected from the onslaught of im- of years ago found that those with a out of “middle (wo) men”. However, ported goods and tourism investments secondary education in Ethiopia were what we found in the tourism sector is by foreign interests. The ability to dif- more likely to be unemployed, largely that new intermediaries, which are of- ferentiate in these ways is determined because the economy was not creating ten foreign-based, are arising, cutting initially not by ICT use and access the types of jobs for which they were out local tour operators for example. but by cultivating relationships with qualified and there is an acute short- Some of the big booking websites, high-value clients and the creation of age of paid jobs more generally. ICTs such as Expedia, booking.com, Trip a favourable reputation within niche can contribute to economic diversifi- Advisor or Viator often take substan- markets. Face-to-face interactions and cation by creating effective synergies tial commissions, of in some cases, up shared experiences are critical for and complementarities between social to 25%. However overseas custom- the development of these social and service provisioning and economic ers often prefer to use them rather reputational assets, and ICT based development, with other appropri- than release their credit card details communications and productivity im- ate economic and industrial policies. to small hotels in Africa. Even if they provements marginally contribute to Without these it is likely that Africa’s wanted to, many of the companies we their initial creation. ICT-driven information and commu- spoke to did not have the facilities in nications revolution will remain, at place to process credit cards, in any For most best, a partial effort. case – a kind of chicken and egg co- firms, which nundrum. This neo-intermediation is to say Our research found that the adoption then creates new forms of monopoli- those com- of mobile phones, in particular and sation and surplus extraction, to the peting in perhaps not surprisingly, has been benefit of foreign firms, which are mainstream widespread across the businesses we difficult to contest. One hotel own- or mass- surveyed, and that there were exam- er in South Africa told us “you can’t consumer ples, mostly in South Africa, of in- negotiate with Expedia. You just do markets for novative uses of ICTs. For example, as you are told”. Beyond tourism, goods and some firms tracked the progress of ICTs also facilitate increased imports services, their inputs from Asia using global of furniture into African economies ICTs – es- positioning systems and another firm through intermediaries based locally pecially mo- @ emailed furniture designs to another and abroad. This is driving, in par- bile phones which cut the components using com- ticular, a dramatic increase in Chinese – have be- puter numerically controlled machin- imports which puts intense competi- come widely ery. Many firms source ideas for new tive pressure on local manufacturers used tech- designs over the internet or use mo- who are unable to match China’s nologies bile phones to keep in contact with manufacturing productivity, export that do little customers. However, in general the subsidies, and favourable exchange to differen- applications of new ICTs to produc- rate policies. tiate enter- tion and management are limited. prises from That is to say that although the adop- Despite the tendency toward thin- one another. tion of these technologies is wide- tegration and neo-intermediation, Such firms spread, their integration has often many/most businesses are under- use ICTs been relatively shallow or thin. Firms standably positive about the impacts primarily for communications with often “tack them on” to their existing of new ICTS and unable to imagine customers, workers, and suppliers and ways of doing business rather than us- being in business without them. As there is little evidence of their use in ing them to fundamentally transform one South African micro-entrepre- information storage, processing, and their design, marketing or production neur noted with respect to the impor- management; the kinds of activities capabilities to such an extent that they tance of ICTs for communication with associated with knowledge creation, can increase value creation, enhance- customers, “without mobile phones innovation, and industrial upgrading. ment, and capture, through exports we would be starving”. Whilst this Without such uses, ICTs cannot be for example, although there were might seem like an unequivocal ben- expected to contribute significantly to some example of firms that were able efit for the economy, we argue that industrial and economic transforma- to do this on a small-scale. This thin there is what some economists call tion, but instead serve as basic tech- form of integration (thintegration) a fallacy of composition at play. Al- nologies that allow firms to essentially into the global informational econo- though new ICTs make communica- tread water in highly competitive my reproduces rather than transforms tions easier and, in some cases, help markets. Even where ICT-enabled pre-existing, and often exploitative, businesses to create value and grow, communications provide competitive economic relationships within Africa most business owners we interviewed advantages for individual enterprises, and with international markets. were struggling except in cases where the structure of mass markets means they were able to serve higher-value, that success stories can often yield

88 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN contradictory outcomes. They help ment applications in health and other Our research in Africa demonstrates some new small businesses to estab- social sectors, ICTs help to ameliorate how ICTs, while providing support lish, but often it is bigger more estab- some of the costs and challenges that for pre-existing social, family, and lished firms which can use or leverage Africans face on an everyday basis, business networks, simultaneously them most effectively. serving as palliative tools to improve tend to reproduce economic rela- socioeconomic conditions. These are tions that lead to extraversion (i.e., All told, the impacts of ICTs on pro- important contributions, no doubt, the offshoring of value and profits) ductivity and quality appear, beyond but the promise of Africa’s informa- and the continued peripheralisation some time savings, to be relatively tion revolution – if there is such a of African manufacturers and service marginal for firms struggling to -sur thing – is that it might lead to a trans- providers in the global economy. Ex- vive in domestic markets, while doing formation of the structural conditions tractive and primary-sector industries little to expand exports or access to that create the need for palliation in are governed increasingly by power- internation- the first place. ful interests outside the region, and al markets. petty trade and commercial activities Producing Africans, like people elsewhere on the are becoming key livelihood strate- competitive planet value the functionality, services gies for many Africans unable to find manufac- and opportunities, both social and formal employment in factories and tured goods economic, that new ICTs can bring. businesses. These trends raise impor- or interna- This is one of the reasons they have tant concerns both with respect to the tionally trad- been so rapidly adopted on the con- overly hyped promises of the ICT4D ed services tinent. However, there are also other community, and in terms of whether requires a drivers, including sophisticated mar- Africa can achieve widespread devel- much broad- keting campaigns by transnational opment absent industrial sectors that er range of corporations, social pressures to own are owned and operated locally. capabilities, these devices and the implicit penal- access to fi- ties which arise from exclusion from New ICTs can make major contri- nance, so- employment and other economic and butions not only to African social cial capital, social networks which non-adoption networks, but also to economic de- infrastruc- results in. velopment, through their design and $ ture, support production in Africa. They can also policies, etc. Studies have documented the ways in help to create more distributed forms rather than which people sometimes prefer to put of development if they are absorbed just access to credit on their mobile phones rather into African firms’ practices, such ICTs. than pay their children’s school fees, that they facilitate innovation through for example. This can be seen as a information collection, processing, As the lit- form of negative adoption, where analysis and management. This, erature in- people feel compelled to spend money however, depends on their being indicates, many ICT4D projects fail to on their mobile phones in order to be tegrated into effective industrial and create the benefits promised (e.g., one- able to access work as casual labour- trade strategies which provide infra- laptop-per-child) and yet such failures ers for example. In this case adoption structure, finance, subsidies, training, are all too rarely the focus of care- is the result of market compulsion, and incentives to upgrade and export. ful scrutiny. Worse still, some failed rather than freedom and choice, often ICTs by themselves are not magic or projects or approaches continue to to the benefit of foreign investors. silver bullets to solve the problems of be promoted because the coalition of economic (under)development, but powerful transnational firms and post- Whilst many technologically deter- rather can be a piece of the puzzle of industrial countries support them, minist accounts emphasise the over- how to transform African economies. largely for their own ends, to promote whelming benefits that new ICTs At the moment it is the world’s most market opening. Acknowledging this can bring, we need to temper such powerful economic and political ac- reality is not to ignore the fact that narratives with recognition that, as tors which benefit disproportionately new information and communication Kransberg put it, “technology is nei- from ICTs and informational capi- technologies have made important ther good nor bad; nor is it neutral”. talism. Reworking this will require contributions to African development It depends on the uses to which it is a broader restructuring of power re- but to argue that ICT4D initiatives put. Technological adoption is em- lations – perhaps not a revolution in have yet to demonstrate much in the bedded in pre-existing social prac- the conventional sense of the term, way of structural change with respect tices, routines and structures which but a strengthening of African states to livelihood possibilities, economic it in turn helps re-shape. Moreover, and their reorientation towards devel- diversification, and/or more progres- technologies have embedded in them opmental rather than regime main- sive engagements between African in- valencis or tendencies toward particu- tenance objectives. Economic devel- dustries and the world economy. lar outcomes (e.g., guns tend toward opment is fundamentally a political, violence). rather than a technical or indeed Instead, as in the case of e-develop- technological project.

89 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN THE DATA REVOLUTION IN AFRICA

Prof Laura Mann, Assistant or too long researchers happening behind the screens of the so- Professor, Department of and journalists have fo- called Mobile Phone Revolution, lifting International Development, cused their attention on the cover on the vast potential of the tel- London School of Econom- the end users of mobile ecommunication network for data gather- ics and Political Science. technology. We have ing, surveillance and analysis. While the read story after story ex- farmer on the street is empowered to use tolling the virtues of the her phone to check an address or search mobile phone in Africa. Mobile devices for the official price of tea at the Mom- are said to open up new markets and new basa Tea Auction, the network adminis- channels of information, decreasing pov- trator is empowered to know what all of erty, increasing civic participation and re- Kenya’s tea farmers (on its network) want ducing corruption and crime. But as well- to buy or sell at particular times and in informed readers will undoubtedly be particular places. A database of Kenyan aware, hype abounds when money is to farmers might be as valuable to a large be made. One of the most revolutionary pesticide company and a tax authority as impacts the mobile phone has brought to the official website of the Mombasa Tea Africa has been to reveal the vast com- Auction will be for the individual farmer. mercial potential of poor consumers at The mobile phone will bring revolution- the “Bottom of the Pyramid”. Claims ary changes but we should not be naïve about the poverty-reducing potential of or complacent about whom is being em- the mobile phone help mobile operators powered. and tech companies better market their products and garner the material support The data gathering potential of the mo- and legitimacy of the non-profit sector. bile phone network is likely to transform Any virtuous tale about the mobile phone relationships between citizens and states, is part truth, part marketing ploy and it is between consumers and corporate enti- often difficult to untangle the two. ties, and between corporations and states as well. These transformations are likely More recently and perhaps more inter- to play out in unexpected ways across estingly, scholars and journalists have the varied political and economic con- turned their attention to what has been texts of Africa’s 54 countries. In places

90 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN where states are motivated and anx- charity: big data analytics promise nature of innovation: risk taking and ious about security, this capacity will to make the provision of that char- learning. Innovators need support to undoubtedly be used for surveillance ity more efficient and targeted. For learn and make mistakes. They need and perhaps, political control and clo- example, D4D might help organisa- support to develop the tools and ana- sure. In places where politicians are tions better target scarce resources, lytical thinking necessary to think new under pressure to tackle poverty and track health crises, monitor poverty things and discover new applications. drive economic transformation, data and understand different aspects of Data scientists operating within the may be used to better understand eco- vulnerability. In countries where the D4D field are currently getting that nomic policy-making (and perhaps infrastructure for measuring such support. They are getting access to also political control). And in places problems has been under-funded and public, private and non-profit data where politicians have better things neglected, D4D might be seen as ex- sources (often without the consent of to worry about than security or eco- tremely good news. However, if we the data subjects, or technology user). nomic growth, corporations may have take the view that development isn’t They benefit from the work of non- a freer hand in using data in unmoni- just about charity but about address- profit and government agencies that tored ways. As has been the case with ing the underlying condition of de- go out into communities, educate a lot of past technological innovation, pendence and moving beyond it, then users about the benefits and get peo- mutually beneficial relationships -be we need to start thinking much more ple signed up and online. They ben- tween states and private sector actors about the skills and knowledge being efit from research funds from - inter will undoubtedly form around data developed within D4D projects and national organisations. They benefit exhaust pipes. asking more critical questions about from access to decision-makers and the distribution of economic opportu- experts. They benefit from the repu- In the last two years, ‘Data for Devel- nities being facilitated. tational benefits of Corporate Social opment’ has taken centre stage. The Responsibility. UN has established the Global Pulse Proponents of C.K. Prahalad’s book lab in New York and established satel- ‘Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyra- With the exception of some small but lites in Kampala and Jakarta. Orange mid’ claim that poverty reduction and excellent initiatives like the Data Sci- Telecommunications has held two profit-making can and should be com- ence Academy and the Dedan Kim- ‘Data for Development’ challenges bined. Dirty water is both a public athi University of Technology, much releasing West African call records to health disaster and a business oppor- of this incipient talent is currently be- international researchers and NGOs tunity for water provision companies. ing nurtured outside African econo- hoping to use data to solve ‘devel- Similarly, a mastitis outbreak is both mies, in the firms and universities of opmental problems”. Various North a devastating problem for the dairy advanced economies. American and European-based uni- farmer and a business opportunity versities have used digital data to for the pharmaceutical or m-health Why does it matter? track diseases and conflict dynamics. company. This is all very well. When First, facilitating the flow of data out- African governments and NGOs have projects make money, they don’t reside Africa into the computers of data been encouraged to work with US and quire funding. They become, as some scientists in North America or Europe European-based private sector actors might say, ‘sustainable’. However, does nothing to alter existing inequali- to understand how data can be used wouldn’t the poverty reduction part ties between African countries and effectively to improve their activities of the BOP model would be a whole rich countries. African countries such and have been urged to release their lot more effective if the profit-making as Kenya, South Africa and Egypt data to those with expertise. The UN was locally realised and the profits re- have pools of talented and highly Secretary General and the AU have invested in the host economy? If a lo- educated university graduates, many made declarations promoting public- cal entrepreneur provides the water or of whom are unable to find work. private partnerships as the model for tackles the outbreak, there is indeed a These countries also have outsourcing future D4D initiatives. There is a de- ‘win-win’ in effect. This is the spirit of companies and IT system integration finitive ‘win-win’ narrative circulating capitalism! But if a North American companies with managers who un- in the air. entrepreneur does so and repatriates derstand local economies and social the profit and expertise back to her needs. Given this talent, one might It has been said before but it bears Californian home when she decides ask why IBM is hosting Open Africa repeating: behind every new trend in she wants to start a family, then the Data jams in New York City. Why do international development, there is a win-win becomes rather more tenu- data for development organisations business opportunity. ous. such as Datakind concentrate their training efforts in the technological Actors within the ‘Data for Develop- So whose learning and innovation clusters of rich countries such as New ment’ field operate within a particu- is being nurtured within current York, San Francisco, Dublin, London lar understanding of ‘development’. D4D frameworks? and Singapore? Why did almost all of In many cases, D4D entails improv- Data science is a new and innova- the participants of Orange’s first Data ing services and aid programs to the tive field. Data scientists experiment. for Development challenge in Cote poor. Thus, the ‘development’ in D4D They make mistakes, often costly, D’Ivoire come from outside Africa? might be more accurately defined as dead-end ones. This is precisely the In short, if we want African econo-

91 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Dirty water is both a public health disaster and a Business opportunity for water provision companies. Similarly, a mastitis outbreak is both a devastating problem for the dairy farmer and a business opportunity for the pharmaceutical or m-health company.

mies to grow, transform and develop, to their needs and constituencies. I used to shut down and torment op- then we need to address these ine- commonly listen to the woes of lowly position parties or civil society groups. qualities in expertise. It is not enough civil service staff struggling to imple- We should also remember that while to pay lip service to local entrepre- ment inappropriate and costly IT big data solutions promise to increase neurship in communities like Ihub solutions because their superiors hap- efficiency and reduce corruption, the and Mlab and to declare that M-Pesa pened to be convinced by the impres- actual tenders for large technology is an example of local free-market in- sive presentations of foreign consult- projects often end up in the headlines novation (while failing to mention its ants. In contrast, a system like India’s marred with the same ill they promise origins within a joint DFID-Vodafone biometric identity system, Aadhaar, to cure: corruption. Technology will project); rather we need independent relies on local companies for its im- never be our saviour without smart research into what is actually happen- plementation and administration. people keeping watch and speaking ing in African tech hubs beyond the Encouraging local companies means up when things go awry. Given the media hype, what kinds of benefits lo- lowering the costs of e-government great push to connect African citizens cal companies receive from the pres- projects, boosting local economic and consumers to ICTs, financial in- ence and projects of foreign competi- benefits and potentially building more frastructures and biometric identity tors and what kinds of constraints are knowledge within government about cards, we should be wary of proceed- holding them back. We also need to how these systems operate and run, ing too quickly without the watchful acknowledge that many of the core and what they are capable of. As any eyes of strong consumer rights and ICT innovations that shape our world person with even a passing knowledge civil society groups capable of under- of inter-connected devices such as of data science knows, the real value standing the ethical and privacy im- satellite systems or the Internet itself, of big data is not in the data itself nor plications of increasing personal data had their origins in projects funded by in the technical expertise required but flows. the US government and US military. in the analytical reasoning that puts In other words, government support data insights to good use. It is that History has shown us that top-down has played and continues to play a marriage of technical expertise and efforts to drive change can sometimes role in innovation the world over. As I local understandings that leads to in- fail stunningly and expensively. Even learned through my interviews in the novative uses of the data. for a relatively young researcher in Oxford-University of Nairobi project her thirties, I am aware of the com- (discussed in another article in this Third, the future is likely to bring ings and goings of old wine in new magazine), Kenyan BPO/ITES com- dangers as well as opportunities and bottles. We should be highly dubious panies are increasingly re-orienting it is important for African civil society that international experts will be able their work towards local companies. groups to develop an awareness and to solve Africa’s ‘developmental prob- Seizing the true value of the data rev- level of expertise to monitor data-driv- lems’ if only they had more data. We olution means building up the skills of en forms of surveillance and control. have already learned the importance middle managers and data scientists, As I mentioned above, I do not be- of local ownership and participation, and not just low-cost data proces- lieve big data infrastructures are likely of the importance of appropriate sors. As I explain down below, it also to lead to all-powerful technology technology and of listening to what means ensuring that activists and civil companies by-passing states. Rather, kinds of knowledge and expertise are servants have the awareness to hold we are likely to see cosy relationships already on the scene. It is time we companies and local governments to forming between large technology applied that wisdom to the new data account. firms and their public counterparts infrastructures and concentrate on in government. We have already seen building up the technical and analyti- Second, there is a very real danger evidence that governments inside and cal expertise of the real experts in Af- that inequalities in expertise sur- outside of Africa have used ICT in- rican development: African workers, rounding big data will lead African frastructures to police dissidents and African activists, African researchers, governments and organisations to track groups considered to threaten African civil servants and African make unwise decisions about what public safety and stability. In authori- businesspeople. kinds of systems are most appropriate tarian contexts, this capacity could be

92 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN GROWING THE KENYA BUSINESS PROCESS OUTSOURCING SECTOR

Prof. Mark Graham, Prof. Laura Mann, Dr. Nicolas Friederici, Prof. Timothy Waema

The arrival of East Africa’s first fibre optic cables in 2009 promised a new beginning for Kenya’s economic relationship with the rest of the world. Many hoped the faster and more reliable internet connectivity would boost the country’s nascent Business Processing Out- sourcing (BPO) sector and create 20,000 direct jobs and 10 Billion Kenyan shillings by 2030 (Graham and Mann 2013).

n addition to early invest- out a multi-year (2010-2013) study envisioned. While some homegrown ment into one of the four into the effects of Kenya’s changing firms have been able to capture large cables, the Kenyan gov- Internet connectivity on the country’s amounts of work for foreign clients, ernment called for the nascent business process outsourcing the Kenyan BPO industry does not creation of a 7,500 seat (BPO) and information technology have the depth, scale, costs, and train- BPO Park at the Athi enabled services (ITES) sectors (for ing to compete with competitors like River EPZ, an aggressive more on this work see Mann et al. India. Kenyan firms have often found marketing campaign, 2015 ). This short paper briefly sum- most success focusing on the local and targeted training and the marizes some of the key policy impli- regional markets (Mann and Graham establishment of a new Kenya ICT cations to emerge from that work. 2015). Knowledge of local contexts Board to help guide the development and the remaining importance of of the sector. Key findings in the Kenyan BPO/ proximity to customers have been im- ITES sector portant factors here. A team from the University of Oxford The focus on international BPO and the University of Nairobi carried work has not succeeded as originally The country has been moderately

93 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN successful in attracting foreign BPO/ been an important enabler for the limited high-end ITES work (e.g. soft- ITES firms to Kenya. This success BPO/ITES sector. The resultant fast- ware development and financial con- has the dual benefits of enhancing er and cheaper connectivity is a neces- sulting). The low-end work provides the country’s reputation in the area sary condition for firms operating the much needed jobs, whilst the high-end and creating employment. However, sector. However, some interviewees work contributes to both value cap- there are also potential negative con- complained that costs did not come ture and skills development in Kenya. sequences such as crowding out the down as much nor as fast as predicted. Wherever possible, and in line with market for local firms and pushing Additionally, connectivity alone isn’t a the National ICT Master Plan (Gov- down wages. Foreign firms are also sufficient strategy for a thriving BPO/ ernment of Kenya, 2013), the coun- likely to divide work between geo- ITES industry (Graham 2015). Other try should encourage and support its graphical locations and often retain enablers include: affordable and reli- nascent high-end ITES businesses high value work in other areas. able power, easy and affordable access in order to avoid a low-wage race to to requisite technology and capital the bottom associated with low-end Kenya has been able to build a posi- goods, a supportive regulatory envi- BPO work. But, given the constraints tive and successful brand around the ronment, programs for skills develop- on, and competition in, the high-end BPO/ITES sector. The power of ment, and an ability to make trusted market, low-end BPO work will con- this brand is not to be underestimat- and verifiable payments. tinue to have an important place. In ed. While the brand is largely based the low-end space, it is unlikely that around a few success stories such as Summary of recommendations Kenya will ever be able to compete Kencall and Horizon in the BPO field The recommendations that we out- with the economies of scale that India and M-Pesa and Ushahidi in the wid- line below are derived from the exten- or the Philippines offer, unless their er ITES field, Nairobi is seen by many sive research that we conducted with a labor costs rise substantially in future. businesspeople in Africa and around variety of stakeholders in the Kenyan It will, however, be able to occupy the world as a city able to thrive in a BPO/ITES sector. certain strategically useful niches like digital economy. Many Kenyan firms impact sourcing and customer service report being able to harness Kenya’s Adopt a multi-pronged BPO/ for emerging African markets. digital brand in order to tap into net- ITES strategy. works, opportunities, and financing. Kenya is currently home to both low- Cater to the critical mass of end BPO work (e.g. contact centers digital adopters in the region. The arrival of fibre-optic cables has and microwork) and some relatively There are now over 20 million Inter-

94 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN net users in Kenya, and many more and prevent it from becoming ‘foot- Research and training millions in the East African Commu- loose’ to international shifts. There exists little general knowledge nity. The proliferation of the Internet about the configuration of global and into everyday life means that people, Continue to build the Kenyan regional value chains in the BPO/ businesses, and organizations are cre- brand ITES sector. Some Kenyan firms find ating an unprecedented amount of In part because of a few high-pro- themselves locked into relatively ex- data and requiring an unprecedented file success stories, Kenya is widely ploitative business relationships with amount of digital and customer ser- perceived to be a thriving technol- foreign partners, and others are un- vices. Kenyan BPO/ITES firms have ogy cluster. The power of this brand clear about whether they want to pur- faced many challenges attempting to should not be underestimated, and sue disintermediated strategies, work find work with foreign clients. How- many in Kenya’s BPO/ITES have with intermediaries, or attempt to be- ever, the rapidly growing local and used it to their advantage. The Ken- come intermediaries themselves. Bet- regional market offers local firms an yan government could continue to ter understanding the nodes at which important competitive advantage. build and strengthen this facet of value is captured in the BPO/ITES Proximity to customers and an under- Kenya’s international branding. Con- sector could allow Kenyan managers standing of local contexts and busi- currently, it will be important to en- and entrepreneurs to develop more ness networks can allow Kenyan firms sure that some firms are not damag- targeted strategies. The government to gain a foothold and develop exper- ing the larger industry’s reputation could more explicitly highlight this tise in the face of foreign competition. through poor work. Industry-body need through targeted research pro- led training, registration and certifica- grams. Encourage knowledge spillo- tion schemes would be able to counter vers from foreign BPO/ITES some of those risks. Acknowledgements: work based in Kenya and build This work was also made possible by a re- middle management and high- Financially supporting SMEs search grant from ESRC-DFID [Grant er skillsets. Many Kenyan BPO/ITES firms stress reference (RES-167-25-0701) and ESRC The movement of foreign BPO/ that they are at a disadvantage in ten- reference (ES/I033777/1)] and is also ITES firms to Kenya will have posi- dering processes. Tenders are often supported by funding from the European Re- tive and negative impacts on the configured to require or encourage search Council under the European Union’s homegrown sector. Many Kenyan formal guarantees, foreign backers, or Seventh Framework Program (FP/2007- BPO/ITES managers see the arrival large capital resources. Government 2013) / ERC Grant Agreement n. 335716. of foreign firms as a way of enhanc- departments could potentially loosen ing the country’s reputation, creating some of these tendering require- Bibliography employment, and fostering spillover ments. Whilst such a move would Graham, M. 2015.Contradictory Connec- effects. It is those spillover effects that increase risk, it would also provide a tivity: Spatial Imaginaries and Techno-Me- should be amplified and harnessed. fertile ground for Kenyan SMEs and diated Positionalities in Kenya’s Outsourcing Rather than allowing BPO to be seen entrepreneurs to develop their skills Sector Environment and Planning 47(4) as an extractive industry, government and ultimately expand their business- 867-883. and industry associations could work es. In contrast, the previous subsidy to maximize knowledge spillovers. For given to the sector (supported by the Graham, M. and L. Mann. 2013. Imagin- high-end work, this strategy could en- World Bank) does not appear to have ing a Silicon Savannah? Technological and tail continued support of innovation been particularly effective. It encour- Conceptual Connectivity in Kenya’s BPO hubs and clusters (particularly outside aged unsustainable practices by some and Software Development Sectors. Elec- of Nairobi). Because they often work firms and was thus potentially damag- tronic Journal of Information Systems in with non-standardized tasks, high-end ing to the industry in the longer term. Developing Countries. 56(2). 1-19. software and web developers are most It could be more useful to further sup- in need of clusters and spaces to inter- port local venture capital initiatives to Government of Kenya. 2014. The Kenya act with other developers, clients, and invest in promising early-stage firms. National ICT Masterplan: Towards a Digi- investors. For low-end work, this strat- Some progress has already been made tal Kenya. Kenya ICT Authority. http:// egy could mean re-energizing trade in this regard. While attending an www.icta.go.ke/national-ict-masterplan/ associations and encouraging more ICT innovation week in March 2015, cross-sectorial managerial interac- the President announced a program Mann, L., Graham, M., and Friederici, N. tions. In both high-end and low-end called Enterprise Kenya and made an 2015. The Internet and Business Process work, training should not just focus on initial commitment of KES 1 billion Outsourcing in East Africa. Oxford Internet workers but on managers and middle- to it. This fund would be used to sup- Institute Report, Oxford, UK. http://cii.oii. managers: a group currently in short port technology (largely ICT) start-up ox.ac.uk/bpo-report/ supply within the BPO/ITES sector. companies with high potential. The Enhancing the skills of managers will setup of this fund is still work in pro- Mann, L. and Graham, M. 2015.The Do- help Kenya to gain a stronger control gress. At the same time, the number mestic Turn: Business Process Outsourcing over strategic decision-making future of technology incubation and accel- and the Growing Automation of Kenyan Or- and may help to embed the sector eration hubs is increasing in Nairobi. ganizations Journal of Development Studies more deeply into the local economy (forthcoming).

95 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN THE MOBILE MONEY EXPERIENCE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

LESSONS FROM THE INSTITUTE FOR MONEY, TECHNOLOGY & FINANCIAL INCLUSION (IMTFI)

Dr. Mrinalini Tankha, Postdoctoral Scholar, IMTFI, University of California, Irvine

Think back to 2008: the first iPhone had just been released. M-Pesa, Safaricom’s mobile money transfer service, was just beginning to hit the Kenyan countryside. The extent of the global financial crisis was becoming known.

t the University of and microfinance and microcredit cycle, in assessing the successes or fail- California, Irvine, programs. Five years later, in 2014, ures of mobile phone-enabled finan- south of Los Ange- almost all of IMTFI projects involved cial products and services. IMTFI’s les, researchers had research on mobile money, and 50% trajectory has reflected and helped to just begun thinking were being conducted in countries in drive the burgeoning worldwide inter- about the collision Africa. est in and expansion of mobile phone between mobiles technology as an instrument of finan- and money. Founded that same year, Over these past few years, IMTFI’s cial inclusion. Here, we take a closer the Institute for Money, Technology researchers have used their data to look at IMTFI’s unique methodologi- and Financial Inclusion (IMTFI) was shift the global conversation about cal approach and highlight its findings in the process of supporting its first mobile money - for example from the over the years to provide key insights set of research projects, in countries sluggishness of uptake to questions into the shifting stakes and new direc- ranging from Nigeria to Indonesia. about consumer protection, or from tions for mobile money research in When it funded its first cohort of 17 mobile money as a simple money sub-Saharan Africa. researchers from around the world in transfer service to a whole electronic 2009, only a handful were exploring payments ecosystem. IMTFI has also IMTFI’s Approach and Methodol- the expansion of mobile money tech- set the research agenda around issues ogy nology. Three of the projects were in of community remoteness and mobile IMTFI, housed in the Department sub-Saharan Africa–in Kenya, Bot- money, hierarchical social relations of Anthropology at the University swana and Nigeria. The other pro- in determining uptake, and the role of California, Irvine, specializes in jects focused largely on alternative of deep histories, often much longer research that explores the intersec- currencies, informal savings practices, than the current quarter or business tion of everyday monetary behavior

96 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN By Ben Lyon

Mobile Phone with SMS credit in Sierra Leone

and technological change. IMTFI dertaken by scholars and practitioners sist primarily of paper notes, coins, funds original research on cultures of who are themselves from the coun- bankcards and online computers. Or money around the world, and it serves tries where they are conducting their it may involve small herding animals, as a clearinghouse for research on the research. This international network cattle, family-owned land, kinship re- emerging mobile money phenom- of scholars has broadened and deep- lationships, gold jewelry and a small enon, as well as an archive of people’s ened global understandings of digital store of cash. Cataloging the various everyday socio-economic, ritual, and financial inclusion by adding voices entities and devices (broadly defined) religious engagements with money. from the Global South, especially Af- in a person or community’s monetary It issues an annual call for proposals rica. With an emphasis on in-depth, ecology provides the opportunity and invites researchers from around qualitative approaches to research- to understand the relationships and the world to apply for small grants ing people’s financial lives, IMTFI flows among them. to support projects of 9-12 months informs a range of policy, advocacy, in duration. Proposals are reviewed and design agendas. Monetary repertoires refer to all the by a team of academics and industry ways people might use, deploy or experts. The process is competitive— Monetary Ecologies and Mon- manipulate the components of their last year, only 11% of the 192 propos- etary Repertoires monetary ecology. This could be the als received were funded. IMTFI uses IMTFI’s approach to conducting re- actions a person might undertake with this process to find researchers inter- search on people’s engagements with a monetary ecology as well as the skill, ested in money, mobile and technol- mobile money technologies builds on style and effectiveness with which they ogy, who can then contribute to the prior work in the anthropology of do it - like a conductor with an orches- worldwide discussions about mobile money as well as industry perspec- tra. IMTFI’s objective then, is to un- money and financial inclusion. tives. IMTFI has developed the paired derstand the place of mobile money concepts of “monetary ecologies” in the shifting monetary ecologies and Over the years IMTFI projects have and “monetary repertoires.” Mon- repertoires within which people oper- focused on user perspectives of the etary ecologies are those assemblages ate and make meaning in their lives. social uses and meanings of money of technologies, objects, animals, peo- Paying attention to a given commu- and mobile money, design innova- ple, relationships, forms of property, nity’s “traditional” monetary prag- tion in the mobile money space and and methods of record-keeping that, matics and attitudes toward finance qualitative research on the interface together, make up the world of value has been influential in designing new of money and the mobile platform. and exchange in people’s everyday mobile financial services deployments More than 70% of projects are un- lives. A monetary ecology might con- that people will actually use. IMTFI

97 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN By Steve McCord

IMTFI researchers mapping mobile money social networks at the 2014 conference workshop.

research suggests that insights like ally being used for: male circumcision where they can both acknowledge these can only come from engaged, rituals. and question their own expectations qualitative research with the popula- and assumptions about how money tions for whom such services are in- Being from the communities that they ought to circulate. For instance, one tended. are studying gives researchers privi- researcher from Ghana casually stat- leged access to information that can ed that since someone was a “queen” In-situ Research only be gained through their own par- (of high status) she was supposed to IMTFI stresses the importance of ticipation in the community and inser- be generous and share her money. He researchers who are accepted into tion into social networks and cannot suggested that common statements and are often from the communities be grasped by (or is often misreported that “mobile money is only for rich they are studying. The backgrounds in) large surveys or questionnaires. In people” sometimes refers not to eco- of IMTFI researchers allow them the open session at one of the IMTFI nomic wealth, but social position, ex- to be more attuned to local nuances conferences, one researcher from Ni- pressing dominant normative frame- of how people use and understand geria recounted how he had deposited works of how hierarchy functions in money and technology. As part of this money in a local bank in Nigeria be- some parts of sub-Saharan Africa. methodological approach, IMTFI fore going abroad to study, but when IMTFI researchers’ own financial organizes a conference in Southern he returned the bank had failed and lives and engagements with money California for its funded researchers he had lost all his money. This led are therefore critical for new scholarly to present their preliminary findings to a spirited discussion during the reflections on money and technology and receive feedback from their peers. closed session, when other research- and lead to new industry-relevant in- One day of the conference is dedi- ers openly discussed how no one—not sights. cated to brainstorming about patterns even themselves—trusted the banks in across the countries and field sites, their countries. Thus researchers’ own Shifts in the Mobile Money Land- and addressing unanticipated occur- experiences of financial instability scape: Money Transfer to Money rences and findings. This is the time contribute to their conclusions about Ecosystem when researchers’ own biases and whether, for example, a mobile net- It is easy to forget that mobile money local knowledge get expressed more work operator’s mobile money service really began as an ancillary service to vividly. In one workshop session, after can be a more reliable instrument for microfinance operations that gained much deliberation about how inform- savings than a bank. prominence in Africa and all around ants reported that their mobile money the world with the awarding of the use was largely for school fees, a re- In this way, IMTFI researchers bring Nobel Peace Prize in 2006 to Mu- searcher studying kenya finally threw their own historically and culturally hammad Yunus and the Grameen up her arms in frustration and called situated understandings to their re- Bank. But microfinance has always everyone out for not discussing what search, and the workshop sessions had problems with “back office” op- they knew mobile money was often re- allow for moments of self-reflexivity erations. Monthly meetings with peo-

98 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN By Ivan Small

M-Pesa Kiosk in Nairobi

ple exchanging small sums of money est in channeling the service for some- er the mobile network should be ag- needed a central record keeper and thing more. As the dangers of credit nostic as to what financial service was accounting system, usually being done became more apparent, especially in carried over it. At the Global Savings by hand. Microfinance donor agen- the wake of the global financial crisis, Forum, paradoxically perhaps, IM- cies and technology companies inter- several critiques were levied against TFI Director Bill Maurer and other ested in microfinance to impact their microfinance and some began to ar- partners started wondering aloud own double bottom line saw in the gue that the mobile phone could be whether mobile money was better mobile phone a promising solution to used not just for microcredit, but also seen not as a potential savings system, facilitate both transfers of money and for microsavings. The mobile phone but as an electronic payments system. the back-end accounting and process- was considered to be a good correc- Could mobile money operate like a ing of these numerous transactions. It tive to the problems of microcredit payment network that could be used is important to remember that these by being a doorway to the formal fi- for anything, not just for mini savings devices, like the old Nokia mobile nancial sector - banking and savings. banks? This insight led him and oth- phones, had very basic features that It was anticipated that other services, er researchers to start exploring how in the age of smartphone prolifera- like insurance and even credit services the payments industry in Europe, the tion seem exceptionally simple. At the could be added down the line. There United States and the global South time, however, trading cash for elec- was a big push for this savings agenda actually functioned and to seek to un- tronic value solved many problems at the Global Savings Forum spon- derstand the infrastructures that serve all at once, from cash handling to sored by the Bill and Melinda Gates as the backbone for any kind of finan- transportation. The risk of theft and Foundation, held in Seattle in Novem- cial product. In the United States, for the accounting problem were both ber 2010. example, the electronic movement of taken care of by the mobile network money is facilitated by the Automated operator that could track all the trans- Even as some data was coming in that Clearing House (ACH), as well as the actions. Mobile money also did not showed various uses of the mobile debit and credit networks created by require heavy investment in infra- phone to facilitate small savings— banks. structure because cell towers could be such as people sending money to set up in the countryside and could themselves as a way to prevent them Prompted by the realization that run on generators rather than being from spending it—other data showed perhaps we should be looking more wired into an electricity grid. an even wider range of uses. In fact, closely at payment, IMTFI and its savings was also problematic: in coun- researchers did a landscaping exercise If solving the back-end problems of tries with weak currencies, saving of M-Pesa in Kenya. Instead of being microfinance was the initial motiva- in the form of money might be less proscriptive, they took stock of what tion for mobile phone-enabled money rational than saving in the form of was happening on the ground as new transfer systems, on the ground and in land or livestock. People in the mobile businesses and startups popped up to the donor community there was inter- money space began to wonder wheth- build on top of M-Pesa other kinds of

99 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN By Sibel Kusimba

Nodes in Mobile Money Social Networks in Kenya by

services for consumers. Researchers in cash to the electricity company. In ture and large unbanked populations, in Nairobi went door to door to see order for these mobile money services the M-Pesa model has not been eas- what products these new companies to really take off, and to provide ben- ily replicated. This is in large part due were offering–savings, medical insur- efits to people in the form of reduc- to differences in political economic ance, life insurance, agricultural ining their reliance on physical cash and and socio-cultural arrangements, reli- surance, different kinds of credit, etc. the time and distance cash transac- gious practices, and rural-urban and The conclusions of this study can be tions can require—not to mention the transnational migration patterns—all found in an article titled “An Emerg- threats they pose—a large number of which impact cultural sensitivities ing Platform: From Money Transfer of institutions need to be able to ac- around money, not to mention the di- System to Mobile Money Ecosystem” cept electronic payments in order to versity of monetary instruments and in MIT’s journal Innovations where the see the multiplier effect of a payment their repertoires of use. authors argue that M-Pesa was tran- ecosystem. sitioning from being simply a money Nonetheless, there is a rapidly evolv- transfer system, whether for microfi- The World Bank Group’s Global Fin- ing mobile money ecosystem in sub- nance or peer-to-peer transactions, dex Database 2014 shows that sub- Saharan Africa. Providers are finding into supporting an entire payment Saharan Africa has the highest rate of ways to combine the back-end systems ecosystem. By payment ecosystem, mobile money penetration, with 12% of existing financial institutions with the authors mean a service that ena- of adults (64 million adults) having the mobile money platform to offer a bles a whole host of other services to mobile money accounts. Several other range of person-to-person (P2P) and operate on top of it, each of which is studies discuss the explosive growth of government-to-person (G2P) transfer dependent to some extent on all the mobile money schemes and the large services and savings, as well as credit others. percentage of global mobile money and micro insurance products. This transactions taking place in Africa. developing industry has enabled other With any electronic payment system, While the M-Pesa model in Kenya mobile-based products and services in there need to be enough opportunities has been much celebrated, its success the agricultural sector such as provid- for customers to use electronic value is widely attributed to a confluence ing market prices for crops, weather in multiple locations for different of specific circumstances that include forecasts and microinsurance for agri- products and services. For instance, Safaricom’s sizeable national market cultural harvests. A number of health- if there is electronic disbursement share and the enabling regulatory en- related mobile applications have also of government benefits but no way vironment. While other countries in emerged to give health advice and to pay utility bills electronically, peo- sub-Saharan Africa evince conditions assistance as to well as determine the ple will just cash out the government similar to that of Kenya, with poor authenticity of medication. benefits and walk over to pay the bill financial brick and mortar infrastruc-

100 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Cross-border money transfers have tain how mobile money complements is layered on top of communications proven a particularly difficult use case or conflicts with existing financial networks it also gives expression to to solve. There are foreign exchange practices. and can change social networks. In problems, regulatory differences be- Rank and Hierarchy such networks, specific individuals tween countries, and infrastructural IMTFI has found that rank and hier- often become key nodes linking rela- incompatibilities, among other issues. archy play a critical role in determin- tives, reactivating relationships, and Informal channels like hawala have ing people’s perceptions and adoption accumulating power within a group. been indispensable for end-users who of mobile money. Rank refers not spe- These can be elders or sometimes do not trust or feel they cannot afford cifically to socioeconomic status, but a even children. In cases from West Af- other money transfer services. But person’s position in what are generally rica like Ghana and Nigeria, we also recently, “pan-African” mobile net- descent-based or community-based find that intermediated use is hierar- work operators (MNOs) such as Air- groups organized hierarchically. Prac- chically organized. What this means tel (Zambia, Rwanda, and DRC) and tices of mobile money are often deter- for the industry is that product design- Tigo (Tanzania and Rwanda) have mined by how social relationships are ers should not assume that the owner been expanding their domestic P2P ordered among kin and peers. One of a phone or the user of a service is services to facilitate the movement of consistent pattern found in IMTFI re- necessarily one person—it may be a cross-border remittances. Where their search is the variation in Eastern and person plus a helper, and the social network coverage maps onto existing Western African countries’ mobile characteristics of that helper and his/ trans-boundary remittance corridors, money experience. Whereas some of her relationship to the end user may we can expect them to be successful. these differences can be attributed to matter a great deal in how the service regulatory differences or contrasts in or device ultimately gets used. Enduring questions and the role the state of the market and competi- of deep Histories tion among mobile carriers, there are The sharing of mobile phones by Despite these shifts in the assemblage also distinctions in mobile money use many individuals has been widely of services, technologies and opera- based on the ways people have expe- documented in Africa and IMTFI tors in the mobile money ecosystem, rienced social hierarchy historically in researchers show how in Rwanda, for the work supported by IMTFI to these different regions. In Eastern Af- instance, women are more likely to date reveals several enduring themes rica, mobile money is more easily inte- share phones and the owners of mo- and organizing frameworks for coun- grated into pre-existing kin networks. bile phones tend to be wealthier, bet- tries in sub-Saharan Africa. Many of We therefore see a lateral diffusion of ter educated men (Blumenstock and these questions echo the concerns of mobile money, which permits peo- Eagle 2012). In a recent discussion anthropological investigations in Af- ple to use it to draw in even far-away with MasterCard’s Inclusion Hub, rica long before the advent of mobile nodes into their social networks, link- the IMTFI team advocated for any money. Sub-Saharan Africa was a ing relatives across time and distance good financial inclusion strategy to major research site for anthropologists (Kusimba et al. 2013). In West Africa, take gender into account. Several IM- due to European colonialism as well on the other hand, mobile money is TFI studies have shown how mobile as its diverse and complex socio-eco- seen as something for people of high money has led to the empowerment nomic exchange systems. Anthropolo- status that poor clients shy away from and social and financial inclusion of gists have spent decades studying the adopting it (Dzokoto & Appiah 2014; women in rural and urban contexts. ways people in parts of sub-Saharan Omeje 2013); people of higher social Research from Southern Uganda Africa historically classified and made or economic status are thus expected shows how rural women have benefit- distinctions between money and non- to distribute funds through mobile ted from access to mobile phones and money “spheres of exchange” that money. IMTFI research shows how mobile money, especially for support preserved social relationships of sta- these differences in systems of so- from kin during times of crisis and tus and power particularly through cial organization affect how mobile need (Guma 2015). In Kenya, we see the movement of bride wealth. The money circulates more horizontally in that women, grandmothers in par- money sphere was associated with East Africa than in West Africa where ticular, have gained power as brokers self-interest and personal consump- transactions are oriented more verti- that manage the flow of mobile mon- tion whereas exchange in non-money cally. ey through social networks of trust spheres (particularly cattle) was seen and reciprocity (Kusimba et al. 2013). to foster social relationships of trust Researchers who study how people While mobile money technology has and solidarity. In practice however, interact with mobile technology have provided new financial and livelihood hybrid systems prevailed, even though long noted the phenomenon of inter- opportunities for many women and conversions between the two spheres mediated use: that is, the person who women’s groups in Africa, IMTFI re- involved some tension. Understand- uses the phone often has assistance searchers also provide reminders of ings of historical cultural schema are from kin, children or friends (see Sam- the persistence of hierarchically de- imperative to frame and situate simi- basivan, Cutrell & Nardi 2010). IM- fined gender roles and experiences of lar differentiations made between mo- TFI researchers too have found that financial exclusion and poverty expe- bile money and other transactions in intermediated use plays a key role rienced by more vulnerable groups of cash, livestock, or land in contempo- in mobile money adoption. Our re- women, such as those with disabilities rary sub-Saharan Africa and to ascer- search shows that since mobile money (Kiiti and Mutinda 2011).

101 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN By Sibel Kusimba

Coming of Age Ceremony in Kenya

sion ceremonies in Kenya, M-Pesa have to include ways of personaliz- Ritual and Religion is used for hidden transactions as a ing gifts and recording contributions Research also shows that mobile “contingency fund,” whereas cattle is to religious institutions (Mesfin 2012). money is not just about economic used to publicly express the continuity In addition to the ritual uses of cash, exchange but is influenced greatly by and solidarity of the patriline as well IMTFI researchers also stress taking social practices of ritual and religion. as an informal savings mechanism the preference for cash more seriously Anthropologists have demonstrated (Kusimba et al. 2015). In Nigeria, because of the larger social, moral extensively that despite the constant borrowing and saving from deities is and “spiritual” functions it fulfills in emphasis in sub-Saharan Africa on common and chief priests have the fi- cultivating and nurturing social rela- communal ties, reciprocal obligations, nal word in financial matters (Kenechi tionships through face-to-face interac- and notions of “wealth in people,” and Uchenna 2015; Omeje 2013). In tions that go beyond just monetary ex- hierarchies based on gender, age-sets, rural Ghana, the “dead decide” the change (Omwansa and Waema 2014). lineage, ancestors and deities are per- ends toward which mobile money can vasive and often strengthened through be used but the ancestors themselves Stickiness of Trust ritual. However, in the context of do not accept fees in mobile money Social lending groups, such as ROS- shifting rural/urban labor arrange- because they want their worldly in- CAs, have long been viewed as effec- ments, kinship networks and domestic termediaries to touch the cold, hard tive financial strategies for the poor and international migration patterns, cash (Santuah 2015); in urban Ghana because their group nature contains mobile-money as a new channel of the intangible and invisible nature mechanisms for building and main- monetary transfer and store of wealth of mobile-based contributions make taining trust. Digitizing such groups is often seen as disturbing or under- them undesirable in church activities is sometimes a goal of mobile money mining traditional hierarchies by redi- such as funerals and weddings where projects. Yet there are more kinds of recting value flows. donations are markers of status and groups and more kinds of trust than religious merit that have to be seen the academic or policy literature The work of several IMTFI research- (Dzokoto & Appiah 2014). is generally attuned to. IMTFI re- ers supports these claims and also searchers paint a more complex pic- shows how ritual and religion sus- The importance of visible cash dona- ture of trust and the role of groups by tains differentiated uses of money to tions for ritual have also been docu- considering men’s gambling groups uphold traditional kin relations, hi- mented in Ethiopia and show that formed around sports betting in erarchies and social institutions. For for mobile money to be adopted into Uganda (Yawe and Ssengooba 2014); instance, in coming-of-age circumci- these practices, design features will old forms of informal banking such

102 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Isaac B. Oluwatayo and Titilayo B. Oluwatayo Isaac B. Oluwatayo and Titilayo

Small ruminants as sources of financial security in Nigeria

as Susu savings operations in Ghana developed around more formal ser- derstandings of value and impacts (Osei-Assibey 2014); as well as how vices relying on “institutional trust” how people adopt a new technology mobile money facilitates and extends in banks, unreliable network quality of money. A deeper understanding of njangi sociality and social solidarity can undermine trust in the service the several instruments that constitute in Cameroon (Nyamnjoh and Fuh and affect adoption rates (Nartey and monetary ecologies alongside mobile 2014). Trust in different instruments David-West 2015). IMTFI studies also money will also allow designers to de- in a monetary ecology is also a criti- show the ways long standing systems velop products, services and interfaces cal site of inquiry and is embedded of money transfer such as hawala and that target the specific uses of the in deep contextual histories. People newer technologies like mobile mon- mobile platform and reflect everyday in many countries of the global South ey get reinvented and play a critical practices of earmarking¬–that is, set- have in their own or their parents’ role in providing security and mobil- ting aside different stores of money lifetimes experienced profound eco- ity during times of political volatility, for special uses. Attention to denomi- nomic shocks, political crisis, violence forced migration and displacement, nation, metadata and the aesthetics and displacement, and the failure of as seen in the case of Somali refu- of mobile money (Mesfin 2014) could institutions. These histories help ac- gees (Iazzolino 2014). On the other offer specific insights for design solu- count for why, for instance, banks may hand, amidst its lack of international tions and improvements of the user be more trusted in some countries recognition as an independent nation interface. Such solutions might, for than others. Insights from IMTFI re- state, in Somaliland we see how mo- example, take into account the needs searchers also show that people prefer bile money service Zaad capitalizes of populations such as the illiterate, to store value in gold or buy land or on trust in US Dollars by enabling the develop voice-enabled software for plant trees as more stable long term transfer and storage of hard currency mobile money transactions, or offer investments or in small animals or at a time of economic and political in- transfer amounts in multiples of num- ruminants (Oluwatayo & Oluwatayo stability and profound mistrust in So- bers that are consistent with local sys- 2012). maliland’s state institutions (Iazzolino tems of accounting. Research can, in 2015). short, help the industry design more There is a large body of literature socioculturally appropriate products on the “illiquidity preference” of Future Directions for Mobile Mon- and services (see also IMTFI Design the poor and we see this preference ey Research Principles 2010). endure in Africa with the introduc- How people handle, count, store, tion of mobile money. Even in cases hide, show off, and even alter their IMTFI research, for example on where mobile money services have money lends insight into broader un- ATM fraud in Nigeria (Tade and

103 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN DO USERS VIEW MOBILE MONEY AS A GOVERNMENT SERVICE, A PROFIT-ORIENTED BUSINESS OR A DONOR-DRIVEN ENTERPRISE?

Adeniyi 2014), shows that there is a gress, is examining services such as data? What opportunities and pitfalls need for more work on fraud and data M-Shwari for M-Pesa customers op- lie in the rise of Big Data for mobile privacy in mobile money systems, erating small-to-medium-sized infor- money? Finally, smart phones require particularly as they get linked to bio- mal businesses in the Jua Kali sector a lot more electricity. IMTFI has con- metric identification systems, suggest- (Kiiti et al. 2014). Such work needs to sistently argued that we cannot un- ing avenues for consumer protection be elaborated upon, alongside inquir- derstand mobile money separate from for mobile money users (Donovan ies into new cross-border remittance the other infrastructures—such as the 2013). IMTFI researchers have spot- services provided through tie-ups such electrical grid—on which it relies. If lighted the specific needs of vulner- as Tigo (Tanzania and Rwanda), and there is room to expand the financial able populations, such as the elderly between Safaricom (Kenya) and Vo- inclusion research agenda to include, and the visually impaired (Kiiti and dacom (Tanzania) to see how they af- say, goats, there must also be room for Mutinda 2011). While there is overall fect mobile money adoption. it to include electricity provision. consensus about the urgent need for development policy to address wom- To further unpack the stubborn na- Since 2008, the Institute for Money, en’s financial inclusion, more consid- ture of trust in mobile money uptake, Technology and Financial Inclusion eration is required of the specific cul- a firmer grasp on mobile money users’ has developed a rich archive of the use turally embedded and differentiated (and non-users’) sense of who or what cases for money, mobiles and mobile ways that women and adolescent girls is behind the service would be benefi- money throughout the world. It has use and deploy mobile technology; a cial. Do users view mobile money as a done so by fostering a globally distrib- theme being explored by some of IM- government service, a profit-oriented uted and locally embedded network TFI’s current cohort of researchers business or a donor-driven enterprise? of researchers who add their unique in Nigeria, Kenya and Ivory Coast. Do they lump it with other services or perspectives and in-depth, grounded A closer look at the curricula, train- institutions like banks or particular observations to the larger conversa- ings and strategies of financial litera- government agencies? Answers to tion on digital financial inclusion. In cy and education programs is also of some of these questions could provide the process, IMTFI has contributed particular importance to understand a better understanding of how trust insights that inform academic, policy their role in mobile money adoption. in these institutions or organizations, and industry discussions. It has also Initiatives such as the Bank of Zam- or the reliability of infrastructure, perhaps generated more questions bia’s National Strategy on Financial attaches itself to associated mobile and provided fodder for future de- Education and its Financial Literacy money services. It also helps assess the bates, all the while keeping a watch- Week 2014 would be a good test case potential benefits–as well as the possi- ful eye on how technology is changing to see how mobile money is explained ble pitfalls–of financial inclusion, un- the future of money in sub-Saharan and advocated for, and whether the derstood as the greater incorporation Africa and beyond. way mobile money is presented in into (and dependence on) corporate- educational materials starts from an or government-run financial services For more information, please visit www.im- understanding of what people are do- as opposed to communal, familial tfi.uci.edu, or read Bill Maurer’s new book, ing with it now. and/or traditional practices. How Would You Like to Pay? How Technol- ogy is Changing the Future of Money (Duke The bundling of different mobile- Meanwhile, the technological land- University Press, 2015). based financial services (bill pay, scape is shifting—rapidly. Smart credit and microinsurance etc.) and phones are achieving wide distribu- Works Cited other e-services in sectors like health, tion. The rise of the smart phone will Blumenstock, Joshua Even and Nathan Ea- agriculture, disaster management and bring with it a series of network shits gle. “Divided We Call: Disparities in Access social assistance programs needs to and platform shifts. How will people and Use of Mobile Phones in Rwanda, In- be further investigated in relation to adapt to these shifts, just as they are formation Technology and International De- money transfer. One IMTFI study beginning to use mobile money more velopment” Research Paper, USC Annenberg shows how clients used M-Pesa more and more successfully to manage their School for Communication & Journalism. when it was bundled with more com- everyday financial lives? Further- 8(2): 1-16. plex financial services such as micro- more, smart phones are much more http://www.jblumenstock.com/files/pa- finance loan receipt and repayment data-intensive devices than feature pers/jblumenstock_itid2012.pdf (Omwansa and Waema 2014). An- phones. How will people and compa- Donovan, Kevin. 2013. “SIM Registra- other IMTFI study, currently in pro- nies think about, manage and use this tion and Financial Inclusion in the “Silicon

104 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Savannah” IMTFI blog post, January, 22, blog post, November 20, 2014 Oluwatayo, Isaac B., and Titilayo B. Olu- 2013 http://blog.imtfi.uci.edu/2014/11/les- watayo. 2012. “Small Ruminants as a http://blog.imtfi.uci.edu/2013/01/sim- sons-from-field-m-shwari-and-jua.html Source of Financial Security: A Case Study registration-and-financial.html of Women in Rural Southwest Nigeria.” Kusimba, Sibel, Harpieth Chaggar, Eliza- IMTFI Working Paper 2012-2. Dzokoto, Vivian A. and Elizabeth Appiah. beth Gross and Gabriel Kunyu. 2013. “So- http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/blog_work- 2014. “Making Sense of Mobile Money in cial Networks of Mobile Money in Kenya.” ing_papers/2012-2_oluwatayo.pdf Urban Ghana: Personal, Business, Social, IMTFI Working Paper 2013-1 http:// and Financial Inclusion Prospects.” IMTFI www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/2013-1_kusim- Omeje, Kenneth, 2013. “Oracular Deities as Final Research Report. (2014) http:// ba_1.pdf Traditional Sources of Credit among the Igbo www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/docs/2014/dz- of Nigeria”. Folk Life: Journal of Ethno- koto_final_report_feb2014.pdf Kusimba, Sibel, Gabriel Kunyu and Alex- logical Studies. 51.2: 107–129 ander Wanyama. 2015. “The Contingency Guma, Prince Karakire. 2015. “Reimag- Fund and the Thirteenth Cow: Mobile Mon- Omwansa, Tonny and Timothy Waema. ining Rurality in Mobile Money Times: ey and Coming of Age in Western Kenya.” 2014. “The Impact of Pure Mobile Micro- Life, Identity, and Community in Southern IMTFI Final Research Report (2015). financing on the Poor: Kenya’s Musoni Ex- Uganda (Part I & II)” IMTFI blog post, http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/ perience” IMTFI Working Paper 2014-2 September 21, 2015. docs/2015/Final%20Report%20Kusim- http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/blog_work- http://blog.imtfi.uci.edu/2015/09/reim- ba.pdf ing_papers/2014-2_Omwansa_and_ agining-rurality-in-mobile-money.html Waema.pdf MasterCard Inclusion Hub, 2015. “Ex- Iazzolino, Gianluca. 2014. “Contingency pert View: Any Good Financial Inclusion Osei-Assibey, Eric. 2014. “What Drives Routes: Somali Financial Flows and Trans- Policy Must Address Gender.” September Behavioral Intention of Mobile Money national Spaces between Kenya and Ugan- 14, 2015. Adoption? The Case of Ancient Susu Sav- da.” IMTI Final Report 2014. http://inclusionhub.mastercardcenter.org/ ing Operations in Ghana.” IMTFI Working http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/ features/5943/expert-view-any-good- Paper 2014-1 docs/2014/gianlucaiazzolino_report_fi- financial-inclusion-policy-must-address- http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/blog_work- nal_101414_2.pdf gender/ ing_papers/2014-1_ossei-assibey.pdf

Iazzolino, Gianluca. 2015. “Following Mesfin, Woldmariam F. 2012. “Under- Sambasivan, N., Cutrell, E., Toyama, K., Mobile Money in Somaliland” Rift Valley standing Social Relations and Payments & Nardi, B. 2010. Intermediated technol- Institute Forum Research Paper 4. Among the Poor in Ethiopia” IMTFI ogy use in developing countries. Proceedings http://riftvalley.net/download/file/ Working Paper July 16, 2012 http:// of CHI 2010, Human Factors in Comput- fid/3870 www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/blog_working_pa- ing Systems, Atlanta. pers/2012-6_mesfin.pdf Kendall, Jake, Bill Maurer, Phillip Ma- Santuah, Francis Niagia. 2015. “One Op- choka, and Clara Veniard. “An Emerging Mesfin, Woldmariam F. 2014. “One re- tion, Divided Option.” IMTFI blog post. Platform: From Money Transfer System to searcher’s thoughts on money and metadata May 26, 2015. http://blog.imtfi.uci. Mobile Money Ecosystem” Innovations, based on fieldwork in Ethiopia.” IMTFI edu/2015/05/one-option-divided-opinion. Volume 6, Issue 4, pp. 49-64, 2012. blog post, May 20, 2014 http://blog. html http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/ imtfi.uci.edu/2014/05/one-researchers- pdf/10.1162/INOV_a_00100 thoughts-on-money-and.html Tade, Oluwatayo and Oluwatosin Adeniyi. 2014. “Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Kenechi, Onyima Jude and Onugu Charles Nartey, Lite J. and Olayinka David-West. Uses and Challenges in Southwest Nigeria” Uchenna. 2015. “Wealth Without Curren- 2015. “Mobile Money Utility & Finan- IMTFI blog post, September 22, 2014 cy: Social Money Usage in Rural Nigeria.” cial Inclusion: Insights from Unbanked Poor http://blog.imtfi.uci.edu/2014/09/auto- IMTFI blog post, August 3, 2015. End-Users in Nigeria and Ghana.” IMTFI mated-teller-machine-atm-uses-and.html http://blog.imtfi.uci.edu/2015/08/ blog post, November 15, 2015 wealth-without-currency-social-money.html http://blog.imtfi.uci.edu/2015/11/mo- Yawe, Bruno and Kizito Ssengooba. 2014. bile-money-utility-financial.html “Gambling and Mobile Money Payments: A Kiiti, Ndunge and Jane Mutinda. 2011. Case Study of Sports Betting in Uganda.” “Mobile Money Services and Poverty Re- Nyamnjoh, Francis and Divine Fuh. 2014. IMTFI Final Report 2014. http://www. duction: A Study of Women’s Groups in “Njangi Sociality: Mobility, ICTs and Mo- imtfi.uci.edu/files/docs/2013/Yawe_and_ Rural Eastern Kenya.” IMTFI Working bile Money Usages and Practices amongst Ssengooba_FINAL_REPORT.pdf Paper 2011-2 http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/ Poor Rural Farmers in the Cameroon Grass- files/blog_working_papers/2011-2_Kiiti_ fields.” IMTFI Final Report 2014. IMTFI Design Principles, 2010 http:// Mutinda.pdf http://www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/ www.imtfi.uci.edu/files/docs/2013/im- Kiiti, Ndunge, Jane Mutinda and Charles docs/2013/Nyamnjoh%20and%20 tfi_dps_2010.pdf Nzioka. 2014. “Lessons from the Field: M- Fuh%20-%20FINAL%20REPORT.pdf Shwari and the Jua Kali in Kenya” IMTFI

105 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN MOBILE TECHNOLOGY MEETS SOCIAL INNOVATION Ken Banks Founder of kiwanja.net and creator of FrontlineSMS

Talk is good, or so they say. But too much talk and not enough action isn’t. After working for the past twelve years in the technology-for-development (IC- T4D) field, I’m beginning to feel that talking is pretty much all it does, and that everything we could have said has, by now, been said. Actions speak louder than words. This is my call to action.

ut first, back to the beginning. It was late 2002 that I got my first taste of the fledgling world of mobiles for development (m4d), focusing initially on Africa. Back then people’s general reaction to my work was one of surprise. ‘Do they have mobile phones in Africa? Can Africans afford mobile phones? Do they have coverage?’ While back then it was unclear whether mobile technology did have true development potential, today it is a surprise to meet anyone who thinks they don’t (Banks and Burge 2004). It’s been quite a turnaround.

Of course, a lot has happened over those 12 years. Driven by the private sector – not the aid industry – mobile coverage and services have grown exponentially, call costs have come down (although still not enough for some people) and handsets are a fraction of their original price. The real game changer, however, was the introduction of pre-pay. The pay-as-you- go model opened up access to the vast numbers of people previously excluded because they lacked a fixed address, a bank account or a credit history – or all three. Across Africa this model still accounts for the vast majority of connections. According to the GSMA’s Mobile for Development Intelligence (MDI) portal, it remains over 90 percent, an almost

Magdalena Paluchowska / Shutterstock.com mirror image of much of the so-called

106 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN developed world (where contract- focused on leveraging what they did. Services such as ‘Call Me’ – where based service plans predominate) By connecting a mobile phone or a customers on many African networks (GSMA Intelligence). GSM dongle to a laptop computer, can send a fixed number of free mes- messages could be sent and received sages per day when they’re out of Making sure we make the most of directly via the mobile network with- credit requesting someone to call the incredible opportunity mobile out the need for the Internet, without them – came about as a result of peo- presents has taken up much of the the need for expensive equipment ple ‘flashing’ or ‘beeping’ their friends last 12 years of my professional life. and without the need for complex (in other words, calling their phones My experience of the African conti- technical training. Today, as increas- and hanging up to indicate that they nent began ten years earlier in 1993 ing numbers of both grassroots and wanted to talk). Today’s more formal when I visited Zambia to help build a international nonprofits find them- and official Call-Me-style services school. Since then I’ve returned to live selves working in places with Internet have come about as a direct result of and work on the continent on many access, FrontlineSMS has evolved to this entrepreneurial behavior. occasions, always spending time with offer a highly-scalable, web-based so- grassroots non-profit organizations, lution called Frontline Cloud. The concept of mobile payments did, the majority of which were locally too. In increasing numbers of Afri- run. With a deep understanding of But it’s not only the spread of Inter- can countries it is possible to pay for the problems and challenges they net access and mobile coverage – or goods and services through your mo- faced, it was no surprise that the ini- the lower costs of handsets and calls bile phone, something which remains tial focus of my work in mobile was to – that has changed in recent years. a distant hope for most people in so- be there. As mobile phones began to We’re also beginning to experience a called developed countries. Users in show their development potential they shift in how technology-for-develop- rural Uganda were figuring out inno- were the ones, I feared, who would be ment solutions themselves are identi- vative ways of using their phones to left behind. There were signs that, by fied and developed. It’s a disruptive make payments long before Vodafone focusing on the top tier of non-profits shift that threatens the status quo – and Safaricom formalized the service in the developing world – those with which is why I like to call it ICT4D’s under the guise of M-Pesa (Banks funding, access and resources - we ‘inconvenient truth’ (Banks 2012a). 2012b). were leaving those further down be- Unlike a decade or so ago, across the hind, and few people seemed to be African continent today a tech-savvy Local innovators are also at work in paying any attention. program with access to a computer, the middle ground between the grass- cheap mobile phone, software devel- roots and the more formalized private My response was to build a tool which opment kit and the kind of entrepre- sector. Here, talented individuals are would specifically meet the needs of neurial flare which many Africans building all manner of solutions to all that grassroots community. The idea have in abundance, possesses all the manner of problems. You only have for FrontlineSMS came about in early tools they need to solve a business, to look through sites like Afrigadget, 2005 one rainy Saturday evening in technical or social problem without which proudly showcases African in- Cambridge, UK. Over the previous the need for the intervention of the genuity, to see the kinds of things that two years I had been working exten- ICT4D community. are possible even in resource-strapped sively in South Africa and Mozam- environments. bique with a South African NGO on Innovation around the mobile phone a contract with the oldest internation- has been particularly interesting in Things like Pascal Katana’s ‘Fish De- al conservation organization in the Africa for some time, often because it tector’ which, with the aid of a mobile world – Fauna & Flora International. is born out of necessity. What’s more, phone, is able to acoustically detect We were looking at ways national many African countries present an shawls of fish and alert nearby fish- parks could use information and com- interesting environment where in- ermen by SMS. Or Morris Mbetsa’s munications technologies (ICTs) to novation in services is as common as ‘Block & Track’ mobile phone-based better communicate with local com- innovation in hardware and software. anti-theft and vehicle tracking system. munities – something that has tradi- If there’s one thing I’ve noticed over tionally been problematic. Since SMS the past 20 years working on-and-off Both innovations are equally ingen- (text messaging) usage was just begin- across the continent, it’s that Africans ious, but the innovators backgrounds ning its astronomical climb, it seemed are not the passive recipients of tech- couldn’t be more contrasting. While like an obvious communications tool nology many people seem to think Pascal developed his idea while he was to consider. they are. a fourth year student at the Depart- ment of Electrical and Information While many solutions at the time were In fact, some of the more exciting and Engineering at the University of Nai- being developed around something innovative mobile services around to- robi, Morris had no formal electronics many grassroots communities didn’t day have emerged as a result of ingen- training at all. All they have in com- have – the Internet – FrontlineSMS ious indigenous use of the technology. mon is that they’re both from Kenya,

107 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Ken Banks. Ken Photo:

Bushbuckridge, on the edges of Kruger National Park (2003): The early inspiration for FrontlineSMS.

smart, interested in tackling real prob- solution to sharing East Africa’s new- areas in the short- to medium lems and highly entrepreneurial. found bandwidth among the majority term. of its citizens. Google is even experi- Spotting and nurturing this kind of menting with balloons. Facebook with 1. Executing best practice. Tech- talent is critical to the growth of the drones. Increased coverage, particu- nology races ahead at a breathtak- ICT sector in East Africa, and univer- larly in the so-called last mile, repre- ing pace, but behavior change chugs sities are increasingly at the center of sents further opportunities, particu- along in a much lower gear. As I this new push. A number of initiatives larly for the development sector who remind people when I speak at con- today continue the earlier pioneering at present struggle to reach many of ferences, technology is the easy bit work of Nathan Eagle, a professor at the people there. – people (and their habits and ex- the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- pectations) are far more difficult to nology who, through his Entrepre- This rise of home-grown developer manage. Thanks to rampant inno- neurial Programming and Research communities is happening at a time vation in the commercial sector, the on Mobiles (EPROM) initiative intro- of increased interest in the potential ICT4D community has even more duced the idea of mobile phone pro- for mobile-based tools to solve social toys to play with than it did a year or gramming courses to many of East and environmental problems around two ago. However, so much of what Africa’s Computer Science depart- the world. In fact there’s something it debates – and practices – remains ments, nearly a decade ago. of an industry building up around it. the same year after year. ‘Understand Although things are slowly changing, the problem before tackling the tech- We have three reasons to be optimis- many ICT4D tools continue to be de- nology, put the user first, build tools tic about the future in this part of veloped as far away from the problem and not solutions, learn from your the continent. Firstly, momentum is as you can get and then ‘transplant- failures, and don’t reinvent the wheel, building on the education front, with ed’ into an unsuspecting community use appropriate technologies’ and so increasing opportunities for students in the guise of a ‘pilot’. When these on. How many more conferences do to learn how to program and inno- projects fail, as many do, rarely is the we need before we finally settle on a vate around mobile, the most widely technology or the approach blamed, set of best practices? We should know adopted technology in use in many of however inappropriate they may have by now what is and what isn’t a good their countries today. Secondly, more been. But this is exactly what often way to run an ICT4D project. Let’s mobile devices are now being shipped happens – inappropriate technologies instead match best practice against to Africa with data capabilities than implemented in inappropriate ways. projects, and let’s ensure they become without. If it hasn’t happened already, There are lessons we can learn from an intrinsic part of the development soon the majority of consumers will projects that have gone before and les- process rather than simple sound bites possess a device with the potential to sons we can learn from projects which and tweets. connect to the Internet, spurring a have gone on to reach global levels of whole new raft of opportunities for deployment. 2. Keeping the tech real. New budding innovators and entrepre- technologies lead to hype, which in neurs. Finally, wireless technologies – To reach its full potential, the turn leads to new conversations and likely a mixture of GSM and Wimax, ICT4D community needs to ad- new big ideas – as if earlier problems and maybe others – will likely be the dress these three key problem had been solved. It’s unfortunate that

108 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN This rise of home-grown developer communities is happening at a time of increased interest in the potential for mobile-based tools to solve social and environmental problems around the world.

attention spans seem to decrease as Donors Charter, (http://www.do- rigadget.com/2009/07/21/fish-call-the- rates of innovation increase, and it’s norscharter.org) an attempt to bring fisherman/. easy to be distracted from the techno- harmony to the funding of ICT4D This service has been covered online at: http:// logical reality for much of the planet and m4d initiatives. Recently I ‘cel- www.afrigadget.com/2008/07/16/18- in the age of the ultra-smartphone ebrated’ ten years working in mobiles- year-old-self-taught-electonics-genius- and iPad. Trumpeting the need for for-development. We’ve all come a invents-mobile-phone-based-vehicle-anti- ‘appropriate technologies’ at a devel- long way in that time – out of no- theft-system/. opment conference is only helpful if where, in fact – but in impact terms Project Loon is a Google initiative aimed at people don’t then run off and build we’re still only scratching the surface. providing balloon powered Internet for eve- iPad 2 apps for African farmers. The No one knows what the next couple ryone. For more information visit: http:// reality is that we’re still figuring out of years have in store, let alone the www.google.com/loon/. how to best use text messaging in a next five or ten. Much depends on us. development capacity, and that par- Quite rightly, we will ultimately be Further Reading ticular technology has been around judged on what we do, not what we Banks K and Burge, R. 2004 Mobile for years. In short, the ICT4D com- say, tweet, write or predict. I, for one, Phones: An Appropriate Tool for Conserva- munity needs to keep its technology spent the best part of my university tion and Development? Fauna & Flora In- choices firmly rooted in what’s appro- years critiquing the efforts of the de- ternational, Cambridge, UK. Available at: priate for their users, not what’s newly velopment practitioners who went be- http://www.kiwanja.net/database/docu- available in their local store. fore me. Countless others have done ment/report_ffi_vodafone_icts.pdf [Last ac- the same. Looking to the future, how cessed 23 September 2013]. 3. Mainstreaming ICT4D. Finally, favorably will the students and aca- ICT4D and m4d need to go main- demics of tomorrow reflect on our ef- Banks K. 2012a An inconvenient truth? stream within the varying sectors of forts? A wasted, or unnecessarily de- December 2012. Available at: http://www. development. Today, we have a crazy layed opportunity? kiwanja.net/blog/2012/12/an-inconven- situation where each seems to be di- ient-truth/ [Last accessed 23 September vided into two camps – the people That’s up to us to decide. 2013]. who are deploying (or most likely figuring out how to deploy) mobile Notes: Banks K. 2012b Indigenous and ingenious: technologies, and those who aren’t. More information on FrontlineSMS and The roots of mobile banking in Africa, Sep- The former put an ‘m’ in front of FrontlineCloud is available at: www.front- tember 2012. Available at: http://www. their discipline, giving us m-heath, linesms.com. kiwanja.net/blog/2012/09/indigenous- m-agriculture, m-learning, and so on. SMS refers to the short message service, and-ingenious-the-roots-of-mobile-banking/ The rest remain plain old health, agri- which is more commonly referred to as text [Last accessed 23 September 2013]. culture and learning. Even worse, the messaging. people within them often go to differ- Author’s webpage: http://www.kiwanja. GSMA Intelligence statistics. 2010-2012 ent conferences. net/kenbanks.htm Connections prepaid. Available at: htt- More information at: http://www.afrig- ps://mobiledevelopmentintelligence.com/ These questions and issues, and a adget.com statistics/75-connections-prepaid [Last ac- few more, are addressed in my recent For more information, see http://www.af- cessed 23 September 2013].

109 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN COMMERCIAL FAMILY FARMS ARE MORE PRODUCTIVE THAN PLANTATION AGRICULTURE IN AFRICA

Prof. Joseph Hanlon, Visiting Senior Fellow at the London School of Economics and Visiting Senior Research Fellow at the Open University; Prof. Jeanette Manjengwa, Deputy Director, Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Zimbabwe; Prof. Teresa Smart, Senior Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Education, University College London.

ows of combine har- South America, with its massive wheat ers with 5 ha each. This turns out to vesters and giant trac- and soya farms, is often promoted as be false, because of four other con- tors on grand plan- a model. But the World Bank in two ceptual myths that bedevil African tations are always major reports, Growing Africa: Un- agricultural policy: presented as the mod- locking the Potential of Agribusi- • The first is inherited from centuries ern way to develop ag- ness in 2013 and Awakening Africa’s of colonialism, which leads Euro- riculture - but family Sleeping Giant in 2009, looked at pean investors and, sadly, many Af- farmers can produce more, and cre- two alternative models, the Brazilian rican ministers, to believe that Eu- ate more jobs. European investment cerrado and northeast Thailand, and ropeans automatically know what and hedge funds continue to promote came to the unexpected conclusion is best for African farming. giant plantations in Africa as the way that Thailand and not Brazil is the • Second is the belief that farms are to meet global food shortages. And appropriate model for Africa. Small either very small or very large. The the promoters continue to mesmerise and medium scale commercial farm- average African farm is just 1.3 both individual investors and African ers with 5-15 hectares transformed ha and the alternative is often as- ministers with images of huge, com- Thailand into the world’s leading rice sumed to be thousands of hectares. puter-controlled farms that will solve exporter. The Americas are the ex- This ignores the large number of poverty and generate exports. But it ception; even in Europe the average family commercial farms, with 3 to is all a pipedream. Since the ground farm size is below 15 hectares. And 100 ha, which tend to be most pro- nut scheme in Tanzania 70 years ago, in the United States, family farmers ductive. plantations have failed across Africa. control 78% of all farmland, accord- • Third is the myth, often promoted In Mozambique, no new large farm, ing to FAO. by both the global peasants group state or private, has succeeded since Via Campesina and politicians, independence in 1975. In Zimbabwe, Government ministers and bureau- that 1 ha farmers are “subsistence” land reform farmers with six hectares crats tend to assume “big must be farmers, producing their own food. are more productive than the white best” and that it is easier to deal with In most of Africa it is impossible farmers with big estates that they re- one foreign investor with 10,000 ha to feed a family from the produce placed. than to deal with 2,000 family farm- of 1.3 ha. Thus most families are

110 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN involved in a complex mix of farm- tiliser subsidies, which is important cluding cotton and export vegetables ing for food and for sale, and be- if linked to seeds for high yielding which are grown on contract. Even ing involved in wage labour - either crop varieties. In Zimbabwe, there is sugar, which has been grown by for- day labour in rural areas or one still an excellent agricultural exten- eign companies since the colonial era member of a family working in the sion service, Agritex, and the Grain in both countries, is moving over to a city. Most peasants are already part Marketing Board sets a floor price for contract model. of the market. maize, the stable crop, which is close • Fourth is the belief that although to world market prices and thus as- Many of the proposals for land grabs European and North American sures profitability. In Mozambique, and huge plantations come from in- farmers must have subsidies if they the World Bank forced the marketing vestment companies and hedge funds are to produce, African farmers board to be closed and restricted the trying to attract the surplus capital are so much better that they do extension service, so these supports held by the world’s richest people - not need subsidies. This indirectly do not exist, and staple food prices the top 1%. These are speculative drives the desire for foreign invest- are kept down to benefit urban work- projects built on the four myths noted ment, because foreign companies ers. Thus maize is a peasant but not a above and promising impossible rates always promise, initially, that they commercial crop. But there was sup- of return - one in Mozambique prom- will not need subsidy - but they port from a set of aid agencies, nota- ised 40% return per year. In practice always do need direct or indirect bly Clusa (Cooperative League of the the promoters rarely expect to grow support in the end. USA) to develop small holder soya anything, but hope to sell the project production to provide food for locally on to others, or take out enough mon- Zimbabwe and Mozambique produced chickens. This involved a ey before it collapses. They try to gain We have written two recent books, range of support, including seed, ex- access to land in Africa, and speculate Zimbabwe takes back its Land and tension services, ploughing (which al- on the increasing value of that land. Chickens and Beer, a recipe for lowed expansion of area), credit and In contrast, the food and tobacco growth in Mozambique, which looked organising markets with the chicken companies expect to profit from their at farming in the two countries, and producers. Within seven years there control of the value chain - the ability we were surprised to discover the suc- were 27,000 families growing soya to sell to supermarkets and processors cess of the family commercial sector. commercially. in the north. They have increasingly These were farmers who had expand- realised that farming is a headache ed from 1-2 hectares to 5 hectares or In both Zimbabwe and Mozambique, and, for them, is unprofitable. One more. Three factors permitted that tobacco is a major export crop which export vegetable company told us that transformation: is grown entirely by small commercial family farmers are much more care- • First was that these farmers were farmers. This is done on a contract ful about keeping the quality high, innovative, entrepreneurial, and basis. The farmer signs a contract and it cannot match that with wage hard-working, and could become with the local representative of a large labourers on its own farm. Thailand’s small business people. Many have multi-national tobacco company. The success underlines this. Foreign com- above average education. And not company supplies seed, fertiliser and panies are not permitted to farm, but all succeed - commercial farming is technical assistance, on credit, and they are encouraged elsewhere in the like any other small business, and promises to buy the crop. The farmer value chain. there are many failures. is committed to selling the crop to the • Second, they had support to ex- contract company. In both countries Money, credit, and assured markets pand - with credit, extension ser- there is an open valuation or auction The transformation from peasant to vices, fertiliser, seed, and an assured system. In Zimbabwe there are sever- family commercial farmer has always market. We discuss this below. al contract companies so farmers can required external support, and this • Third is mechanical ploughing change in the following season if they was true in Europe in the late 19th - cattle, tractor hire, or small two- feel they were under paid. In Mozam- century, the United States in the early wheel tractors - which permitted bique there is one monopoly buyer. 20th century, and Asia more recently. the family to farm more land. And, of course, they are free to switch Most African farming families are ex- to other crops - and we found tobacco tremely poor and often lack the cash These are still family farms, depend- producers in Zimbabwe switching to to buy basic inputs - even a single bag ing on family labour, with the fam- maize (because it required less labour) of fertilizer can cost $40 or more, and ily living on the farm and producing and in Mozambique to soya (because many families rarely have that much some of their own food. But they it was more profitable). cash at one time. mainly produce for the market. And they normally hire extra labour, which The key point of tobacco is that the Thus the single biggest constraint to means they create jobs locally. Labour tobacco companies grow no tobacco the development of family commer- intensity per hectare is normally dou- themselves. Family farmers grow the cial farmers is lack of money. The ble that of large plantations. tobacco, and the contract companies neoliberal or “free market” ideology control the rest of the value chain. In imposed three decades ago on Af- The mix of support is different in both Mozambique and Zimbabwe rica (but not Europe or the US) still each place. Many countries do fer- this is replicated in other areas, in- restricts agriculture. The “free mar-

111 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ket” is of no use when people are tackle the key problems for food pro- too poor to buy inputs and cannot Contract farming works for many duction - inputs, credit, guaranteed take the first step on the ladder of export crops and provides inputs on market and risk sharing. Subsidised increasing production. Most coun- credit, but is not effective for domes- fertiliser and expansions of agricul- tries have, or had, agriculture banks, tic food crops, in part because it is too tural extension services are being done usually government subsidised and easy for farmers to sell their crops to by several countries. Some countries often government owned. The banks other buyers and not repay their loan. are watching India, where a program were necessary because high costs of In the colonial era, most countries to pay extra to small farmers for grain administering many relatively small had state marketing boards which and then sell that grain at subsidised loans and the high risk of crop failure guaranteed to buy staple crops at pre- rates to the poor. But this has been due to pests, drought, or flood made announced fixed prices. Some moved challenged by the World Trade Or- agricultural banking unprofitable for to setting floor prices and becom- ganisation, which points out that per- the private sector. In many African ing buyers of last resort, only buying mitted subsidies are based on historic countries governments were forced to when the private sector did not. But subsidies, which means such subsidies close their farm banks. the international financial institutions are only allowed for rich countries. (IFIs) still considered this an interfer- Microcredit was touted as the miracle ence in the free market and largely Mozambique faces a similar problem. cure, but the interest, typically of 10% forced the abolition. Producer prices Tobacco has a monopoly buyer and per month, eats up any potential prof- fell, and market signals worked -- less sugar is protected by import taxes, it. And it takes no account of risk; if food was grown for the market, and and this is allowed because both are the crop fails due to pests or drought, politicians resorted to exhortations for owned by multinational companies. the debt must still be repaid, and the peasants to grow more food. But rice cannot be protected by an family goes hungry. In India, unpay- import tariff or have a monopoly buy- able debt is one cause of farmer sui- Donors and IFIs still hold fast to the er; rice producers are small domestic cides; in Africa farmers have tended neoliberal line and argue that the farmers. Always the bias is toward to refuse microcredit as too expensive problems are lack of roads or poor transnational companies that make and too risky. information systems. But these never big promises but demand concessions

112 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN not available to local farmers. can be trained for the job. But for the and storage must be improved. first few years, they will need support Thailand provides an alternative for training and to build up their parts There is a move to various forms of model for Africa. Government policy stock. Finally, some basic training is conservation agriculture, which often encouraged famers to expand culti- useful for ploughing and extentionists require little ploughing and less wa- vated area. There was heavy govern- need to be given short courses. ter and fertiliser. These could provide ment investment, including successful Another big challenge is to expand a huge boost to family commercial attempts to reduce the price of fer- irrigation, using ponds to capture farmers. But the techniques must be tiliser. And a state agricultural bank rainfall or wells or boreholes. This be- localised to respond to soils and rain- (which won unexpected praise from comes more urgent as climate change fall. And all conservation systems have the IMF) lends to 95% of farmers. make rainfall irregular. But it is al- high start-up costs and need to be sub- Could Africa be allowed to do this? ready a need, because if more money sidised - that evil word again - over the Family commercial farmers could is invested in ploughing and inputs, first three years. transform rural Africa, but this will then it becomes more urgent to re- require a radical shift in thinking by duce risk and be able to cover at least Not easy African governments, to intervene in two or three week gaps in rainfall. Ir- None of this is easy. But the investors agriculture and support these farmers rigation can be profitable and should who fly in and promise the moon on with inputs, credit, guaranteed mar- be promoted, but it also requires a platter and seem to offer an easy ket and risk sharing. You cannot pull training to ensure that water is used answer continue to fail. Plantations yourself up by your bootstraps if you carefully. And irrigation systems have rarely work in Africa. Meanwhile, have no boots, and it is up to govern- a cost, so long term credit and subsidy the more educated children of poor ments to provide those “boots”. is needed. farmers migrate to the city in search of a better life. The alternative is to Technological change Yet again, northern models might be create a better life in rural areas, by In Africa, the single biggest techni- applied. During the great depression supporting family commercial farm- cal constraint is ploughing. Using just of the 1930s, the United States passed ing. But it will require a hands on a hoe, a family can only prepare one the Rural Electrification Act which re- approach - working directly with the hectare. Thus expanding the area remains in force. Government loans of new commercial farmers on credit, quires mechanical ploughing. Zimba- up to 35 years are given to electricity ploughing, production, and market- bwe has a long history of the use of companies to finance the construction ing. This will require a total change of cattle for ploughing and pulling carts, of electric distribution, transmission, thinking within African governments and after the land reform in 2000 the and generation facilities. Users then and within the donor and IFI com- new farmers were able to use fam- pay the installation costs as part of munity. With support, ordinary family ily or neighbour’s cattle to plough, or their bills, but over a very long period. farmers can transform Africa into an could hire tractors. Because of tsetse Mozambique could do this, and it agricultural powerhouse. fly, Mozambique and Tanzania do would make a huge difference to com- not have many cattle and animals are mercial farmers. Further reading: rarely used for ploughing. Tanzania Joseph Hanlon, Jeanette Manjengwa and has seen a rapid increase in the im- In most places, the technology needed Teresa Smart (2013), Zimbabwe Takes port of two wheel tractors (also called to make the first step is already avail- Back its Land, Sterling (VA, USA): Kumar- power tillers) from fewer than 100 two able - fertiliser, high yielding seeds, ir- ian. wheel tractors in 2000 to more than rigation, power tillers, etc. Many fam- 5000 in 2012 (60% from China and ily farmers are ready to try new crops Teresa Smart and Joseph Hanlon (2014), 25% from Thailand). In Mozambique and new technologies, and farm more Galinhas e cerveja: Uma receita para and many other countries, donors land, if they are supported. And there Moçambique, Maputo: Kapikua. In English and ministers still prefer to import the is evidence of the importance of peer as Chickens and beer, a recipe for growth in biggest tractors, which look good in influence, with farmers sharing expe- Mozambique available as a pdf download pictures and usually come from US, riences and taking up the models of on http://bit.ly/chickens-beer European and Brazilian manufactur- successful neighbours. ers, but are much less useful to family US Food and Agriculture Organization commercial farmers. But present readily available technol- (FAO) Family Farming Knowledge Plat- ogy is only adequate for the first step. form: http://www.fao.org/family-farm- Again, most African farmers can- Building family commercial farmers ing/en/ not afford even the cheapest Chinese will require innovation, diffusion, re- power tiller, and their introduction search and development. Soil testing Ruth Hall, Ian Scoones and Dzodzi Tsikata will require credit and subsidy for facilities are needed to be more precise (2015), Africa’s Land Rush: Rural Liveli- farmers. A second need is to establish on the fertilisers needed. Improved hoods and Agrarian Change, Martlesham, repair and spare parts networks across seeds need to be developed for the Suffolk, UK: James Currey the continent. Power tillers are much specific conditions of regions within easier to repair than big computerised countries. Better irrigation systems us- tractors, and motorcycle repair people ing less water are needed. Pest control

113 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN FARMER GOVERNANCE OF LOCAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

Dr Ann Waters-Bayer, Chesha Wettasinha & Laurens van Veldhuizen Prolinnova International Secretariat, Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam, Netherlands

overnment research ing small amounts of money avail- patory research and extension. Net- and extension agencies able to farmer groups can accelerate work members observed that, after receive public funds innovation, enhance local adaptive learning to identify farmer innova- for their work but are capacities and strengthen farmers’ tions, extension agents tended to seldom accountable to voice in ARD. This work provided in- promote the innovations instead of farmers. To be sure, in recent years, spiration to explore alternative fund- encouraging farmer-led participatory funding mechanisms have been set up ing mechanisms so that farmers can innovation processes, and scientists for “participatory” research but these invest in their own research and de- wanted to “validate” the local inno- are usually managed and accessed by cide on the support they need for this, vations instead of helping farmers government agencies. If farmer or- i.e. to enable farmer-led participatory find answers to their own questions ganisations or other civil society or- ARD that is more accountable to and (Wettasinha et al 2008). Prolinnova ganisations (CSOs) are involved, then relevant for resource-limited farmers; members therefore wanted to explore only as minor partners. In most coun- and thus to develop greater local gov- whether and how changing the gov- tries, small-scale farmers have little ernance of ARD. ernance of research funds could cre- or no genuine voice in deciding how ate space for small-scale farmers to funds for agricultural research and Action research on farmer-gov- take the lead in decentralised ARD development (ARD) are used, even if erned innovation funds that is more responsive and relevant they have “representatives” in adviso- The international network Prolin- to local needs. They decided to try ry bodies. However, some pioneering nova (Promoting Local Innovation out farmer-governed “Local Innova- work, e.g. with Local Agricultural Re- in ecologically oriented agriculture tion Support Funds” (LISFs) that give search Committees in Latin America and natural resource management) men and women farmers a chance to (Ashby et al 2000), showed that mak- seeks to scale up farmer-led partici- decide what will be investigated, how

114 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN and by whom, to conduct and assess experiences and draw lessons. This ternational review of experiences local research and innovation, and to was a strategy for institutionalisation: with similar approaches (Veldhuizen share findings. when learning about the LISF, the et al 2005) and guided by the Inter- platform members were stimulated national Support Team, the national After an initial pilot with an innova- to think about changes needed within teams developed guidelines for fund tion fund by Prolinnova member LI- their institutions to allow the partici- management and helped the FMCs BIRD (Local Initiatives in Biodiversity patory innovation approach to be ap- develop criteria for selecting grantees. Research and Development) in Ne- plied more widely. In line with the key LISF principles pal, small teams in eight African and and common values of the Prolinnova Asian countries (Cambodia, Ethiopia, An International Support Team com- network, the main criteria for screen- Ghana, Kenya, Nepal, South Africa, posed of agronomists and sociologists ing the proposals were similar across Tanzania and Uganda) involving peo- who were based at ETC Foundation the eight countries: ple from national CSOs, agricultural (now based at KIT) in the Nether- • the idea was driven by the farmer research and advisory services and lands and the International Institute applicants (not by outsiders) universities did action research on for Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) in • the innovation to be explored ap- LISFs. This was designed to stimulate the Philippines coordinated method peared sound in economic, envi- joint learning by community mem- development, monitoring and evalu- ronmental and social terms bers and other key actors in ARD, in- ation (M&E), inter-country exchange • the innovation could be used by cluding local government authorities. and learning, comparative analysis, poor farmers (with locally avail- documentation and international pol- able, low-cost inputs) Platforms for joint learning icy dialogue. • the support through the LISF In several districts in each country, the could add value to the innovation national teams helped set up a Fund A scientist from a French research • the applicants were willing to share Management Committee (FMC) of institute worked with the teams in their results 5–10 members. The structure of the Cambodia and Ethiopia to develop • the proposal was for local research FMCs differed between countries. In guidelines for participatory impact and learning, not for farm invest- Ethiopia and Uganda, they included assessment (PIA) at community and ment. only farmers (men and women); in higher institutional level (Triomphe et other countries, they also included al 2012). These guidelines, which were The FMCs, supported by the district an extension worker and a local gov- later applied by all country teams fa- learning group, announced calls for ernment official, but farmers had the cilitating LISFs, addressed four areas proposals from farmers, screened the strongest say in how the funds were of possible impact: i) development of proposals to select topics and ques- used. The FMCs became “grassroots improved farming practices and sys- tions of local priority, helped farm- learning platforms” about local in- tems; ii) spread of these new practices ers identify the support they wanted novation and managing LISFs. The and systems among farmers and im- (if any) from external specialists, and FMCs were advised by a district-level pact on their livelihoods; iii) changes monitored and evaluated the work group of people from local CSOs and in capacities of farmers to access rel- supported by the LISF. FMC mem- government research, extension and evant information and continue to bers helped farmers understand the education. This group became a “dis- develop technical and socio-organisa- eligibility criteria and write proposals trict learning platform”. tional innovations; and iv) changes in of 1–2 pages with a simple budget, terms of the interest of ARD agencies sometimes writing down oral appli- The national team was responsible for to support and work with farmer in- cations from illiterate farmers. After coordinating, monitoring, evaluating novators and their groups. the FMC had vetted the proposals ac- and documenting the action-research cording to the agreed criteria, the se- process, outcomes and impacts. To Operating the LISFs lected farmers (individuals or groups) build the capacity of FMC members Each country team made an explora- were allocated resources for the pro- and the staff of local support organi- tory study to learn from any similar posed activities. The FMCs gave sations to handle the LISF, it gave an initiatives in the country and to de- grants for farmer-led experiments as introductory training at local level, cide how best to design the LISF to fit well as farmer-defined training, e.g. followed by periodic reflection meet- the existing political and institutional by local innovators, or study visits, e.g. ings and annual workshops to discuss realities. However, the LISFs in all to local innovators or other learning issues arising during the action re- countries followed jointly defined key sites. They supervised whether the ac- search. It helped the FMCs identify principles: i) funds were made acces- tivities were done according to agree- other actors (e.g. technical specialists, sible directly to small-scale farmers or ment. They organised field days or scientists, entrepreneurs) who could their groups; ii) grants were used for innovation fairs and used rural radio support farmers’ efforts to improve innovation, research and learning by and farmer magazines to share the their farming systems. The team also farmers; and iii) the farmers and their farmer researchers’ findings and to brought together a wider group, in- organisations played a strong role in motivate more farmers to apply for cluding policymakers in national gov- deciding on fund allocation. the next call. ernment bodies, in a “national learning platform” to reflect on the LISF Based on lessons drawn from an in- LISF grants were less than €100 on

115 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN average, with grants as low as €5 in learned through training by the na- elapsed between applying for and Nepal and up to €1670 in South Af- tional team, its own mentoring of receiving funds. rica. Smaller grants were used mainly the FMCs and farmer researchers, • International: The International to buy tools and equipment to im- making M&E visits and co-organ- Support Team facilitated learning prove a local innovation or to buy ising innovation fairs. These activi- in the Prolinnova network by hold- seeds or record books. Grants were ties made the platform members ing phone conferences with the larger if costs of external services more aware of the roles of farmers national teams to discuss progress, were included, e.g. laboratory analysis and others (including themselves) using backstopping visits to stimu- or involvement of research staff. in agricultural innovation systems, late the teams to reflect, supporting gave them deeper insight into lo- process documentation, arrang- Facilitating learning at different cal priorities, and increased their ing “writeshops” for comparative levels capacity to facilitate and support analysis of the process and out- Reflection on the experience with farmer-led innovation processes. comes, and organising sessions on LISFs in the eight countries led to • National: National team mem- LISFs during the annual Interna- learning at different levels: bers learned primarily through tional Partners Workshop. In this • Grassroots: The FMCs, farmer M&E visits to FMCs and farmer way, network members could learn researchers and wider rural com- researchers and in the national about how to improve the funding munity learned how to assess the meetings for discussing the LISF mechanism and to scale it up (Pro- relevance of proposed research process, M&E results and PIA linnova 2012). for the community, prioritise ac- findings. These meetings offered tivities, manage the funds and fa- opportunities to reflect on how Impact cilitate joint research with external the LISFs worked, how farmer-led The new way of funding grassroots specialists. One or more persons innovation can be enhanced, the agricultural innovation processes from the national team supported roles of formal research and devel- helped change the self-identity and this learning mainly by asking the opment actors in supporting this, power relations among small-scale FMC questions based on an M&E and how an LISF approach could farmers, scientists and extension tool (“register”) used by all country be mainstreamed. The country agents. The effectiveness of the LISFs teams. Most of the community- teams used the “register” to moni- and their outcomes in terms of im- level learning happened during in- tor the jointly identified indicators proved farming practices and liveli- formal reflections and discussions of how the LISF was functioning. hoods are discussed in Prolinnova while the FMCs made repeated This allowed them to adjust LISF (2012) and Macoloo et al (2013). For rounds of calling for proposals, se- arrangements during the action the purpose of this paper, we focus on lecting grantees, monitoring how research and generated informa- impact in terms of a) capacity to inno- the funds were used and assessing tion comparable across the eight vate and to manage funds for this pur- what this contributed to the com- countries, such as about number pose; and b) interest of other ARD munity. and type of activities supported by actors to support farmer-led research • District: The district platform the LISF, size of grants, and time and innovation processes.

116 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Enhanced capacity of farming groups at district or national level organisations had the experience and communities to innovate comprising state and non-state ARD skills to build local fund-management Farmers appreciated that the LISFs actors (research, development, edu- capacities. gave them the means to design, im- cation) and some farmer leaders, al- plement and evaluate their own re- lowing more opportunities for mutual Some men and women farmers who search. They said the grantees and learning between farmers and other were involved in handling LISFs or other farmers learned from the results actors, stricter screening of proposals, leading the research were invited by of the funded activities to achieve approval of fewer but larger grants, local officials to join other meetings higher farm productivity, savings on and relatively high costs of the staff in- to discuss and prioritise development output costs and higher incomes. volved. Decision-making took longer and could play a self-confident and FMC members, grantees and non- and there was less strengthening of lo- informed role in influencing decisions grantees said their involvement in the cal capacity and somewhat less farmer in such public fora involving formal LISF increased their capacity to ac- influence in vetting proposals. research and extension staff. cess relevant information about agriculture. They reported more sharing 2)More decentralised FMCs with Greater interest of ARD actors to on local innovation among farmers mainly or only farmers, usually in support farmer-led PID in the community and with outsiders. community-based organisations Focus-group discussions during the The FMC members and grantees said (CBOs), assisted by CSO and gov- PIAs revealed that the LISF approach the recognition of local innovation by ernment staff in organising the pro- forged new links between farmers, ad- community members and outsiders cess. Small-scale farmers could access visors and scientists and increased the increased their self-confidence to in- these funds more easily: the number contribution of local knowledge to interact with people from government of applications received and approved novation processes. It stimulated the services in jointly exploring new ways tended to be higher. Grants were usu- interest of other ARD actors to iden- to improve farming. They felt they ally smaller, often covering only di- tify and support farmer innovation. could better express their research rect costs of experiments or travel Some scientists visited and advised interests and extension needs to these by farmers to gain information; little farmer researchers and replicated people. was spent to bring in other experts to their experiments or innovations on support the farmers’ work. The op- station. Extension agents organised According to the PIA results, the erational costs of these FMCs were field days to discuss results of the LISFs stimulated and strengthened lower, but the costs of strengthening farmers’ experiments. farmers’ capacity to experiment. It re- CBO capacity were higher. duced some of the risk involved in try- Relatively few people in the support ing new things. Farmers learned how Analysis of the FMCs’ allocation de- agencies were directly involved in to compare different options more cisions revealed that most funding working with communities managing systematically. The grantees’ successes went to: i) small-scale experiments LISFs. Linking the district learning encouraged other farmers to test new and data collection by farmers indi- platforms with other stakeholders in techniques. vidually or with other farmers; ii) im- the country through field visits, work- proving local innovations with little or shops and innovation fairs helped to Farmers in the FMCs became better no systematic experimentation or data broaden awareness about local inno- able to organise themselves around collection; iii) farmer-led experimen- vation and LISFs. Most ARD actors funding and managing local research tation together with research and/or working with the LISFs felt they were and development. They felt their ca- extension staff using more systematic better able to collaborate with each pacities were improved in leadership, methods, covering some costs of the other and with farmers. According to planning, M&E and keeping records. support agents; and iv) learning and a case study in the Axum site in Ethio- Farmers in FMCs in South Africa sharing by farmers through training pia, involving the field agents in facili- said they could better assess interven- by farmer innovators, farmer-led doc- tating LISFs led to greater awareness tions and make informed decisions on umentation, and farm or community of local innovation and closer collabo- whether to participate in externally visits to learn about local innovations ration with farmers. This helped inte- initiated projects. and possibilities to improve them. grate farmer-led joint research into extension work at district level and Enhanced capacity to manage Initially, proposals approved by the made extension managers aware of funds for local innovation decentralised FMCs were mainly for the potential of the participatory in- Depending on the existing ARD in- farmers’ experiments without outside novation approach (Fanos et al 2011). stitutional framework, the strength of support. After one or two grant cycles, farmer organisation and the capacities as farmers realised that the LISF dif- Some challenges of and choices made by the different fered from conventional farm invest- Understanding of the LISF con- country teams, essentially two models ment funds, the experiments became cept for managing the LISFs emerged: more complex and more ARD “out- All involved in the action research, not siders” were drawn in. LISFs worked only the farmers, needed time to ap- 1)More centralised multistakeholder well under decentralised manage- preciate that the LISF should generate ment by farmers when the supporting and spread new knowledge and prac-

117 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Joint experimentation provides more opportunity for scientific knowledge to be integrated by farmers, but scientists sometimes tend to “hijack” the process.

tices rather than pay for farm inputs to Scaling out and up proved difficult to generate in-country adopt technologies. This differed from This refers to the double challenge resources for the LISF. In Tanzania, investment funds designed to generate of: i) scaling out the findings from the a district council contributed €7000 private goods to benefit individuals. LISF-supported activities; and ii) scal- to the LISF work, a rare example The LISF generates public goods for ing out and up the LISF approach it- of financial support from local gov- the community: the new knowledge self in the relevant institutions, includ- ernment. In all countries, extension and practices developed with its sup- ing farmer organisations. The PIAs agents and a few scientists were in- port should benefit not only the grant- revealed limited sharing of the results volved in facilitating the LISFs and ees but also other farmers. To make of farmers’ experiments. Communi- thus contributed through staff time, the difference clear, it was necessary cation with other farmers took place but the institutional basis for this was to facilitate development of transpar- mainly through informal exchange, weak, as support to this work was not ent criteria and procedures for select- during innovation fairs and when oth- formally approved at higher institu- ing grantees, to reflect critically on er farmers and extension agents visit- tional levels. what the grantees did with the funds ed the FMCs and farmer researchers and who benefited, and to encourage to learn about the LISF process and The national teams are exploring sev- wider sharing of results. outcomes. At national level, the an- eral strategies to scale up LISFs, such nual sharing-and-learning workshops as: integration into the Ministry of Involving scientists of the organisations involved were Agriculture extension agency, devel- Especially where the FMCs were relatively small, and documentation opment projects in the country or the composed mainly or only of farm- about them was not widely dissemi- local government (especially in coun- ers, it proved difficult to involve sci- nated. tries where decentralisation to county entists in the farmer-led research. or district level is occurring); or set- The farmers initially wanted to try Somewhat wider awareness of farmer ting up an LISF in a national farmer things on their own, using local ideas innovation resulting from LISF sup- organisation; or basing the LISFs and advice, while the research insti- port was achieved in May 2013, when in self-managed and self-resourced tutes had their own agenda and little four of the eight country teams in- CBOs (Veldhuizen & Waters-Bayer flexibility to support local initiatives. volved in the action research brought 2013). The main challenges in these One exception was in Kenya, where ten innovators each to exhibit at the up - scaling scenarios – except possi- staff from the Kenya Agricultural and Eastern African Farmer Innovation bly the last two – would be to retain Livestock Research Organisation was Fair in Nairobi. However, the focus the focus on small-scale farmers and responsible for M&E of the LISF proof this event was on local innovations the farmer-led character, and to retain cess and for linking farmer research- and not on LISFs. an approach of continued reflection, ers with scientists. In all countries, learning and adaptation to changing however, the LISFs generated inter- If the LISF is to become a funding institutional conditions. est from extension agents to become mechanism that reaches millions of more involved in farmer-led research. small-scale farmers, it needs to be Some lessons learnt integrated into institutions in each Small-scale farmers can take the lead in lo- country. During the action research, it cally relevant innovation. The action re-

118 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN search showed that funds for local ship can be achieved, the methods of in deciding on use of ARD funds, and research can be managed at the grass- externally supported local research should create spaces to learn from the roots, if support agencies facilitate in- can be more rigorous and the results diverse approaches to LISFs. teraction between farmers and other better documented than when farm- stakeholders so that farmers remain ers experiment on their own. Acknowledgements in the driving seat. Locally governed Prolinnova thanks Rockefeller Foundation decentralised funds for farmer-led re- Conclusions and the French and Netherlands Govern- search and innovation are feasible and Creating a farmer-governed local ments for funding support. The authors thank effective in stimulating site-relevant funding mechanism can gradually the FMCs, farmer researchers, Prolinnova innovation in family farming at low lead to a collaborative innovation pro- Country Platforms, the Prolinnova Oversight cost. cess in which farmers exercise more Group and other members of the Interna- control than in present-day ARD. tional Support Team for the time and insights Developing LISFs takes time and resources. Setting up the LISF by encouraging they gave in the joint learning about LISFs. LISFs have to be tailor-made for each farmers and other ARD actors to setting. The core principles – giving design the mechanism to suit their References small-scale farmers direct access to conditions and then to jointly assess Ashby JA, Braun AR, Gracia T, Guerrero funds, supporting farmer-led innova- how it works helps link farmers and MP, Hernandez LA, Quiros CA & Roa JA. tion, farmer management of funds the others in joint learning driven 2000. Investing in farmers as researchers: – must be applied according to local by farmers’ interests. The experi- experiences with Local Agricultural Research realities regarding farmer organisa- ence with LISFs showed the poten- Committees in Latin America. Cali: CIAT. tional capacities, availability of sup- tial of giving farmers direct access Fanos MB, Guesh W, Luel H, Hailu A & port services, and the specific policy to resources for innovation. This can Waters-Bayer A. 2011. Assessing the level and legal framework. By building on complement conventional funding of institutionalising Participatory Innova- lessons gained elsewhere with LISFs, for ARD and can also be regarded as tion Development in Tahtay Maychew Dis- the start-up period for new LISFs an alternative approach to extension. trict, Tigray, Ethiopia. Prolinnova Working can be shortened, but time will still The LISF encouraged farmer-led Paper 32 (www.Prolinnova.net/resources/ be needed for testing, learning and participatory research and sharing of wpaper). adjusting the LISFs in new areas. findings, both from farmer to farmer Macoloo C, Kamau G, Makonge R, Start-up costs need to be seen as an and through formal extension chan- Ng’ang’a T, Waters-Bayer A & Veldhuizen investment in de-learning old ways nels. The accompanying training and L van. 2013. Farmer-managed funds stimu- and learning new ways to structure mentoring by support organisations late farmer-led participatory innovation pro- relationships between actors in the (CSOs, research, extension, universi- cesses. In: Triomphe B et al (Eds), Innova- agricultural innovation system. ties) built farmers’ capacity to man- tion in smallholder farming: recent advances age public funds at local level and and recommendations (Montpellier: Cirad), Constant efforts are needed to prevent scien- stimulated a better understanding of pp27–37. tists from “taking over”: Many farmers’ the support organisations’ own roles Prolinnova. 2012. Farmer Access to Innova- experiments, with little outside sup- within innovation processes. By mak- tion Resources: findings & lessons learnt on port, yielded results that were eas- ing locally governed innovation funds facilitating Local Innovation Support Funds. ily understood and applied by their available to small-scale farmers, the Leusden: Prolinnova International Secre- neighbours. This initial experimenta- LISF offered a path toward strength- tariat. tion by farmers on their own helped ening farmers’ voices in deciding also Triomphe B, Wongtschowski M, Krone A, build their confidence to engage with at higher levels on publicly funded Waters-Bayer A, Lugg D & Veldhuizen L other ARD actors. Joint experimenta- research and extension and making van. 2012. Providing farmers with direct tion by farmers and other ARD ac- agricultural support services more access to innovation funds. In World Bank tors may generate results that can be accountable to, and relevant for, the (ed.), Agricultural innovation systems: an scaled up with greater certainty that farmers. investment sourcebook (Washington DC: the innovation is “valid”, but is more World Bank); pp435–441. costly than experimentation by only National policy support to farmer- Veldhuizen L van & Waters-Bayer A. farmers. Joint experimentation pro- governed decentralised funding 2013. Scaling up Local Innovation Support vides more opportunity for scientific mechanisms would give farmer in- Funds (LISFs). Leusden: Prolinnova Inter- knowledge to be integrated by farm- novators and other local ARD actors national Secretariat. ers, but scientists sometimes tend to more opportunity to learn from each Veldhuizen L van, Wongtschowski M & “hijack” the process. Therefore, the other and to benefit from each other’s Waters-Bayer A. 2005. Farmer Access to interaction must be well facilitated, knowledge in agricultural innovation Innovation Resources (FAIR): findings from so that the scientists appreciate that processes. Rather than homogenising an international review of experiences. Pro- farmers have own questions they one LISF approach for small-scale linnova Working Paper 9 (www.Prolinnova. want to pursue in the joint research. farmers country- or worldwide, multi- net/resources/wpaper). The greater the farmers’ influence ple local learning platforms should be Wettasinha C, Wongtschowski M & Wa- in deciding on fund use, the stronger encouraged to develop site-appropri- ters-Bayer A. 2008. Recognising local inno- their position in negotiating questions ate forms of LISFs and other options vation. Silang:IIRR to explore. Where a balanced partner- that give small-scale farmers more say

119 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN THE CHALLENGE OF GLOBAL HEALTH PARTNERSHIPS IN AFRICA

Prof. Johanna Crane, Assistant Professor of Science, Technology, and Society, School of Interdisciplinary Arts & Sciences University of Washington - Bothell

ver the past 15 years, to include over 130 universities from The popularity of African research “global health” has North America and countries in the sites is partly an artifact of the global become an increas- global South. As interest and invest- HIV/AIDS epidemic, which brought ingly hot field of in- ment in global health has risen, so has international researchers to the con- ternational research Northern demand for international tinent in unprecedented numbers. and education. In sites than can host global health re- These researchers were drawn to the United States, student and faculty searchers and students. African clin- African sites by a combination of demand for global health experiences ics, hospitals, and universities have humanitarian and scientific goals. has led to a dramatic increase in the become a particularly hot commod- Following the discovery of effective number of departments, programs, ity, with some prominent African re- antiretroviral therapy in the mid- and institutes of global health within searchers receiving requests to collab- 1990s, many physician-researchers in the nation’s most prestigious research orate on a nearly weekly basis. What wealthy countries felt the humanitar- universities and medical schools. is driving this global health “scram- ian pull to apply their experience and ble” for Africa, and what are the con- expertise in the hardest-hit parts of Reflecting this trend, the Consortium sequences for African researchers, pa- the world where treatment remained of Universities for Global Health was tients, and institutions? unavailable. At the same time, work- inaugurated in 2005 and has grown ing abroad also presented scientific

120 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN opportunities in the form of large ties (and the health challenges that go Foreign researchers, blinded by their numbers of untreated (or “treatment with them) that make African sites at- own good intentions and unexamined naive”) HIV patients. As one Ugan- tractive to U.S. and European global assumptions, may not realize that dan researcher told me in 2009, “We health programs to begin with. To they are positioning their African col- say HIV opened our doors to a lot those in wealthy countries, “doing” leagues as charity cases. Take, for ex- of international organizations. If it global health is often implicitly un- ample, a piece written by the editors wasn’t for HIV maybe not many peo- derstood to mean working in a much of Nature for a special issue focused ple would have come here. It’s a bad poorer part of the world, among pa- on research in Africa. In response to thing that happened to Uganda, but tients with much poorer access to care the question “What can individual I think it has exposed the country to and medications. In this way, wealthy researchers do for colleagues in Af- certain things that maybe we would institutions value—or at the very least, rica?” the authors argue that “scien- have never seen.” gain opportunities from—the same tists in Africa must be treated as real inequalities that hobble their African collaborators, rather than just recipi- Of course, international health re- collaborators. ents of aid” — the same argument I search has a long history that predates made above. Yet, in the same piece, both HIV/AIDS and the current For example, I once shadowed a the writers urge scientists in wealthy enthusiasm for “global health.” In pair of visiting prospective research- nations to “help out” their African the 1960s and ‘70s, the field of “in- ers as they toured a rural hospital in colleagues by sending them their used ternational health” worked hand-in- Uganda. Though the two men (both equipment “when they return home.” hand with international development, from Western Europe) lamented the Is this not an example of the very and focused largely on questions of underfunded health care conditions practice of treating collaborators as nutrition and maternal and child suffered by these rural patients, they aid recipients that the authors decry? health. “Tropical medicine” — a nonetheless observed the crumbling field born out of European colonial- buildings, rusting bed frames, and I have seen this kind of charitable ism — investigated infectious diseases crowded conditions of the hospital blindness in operation in southwest- like malaria and yaws. However, the with a form of approval, assuring ern Uganda, where an influx of for- field of global health claims a funda- each other that this facility had “real eign researchers to a public, regional mental difference from these older, wards,” unlike the well-appointed, medical school has brought both paternalistic models of transnational corporate-funded outpatient clinic in new opportunities and fresh conflicts. health science in that it aspires to eq- the capital city. The evident signs of Take, for example, “the Italian lab”, uitable scientific partnership between poverty were what made the hospital a fully equipped laboratory set up by wealthy and poor nations. In a widely a desirable research site. an Italian HIV research project and cited article in the Lancet, a group of left to the university upon the study’s international authors representing the Thus, there is a paradox at the very completion. On one hand the labo- Consortium of Universities for Global heart of global health science: it plac- ratory provided valuable machinery, Health argue for “a common defini- es a value upon the very inequalities such as viral load testing equipment, tion of global health” that emphasizes it also deplores. This paradox poses which was in short supply at the time. “the mutuality of real partnership, fundamental challenges to the goal of On the other hand, the machines a pooling of experience and knowl- mutual partnership. were from Italian manufacturers and edge, and a two-way flow between thus of a type rarely seen or used in developed and developing countries.” Partnership and Paternalism Uganda, where British and American “The developed world,” the authors Researchers from wealthy countries products are more common. This note, “does not have a monopoly on are often motivated to pursue global made it quite difficult to fix the ma- good ideas.” health projects out of a humanitar- chines when they broke, or to restock ian desire to assist the less fortunate. them with the proper reagents. This is Partnership is a laudable goal. But And, indeed, global health research not to say that donating equipment is it is easier said than done, and easier often does provide health services an inherently bad idea, but it is a cau- “performed” than actually practiced. and infrastructure, such as laboratory tionary tale against donation without Wealthy Northern institutions and monitoring, which might not have consultation. Too often, good inten- poor African (or other) institutions been available otherwise. As a result, tions and the imperative to engage in face the challenge of collaborating foreign researchers may envision the ‘capacity building’ trump the simple across steep inequalities with deep scientific resources they bring to Afri- step of asking African collaborators historical roots. Global health has ca as a form of aid, and their African whether or not such a donation would places like Harvard—the richest uni- collaborators as aid recipients. This be welcome or useful, or what would versity in the United States, with an introduces a power dynamic of de- be needed to make it so. The result is endowment surpassing 30 billion dol- pendency and gratitude, rather than paternalism, rather than partnership. lars—collaborating with African pub- collaboration and negotiation, and lic hospitals that struggle to keep the makes it difficult for African research- Science and Standards lights on and the water running. This ers to shape research design or agen- The steep resource inequalities that dynamic is further complicated by das. underlie global health science have the fact that it is these very inequali- profound implications for the careers

121 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Too often, good intentions and the imperative To engage in ‘capacity building’ trump the simple step of asking African collaborators whether or not such a donation would be welcome or useful, or what would be needed to make it so.

of African researchers. African phy- collaborators to participate equally. In recent years, a growing recogni- sician-researchers often carry heavy Northern collaborators are drawn to tion of the barriers faced by African clinical loads and have little time or research sites with poor health care researchers has pushed global health funding available to conduct research. infrastructure, but they are often un- projects to go beyond research and Partnership with foreigners can pro- prepared for—or, at worst, unsympa- engage in “capacity building” aimed vide welcome support for develop- thetic to—the underfunded admin- at enhancing training, opportunities, ing a research program, but it means istrative and research infrastructure and facilities for African-led research. playing by rules set by foreign investi- that goes with this. This makes it This is a positive step, but even the gators and their funders. very difficult for African researchers, most well intended collaborations may for whom these conditions are unfor- find their efforts thwarted by funders’ Failure to adhere to these rules can tunately normal, to achieve “global” reluctance to adequately underwrite result in accusations of poor quality — i.e., Northern—scientific stand- “indirect” research costs such as facili- research or ethical breaches, as when ards. For example, publication in ties and administrative infrastructure. a Ugandan study of the prevention of top “international” scientific journals Reimbursement for these “indirect mother-to-child transmission of HIV often requires quantitative laboratory costs” is controversial even within the was accused of covering up “adverse measures that underfunded African U.S., as funders want to see money events” among their study population. institutions cannot afford. Clinical spent on directly on research activi- In fact, the researchers had found it measures, which are possible even in ties, not on “overhead” costs like pow- necessary to modify what they report- the most underfunded institutions, are er, research space, and administrative ed as an “adverse event” because the not considered publishable data. support. This antagonism is even reporting standards set by the study’s more pronounced for federal grants funder, the U.S. National Institutes African researchers may also resent given to foreign institutions, which of Health, were based on research being held to “international” research opponents frame as foreign aid. As a conducted in the U.S., where peo- standards while they are paid on a lo- result, the U.S. National Institutes of ple have a much higher baseline of cal, much lower, pay scale. When an- Health reimburses foreign institutions basic nutrition and health. Because thropologist Ferdinand Okwaro inter- for “indirect” or “facilities and admin- researchers are expected to report viewed East African scientists about istration” costs at a maximum rate of all adverse conditions that arise over international collaborations, he found only 8%, even though U.S. universi- the course of a trial, whether or not the issue of unequal pay to be particu- ties (who negotiate this rate individu- they are believed to be a result of the larly contentious. One top researcher ally with the NIH) frequently receive study drug, the small Ugandan team he spoke with described this inequal- over 50%. was quickly overwhelmed by the need ity with intentional irony, arguing, to report the extensive number of “If we are downgrading the salary Put simply, this means that for every health problems experienced by their to local standards, then why not also NIH research dollar granted to, for already very ill study population — a downgrade the quality of the science example, Makerere University in population for whom they were also to local standards? We would then Uganda, Makerere will receive an ad- responsible for providing clinical care. say, “You know this is a poor country ditional eight cents to cover facilities They decided to modify the definition and so if their refrigerators are not and administration costs. The U.S. of “adverse event” to better match the good and the specimen thaws a bit, institution sharing the grant, by con- baseline Ugandan context, a move that is ok, those are the local stand- trast, will receive fifty or more cents that displeased regulators at the Na- ards.’” African researchers recognize on the dollar. While foundations and tional Institutes of Health and led to the unfairness of being expected to non-U.S. government funders are not extensive negative press coverage. perform science to the standards of tied to this 8% rate, they too tend to wealthy institutions, but nonetheless reimburse African institutions at com- In this way, the same inequalities being compensated by the standards paratively very low rates. As a result, that draw Northern global health re- of a poor one. African institutions involved in global searchers to impoverished countries health research are expected to house stymie the ability of their Southern Capacity Building and Corruption and manage multiple international

122 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN projects on a fraction of the over- funds. This will not be easy, and can- head support provided to their foreign Take, for example, the case of six not be separated from ongoing strug- counterparts for the same work, often Kenyan physician-researchers who gles for economic stability and demo- from the same grants. This drains, recently won a landmark discrimina- cratic rule. Nonetheless, local funding rather than builds, African capacity tion suit against the Kenya Medical is one way to build capacity and move by chronically underfunding African Research Institute (KEMRI). KEM- away from what Mahmood Mamdani institutions. RI is Kenyan state research organiza- has called the “pervasive consultancy tion and one of Africa’s best known culture” at African universities. Take, for example, Uganda’s Infec- global health research entities. The tious Disease Institute (IDI). Founded plaintiffs worked for a branch of the There are also smaller, more im- by a consortium of Ugandan and organization called the KEMRI- mediate changes we can make. An- American researchers and built by Wellcome Trust Research Program, thropological studies of global health money from the Pfizer Foundation, it a long-standing partnership between collaborations in Kenya have shown is now owned by Uganda’s Makerere KEMRI and Oxford University in the value of simply talking openly University but houses numerous in- the United Kingdom that is funded by about inequalities, rather than treat- ternational research collaborations. the U.K.’s Wellcome Trust. However, ing them as a “public secret.” In It boasts one of East Africa’s premier their lawsuit—which netted an award my own work, Ugandan colleagues laboratories and includes partnerships of 30 million Kenyan shillings (about have expressed the value of writing with some of the most prestigious US$341,000) as recompense for insti- research proposals collaboratively, medical schools in the United States, tutional racism and systemic discrimi- rather than being added on as “local and so receives a large number of U.S. nation— was against only KEMRI, PIs” after a study has already been de- federal grants. But as a Ugandan in- because neither Oxford nor Well- signed. Peter Waiswa has argued that stitution, it is limited to overhead reim- come are legally registered entities in wealthy countries must to do more to bursements at the 8% rate, a meager Kenya. Thus, it was the local Kenyan facilitate travel by African scientists, amount that may eventually threaten institution, and not the foreign univer- who often find their efforts to partici- its financial viability. Ironically, when sity or funder that bore the full legal pate in international conferences and the IDI uses U.S. subcontractors—as and financial burden of the suit. workshops hindered by financial and it sometimes does for specialty labora- visa restrictions. These kinds of bar- tory services—it must reimburse those Towards “real partnership” riers keep African researchers out of subcontractors at their U.S. negoti- There are a number of actions that international circulation and conver- ated rates, even though the IDI itself might improve the equity of global sations in ways that can be detrimen- is limited to the 8% rate from the very health collaborations and advance tal to their careers. They also serve to same grant. It seems worth posing the progress towards “real partnership.” preserve “international” conferences question: if the roles were reversed, Some of these actions require broad, as enclaves where researchers from and Ugandan funders were reimburs- institutional change, while others are wealthy countries can avoid confron- ing their national subcontractors at smaller, quicker fixes. tation with the social and scientific more than five times the rate given to realities faced by the vast majority of their foreign partners, wouldn’t this be The most obvious big change would the worlds’ investigators. called corruption? be to adequately reimburse African institutions for indirect research costs. Some of these changes may seem un- Capacity building may also be hin- U.S. research universities have risen to realistic, especially those that require dered by the administrative structure greatness largely because of access to significant governmental or institu- of global health partnerships. Nei- federal research dollars, including the tional reforms. But to not mention ther foreign nor African researchers money invested in research overhead them would be to admit defeat too tend to be trained administrators, and and infrastructure. African institu- readily. We must remind ourselves the administrative challenges of set- tions need and deserve the same kind that achieving access to free antiret- ting up an international partnership of support. While buildings and ad- rovirals in Africa was also once dis- are substantial. Increasingly, U.S. ministrative labor are not “sexy”, they missed as unrealistic. Though our and European universities involved in are very much a part of successful systems of global treatment access are global health collaborations are devis- science. Foreign institutions cannot, far from perfect, they are nonetheless ing administrative “enabling systems” in good faith, continue to promote ca- a huge achievement, and it would be designed to streamline legal and tax pacity building while simultaneously foolish to dismiss or underestimate status, money transfer, hiring and underfunding partner institutions in their consequences for millions of pa- payroll management, and compliance Africa. tients and their families. The same with local employment law. Unfortu- goes for global health science. Part- nately, these systems tend to prioritize Secondly, African governments and nership is easy to say, but hard to do. the needs of their designers, and often institutions should move towards But that does not mean we should not serve to outsource the legal and fiscal developing their own sources of re- keep trying. risk inherent to international collabo- search funding, such that African rations to lower income institutions in researchers are not solely dependent host countries. on foreign collaborations for research

123 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY PARTNERSHIPS IN AFRICA

Prof. Clare N. Muhoro, Associate Professor of Chemistry, Jess and Mildred Fisher School of Science and Mathematics, Towson Uni- versity, Towson MD; Science Partnerships Advisor, US Global Development Lab, USAID, Washington DC

Introduction

The establishment revolution, will be demand-driven, Science Policy and sustainability scalable, lucrative and predominantly The Science, Technology and Innova- of robust science, developed by Africans. However, Af- tion Strategy for Africa (STISA-2024) technology and in- rican countries need not re-invent the places STI at the center of Africa’s novation (STI) sec- wheel as they augment their STI en- economic growth and development. tors correlates di- terprise, and each country need not This African Union (AU) strategy rectly to a nation’s economic growth establish or grow an independent STI identifies several STI pillars includ- and prosperity. Indeed, industrialized sector single-handedly. Partnerships ing research infrastructure, workforce countries with thriving STI sectors are across borders, sectors and disciplines development and entrepreneurship the world’s richest. African countries will facilitate rapid development and for successful implementation of the recognize this correlation, and many deployment of STI solutions and ap- agenda. In order to create enabling are aiming to significantly boost their proaches. National science policies environments required for serious, STI portfolios in an effort to bridge can provide the enabling environment relevant and long-term investments in the development divide within a gen- for STI initiatives in academia, busi- STI, AU member states must commit eration. With the right preparation ness and government to take root and to supporting continental, regional and training, Africa’s youth bulge can flourish. and national policies on STI. Al- be leveraged to achieve this ambitious ready, several countries have pledged goal. This paper aims to highlight some to increase their STI investments, policies, practices and partnership including bolstering research ecosys- Increased investment in STI infra- models that have the potential to har- tems and enhancing science and tech- structure, workforce development, ness the power of science, technology nology (S&T) workforce development. and policy will accelerate economic and innovation for accelerated eco- The Joint Call for Action in Kigali growth on the continent, and yield rel- nomic growth, social development in 2014 exemplifies such a commit- evant, timely and deployable solutions and socioeconomic mobility across ment by the governments of Ethio- for African challenges. Such solutions, the continent. pia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Senegal, exemplified by the mobile technology

124 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN and Uganda to “adopt a strategy that and the US National Academies of ship seamlessly connects students with uses strategic investments in science Science, Engineering and Medicine their peers at the CMU main campus and technology to accelerate Africa’s geared towards “strengthening the ca- in Pittsburgh, and the Rwandan gov- development into a developed knowl- pability of African science academies ernment offers scholarships to all East edge-based society within one genera- to provide independent, evidence- African students eligible to attend. tion.” supported advice to inform African The launch of the CMU Rwanda government policy making and public campus in 2012 is an important ex- Investments by many African coun- discourse related to improving hu- ample of how African countries can tries in R&D are typically less than man health.” Such science policy partner with leading STI universities the continentally agreed target of 1 initiatives are encouraging, but more to rapidly train a workforce ready for percent of the GDP, although some still needs to be done, including gov- growing STI economies. As Rwanda countries are beginning to take this ernments’ increased financial contri- prepares for leadership in informa- seriously. For example, Kenya’s Sci- bution to initiatives such as ASADI tion and communications technology ence, Technology and Innovation Act and AESA, both of which are mostly (ICT), its CMU partnership will retain of 2013 allocates 2% of the GDP to funded by grants from foreign donors. much-needed talent at home, and fa- research and development (R&D). Af- Strong national leadership and politi- vor brain gain over brain drain. Such rica’s research productivity has been cal will is needed if science policy in international collaborations should be increasing. Between 2003 and 2012, Africa is to succeed. viewed positively, as they complement the number of peer publications au- existing national university systems. thored by African researchers more Academic Partnerships than doubled, while Africa’s contri- There have been several collaborative The Inclusion of Women butions to global research increased efforts directed at STI workforce de- Countries with greater gender parity from 0.44% to 0.72%. The impact velopment in recent years across the are more prosperous, more peaceful, factors of research publications com- continent. The Pan African Univer- and enjoy greater politically stabil- ing from the region also rose, with ci- sity, launched in 2011, is a network ity. African countries cannot afford tations increasing from 0.06%- 0.16% of four established African universi- the economic, political and social to 0.12%-0.28%. Most of the re- ties seeking to build STI capacity at setbacks that result when women are search output is in the areas of health postgraduate levels by offering mas- systematically excluded from full and and agriculture. This is unsurprising ters and doctoral programs in Basic equitable participation in all segments since most funding has prioritized Sciences, Technology and Innovation of society. Exclusion of women from these areas over traditional science, (Kenya), Life and Earth Sciences (Ni- the STI sector wastes precious talent technology, engineering and math- geria), Social Sciences (Cameroon) and retards scientific advancement. ematics (STEM). Dedicating more and Water/Energy Sciences (Algeria). The future of African economies funding to STI, including more sup- This AU program illustrates how a depends on eliminating this wasteful port for research in all STEM fields, shared vision by African governments practice. Providing equal opportu- continues to be an important first can lead to strategic utilization of re- nity to girls and women to enroll and step. However, such commitments sources for enhancement of STI ca- succeed in STEM careers is not only must be accompanied by actionable pacity and capability at existing cam- morally right, but also the smart thing and sound national science policies puses. In a separate effort, the World to do. As President Obama noted in that create enabling environment for Bank Africa Higher Education Cent- his speech at the Global Entrepre- STI ecosystems to thrive. ers of Excellence Project, launched in neurship Summit in Nairobi in July 2014 is expected to create “specialized 2015, “Any nation that fails to educate National academies of science, en- world-class higher education institu- its girls or employ its women and al- gineering and medicine play an im- tions on the continent” in seven West low them to maximize their potential portant role in advising governments and Central African countries: Nige- is doomed to fall behind in a global on national science policy, and some ria, Ghana, Senegal, Benin, Burkina economy.” African countries are beginning to Faso, Cameroon, and Togo. rely more on these professional socie- Several countries have moved swiftly ties. The recently launched Alliance International bilateral university part- to fully and equitably include women for Accelerating Science in Africa nerships are also being established, in political, professional and social (AESA), a collaboration between the with the aim of utilizing established institutions. Rwanda has the largest African Academy of Sciences (AAS) resources and networks at foreign uni- proportion of women parliamentar- and the New Partnership for Af- versities to train the next generation ians of any country in the world; 64% rica’s Development (NEPAD), aims of Africa’s STI graduates at home. compared to the global average of to drive Africa’s research agenda For example, the Carnegie Mellon 22%.Africa now has 3 women presi- and to build scientific capacity across University (CMU) in Rwanda has pi- dents; Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Liberia; the continent. The African Science oneered the establishment of branch Catherine Samba-Panza, Central Af- Academies Development Initiative campuses of US research institutions rican Republic; and Ameenah Gurib, (ASADI) is a decade-long collabora- in sub-Saharan Africa, and is simi- Mauritius. Similar progress is needed tive program between academies of lar to models implemented in China in the STI sector, and greater efforts science of several African countries and the Middle East. This partner- must made to not only enroll more

125 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN girls in STEM tracks early, but to also Africa, women comprise over 70% of seek greener solutions that safeguard ensure the success of women working farm labor in smallholdings, yet only the natural and human capital on in STI fields. Support in the form of 25% of agricultural researchers in which Africa’s economic growth and equal opportunity and access to STI African are women. Recognizing that prosperity is predicated. Environ- careers, mentorship programs at all women scientists are best positioned mental policy in the form of punitive levels, and family-friendly policies for to work with women agricultural pro- measures against national, business both public and private sector male ducers, marketers and processors, and and industrial growth is counterpro- and female employees will allow Af- that Africa’s green revolution depends ductive in countries seeking to indus- rica to retain and promote the success on sourcing talent from all women in trialize, and is not being advocated for of its women working in the STI sec- agriculture, AWARD seeks to “make here. Rather, African nations should tor. women researchers technically strong- intentionally source and integrate er, better networked, and more confi- STI solutions in the design and im- Efforts are currently underway across dent and visible”. The program right- plementation of projects in areas such the continent to boost the number of ly aims to position its fellows as both as (climate-smart) agriculture, (clean) girls enrolled in STEM programs at leading scientists and strong leaders energy, (green) urban planning, and primary, secondary and tertiary lev- who will support, coach and mentor (smart) water. els. However, the success of these ini- the next generation of young women tiatives depends on the availability of in the agricultural sciences. These solutions are neither obvious nor simple. But with political will and creative approaches, environmental stewardship at the national level Arguably, African is possible. In one generation Costa Rica has more than doubled its forest Diasporans are more cover and reduced CO2 emissions, sharply bringing the country close to carbon-neutrality. In the same time- highly educated than the frame, the country has established a growing medical devices industry, and population in their home catered to a rapidly urbanizing population. The Costa Rican model is one that could well inform African coun- countries.Indeed, they often tries as they develop their STI and outperform indigenous sustainable development policies. Diasporan Engagement From Chinese in Indonesia to Indi- populations of their ans in Silicon Valley, diasporans move money, talent and ideas faster than resident countries. other groups. The African diaspora is no different: remittances from the Af- role models - professional women who rican diaspora contribute to economic are active in STI fields. The “leaky Environmental Stewardship growth in Africa, and many innova- pipeline” or attrition of women as Harnessing STI for economic growth tive businesses have been established they advance up the career ladder, and development should occur in by diasporans, thanks to their inter- continues to plague STI professions tandem with environmental steward- national contacts, training and expe- everywhere. Mentoring and coach- ship. Countless and often irreversible rience. Arguably, African diasporans ing programs can go a long way in environmental disasters have been are more highly educated than the addressing this problem, and several wrought by unchecked industrializa- population in their home countries. career advancement programs have tion and exploitation of natural re- Indeed, they often outperform indig- been established for African women sources in North America, Europe, enous populations of their resident in STI fields. The African Women and, now increasingly, China. In- countries. When diasporans return in Agricultural Research and Devel- deed, the UN Conference on Climate home, lured by increased democra- opment (AWARD) is a mentorship Change in Paris in Nov/Dec 2015 was tization and economic opportunity, program with programs in 11 African a collective action aimed at addressing they bring with them a wide array of countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, the ills of rampant and irresponsible skills and expertise. Local and global Liberia, Malawi, Mozambique, Nige- industrialization, currently the great- STI companies looking to recruit tal- ria, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and est threat to the world’s human popu- ent are tapping this cohort for both Zambia). AWARD aims to empower lations, ecosystems, and economies. leadership and technical positions. more women to pursue and succeed in agricultural science careers through African countries need not follow the Many African countries recognize the career-development fellowships. In paths of western countries, but should power of their Diasporas as economic

126 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN and diplomatic bridges to other coun- bourgeoning, and there is an increase tries. Indeed, several countries includ- Global STI Programs and Invest- in workforce ready university STEM ing Benin, Mali, Somalia and Tunisia ments graduates, in part due to increased have ministerial entities dedicated African research institutions are in- enrolment in STEM fields. Attracted to diasporan affairs. African diaspo- creasing their brick and mortar in- by this environment, global STI com- ran organizations, including those in vestments through the Pan African panies such as IBM, Hewlett Packard, STI, are increasing their visibility and initiatives outlined above. However, GlaxoSmithKline, Google, and GE demonstrating their value as channels infrastructural projects take time and have established regional and coun- to opportunities and resources in Af- significant resources. In the interim, try offices as well as state-of-the-art rica. The Africa Gathering is a group there are opportunities to access re- production and research facilities in of the African digital diaspora (with search facilities, scholarly networks African countries to increase proxim- annual meetings in Africa, the US and complementary expertise in oth- ity to markets and competitive talent. and Europe) pooling resources, shar- er parts of the world through science This global corporate interest is an ing ideas and coordinating efforts to and technology partnerships. Inter- indication of Africa’s improved in- use technology for positive change in national research partnerships with vestment climate, and should lead to Africa. With the belief that “lives of North American, European and Asian job growth in the STI sector. Several many ordinary Africans can be im- agencies should be pursued and can African universities are partnering proved using the benefits of technolo- bolster the research portfolios of indi- with the private sector to ensure that gy, using African solutions for African vidual scholars, institutions and con- their curricula prepare graduates for problems – sometimes with a helping sortia. Importantly, there should be a these anticipated new employment hand from others”, this group is chal- greater recognition that these collabo- opportunities. In addition to bolster- lenging the outdated “Aid for Africa” rations are mutually beneficial, and ing national efforts in workforce devel- paradigm. Africa Gathering argues western partners benefit from access opment, such public-private partner- that diasporan talent, energy, experi- to resources (expertise, data, research ships should also be used to integrate ence and capital can have greater and sites) and skilled research assistants appropriate STI approaches into na- longer lasting socioeconomic impact (e.g., graduate students in science). As tional development efforts in all STI- than traditional foreign assistance such, these partnerships should be lev- relevant sectors. mechanisms. eraged to develop research activities that are well integrated and relevant Conclusion Organizations of STEM diaspora to the African researchers’ projects al- Africa has been rising over the past professionals also play an important lowing for continuation of the schol- decade. While global geopolitics has role in facilitating collaborations in arly work beyond the lifetime of the certainly played a role, the renais- STI. The STEM Africa Initiative at grants. sance is in large part the result of a the University of Michigan creates critical mass of progressive Africans a platform for the “engagement of Short-term visits for young Africans, taking the helm in politics, civil soci- science as a trans-Atlantic affair” by including those working in S&T, are ety, business and, increasingly, STI. diasporan STEM professionals in the offered by various programs such as The exponential increase in the glob- US and their counterparts in Africa. the Mandela Washington Fellow- al exchange of ideas via the Internet The Carnegie Diaspora Program ship of the Young African Leaders and through international travel has supports African diasporan profes- Initiative (YALI) and the Master- invigorated a new generation eager sors in the US to teach and conduct Card Foundation Scholars Program. for more peaceful, prosperous and research in Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Both programs are aimed at provid- inclusive societies. Africa’s growing South Africa, Uganda or Tanzania. ing the brightest and most promising middle class is changing the landscape The International Diaspora Engage- young Africans the opportunity to in all sectors, including STI. Still, ment Alliance (IdEA) “promotes and access thought leaders, professional the potential of STI remains largely supports diaspora-centered initiatives networks, and world-class facilities untapped. Strategic collaboration in investment & entrepreneurship, at partner institutions in Africa and across the continent and around the philanthropy, volunteerism, and in- North America. The expectation is world can help harness the power of novation in countries and regions of that these opportunities will catalyze STI for the overall benefit of African diaspora origin.” contributions of these exceptional countries. With good governance, scholars upon their entry or re-entry robust partnerships, and an enabling Just as Indian and Chinese diasporans into the workforce back home. environment, STI can be harnessed have contributed to the accelerated to transform the continent within a growth of STI sectors in their home Africa now has 4 of the top 10 of generation. countries, so can African diasporans the fastest growing global economies enable African countries to leapfrog and its economies are diversifying Disclaimer: “The views and opinions ex- into competitive STI economies. The away from agricultural and minerals pressed in this paper are those of the author next 5-10 years will be critical in re- commodities. In Nigeria, for exam- and not necessarily the views and opinions vealing the impact of the rapidly in- ple, the banking, mobile phones, and of the United States Agency for International creasing diasporan engagement in construction now contribute to 60% Development or of Towson University.” Africa’s STI sector. of the GDP. Africa’s middle class is

127 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN TACKLING INEQUITIES IN GLOBAL SCIENTIFIC POWER STRUCTURES Angela Okune, Denisse Albornoz, Becky Hillyer, Nanjira Sambuli, Leslie Chan Open and Collaborative Science in Development Network

Abstract Global and local power structures systematically favor the knowledge of some privileged groups, while excluding or delegitimizing the realities of others. Many scientific research and development projects are extractive in nature, profiting from local knowledge and resources, while putting external objectives before local needs. We look at the case of ICTD research in particular to highlight barriers we believe may be preventing “for development” research from meeting its full potential to improve livelihoods. We close with recommendations for a more open and collaborative science agenda to better address social needs and development challenges.

Introduction

esearchers from the found effect on rendering much of knowledge production. global South face the research from the South invisible. While OA may provide a means to many challenges in One of the original intents of the challenge the hegemony of the global knowledge produc- Open Access (OA) movement was publishing system, it also needs to be tion and circulation to encourage scholars to take back part of a broader movement to rethink due to inequalities control of their intellectual labor and what constitutes scholarly publication, in research funding, infrastructure, outputs, and to challenge the existing quality, and impact in an open net- institutional support and research knowledge institutions that perpetu- worked knowledge environment. Sev- capacity. While these factors con- ate the continual structuring and re- eral academic fields and movements tribute to the systematic asymmetry structuring of the knowledge center proclaim to also be interested in build- in knowledge production between and periphery. As such, Open Access ing knowledge “for development” as the global South and North, a cru- does not simply stand for free access seen in the proliferation of “open” cial contributor is that the value and and reuse of research outputs, but is and “for development” groups includ- evaluation frameworks for legitimat- crucially about opening the bounda- ing Human Computer Interaction for ing knowledge are largely defined and ries of what constitutes legitimate Development (HCI4D), Information controlled by powerful institutions knowledge, democratizing of knowl- Communication Technologies for from the North. Instruments such as edge production by expanding par- Development (ICT4D), Open Gov- the Journal Impact Factor owned by ticipation, and the inclusion of voices ernment, and Open Data. However, Thomson-Reuters have had a pro- that were traditionally excluded in there is a disjuncture between these

128 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN movements’ professed aims around between Fall 2003 and Winter 2010. that way then, efforts to “help” re- “strengthening the evidence base for We draw on this study as well as our searchers of the global South are ICTs to impact socioeconomic devel- own recent experience at the lat- merely rearticulating the same sys- opment in more positive ways” and est ICTD 2015 conference to assess tem, without seeking to challenge the their actual practice. In this article, we challenges faced by the ICTD com- system and re-imagine one in which assess this disconnect, using the field munity that we hope will be of use to production and access to knowledge is of ICTD as a case study to assess how other emerging development research more equal. to better tackle the inequity embed- groups moving forward. ded in the current paradigm of tradi- At the same time, the rhetoric of tional scientific knowledge. Open Access “openness” is becoming increasingly For a research community that be- co-opted by those with power in the For Development? lieves in development, it is critical that current system. Indeed, seeing the In parallel with an increased use of the knowledge produced is accessible growing push towards open access networked technologies in develop- to those that may benefit from it. Pub- as a threat to profit margins, some ing countries over the last decade, lishing in closed access journals is one publishers are taking the opportunity an academic field of study known as clear way that a field can delegitimize to manipulate open access advocates Information Communication Tech- its calls for development. Open Ac- into a similarly extractive framework. nologies in/for Development (ICTD) cess has the potential to facilitate the For example, an “Open Access” book has emerged. Built on an assumption flow of knowledge in all directions, launch at the ICTD 2015 conference, that more and better information and not only from the global North to the we discovered that an international communication furthers the develop- global South, but also within the glob- development funder had (quite be- ment of society, ICTD scholars ex- al South and from the global South grudgingly) paid $8,000 USD simply plore the role of ICTs in social, po- to the North (Chan & Costa, 2005). to make the book “open” online. In litical, and economic development. This increased freedom in access and this way, instead of putting a price ICTD is one of many emerging aca- agency to publish can greatly facilitate on knowledge for those who seek ac- demic fields that aims to use a multi- the development of more localized, cess, the system of extraction uses the disciplinary approach to understand context-dependent understandings of same principles but reverses the mod- how to improve development. Despite development challenges and potential el, placing the financial burden on laudable goals of enhancing social jus- solutions. Therefore, it is expected the producer of knowledge. Clearly, tice, empowering citizens, and trans- that development research groups within this model, researchers of the forming social dynamics and institu- would be amongst those most in sup- global South would once again be ex- tional structure, unfortunately, ICTD port of Open Access. cluded from participating in equitable as a field has been unable to tap into knowledge production and dissemina- these purported benefits. Instead, re- Unfortunately, although Open Ac- tion. searchers continue to study the de- cess and Open Science are becom- ployment of technology projects, with ing increasingly well known within Representation the research approaches and funders’ most research communities, there are If the field aims to be more inclusive expectations often replicating exist- still many actors attempting to assert and tap into new voices for more ining power structures and dynamics of influence within current systems of clusive development, it must be keenly those in control of the resources over knowledge production. For exam- aware of representation both across those who are not. ple, a seemingly laudable initiative geographical locations, and also from by Author AID revolved around the within the country and communities. We argue that working within current hosting of an online course, targeting As part of this reflection, questions power structures not only excludes “researchers from developing coun- of who is the researcher versus who local processes of knowledge pro- tries.” However, in this course, there is framed as the research “subject,” duction, but also impedes the work is virtually no mention of the impor- and whose voice is being heard need of social movements that advance tance of Open Access nor the cur- to be asked. There are many lessons principles of openness and inclusive rent and historical power dimensions that can be learned by studying the participation. We do not aim to dis- at play, which cause many Southern Writing Culture critique of the 1980’s parage the field of ICTD; rather we institutions and individuals to be at in Anthropology. Without such cross- wish to assess it in order to better un- a disadvantage within existing sys- disciplinary sharing, we find it still derstand how to improve the quality tems of knowledge production. In es- common for global North research- of research “for” development mov- sence, this initiative is merely pushing ers to speak or write on behalf of the ing forward. In order to better under- researchers to participate within the global South. stand the challenges to development current system. Indeed, even if they as described in the ICTD literature, do succeed in publishing high-quality Dodson et al. (2012) note that particu- Dodson et al. (2012) reviewed forty research in high-ranking journals, this lar countries are highly represented in peer-reviewed ICTD research arti- research will have little to no benefit ICTD research, while others remain cles published in the leading ICTD to their countries, institutions or col- untouched. Amongst the 40 projects journal, Information Technologies & leagues who are likely unable to afford reviewed, Dodson found that over International Development (ITID) access to these expensive journals. In 30% of all projects were conducted

129 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Indeed, even if they do succeed in publishing high-quality research in high-ranking journals, this research will have little to no benefit to their countries, institutions or colleagues who are likely unable to afford access to these expensive journals.

in India and 42% of the sampled re- the existing paradigm of traditional Open Science and Open Develop- search was conducted in Sub-Saharan scientific knowledge in which global ment movements seeking to disman- Africa as a region. There were no and local power structures system- tle traditional scientific knowledge projects from China or Russia, and atically favor the knowledge of some production models, by opening up only one from Brazil. There were privileged groups, while excluding or the research process to multiple social no studies from the Middle East and delegitimizing the realities of others. actors across disciplines, geographies North Africa, and there were no stud- and levels of expertise. OCS empha- ies from the Gulf States or the Car- Open & Collaborative Science sizes collaboration above its other ibbean. This geographic focus on a Approach tenets and is interested in maximiz- few countries continues to hold true Many of the themes found in ICT4D ing dialogue between actors at mul- to date. Half of the 24 full papers work, such as equity and sustainable tiple stages of research: including the presented at the global ICTD 2015 development, are found in other fields design of the research problem, data conference focused on Sub-Saharan and social movements tackling the is- collection and analysis methodologies Africa, especially Kenya (6 of the 12 sues from slightly different fronts - with and the publication and circulation papers). Almost a quarter of the full some movements directly challenging of findings, with the objective of ex- papers presented had conducted their the existing power structures and par- ploring different modes of meaning study in India (5 papers). Also notable, adigms of traditional scientific knowl- making, production and circulation in although field sites for all of the full edge, while others aim to change the scientific production. It seeks to build papers at the ICTD 2015 conference structures from within. However, we infrastructures and mechanisms to ac- were located in the global South, only believe the key moving forward is de- tively facilitate the inclusion of mar- four of the primary authors hailed termining how to realize these com- ginalized and often silenced groups from institutions situated in the global mon aspirations without perpetuating in this process and ultimately create South. the status quo. In this regard, the po- platforms, spaces and opportunities tential of the Open Collaborative Sci- of exchange in which diverse sources The publisher for ICTD conference ence (OCS) movement is worth not- of knowledge are viewed as legiti- proceedings, ACM, uses a “hybrid ing. In addition to its strong reliance mate, important and necessary for the open access model” where authors on ICT to promote collaboration in development process. have the option to make their pub- the global research network, it shares lished work freely available to the with ICTD research the intent to ad- This philosophy proactively elimi- general public if an open access fee vance community building and hu- nates the extractive and exploitative is paid to ACM. Many institutions man empowerment in development practices derived from global and lo- in the global South do not have the processes, but with a further emphasis cal academia to establish new princi- $700-$900 fee required to make their on the cognitive dimension of knowl- ples for research that support the res- work open access therefore, few in the edge creation. Locating synergies be- toration of a knowledge commons in global South are able to access the re- tween both fields can inform current which knowledge is collectively gov- search work that was done. If global practices of knowledge production, erned, used, produced and circulated South institutions are disproportion- push the boundaries defining what under principles of equity and justice. ately restricted from both accessing constitutes valid scientific knowledge Developing the ICTD field with an and also enabling others from access- and break down hierarchies that situ- OCS lens implies introducing prin- ing their work, the question is, who ate views of the “expert” at the core ciples already guiding the ICTD dis- is this ICTD research for? Despite a of development-oriented research. course, such as empowerment, local stated aim towards improving social participation, access to knowledge and economic growth, the field of The approach advanced by Open and citizen engagement, into the pro- ICTD appears to still operate within and Collaborative Science is part of cess of its scientific production. Radi-

130 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN cally taking authority away from the mission of ICTD programs develop- discipline collaboration and proactive “expert” and including diverse social ing technologically mediated solutions bridging of development rhetoric actors in the research process ad- to development problems. Incorpo- with research practice, policies and vances principles of cognitive justice rating these mechanisms into ICTD programs implemented through these - setting up a research environment research therefore strengthens the development research programs can in which different forms of knowl- case of using ICTs to advance citizen greatly contribute to the democratiza- edge are considered valid and exist participation and empowerment, as tion of debates around the meaning in dialogue with each other (Reilly, the existence of the research embod- of well-being across languages, geog- 2011; Van der Velden, 2006). As aries the inherent value of participation raphies, cultures, traditions of knowl- gued by Reilly, this principle shifts and the radical possibilities to disman- edge exchange. attention away from the actors and tle hierarchies’ latent in its process. systems constructing the development References discourse and directs it to the spaces OCS similarly to ICTD, has not final- Albagli, S. Open Science in Question. Open and practices in which development ized a working definition for devel- Science, 9. happens (2011). The current ICTD opment (Burell and Toyama, 2009) academic landscape contradicts these and this is an ongoing challenge in its Burrell, J., & Toyama, K. (2009). What principles and continues to limit the practice. While the concept hints at constitutes good ICTD research? Informa- extent to which the participation of the improvement of socio-economic, tion Technologies & International Develop- local partners can inform its scholar- political, cultural and human condi- ment 5.3. ship. Taking the case of the African tions, the legacy of Western interven- continent, while the thematic focus tionist models used to justify strate- Chan, L., & Costa, S. (2005). Partici- of ICTD continues to be situated in gies of cultural domination and the pation in the global knowledge commons: African development challenges, the spread of neoliberal capitalism in the challenges and opportunities for research voices dominating, peer-reviewing post-WWII era is still evident in the dissemination in developing countries. New and protecting the quality of re- Western development agenda (Esco- Library World, 106(3/4), 141–163. bit- search outputs continue to be based bar, 2011). OCS and ICTD cannot stream/1807/2388/2/chan_costa.pdf in the Northern institutions (Gitau continue advancing “for develop- et al., 2010). Language biases, high ment” open research without funda- Castells, M. (2011). The power of identity: entry costs and lack of governmental mentally challenging the Western de- The information age: Economy, society, and incentives for research impedes the velopment discourse and opening up culture (Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons. successful insertion of local scholars, a debate around what development community leaders or citizens in most means, particularly to marginalized, Dodson, L. L., Sterling, S. R., & Ben- stages of the research process, under- excluded and dispossessed communi- nett, J. K. (2012). Considering Failure: mining the presence, representation ties. As noted in ICTD literature, the Eight Years of ITID Research. In Proceed- and legitimacy of Southern voices in existing gap between “researchers and ings of the Fifth International Conference the scholarship circulating global re- realities” derives from a disconnect on Information and Communication Tech- search networks. between ICTD programs and policies nologies and Development (pp. 56–64). and local community needs (Gitau et New York, NY, USA: ACM. http://doi. Civil society, social movements and al., 2010) that in many instances de- org/10.1145/2160673.2160681 citizens advancing alternative devel- feats the purpose of the interventions. opment models are also finding op- Moving forward, an important task Escobar, A. (2011). Encountering devel- portunities in the OCS movement to for the ICTD and OCS communities opment: The making and unmaking of the spread world-views that fundamen- is to locate alternative definitions of Third World. Princeton University Press. tally challenge tenets posited by the development. West or by local academia. Citizen Gitau, S., Plantinga, P., & Diga, K. science projects, open science initia- Conclusion (2010). ICTD research by Africans: Ori- tives facilitating the participation of As we have laid out in this article, it gins, interests, and impact. Proceedings of the citizens and their collaboration with is critical for development research 4th International Conference on Information experts in scientific research, creates groups to recognize the global power and Communication Technologies and Devel- an bottom-up participatory structure structures within which they are op- opment ICTD. to include locally relevant problems, erating and reflexively assess the dis- questions, grievances into the fram- juncture between narratives promot- Reilly, K. (2011). Designing research for the ing of research problems, and more ing “for development” research work emerging field of open development. Informa- nuanced interpretations informed by and its actual practice. We suggest tion Technologies & International Develop- the local context into their analysis. leveraging Open Access as an entry ment, 7(1). The rise of the “culture of sharing” point to being shifting the hegemonic (Castells, 2011) and the further inter- system of traditional scientific knowl- Van Der Velden, M. (2006). A case action, cooperation and co-creating edge. This will require greater engage- for cognitive justice. 2013: 1-15. between scientists and communities, ment across different development http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/ open up possibilities for innovation research movements for increased col- download?doi=10.1.1.364.225&rep (Albagli, 2015) fundamental for the lective influence. Through such cross-

131 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN THE AFRICAN LIGHT SOURCE INITIATIVE

Prof. Sekazi K. Mtingwa, Professor Emeritus, MIT and Carolina A&T State University.

132 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN VIEW OF VARIOUS Several decades ago, a new genre BEAM LINES FROM THE ALS OVERLOOK, of scientific instrument burst upon the Lawrence Berkeley scene and has been revolutionizing many National Laboratory disciplines ever since. Called an advanced Image: Wikimedia light source, or often simply a light source, it provides intense beams of photons, which are particles that make up beams of light as first realized by Albert Einstein and for which he received the 1921 Nobel Prize.

synchrotron-based light source is more important as a first time investment, because fifty or more beams, mostly X-rays, can be extracted at many points around the circular accelerator, which is typically hundreds of meters in circumference. Hence, scientists and engineers from many disciplines can perform experiments simultaneously, creating a rich community of interdisciplinary users. Moreover, the X-ray beams are many orders of magnitude brighter than those from conventional lasers, thereby allowing researchers to collect their data during much shorter periods of time, allowing even more kinds of experiments to be performed. The free-electron based light sources have even higher brightness; however, there are typically less than ten beamlines in operation simultaneously. Thus, a synchrotron-based light source is the more urgent investment in times of limited financial resources.

In an article published on the lightsources.org, (http:// www.lightsources.org/news/2014/09/05/synchrotron- radiation-research-facility-africa) Herman Winick, who is Professor Emeritus at Stanford University and SLAC Na- tional Accelerator Laboratory in the USA, together with this author point out that many countries, both developed and developing, are rapidly building higher brightness light sources. Today, there are approximately fifty such light sources in operation.

133 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Fig. 1 Depicts the locations of advanced light source facilities, with some operating more than one light source.

Figure 1

Africa is conspicuously absent from well as presentations by both Africans tural heritage studies, energy, engi- the list of continents with advanced and non-Africans on research of im- neering, geology, materials science, light sources. This puts the continent portance to Africa. The final three nanotechnology, palaeontology, at a distinct disadvantage. By far, the days focused on policy and strategy. pharmaceutical discoveries, and largest community of African ad- The organizers decided that this first physics, with an accompanying im- vanced light source users is in South in a series of AfLS meetings should pact on sustainable industry. Africa and they must travel thousands be located on the site of an operating of kilometers to Europe, mostly to flagship synchrotron light source so • The community of researchers the European Synchrotron Radiation that participants, especially students around the world are striving col- Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France, and policymakers, could tour one of laboratively to construct ever more to perform experiments. The travel these facilities. intense sources of electromagnetic costs place a major constraint on the radiation, specifically derived from number of researchers that can be fi- The AfLS Conference and Workshop synchrotron light sources and X- nancially supported. had three major outputs: (1) a set of ray free-electron lasers (XFELs), to overarching statements, called the address the most challenging ques- In the summer of 2014, interested Grenoble Resolutions, (2) a Roadmap tions in living and condensed mat- parties elected an Interim Steering to guide future activities, and (3) the ter sciences. Committee for the African Light election of a fully mandated Steering Source (ISC-AfLS), chaired by Simon Committee to replace the ISC. • The African Light Source is ex- Connell, who was Professor of Phys- pected to contribute significantly to ics at the University of Johannesburg. Grenoble Resolutions the African Science Renaissance, The ISC had representatives from a the return of the African Science wide range of countries, including • Advanced light sources are the Diaspora, the enhancement of Egypt, Ethiopia, France, Japan, Nige- most transformative scientific in- University Education, the train- ria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, struments similar to the invention ing of a new generation of young Sweden, United States, and Zimba- of conventional lasers and comput- researchers, the growth of com- bwe. In November 2015, Connell led ers. petitive African industries, and the a subgroup of the ISC in organizing advancement of research that ad- the First African Light Source Con- • Advanced light sources are revolu- dresses issues, challenges and conference and Workshop at the ESRF. tionizing a myriad of fundamental cerns relevant to Africa. and applied sciences, including The meeting consisted of two seg- agriculture, biology, biomedicine, • For African countries to take con- ments: two days of presentations on chemistry, climate and environ- trol of their destinies and become light source research by Africans, as mental eco-systems science, cul- major players in the international

134 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Fig. 2 Contains a group photo of some of the participants, which numbered more than one hundred.

community, it is inevitable that a • Promote outreach and communi- um-Term activities, as required. light source must begin construc- cation around light source based tion somewhere on the African science. • Complete an AfLS Technical De- continent in the near future, which sign Report that includes site se- will promote peace and collabora- • Study the feasibility of constructing lection, and when approved by a tions among African nations and African multinational beamlines at sufficient number of African gov- the wider global community. existing light sources, perhaps with ernments, begin the construction partners from other regions of the of a latest generation synchrotron world. light source. MAJOR ELEMENTS OF THE MEETING’S SECOND OUTPUT • Develop a Strategic Plan for sub- To drive the Roadmap forward, the CAN BE SUMMARIZED AS FOL- mission to African Ministries. Workshop participants and other in- LOWS: terested parties cast online ballots and • Develop an AfLS non-site specific elected the new Steering Committee Roadmap Summary Pre-Conceptual Design Report, for an AfLS, with Connell as Interim Short-Term Goals (within 3 years) which specifies a detailed scientif- Chair. • Train large numbers of African ic case for an AfLS along with its scientists, engineers, students and various components, including the An excellent model already exists for technicians in the design and utili- accelerator complex, experimental Pan-African scientific and techno- ziation of advanced light sources. beamlines and ancilliary facilities. logical cooperation. It is called the African Laser Centre (ALC). It is im- • Enhance the existing community Mid-Term Goals (within 5 years) portant to note that the ALC called of light source users. • Continue all the Short-Term ac- for the construction of a Pan-African tivities, as required. advanced light source from its very • Establish formal partnerships with beginning, when it developed its 2002 existing international light sources. • Study the feasibility of construct- Strategy and Business Plan, which ing an AfLS, including costs, and specified a synchrotron light source as • Promote the involvement of indus- appoint a Task Team approved by one of its long-term goals. The ALC tr y. African governments to develop a is a nonprofit organization, based in detailed Business Plan and Gov- Pretoria, South Africa, and consists • Create and/or enhance Africa’s ernance Model for an AfLS. of over thirty laser laboratories from current and needed critical feeder universities and other research and infrastructure that empowers light Long-term Goals (5 years and be- industrial institutions across the Af- source science. yond) rican continent. Officially launched • Continue all the Short- and Medi- in Johannesburg in November 2003

135 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Fig. 3 Shows several of the researchers and students in attendance.

during a Ministerial Segment of the to laser researchers throughout Af- femtosecond laser research and de- New Partnership for Africa’s Devel- rica. velopment opment’s (NEPAD) Conference on Science and Technology for Develop- • Promote collaborations among 3. National Institute of Laser ment, NEPAD declared the ALC to laser researchers throughout Af- Enhanced Science, Cairo, be one of its Centres of Excellence. rica, as well as between African Egypt researchers and their international Medical and biological applica- The ALC Strategy and Business counterparts. tions of lasers, femtosecond laser Plan specifies the following: research and development Goals of the African Laser Centre • Establish flagship facilities: femto- 4. Laboratoire Atomes Lasers, second lasers, petawatt lasers, syn- Université de Cheikh Anta • Improve the quality of life of all chrotron light sources. Diop, Dakar, Sénégal African people. Atomic and molecular physics, la- To assist smaller and less developed ser spectroscopy, medical physics • Stop the brain drain from Africa by laser laboratories, the ALC identified providing a competitive knowledge several facilities that it classified as 5. Laser and Fibre Optics Cen- base and attractive research facili- core nodes of the ALC network. tre, University of Cape Coast, ties. Ghana Those nodes, together with several of Agricultural and environmental • Ensure that African laser facilities their major activities, are the follow- science become preferred research envi- ing: ronments for both the internation- 1. National Laser Centre, Preto- 6. Advanced Technologies De- al and African research communi- ria, South Africa (ALC Head- velopment Centre, Algiers, ties. quarters) Algeria Manufacturing, machining and Laser spectroscopy, surface studies, • Facilitate technology transfer to in- materials processing laser welding dustry of knowledge obtained from laser research and development. 2. Laser Research Institute, Uni- 7. Tunis el Manar University, versity of Stellenbosch, South Tunis, Tunisia • Provide financial resources, techni- Africa Agricultural and environmental cal assistance and equipment loans Ultrafast science, laser diagnostics, science, molecular spectroscopy.

136 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Fig. 4 Depicts the countries with ALC member institutions.

137 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Fig. 5 2003 group photo of the ALC organizers, with the second from the right on the first row being Philemon Mjwara, the first ALC Board Chair and currently Director General of South Africa’s Department of Science and Technology.

Awarding 87 research and education- Most light sources are owned by a ers discovered the long sought Higgs al grants during 2006-2013, the ALC single country, while the ownerships particle in 2012. UNESCO serves as has empowered its participants to of others are shared. An example the umbrella organization for both produce 151 articles in refereed jour- of the latter is the ESRF, which is a SESAME and CERN. nals, 210 publications in Conference collaboration of 18 European gov- proceedings, 12 book chapters, and ernments, plus South Africa and Is- Africa can learn tremendously from 59 student theses. Moreover, between rael, and has been in operation since the experiences of other countries. 2003 and 2013, 1249 students were 1992. Another example is SESAME An excellent example is Brazil. Dis- trained in workshops, symposia and (Synchrotron-light for Experimental cussions started in the early 1980s to various short courses. Fig. 6 shows Science and Applications in the Mid- construct a synchrotron light source a session in progress at the Second dle East), which is scheduled to start there. At the time, Brazil had no ex- US-Africa Advanced Studies Institute its research program in 2016. It was perience constructing or operating that was held at iThemba LABS, out- constructed in Allan, Jordan, approxi- an advanced light source, and it had side Cape Town, during November mately 30 kilometers from Amman, as few users of light sources at interna- 2007. That Institute, which is held a collaboration of nine Middle East- tional facilities. However, the coun- periodically and is co-organized by ern governments, namely Bahrain, try undertook an ambitious program the ALC, is the brainchild of Alfred Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Jordan, to train students, scientists, engineers Z. Msezane, who is from South Africa Pakistan, Palestinian Authority, and and technicians in synchrotron light and is Professor of Physics at Clark Turkey. SESAME is modeled after source science. From those early ef- Atlanta University in Atlanta, Geor- the high energy physics laboratory, forts, Brazil proceeded to construct its gia, USA. CERN (European Organization for first light source, called UVX at the Nuclear Research), where research- Brazilian Synchrotron Light Labo-

138 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Africa will either pay huge sums to cope during and after the next Ebola attack or pay much smaller amounts to learn how to combat the virus before it returns.

ratory, which began experiments in drug development to fight the disease. researchers and technicians to light 1997. It is still the only operating syn- sources for training; and commission chrotron light source in Latin Amer- Africa can learn tremendously from a Task Team to study the feasibility ica. Brazil’s experience in fighting Chagas of constructing an African advanced disease, since it has a number of dis- light source. Over the years, the number of users eases that are ravaging the continent, has grown to more than a thousand with some not prevalent in more de- Now is the time for Africa to act, per year. Now, Brazil is constructing veloped regions of the world. Thus, and act swiftly. a new light source called Sirius that African cannot wait on others to take is scheduled to produce its first beam the lead in developing treatments for Prof. Sekazi K. Mtingwa is an accelerator, in 2018, at which time it will be one such diseases as Ebola and malaria. nuclear and high energy physicist, who is best of the highest brightness synchrotron Indeed, Ebola will be back; the only known for seminal theoretical work on a phe- light sources in the world, thanks to question is when. The virus attacks nomenon called intrabeam scattering, which a new technology called the multi- and learns how to mutate itself to sets an ultimate limitation on the performance bend achromat that was developed wreak more havoc when it returns. of most modern accelerators, including syn- at the MAX IV Laboratory in Swe- The only question is whether Africa chrotron light sources. He is a member of den. That technology has allowed for will have learned enough before the the AfLS Steering Committee and founding greater brightness, but smaller and next attack to defeat the new version Board Member of the African Laser Cen- less expensive light sources. As usual of the virus. Thus, Africa will either tre, having served as the Principal Author for light sources, local businesses in pay huge sums to cope during and af- of its 2002 Strategy and Business Plan, Brazil have benefitted greatly by deter the next attack or pay much small- which defined its goals and programs. He signing and manufacturing compo- er amounts to learn how to combat is a founding member of the African Physi- nents for the facility. the virus before it returns. The fastest cal Society, International Board of Editors and most efficient way to identify tar- of The African Review of Physics, and the As for Africa, Brazil has diseases that get Ebola proteins for drug discovery African Institute for Mathematical Sciences are specific to its region of the world. is via the utilization of an advanced in Biriwa, Ghana. An example is Chagas disease, which is light source. caused by an insect-spreading parasite He received the 2015 Distinguished Service called Trypanosoma cruzi. It affects There is a tremendous urgency for Award from the American Nuclear Society, millions of people in Latin America African Governmental Ministers, es- chaired the writing of the Strategic Plan for with extremely high social and eco- pecially those of Science and Tech- South Africa’s synchrotron light source user nomic costs. Current treatments have nology, Health, Education, Energy, community, retired from the faculties of both low efficiency and often severe, harm- and Natural Resources, to meet with MIT and North Carolina A&T State Uni- ful side effects. Researchers at Brazil’s representatives from the AfLS Steer- versity, and currently is Principal Partner at light source are hard at work investi- ing Committee to discuss the Gre- Triangle Science, Education & Economic gating the protein structure of T. cruzi noble Resolutions and AfLS Road- Development, LLC in the Research Triangle in order to identify vulnerable targets map; tour international advanced of North Carolina, USA. on its proteins that could be used for light source facilities; send students,

139 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN AFRICA, FOSSIL FUELS AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY Langdon Morris InnovationLabs

This paper is adapted from Langdon Morris’ forthcoming book Mega Risk, which will be published in 2016. Langdon Morris is Senior Partner of InnovationLabs, one of the world’s leading consulting firms working in the areas of strategy and innovation. He is author or coauthor of ten books on innovation, and is a frequent visitor to Africa. To learn more please visit www.innovationlabs.com.

Why We Love Fossil Fuels

or the last two centu- Second, oil is tremendously versatile. the navies in the world had switched ries every nation that You can burn it in a car’s engine or a again, this time to oil, by 1910. wished to develop its giant power plant, or you can make economy simply had no it into hundreds of different kinds of In our cars, meanwhile, we can step choice but to develop plastics, from grocery bags to bullet on the gas and feel immediate pow- its own fossil fuels, or to proof vests to water pipes and com- er, and we can fire up a power plant buy them on the open market. The puter keys.Third, when you combust and generate massive quantities of logic and necessity of doing so was it in an engine, oil’s energy is available electricity in almost no time. Another not questioned for the world’s econ- almost instantly. Thus, due to signifi- appealing quality of oil is how easy it omy ran unquestioningly on the fuels cant advances in steam engines, steel is to transport. It is readily moved in trapped underground, decomposed making, and cannon, all the world’s trucks, rail cars, giant tanker ships, and and recomposed fuels derived from navies converted from wooden sail- very long pipelines. Through them, it creatures and plants that lived and ing shops to iron clad steamships fol- can be transported relatively cheaply died millions of years ago. lowing the American Civil War, but it from wherever you find it to wherever Coal fueled the 19th century, and then took five hours for a large battleship’s you want to refine or use it. Finally, oil the 20th. There are five compelling steam engines to come to power be- oil is found in many places, and as factors that make fossil fuels, and es- cause the coal had to be stoked and drilling and extraction technology has pecially oil, such an attractive source the heat and pressure of the flame improved, the capacity of production of energy. First of all, it has very high built up gradually. Thus the entire companies to extract it from more dif- energy density, meaning the amount ship was trapped in port for five hours ficult and elusive underground loca- of energy, or work that you can ex- even under direct threat. Because tions has improved enormously. tract from a given gallon or a liter oil-burning engines come up to speed of oil is very high when compared to immediately, an oil-powered fleet can Because of these many benefits, oil other types of fuel. Your car can go be in motion with only a few min- has been the preferred fuel of the 15 or 30 or even 50 miles on a gallon, utes warning. As military advantages global economy for a century, and it or you can make a lot of electricity. go, this is quite decisive, and thus all is no exaggeration to say that the 20th

140 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN century’s economic boom was an oil attempt to determine the amount of more fully integrated into the global boom. Today a massive and very oil it contains, and the proportion of economic system, they also became complex system of global finance, that oil that can be extracted. The more fully dependent on fossil fuels. production and transportation in- resulting calculation then becomes a Their per capita energy consumption frastructure is fully in place to locate significant asset on the owner’s bal- increased as their economic produc- and extract raw crude, transport it to ance sheet, but as the oil is extracted tion increased, which brought greater refineries, distill it into its desirable the value of asset then declines to- wealth, which then created a middle fuel products including gasoline, jet ward zero. class. And as their middle classes ex- fuel, diesel, and many different forms panded, their domestic markets for of plastics, and redistribute those dis- The Oil Tax goods and services also expanded, tilled products back to the gas stations As oil is the primary energy source of further amplifying the demand for and factories around the world, and the industrial economy, energy con- oil. The overall wealth of nations in- manage the massive flows of capital sumers simply have no choice but to creased, and the oil industry came to that result. pay oil producers for the right to join be the single largest economic entity the world economy. Because the own- in the world. Underground pools of oil are called ership of untapped crude oil, as well fields. The first one to be developed as the infrastructure used to extract, In China, for example, this process was in Western Pennsylvania in 1860, transport, refine, and distribute it, was quite pronounced, and also quite and it was here that John D. Rockefel- requires a massive investment that is sudden. During the years imme- ler made his initial fortune. As the also highly centralized, the enormous diately following the transition to a demand for oil increased, the global demand for fossil fuels and thus the capitalist economic system in 1978, industry thrived by finding new fields success of the industry has resulted in the nation’s economy expanded along around the world. Oil exploration a tremendous concentration of wealth an elegant exponential path, and con- became a sophisticated science, and in the hands of a very small number sumption of energy increased exactly decade by decade new tools and tech- of oil producers, particularly in the in parallel with increasing economic niques were created to locate oil and nations and companies that own oil activity. to extract it. Seismic studies mapped reserves, and extract, refine, and dis- underground rock formations, 3D tribute it. In essence, then, those who As a source of fuel for a dynamic, software modeled the structure of own the oil also hold the power to tax modern economy, increasing demand underground fields, wells were drilled everyone else for the right to partici- for the oil to fuel that very economy deeper and deeper to exploit those pate in the global economy. transfers wealth outside of it. It is fields, and then offshore drilling was a drain that benefits oil producers, perfected, followed by horizontal As a scarce and highly valuable re- to the detriment of non-producers. drilling, and the design and construc- source, oil is also a source of conflict Consequently, every nation or com- tion of massive pipelines, ports, and and also a means of funding conflict. munity that does not own crude oil tankers followed. The Alaska Pipe- For example, ISIS, the Islamic funda- resources has, on the one hand, an line stretches for 2500 miles across mentalist group that controls North- incentive to consume more oil as a the state to bring Prudhoe Bay oil to ern Syria, funds itself through the sale means of promoting more economic the port of Valdez, and over the forty of oil, which is smuggled from the oil growth, but on the other hand an in- years of its existence some 10 billion producing territories in every manner herent incentive to not consume oil barrels have been pumped through it. of vehicle and finds its way into every because the cost of oil is drag on eco- regional market. Ironically, ISIS oil nomic growth. Now, nearly all of the Crude oil provides the raw material is powering the cars in the Syrian world’s nations and peoples are fully for a global network of about 1200 oil cities controlled by its arch-rival, the engaged in the fossil fuel economy, refineries that transform crude into government of President Assad. It is and consequently demand for oil is at gasoline, jet fuel, other liquids, and not just ISIS of course, as nations as an all-time high. also the raw materials from which all diverse as Russia, Venezuela, Brazil, plastics are made. Their production Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran But as we know, all is not perfect in the then goes into the vast, global net- all depend for their economic viability oil lands. Every nation that is not an work of retail outlets that provide us on the sale of oil. oil producer has a significant incen- with the gas for our cars, and into ad- tive to find an alternative source of ditional trucks, rail cars, tankers, and Since the majority of the world’s eco- energy. That is, every nation, wants pipelines that transport refined fuels nomic activity is powered by fossil a source or sources of energy they to airports and factories worldwide. fuels and especially by oil, the lead- can own and control. Hence, even ing oil producing nations are among without environmental considerations Supply, on the other hand, is a func- the wealthiest nations per capita, and and the impending impact of global tion of a very dynamic market envi- the big oil firms are among the most warming, every global economic play- ronment. Oil wells do not produce valuable corporations. Over the dec- er that is not oil-rich has a significant indefinitely, nor do the fields that are ades, as more and more countries financial incentive to switch to alter- composed of many wells. When a developed their own economies and native sources of energy. Any source new field is discovered, the geologists became more fully industrialized and of energy that can be produced lo-

141 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN cally, at a competitive cost, is there- If we take the view that the demise rently costs about ten cents per watt fore highly attractive. Hence, as solar of the fossil fuel economy is immi- to generate and distribute, so as the energy production costs become com- nent, then we also confront the reality cost of solar approaches a dime then petitive, solar will find a ready market. of a new economic transition if not the impetus to switch to solar will be- If we are indeed approaching the end revolution. Based on the confluence come increasingly attractive to many of the fossil fuels era, then the process of climate change and technological nations. that led to the concentration of wealth innovations, it is difficult to imagine in the hands of the oil owners is about a credible scenario in which oil re- Standing in the way of the transition to reverse itself. The coal and oil pro- tains its place of preeminence in the would be a massive global infrastruc- ducers would not then become more world’s overall energy mix in the long ture which distributes oil, gasoline, valuable, but less valuable, which will term. This transition might occur natural gas, and electricity, but which of course be economically traumatic sooner rather than later. does not yet exist for solar-based pow- not only for them, but across the en- er, or for hydrogen fuel (which some tire economy. In fact, this may al- The Largest Economic Transition scientists believe may be preferable to ready be happening. in History solar as a transportation fuel). Creat-

The Alternatives Scientists, technologists, and entrepreneurs have targeted the energy market for decades, simply for the obvious reason that there’s so much money there, and so many other possible ways to develop energy. As a result, the cost to generate energy from non-fossil sources has been steadily coming down for decades, and the declining cost combined with the previously-hidden impact of CO2 concentration has resulted in a broader field of energy sources that are increasingly attractive. So- lar, wind, tidal, fuel cells, and biofuels are five very broad categories in each of which there are dozens if not hundreds of start-up companies, and even some that are quite well established, that wish to provide an alternative to fossil fuels. And when a buyer, whether that buyer is a nation, a city, a company, The economic transition from fos- ing a new non-fossil fuel based global or a single individual, has the option sil fuels to whatever comes next is of infrastructure will be an expensive not to consume fossil fuels, they often course not going to be a simple un- undertaking, but it is already happen- willingly take that option. dertaking. The scale and scope of ing in bits and pieces. this economic transition could be the Hence, it is reasonable to expect that single largest economic project in the During the first few months of 2015, the demand for fossil fuels will drop as history of humanity. Large scale solar four major US corporations an- the reality of climate change sets in, energy production is a massive design nounced commitments to purchase but only if alternatives simultaneous- and engineering problem, but it is electricity from solar and wind pro- ly become price competitive. Hence, one which has already seen great suc- ducers. These include HP and Dow the real race is not between fossils and cess. For example, in 1977 the cost to Chemical, which purchased 112 and alternatives, it is between competing produce one watt of solar-generated 200 megawatts of wind power in scientists and technologists who are electricity was USD 74. By 2010, that Texas; Kaiser Permanente which pur- making massive advances in energy cost had dropped to USD .74. This chased 153 megawatts in California; technology systems design. It is not a was of course the result of focused and Amazon, which purchased 208 question of if, but when. When will science and engineering effort and megawatts of wind-generated elec- the fossil fuel industry cease to domi- talent, applied to a very specific prob- tricity in North Carolina. nate the global economy? Will its lem, and producing quite impressive demise occur within twenty to thirty results. These purchases are doubly sig- years, or perhaps a century or more nificant. First, they demonstrate the from now? Electricity generated in large power growing commitment to search for plants from oil and natural gas cur- alternatives to fossil fuels. Secondly,

142 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN these companies are very sophisti- and thus reduce their costs. you are living in an oil producing na- cated buyers, who will expect and re- tion, or you are an oil company, this quire that the energy systems they buy Mass Storage is probably bad news. Globally we provide safety, reliability, and ongoing There remain significant technologi- are shifting from fossil fuels to what technological improvements. They cal challenges to be overcome. Since we euphemistically call “alternatives,” have committed to obtaining elec- solar collectors only produce when that is, energy sources that aren’t fos- tricity in 2016 and 2017 from these the sun is shining (duh!), reliable and sil fuels, but which actually powered purchases, but year by year thereafter very large scale mass storage systems all the world’s nations through the they will expect increases in efficiency are essential if there is indeed going millennia of civilization until 1800. and power yield. Hence, by playing to be a solar economy. Consequently, In that sense we are returning to the the role of “early adopters” they are the search for solutions that provide pre-industrial sources of energy sup- joining the venture capitalists in fund- cost-effective, reliable, large scale en- ply albeit harnessed using far more ing a massive effort in R&D, which ergy storage is also a subject of intense advanced technological and organiza- should lead to improvements that not scientific and technological research. tional or business innovations. only benefit themselves, but which There are hundreds of potential solu- benefit all producers and consumers tions being explored and developed This likely transition will also impact of solar and wind power, and which in labs around the world, labs run by Africa. On the one hand, lowering will serve to significantly accelerate corporations, governments, universi- the cost of non-fossil sources will en- the overall economic transition. ties, and also by consortia of all three. hance and accelerate economic devel-

Powering the US Military Another large organization that is committed to transitioning away from Since solar collectors only fossil fuels is the US military, one of the world’s largest enterprises and produce when the sun is shining organizations. Operating with an annual budget of more than USD 500 (duh!), Reliable and very large billion, the Department of Defense is the largest single consumer of en- scale mass storage systems are ergy in the United States. In FY 2006, the Department used almost 30,000 essential if there is indeed going gigawatt hours (GWH) of electricity, at a cost of almost $2.2 billion. to be a solar economy. In 2007 it accounted for about 93% of all US government fuel consump- opment across the continent. Large tion, mostly by the Air Force, in the The Summary Argument scale investments in power produc- form of jet fuel. The Department of The basic economic argument, then, tion and distribution will provide eco- Defense uses 4,600,000,000 US gal- is a compelling one. At the same time nomic opportunities, and the resulting lons (1.7×1010 L) of fuel annually, that all this effort is going into the de- systems will enable cleaner transpor- an average of 12,600,000 US gallons velopment of the science and technol- tation and cleaner industry. Escaping (48,000,000 L) of fuel per day. ogy of solar, wind, and the necessary the oil tax will free up additional capi- batteries, the world continues to come tal that can be applied to much more Every branch of the US military has to grips with the reality of climate productive uses, and may even help to its own specific plans and initiatives to change and its devastating conse- stimulate a new generation of entre- replace fossil fuels with renewable en- quences. Violent storms are increas- preneurs. ergy sources, all of which is intended ing in both frequency and magnitude to contribute to the overall goal that (remember that ten of the ten strong- On the other hand, the decline of 20% of all energy consumed by the est storms in all of recorded history the fossil fuel economy will cause sig- DoD should be from renewable sourc- have occurred in this new century), nificant economic disruption in the oil es by 2020. That is roughly USD 400 and there are no indications that ei- producing African countries nations million of power purchases, which ther trend, the one of increasing per- which are highly dependent on oil will probably mean that within the formance by renewable energy sys- revenues (e.g. Libya, Nigeria, Algeria, decade the DoD will be the world’s tems, and the one of climate change and Angola). To avoid these disrup- number one consumer of renewable impacts, will change. tions, African countries, including oil power. And of course long term com- producing ones, need to aggressively mitments to purchases on this scale Hence, as the threat becomes clearer, invest in alternatives to the oil indus- will also make it possible for power governments and companies are likely try. They need to become part of the producers to invest even more heavily to become more willing to invest more new global energy infrastructure that in ongoing research and development heavily in alternatives to fossil fuels. In is not wholly dependent on the fossil to further refine their technologies, short, the 21st century will not be a fuel economy. which will increase their efficiencies fossil fuel century as the 20th was. If

143 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN punghi / Shutterstock.com

MULTINATIONALISM IN THE FACE OF A GROWING TERRORIST THREAT IN AFRICA

Bat-el Ohayon and Frank Charnas frica has witnessed a the fall of Muammar Gaddafi in Bat-el Ohayon and Frank Char- cross border spread Libya. As early as 2012, Africom nas are co-founders of AfriQue of terror and militant warned that Boko Haram in Nige- Consulting Group, a Sub-Saharan networks over the past ria, the Algerian-based al-Qaeda focused geopolitical and security decade. The function- in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM,) risk consulting company. ing and geographic as well as al-Shabaab in Somalia, location of these were seeking to “coordinate and networks has evolved, as militant synchronize their operation”. This groups acquiesce to the prevailing spread of the African terror and security situation in a particular militant threat has necessitated a region, and search for lucrative shifting approach to counterinsur- and accessible smuggling routes, gency, resulting in the formation of enabled in part by the porous na- regional counter-militancy forma- ture of borders and impacted by tions. Modern African militancy major geopolitical changes such as is an asymmetric multinational

144 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN threat, requiring a multinational re- Mali: French involvement and its As such, these West and Central Af- sponse - African brotherhood in the domestic political price rican countries chose to allow France face of an African challenge. How- The French and AU intervention in the right to strike, therefore giving up ever, the success of these operations northern Mali in 2013 was initially political capital in order to provide are compromised by several factors, deemed a success, having halted vari- counter-terrorism and security efforts most notably political tensions and ous militant groups from advancing on a greater efficacy. competing national interests between Bamako. That said, while the immi- participant nations. Africa’s transna- nent terrorist threat was mitigated by Somalia: Vested political interests tional security may thus hinge on the international forces, a tactical retreat contrary to development of host consolidation of the geopolitical aims by members of AQIM, the Move- country and interests of partner countries. ment for Oneness and Jihad in West While the experience of France and Africa (MOJWA), and other groups the AU force in Mali serve as an in- Traditionally, national security and did not equate to the ultimate success teresting starting point in order to territorial integrity are cornerstone of the joint intervention. African and understand the regionalization of responsibilities for governments. French leaders came to the conclusion militancy and the need for a similar However, the regionalization of mili- that pushing militants out of Mali counterterrorism tactic, a clear ex- tancy has foundationally altered the simply prompted a further regional ample of divergent geostrategic in- concept of national security, forcing spread of the threat posed by these tentions and its effects on operations individual nations to partially waiver groups. This emphasized the need for can be seen in the case of AMISOM. territorial integrity and rely on re- a regional response to a cross-border In this joint-regional operation, the gional partners for security and the militant threat, and thus the French two most prominent and powerful safety of their population. Thus, there launched the Barkhane Operation, a fighting forces, Kenya and Ethiopia, exists a high diplomatic and political joint operation with African troops in were originally active within Soma- risk for countries participating in re- several countries across the Sahel and lia outside of AMISOM, but have gional military efforts, as they impart Sahara. For this operation, France since been absorbed into the regional some of their security responsibility rearranged its troops and its logisti- forces. Ethiopia, which has a history to partner nations. Additionally, there cal presence in the area, not only as of territorial disputes with Somalia, are significant logistical, financial and a way to better counter the threat but has been accused of arming warlords, operational hindrances to the effec- also in an effort to have ready access and may benefit from a weakened tive implementation of a regional to crucial logistical equipment and ca- southern neighbor. Kenya too, has joint effort. pabilities. vested geopolitical interests in its participation in AMISOM. The Kenyan Regional and sub-regional coopera- It is important to note that in this case, economy is directly affected by al- tion against militancy on the conti- the right to strike was given to a for- Shabaab piracy and smuggling activi- nent in recent years has led to the cre- eign power, France, which maintains ties which endanger shipping to the ation of the African Union Mission in a well-established military in the af- Kenyan port of Mombasa. Kenya has Somalia (AMISOM) in Somalia, the fected region. French military involve- been accused of attempting to create deployment of the United Nations ment has had a strong political re- a buffer area in the form of the au- Multidimensional Integrated Stabili- percussion for many of the countries tonomous Somali state of Jubaland, zation Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) involved in the Barkhane Operation. which would be supported by Nairo- and French troops to northern Mali In Mali, the local population, who had bi. Additionally, there is a strategic in- in 2013, and a joint regional force once welcomed the French troops, be- terest in maintaining a territorial gap to combat Boko Haram in Nigeria, gan questioning the former colonial between al-Shabaab dominated areas whose activity significantly spread power’s role, while additionally link- and the Kenyan border. Although, it to Cameroon, Niger and Chad. In ing the need for such a presence with should be noted that this has not pre- The Democratic republic of Congo the weakness of their own govern- vented the terrorist group from carry- (DRC), activity by a number of small ment and military. Furthermore, the ing out attacks within Kenya. insurgent groups, some of whom have presence of large French companies their genesis in neighboring countries, as well as important expatriate com- Additionally, Kenya and Ethiopia prompted the creation of the United munities in the region have fueled have large Somali populations with Nations Organization Stabilization doubt in the intentions of the French, whom there are strenuous relations, Mission in the Democratic Republic as demonstrated by the negative senti- and both governments are interested of Congo (MONUSCO) as well as its ment toward France and French busi- in preventing the spread of radical aggressive arm, the Force Interven- nesses in Niger. Therefore, the deci- Islam across their national borders, tion Brigade (FIB). However, in each sion to invite a foreign power to aid which they believe is done through of these cases, national geo-political in the counterterrorism effort creates these communities. Moreover, the two interests have degraded the efficacy a political dilemma for governments, states share a vested interest in ensur- of counterinsurgency efforts, and pos- who must balance their desire for doing that a friendly Somali government sibly extended the lifespan and scope mestic political support against the comes to power, one that will not of militant groups. need for foreign military assistance. demand territory, exert pressure on its neighbors, or take up the struggle

145 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN of the Somali population outside of hierarchy as well as a considerable ef- DRC: Regional involvement creat- its national borders. A politically vi- fort to improve the quality and perfor- ing proxy war situation able and economically stable Somalia mance of Nigerian troops in the area. The UN Force Intervention Brigade would serve as a counterpoint to the (FIB) is the first robust UN force man- maritime dominance of Kenya, as Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad and Niger dated to actively seek and engage well as the political and diplomatic in- all have an interest in the Chad River armed groups. The large quantity of fluence of both Kenya and Ethiopia. Basin, which is likely to possess oil rebel groups in the DRC are responsi- Political and diplomatic interests place reserves, and thus Nigeria is uncom- ble for gross human rights violations, significant limitations on the efficacy fortable ceding control of the area to as well as the plunder of the nation’s of AMISOM, and have been a sub- foreign forces. Additionally, Nigeria vast mineral wealth, which is then ject covered in effective al-Shabaab is the largest economy in Africa, and smuggled internationally and used propaganda campaigns. Thus, while therefore its failure at dealing with as a means to sponsor the continued major successes have in fact been the threat of Boko Haram alone, and operation of these groups. Moreo- achieved by this coalition, Somalia’s the apparent incapability of its forces, ver, some of these groups originate political integ- in neighbor- rity and freedom ing Rwanda have been overt- and Uganda, ly compromised, and thus are demonstrating Therefore, the decision viewed as a se- the negative im- rious threat by pact of rival na- to invite a foreign power to aid in these countries. tional interests in the counterterrorism effort creates a Further un- regional opera- political dilemma for governments, who derscoring the tions and there- regional nature fore justifying in must balance their desire for domestic of rebel activ- part the hesitan- political support against the need for ity in DRC are cy of countries the recurrent such as Nigeria foreign military assistance. accusations to allow for the that neighbor- presence of re- ing countries gional forces on are sponsoring its territory. rebels groups, weakening the Nigeria: DRC and prof- Shared burden iting from crim- for limited suc- inal operations. cess against Boko Haram especially when measured against The conflict against Boko Haram has those of Chad, demonstrates Nigeria The FIB is made up of African con- clear regional implications, as the ter- as weak, and likely influences the Ni- tingents, but is backed logistically rorist group has successfully carried gerian desire to limit the presence of and tactically by the UN Mission for out attacks in Niger, Chad and Cam- foreign troops on its territory. the Stabilization of the Congo (MO- eroon. Regional forces, ably aided by NUSCO) as well as the DRC Defence mercenaries, made significant territo- These countries’ efforts are likely to Forces (FARDC). The primary target rial gains against Boko Haram terror- be in part hampered by Nigeria the of the FIB was M23, a rebel group ac- ists in the lead-up to specially delayed host nation, and its desired need to tive in the Kivu regions that is report- Nigerian presidential elections in project itself as a military power- edly backed by Rwanda and Uganda. March 2015. The symbolic victory of house, capable of maintaining the in- The FIB force, when launched in No- Nigeria over this group has been a key tegrity of its territory. That said, the vember 2013, was made up of 3,069 catalyst in the diplomatic functioning continued presence of Boko Haram troops consisting of South African, of successive Nigerian governments, operatives in Cameroon, Chad and Tanzanian and Malawian infantry with Goodluck Jonathan clearly in- Niger likely aids the group’s ability to battalions, as well as Tanzanian ar- creasing his counter-insurgency ef- withstand the ongoing military offen- tillery and Special Forces. This thus forts in the buildup to these elections. sive in Nigeria. Nigeria itself is thus placed African militaries in direct and Upon his ascension to the presidency, endangered by security shortcomings active conflict with rebel groups sup- newly elected President Muhammadu in neighboring countries. As such, ef- ported by fellow African states - a sort Buhari vowed to stamp out the group forts to combat Boko Haram are not of proxy conflict. by December 2015, and improve only dependent on multinational co- the domestic military’s performance operation, but is also subject to the The conflict created diplomatic and against the terrorist group. This has negative impact of political interests political tension between Rwanda and included a reshuffle of the military of all partner countries.

146 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN FIB participant states, most notable and economic interests have played interests constrain effective counter- of which was Tanzania who is a fellow a clear role in the operational capac- terrorism efforts, it is worth exam- member of the East African Commu- ity of multinational forces, and have ining how this challenge can be ad- nity (EAC). Meanwhile, South Africa demonstrated a lack of cohesion, dressed. A possible solution would be has an interest in strengthening the including within regional economic the creation of a greater overarching DRC, with whom there is already a groupings. Political interference in continental military force, in order to signed bilateral agreement to develop the internal functioning of the DRC reduce the effect of local and regional the 80 billion USD Grand Inga Hy- enables the continuation of radical geopolitical interests on counterinsur- droelectric Dam project, which is de- guerrilla and rebel group activity, and gency efforts. This is being attempted signed to help South Africa overcome weakens the region as a whole. in the form of the creation of Afri- power shortages. It is also believed can Standby Forces (ASF) which, that South African President Jacob While this paper has concentrated after long delays, is set to become Zuma has facilitated a deal between on the effects of geopolitical interests operational by early 2016. However, his nephew Khulubuse Zuma and on joint regional operations, the suc- these forces are limited especially DRC President Kabila for control cess of such initiatives depends on a with regard to their airlift and logisti- of an oil bloc in northeastern DRC. combination of factors. As previously cal capacity as well as the legality of Zuma is also interested in having a mentioned, training, financing, social their deployment. Most notably how- strong and economically viable DRC factors and other issues may hinder ever, ASF forces are to be made up to help prop up the Southern African efforts, with drug and weapons smug- of regional forces, who will then be Development Community (SADC), gling routes throughout the continent deployed within their home region, in which South Africa is the main helping to finance militancy. The and so political interests of donor power. cases of Barkhane and MINUSMA countries would continue to limit operations demonstrate the dyna- the scope of the troop’s effective- A strong DRC aids South Africa mism of the militant threat, further ness. Regional troops are best versed diplomatically vis-a-vis other eco- underscoring the complexity of mili- in the culture and terrain of theaters nomic groupings in the country, yet tant activity in the region. The ex- of conflict within their own home re- poses a threat to the position and pansive nature of the Sahel and Sa- gion, and thus it is most logical that relative power of neighboring east hara, the porousness of borders and they be used in such conflicts. How- African states. Following a successful the inability of local governments to ever, creating a neutral or continental campaign against the M23, the FIB control the whole of their territory command may go a long way to mini- identified the Democratic Forces for further hinder counter-terrorism and mizing geopolitical interference. Ad- the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) as counter-insurgency efforts. These ditionally, a professional continental the target for a further operation, to conditions promote ease of passage force, in which units are multination- be named Sokola 2. In this instance, for transnational smuggling networks, al, would help troops gain a cultural Tanzania was reluctant to once again which in part finance terror in the re- and territorial understanding of their donate troops, possibly as a result of gion, and are present throughout Af- operational theater, while potentially the strained relations with Rwanda. rica. The funding of these groups is limiting the influence of national po- Conversely, Rwanda was supportive often linked to the pillaging of local litical interference. of Sokola 2, as it aimed to rout out a resources as aptly demonstrated in rebel group hostile to Kigali, clearly Somalia as well as in DRC. Moreo- Thus, beyond the geopolitical issue, demonstrating that the efficacy and ver, the issue of logistics is evident in the complexity of the terrorist and form of counterinsurgency efforts the regional offensive against Boko rebel threat being faced by countries hinge on the geo-political interests of Haram, with the difficulty demon- in Africa will require cooperation on connected parties. strated in unifying the various mili- issues beyond purely military opera- tary capabilities, as well as forming tions, so as to ensure that the response Lastly, it should be noted that any a proper command hierarchy, which to the threat is not reactionary but campaign against rebel groups in was complicated by political motiva- rather preventative. The ability to go DRC will be fruitless without a com- tions. beyond geopolitical interest and cre- plementary and viable disarmament ate a successful framework for joint effort that would provide militants Overall, the need for regional coun- military operations in Africa will fur- an opportunity for economic survival terterrorism and counterinsurgency ther serve to prevent situations from outside of the confines of the rebel efforts has been clearly demonstrated becoming outright crises. At the end group. Additionally, the conflict is and is a factor of the evolution of the of the day, while terrorism and mili- unlikely to abate without the social, militant threat. It is clear that none tancy is an international issue, the infrastructural and economic invest- of the major test cases discussed have threat is also an African problem and ment required to uplift the affected been able to meet all of their goals, in thus requires a unique continental rural areas. However, the worth of large part due to conflicting political African solution. However, any solu- an active and aggressive counter-mil- interests. tion will need to mitigate the effects itant multinational force is evident. of political interference in the securi- In the case of the FIB, geo-political Given that conflicting geopolitical ty interests of affected African states.

147 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Who Are We

AfriQue Consulting Group (AfriQue) is a Sub-Saharan Africa focused geo-political and business security risk mitigation consultancy. We produce multilin- gual, continent wide analysis on political trends, economic trajectories, market opportunities, threats to business, and security challenges. AfriQue delivers a realistic, accessible and focused analysis into all facets of business and politics in Africa, creating predictability on an unpredictable continent.

Our Unique Strength

AfriQue is specifically Sub-Saharan Africa focussed, with a deep multifocal understanding of the issues that affect the continent. This understanding is garnered with the aid of our vast network of on the ground sources and experts, as well as our specialty in media and social media coverage. AfriQue is thus able to give a clear picture of events on the continent, blending the various lenses of all those involved. This enables AfriQue to find relevant solutions to operational and business challenges throughout the continent.

Service Description

Through our small structure and variety of strategic partners, AfriQue Consult- ing Group is able to offer custom services to a wide range of clients in multiple languages. AfriQue understands that each business is unique and thus requires tailored information to solve specific problems. The AfriQue portfolio makes use of our social media and online analysis expertise, in conjunction with information received from our on the ground network, providing clients with useful, in-depth and customized reports.

148 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN 1. Custom Reports Using our unique blend of on-ground sources, media and social media monitoring, AfriQue custom reports deliver in-depth insight into a specific area of interest. Our reports are designed to answer each client’s particular needs, providing usable security, economic, business, and political insight. Thus securing continuous and profitable operations.

2. Briefings AfriQue analysts are well versed in briefings clients on issues and challenges affecting specific areas of interest. Our briefings are accompanied by multimedia and visual aids, encourage didactic discussion and are tailored to the requests of our clients.

3. SYT (Secure Your Travel) Service Our SYT Service is a complete travel security package, designed in conjunction with on-ground experts, enabling safe and worry free movement in all situations. The service includes a short, easy to utilize document detailing specific travel security advice and intelligence. Additionally, SYT provides dynamic city maps and verified contact information for emergency situations. Completing the package, on the ground security is delivered by our strategic partner SCS, a continent wide physical protection provider.

4. Online Reputation Monitoring Monitoring a client or individual’s brand and brand perception online. Fusing information from blogs, social media, and traditional news sources, our analysts provide the client with insight into the perception of a company, individual or project. Our product is further enhanced through our strategic partnerships with market research experts.

5. Market Analysis and Strategic Consulting Economic desk research into the market situation in the chosen country or region. Designed using a multidisciplinary approach, and with input from local continental market research firms. Providing trend recognition, profit maximi- zation, market entry insight, and understanding into local business culture.

149 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN THE ‘RESOURCE CURSE’ AND CONFLICTS IN AFRICA Prof. Jon Unruh McGill University

Introduction

n what has become wide- income and over 90 percent of rev- and timber and diamonds provide sig- ly known as the ‘resource enues gained from exports. Sierra nificant revenues in the Central Afri- curse’, high value natural Leone is well known for both its civil can Republic. resources have been linked war (which ended in 2002), and the to armed conflicts and insta- export of diamonds to finance the When well-managed, the natural re- bility and lost opportunities war. After the conflict, diamonds ac- sources sector can be important in for development. In many counted for approximately 96 percent financing development. However, resource-rich countries, revenues of all exports for the country (IMF, when mismanaged, revenues from from natural resources—oil, natural 2009). For Chad, Libya and Nigeria, these resources can significantly gas, minerals, gemstones, timber and countries which have struggled with weaken economies and governance, others— constitute an important and resource-related conflicts for some and greatly increase the risk of vio- integral (even dominant) component time, gas and oil have accounted for lence. Figure 1. Presents nine resource of national Gross Domestic Product as much as 70 percent of the GDP, rich and conflict prone African coun- (Bruch et al 2011). In conflict or post and over 80 percent of government tries while Figure 2 presents types of conflict countries of Angola, Sudan revenues (Lujala and Rustad, 2012b). resource conflicts, causes, and mani- and Algeria, gas and oil account for Gold and uranium are important in festations. well over 60 percent of government Niger, oil is important in Ivory Coast,

Figure 1. The economic role of the natural resource extractive sector in primarily conflict-affected Afri- can countries. Source: Lujala and Rustad (2012b).

150 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Figure 2. A typology of natural resources and conflict causes for Africa. Source Alao (2007).

151 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Money from resource exploitation frequently encourages and fuels corruption, rent seeking and patronage, which can encourage the actions and interests of a relatively small, powerful and predatory elite.

Natural resources vs. national ing to take control of the sources of resources coincides with ‘tribal’, clan, resources natural resources in other countries ethnic, linguistic, religious, class, pow- There are three broad types of ‘re- (Ward, 2009). In extreme cases, this er and other divisions within society, source nationalism’: production coun- form of resource nationalism can lead significant problems associated with try nationalism; consumer country to armed conflict (Ward, 2009; Wil- real or perceived resource capture can nationalism; and investment target liams, 2009). Investment target coun- emerge. country nationalism (Ward, 2009). try nationalism involves the strategic The first two, are the most relevant to use of sovereign wealth funds. In this The conflict in Niger is partly attrib- Africa. Production country resource case, revenues are directed toward utable to management of mineral re- nationalism refers to the “increasing such funds, often controlled in part or sources. The Tuareg, on whose lands use of control of natural resources to in whole by outside interests (Ward, the minerals and the mines reside, advance policy goals—both economic 2009). have had significant problems with and foreign” (Stanislaw, 2008). Pro- national governments which they duction country resource nationalism Because high value resources like min- perceive as diverting too much rev- can also refer to: erals and oil are usually not distrib- enue from minerals extracted from • a production country seeking to uted evenly across the landscape of a their lands to the national capital at make maximum use and value of country, different stakeholder groups the expense of their own regional de- its natural resource endowment or constituencies will be advantaged velopment. In other cases, those with (MEES, 2006) or disadvantaged in the exploitation the instruments of state or economic • an arrangement where resource of these resources, depending on the power in their control may be reluc- producer countries move to maxi- model of natural resource governance tant to share income and benefits with mize revenue from present resource deployed. For example, the people of poorer areas of the country. It is not production while changing terms of the Niger Delta occupy land rich in surprising then that many countries investment for future output, oil but have long felt ‘disadvantaged’ in Africa endowed with high value • a set of policies and justifications and excluded from the benefits associ- natural resources have been plagued given to policies that increase gov- ated with oil extraction, given the way by civil conflicts. ernment intervention in resource this resource has been managed in development (Ait-Laoussine, 2008); Nigeria. Likewise, the indigenous oc- Resources vs. rights and cupants of areas containing diamonds The (property) rights systems under • the nationalization of natural re- in Sierra Leone suffered disloca- which natural resources are extracted source infrastructure investments tion and violence as outside interests matters a great deal to a country’s made by non-state commercial in- sought to gain access to diamond are- economic prospects, social peace and terests (Stevens and Pearce, 2000). as. Inequalities, divisiveness, and civil political stability. Different national conflicts can emerge if issues ofeq- legal and legislative frameworks have Consumer country nationalism in- uity, ownership and management of employed different models in terms volves non-resource producer coun- natural resources are not adequately of rights acquisition and rights main- tries or commercial interests attempt- addressed. When the distribution of tenance for various investors (Borras

152 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN and Franco, 2010; Corbera et al., privatization of holdings on the one concession from local land user or 2011). The purpose of the invest- hand, and increasing recognition of institution; and 3) lease/concession ment can be important in relation to informally held rights on the other, from the state (Nelson et al, 2012). acquisition of rights. For example, in the overwhelming majority of high the context of concessions as a form value natural resources in African Natural resources – (under)devel- of land rights acquisition, such rights countries are officially owned and ad- opment - conflict frequently have attached to them the ministered by national governments Overdependence on natural resourc- prospect that they can be revoked if (Corbera et al., 2011; Hallam, 2011). es can adversely affect a country’s the implementation of the investment Although a number of contracts in- economy by exposing it to the risk of project does not comply with the stat- volve outright purchases and/or lease severe price shocks. When combined ed purpose of the investment, as Mo- agreements with private individuals with political and economic institu- zambique has done. and institutions, the vast majority of tional weaknesses, such shocks can approved and pending contracts in- have disproportionately large negative Some resources are more easily ex- volve long-term concessions of state impacts – sometimes exposing coun- ploited than others and so require less owned lands--although such lands can tries to risks of armed conflicts. Posi- in the way of investment or time, and also be claimed by customary groups. tive shocks--as with large windfalls therefore can involve different kinds There are two reasons for this. First, generated form easily extracted natu- of rights than would longer-term in- land laws in many African countries ral resources--sometimes destabilize vestments. For example, timber ex- often restrict (if not prohibit) pri- economies as well, leading to missed traction as an investment is relatively vate ownership of resources ‘in the opportunities (Collier and Hoeffler, short-term and arguably easier to ac- ground’ by foreign or domestic indi- 2012), or to overspending, poor in- complish than forms of mineral ex- viduals and organizations. Second, vestment decisions, and ill-conceived traction involving heavy equipment, long-term lease agreements with state economic policies. facilities and excavation. It is com- agencies can reduce the social, po- mon, however, for an investor to pur- litical and economic risks associated Studies have shown that oil increases sue multiple money-making opportu- with acquiring large tracts of land in the probability of armed conflict nities based on a specific concession foreign economies, while simultane- (Fearon and Laitin, 2003), and that or right to extract a specific resource. ously providing sufficient collateral co-location of gas and oil with con- If only mining rights are granted in a to guarantee funding and to facilitate flict is associated with longer running concession, but forest areas need to be the acquisition process (Andrianirina- and more severe conflicts (Lujala, cleared so that mining can take place, Ratsialonana et al., 2011; Vermulen 2009). These studies suggest that de- then money can be made from timber. and Cotula, 2011). veloping countries that are oil produc- If areas within the mining concession ing are between 1.5 to 2 times more are unused for mining operations but Beyond the significant gaps in avail- likely to engage in armed conflict than can be used for plantations, then rev- able information on the contracts be- countries without oil; and that where enue can be generated in that way tween investors and public or private conflict occurs in an area contain- as well. The prospect of being able landholders, a key challenge to sum- ing oil, conflict can last twice as long to pursue money-making opportu- marizing the nature of the rights ob- and result in double the combatant nities within the area acquired for a tained is the sheer number of options deaths than it would otherwise (Lu- specific purpose can lead to exploita- available. Indeed, large-scale land re- jala, 2010). Fearon (2004) has shown tion of lands well outside of the rights source acquisitions are not limited to that gemstones have effects similar to granted – and/or attempts to expand a specific duration, number of actors those of oil—namely, conflict is more rights ‘on the ground’ in order to do or transfer of specific rights. Rather, likely and tends to last longer. Howev- this. Rights given for mineral, timber, contracts often ‘mix and match’ dif- er it should be kept in mind that such or other extraction activities often do ferent resource tenure arrangements statistical studies only demonstrate as- not include the right to exclude lo- for different pieces of land as part of sociation, not causation. cal communities from the concession the same project (Cotula, 2011; Cot- area. However, as enforcement and ula and Mayers, 2011). Furthermore, Trans boundary conflicts related to monitoring capacities on the part of Cotula and Mayers (2011) demon- natural resource exploitation deserve the state remain low in a number of strate that joint equity arrangements mention as a separate category: Li- African countries, investors often at- and multi-party lease schemes offer beria - Sierra Leone with regard to tempt to engage in exclusionary prac- potential alternatives to current deals diamonds and forests (Alao, 2007; tices, so as to pursue a variety of rev- between investors, governments and Richards, 2001) ; the DRC, and enue streams that were not part of the informal land users. Although a large neighboring countries particularly initial concession or rights (e.g. Yasmi amount of recent literature focuses to the east over mineral resources et al., 2010). on the evolution of contracts between (NATO, 2012); Sudan and South Su- different actors and investors (e.g., dan, over oil (Newnham, 2012); West- The transfer of land resource rights to Ping and Nielsen, 2010), the major- ern Sahara and Morocco over pot- investors in Africa illustrates many of ity of areas generally fall within and ash mining (Gianadda and de Brito, these problems. Despite widespread across three main categories, 1) pur- 2012; Ciment and Waskey, 2007); and individualization, registration, and chase of ownership right; 2) lease/ what have come to known as ‘water

153 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN LMspencer / Shutterstock.com

wars’ involving transboundary water- (Lujala and Runstad, 2012b). tive activities. Such rentier states courses, particularly the Nile and the 3) A number of African countries (but are characterized by state-society Nile states (Alao, 2007; Klare 2001). certainly not all) with an abun- relations that are weak, and by Such conflicts can require a different dance of specific natural resources, an authoritarian government that approach, because they often involve such as oil, gas, and certain miner- provides undue capacity to gov- neighboring states and their standing als, have lower economic growth ernment and certain elites (while armies together with supported proxy and lower human development denying this capacity to others) in militias and movements. Often such than countries where these re- order to capture resources (Otta- conflicts are not about the location of sources are scarce or absent (Auty, way, 2003). borders but rather how (and by who) 1993; Karl, 1997). One fairly com- access to resources are acquired. mon explanation for this is that At the mid to smaller scale there are natural resources are not them- numerous linkages between specific What is most notable about these link- selves revenues but instead assets. resources and conflict. Money from ages however is their variation, and For example oil is an asset within resource exploitation frequently en- their operation at different scales? At the natural endowment of a coun- courages and fuels corruption, rent the broad scale, easily extractable nat- try, and when it is taken out of the seeking and patronage, which can en- ural resources or agricultural prod- ground and sold (commercialized) courage the actions and interests of a ucts (rubber, bananas, cacao, etc.) can it is simply converted into a liquid relatively small, powerful and preda- provide insurgents with the motives asset (Radon, 2007). But the trans- tory elite. Often this elite is quite small and the means to challenge the state, action is not revenue, instead it is compared to the national population. with the state’s own lack of capacity just a change in the designation of For example in Nigeria one estima- (institutional and military) serving to the asset from barrels of oil to U.S. tion indicates that only one percent increase the incentive to do so. Other dollars. Therefore the challenge for of the population has control over 80 broad scale linkages include: developing country governments is percent of oil revenues (Kalu, 2008). 1) a government able to finance the to be able to transform natural re- Stakeholders involved in the ‘resource national budget exclusively or al- source based assets into enduring - development with poverty - conflict’ most exclusively though revenues development while not diminish- trichotomy who have an interest in from natural resources, as opposed ing the assets themselves. But such seeing conflict resolution efforts fail to public taxation, can then very transformation can be set back by are known as ‘spoilers’ (Stedman, easily become disconnected from negative incentives created by nat- 1997). Spoilers usually have some- the general population, and hence ural resources--tempting leaders thing to lose from a change in the is less accountable to it. to overspend; seeing revenues as status quo, either politically or eco- 2) political and economic underper- prizes that different groups or seg- nomically. The stakes can be quite formance--which is common in ments of society or government at- significant when high-value resources developing countries endowed tempt to capture, either by corrup- are involved. When potential spoil- with valuable natural resources— tion or armed confrontation (Alao ers are in positions of power and the can make countries vulnerable to 2007; Humphreys, et al, 2007). gains are large, the temptation to spoil conflict as a pre-existing condition. 4) Rentier states can be fostered, in a conflict resolution process for exam- Several studies show that low state which governments rely on rev- ple can be significant (Rustad et al, capacity and dysfunctional institu- enue from their natural resources, 2012). tions are positively correlated with as opposed to revenues generated an increased likelihood of conflict from their population’s produc- A variety of circumstances can en-

154 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN courage spoiling. Stakeholders who of the natural resource sector, or al- resources—such as wood and other have unrealistic expectations about location of certain land areas (Rustad forest resources, land, and water— the revenues or benefits associated et al, 2012). Such concessions are of- which are essential to livelihoods par- with resource extraction, their con- ten made to encourage factions to join ticularly once the extractable resource nection to the process, and the speed a peace process and transform them is exhausted. Thus as currently con- with which benefits can be delivered into political actors or movements ducted in many countries, ASM may can be particularly susceptible to (Rustad et al, 2012). Sierra Leone is an deliver short-term monetary gains to spoiler temptations. Certain groups example of this, with part of the 1999 miners and traders who are involved may wish to engage in spoiler activity Lomé Peace Agreement, stipulating directly, but it may also worsen local out of resentment at being left out of that Foday Sankoh, the leader of the poverty for those who are the ‘diggers’ a revenue and/or benefit stream. Oth- Revolutionary United Front (RUF), and who receive very little in the way ers may refuse to participate in a more was to be appointed as the head of of compensation. In the DRC, ASM equitable resource sharing process the Commission for the Management has been linked with armed conflict either because they benefit from the of Strategic Resources, National Re- where minerals extracted by artisanal current arrangement or because they construction and Development, and workers were used to purchase weap- see any new arrangement as a threat giving him the status of vice presi- ons and fund other aspects of the con- to the revenue provided by ‘lootable’ dent (Binningsbø and Dupuy, 2009). flict (Hayes and Perks, 2012). resources (Rustad et al, 2012). In Angola, the 1994 Lusaka Protocol provided the UNITA insurgency with With regard to women’s role in small- Factionalism is a common problem appointments at the ministerial level, scale resource extraction, a study in in armed conflict, whereby certain including the ministry responsible for DRC found that their involvement factions may continue to seek better mining (Rustad et al, 2012). in ASM was for the most part driven arrangements for their group (Rustad by poverty. The study demonstrated et al, 2012). As well the ‘copycat ef- Small-scale stakeholders: implica- that during the years after the con- fect’ can be a problem; whereby peace tions for management flict in DRC, women’s participation agreements (which often include re- Small-scale stakeholders are primary in ASM increased as a consequence source use and access arrangements) actors in the ‘natural resources - de- of the general economic downturn aim to deliver benefits to specific fac- velopment with poverty - conflict’ tri- and decreased livelihood opportuni- tions, who are then ‘copied’ by other chotomy, and are the focus of much ties in traditional sectors, such as ag- groups who act or pose as factions be- international attention in the context riculture. As a result 75 percent of the cause they desire access to resources of the resource curse. While there is women studied had been mining for as well. Some factions can come into an array of problems associated with less than two years, and 70 percent existence for precisely this reason small-scale resource extraction, there were their families’ sole earners (Pact, (Rustad et al, 2012). Liberia is an are also opportunities. In general ‘ar- 2007). Nonetheless artisanal mining example of this. Between 1990 and tisanal and small-scale mining’ (ASM) has become an important source of 1995, twelve peace agreements failed. is practiced by basic, manual extrac- livelihood for women in resource rich Abuja II, the thirteenth agreement, tion techniques. It is mostly unregu- African countries because of its rela- signed in 1996, was somewhat more lated, and those that engage in extractive ease of entry compared with oth- successful, but the conflict did not tion are exposed to a various physical er sectors, because it requires almost end until 2003, with the signing of hazards (Hayes and Perks, 2012). It is no formal education, skills, or capital. the Comprehensive Peace Agreement also associated with numerous eco- In this regard ASM can provide im- (Dupuy and Detzel, forthcoming). nomic and social problems--diversion poverished women with economic op- Among the various reasons that led to of livelihoods from more sustainable portunities that might not otherwise the failure of successive peace agree- activities; squalid camp conditions exist (Hayes and Perks, 2012). ments were this copycat effect, and where substance abuse and sexual a related pattern whereby factions promiscuity create health risks; child Thus there is a need to acknowledge would sign a peace agreement (with labor; environmental damage; and the large importance of small-scale significant international pressure), but localized inflation (Hayes and Perks, resource exploitation for local liveli- then return to their previous ways of 2012). hoods, and to examine the tensions resource exploitation under different and stresses that can come about from names, or through splinter groups. As currently practiced in a number of small-scale extraction activities, over- This maneuver would then avoid offi- resource rich African countries ASM lapping claims to the same resources, cially breaching the peace agreement is poorly done because the technical or to different resources in the same (Rustad et al, 2012; Reno, 1999). capacity required to identify, plan, area. In a number of resource-rich Af- develop, and exploit high value re- rican countries, small-scale extraction Gaining a commitment to stop cer- sources to their actual potential does of high-value natural resources (dia- tain forms of resource exploitation not exist. As a result, small-scale stake- monds, forest and wildlife products, by spoilers can necessitate significant holder extractive activities fails to take etc.) may be long-established before political concessions, involving for full advantage of the overall value of any conflict, or well prior to the arrival example the allocation of ministerial the resource while at the same time of large-scale extraction interests. As posts, authority over some segments consuming or contaminating other well small-scale exploitation activities

155 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Oksana Ph / Shutterstock.com

It is thought that if young men remain in the cities, rootless and unemployed, they may become recruits for future militia interests

may develop as a coping strategy dur- the large-scale interest will be very malizing the right mix of approaches ing conflict. Such exploitation--often present with comparatively high ca- to natural resource exploitation can unofficial and/or illegal--can often be pacity, infrastructure assets, and fi- support exploitation objectives as the economic backbone of impover- nances. In such circumstances, local well as local livelihoods for those who ished, or war-torn communities. Local community members may not only work in the small-scale extractive sec- populations hence may view any dis- expect the company to step in for the tor (Hayes and Perks, 2012). Thus for ruption of their livelihoods—through state in providing needed services, but countries endowed with resources attempts to stop their small-scale ex- may transfer their grievances against that can be exploited by the small- tractive activities, or competition with the state to the company if they fail scale extractive sector, such extraction large-scale exploitation--as a negative to provide (Anderson and Zandvliet, can be regarded as an opportunity development. Economic development 2001). rather than as a localized problem of resources that undergird local live- (Hayes and Perks, 2012). To attempt lihoods should focus on formalizing One of the questions facing resource to thwart such an opportunity in or- and supporting the resource econo- rich African countries is how to most der to control all deposits can lead mies on which conflict-affected popu- effectively use a combination of to its own set of problems. In a case lations depend (Lujala and Rustad, small-scale / large-scale extraction from Sierra Leone, President Siaka 2012a). This should include legalizing approaches in the pursuit of develop- Stevens (1968 - 1985), set his country forms of ASM, so that it is not acted ment objectives. In this context while on the road to prolonged conflict and against by the state. mineral deposits that are deep in state failure, in part by centralizing the ground can only be exploited by state control of all diamond mining. At the same time, large-scale stake- industrial-scale mining (and foreign This worsened already problematic holders themselves figure promi- capital); other deposits are closer to or and inequitable land relationships for nently in the local community setting. on the surface and therefore are much smallholders and made small-scale di- Often, large-scale interests are better more accessible through small-scale, amond mining, on which many Sierra equipped, organized, and capable semi-industrial mining. Still other de- Leoneans relied for their livelihoods, than state authorities at the local lev- posits cannot justify major industrial illegal (Beevers, 2012) el. Particularly in post-conflict areas, investment due to their remoteness or state organizations and institutions the small scale of the deposits, and so It is important to look not only at the may barely function and so deliver are only suitable for manual extrac- negative aspects of the relationship few, if any services such as education (Hayes and Perks, 2012). As a between small and large-scale inter- tion, health, and security—whereas result, deriving, regularizing and forests, but the potential positive aspects

156 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN as well. For example, large extraction scale stake-holders. By resolving dis- Corporate options for breaking cycles of con- projects usually encourage migration putes between local populations and flict. Cambridge, MA: Collaborative Learn- on the part of those wishing to engage large-scale interests, the best practice ing Projects. in small-scale extraction. And while of community relations is thought to migration can have destabilizing ef- be able to reduce the risk of violent or Andrianirina-Ratsialonana, R. et al., fects by putting pressure on resources, belligerent actions such as blockades, 2011. After Daewoo? Current status and facilities, local social structures and protests, campaigns, and sabotage, Perspectives of large-scale land acquisitions services, and become a burden or ob- particularly if small-scale extractors in Madagascar. Rome: International Land stacle to be dealt with by commercial believe these to be the only forms of Coalition. companies, in some cases migration influence they can exert (Boeg and Auty, R. M., 1993. Sustaining development can contribute to stability. In Sierra Franks, 2012). in mineral economies: The resource curse the- Leone many people would like to see sis. London: Routledge. new large-scale investments being Conclusion made in mining (or in other sectors, The capacity of the actors and stake- Beevers, M., 2012. Forest resources and such as biofuel), which would draw holders involved in high value natu- peacebuilding: Preliminary lessons from Li- young men back to their villages of or- ral resource extraction, processing, beria and Sierra Leone. In: P. Lujala and igin, where they can take up employ- marketing and management of rev- S. A. Rustad, eds. High-Value Natural Re- ment in resource extraction projects. enues, is of fundamental importance sources and Peacebuilding. London: Earths- It is thought that if young men remain in turning the curse into benefit for can. in the cities, rootless and unemployed, broader society. Such capacity how- they may become recruits for future ever ideally needs to be balanced Boege, V., Franks, D., 2012. Reopening and militia interests (Hayes and Perks, between stakeholders. There is a developing mines in post-conflict settings: 2012). Thus large-scale commercial good deal of emerging evidence that The challenge of company-community rela- operations can be opportunities for ‘capacity imbalance’--whereby one tions. In: P. Lujala and S. A. Rustad, eds. resource extraction firms to provide set of stakeholders enjoys significant High-value natural resources and peacebuild- unskilled jobs for local residents. Un- capacity while other sets experience ing. London: Earthscan. fortunately however such operations lower and in some cases much lower are often capital intensive and provide capacity--can result in corruption Borras Jr., S., and Franco, J. C., 2010. To- a small number of unskilled jobs. In and exploitation due to a lack of ef- wards a broader view of the politics of global fragile socio-political environments fective checks and balances between land grab: rethinking land issues, reframing such as after a war, it is particularly sets of stakeholders. The resulting resistance. ICAS Working Paper Series No. important for jobs—one of the pri- animosity then can have profoundly 001, Published jointly by Initiatives in Criti- mary benefits of investment—to be negative outcomes as the lower ca- cal Agrarian Studies, Land Deal Politics distributed fairly, transparently, and pacity set of stakeholders realize the Initiative and Transnational Institute: The without exacerbating problems and imbalance and its repercussions. And Hague, Netherlands. tensions that contributed to the origi- while capacity building in the natural nal conflict (Hayes and Perks, 2012). resource sector is often thought of as Bruch, C., Nakayama, M., and Coyle, I. Because of the often acute contro- being needed by African stakeholders 2011. Harnessing natural resources for versy about the relationship between (government, civil society, etc.) a great peacebulding: lessons from U.S. and Japa- large-scale extractive interests and deal of capacity is lacking on the part nese assistance. Washington, D.C.: Environ- local communities involving a wide of the international investor, who is mental Law Institute. range of tensions and conflicts, the in many cases unable to ‘read’ local international mining industry has in socio-political and economic environ- Ciment, J., and Waskey A. 2007. Western some cases been putting increasing ments in Africa so as to be able to in- Sahara: Polisario - Moroccan war 1975- priority on the practice of ‘community novate and derive arrangements that 1991. In: J. Ciment, ed. Encyclopedia of relations’. Thus some companies have work and are mutually beneficial. conflicts since World War II. Armonk, NY: begun to use community relations Sharpe Reference. specialists--sociologists, communica- References tions experts, and anthropologists--to Ait-Laoussine, N., 2008. Middle East Eco- Collier, P., and Hoeffler, A., 2012. High- develop procedures and initiatives to nomic Survey, 3 November, [online] Avail- value natural resources, development, and respond to local community concerns able at: http://www.mees.com/postedarti- conflict: Channels of causation. In: P. Lujala (Boeg and Franks, 2012). Community cles/oped/v51n44‐5OD01.htm and S. A. Rustad, eds. High-value natural relations experts try to resolve real resources and peacebuilding. London: Earth- and perceived community problems Alao, A., 2007. Natural resources and con- scan. in the context of large projects, and flict in Africa: the tragedy of endowment. their work focuses on increased com- Rochester, NY: Rochcester Press. Collier, P., and Hoeffler, A., 2004. Greed munication, improved understanding, and grievance in civil war. Oxford Economic and stronger relationships with small- Anderson, M. B., and Zandvliet, L., 2001. Papers 56 (4): 563 –595.

157 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ary. www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ able at: http://www.upstreamonline.com/ Collier, P., and Dehn, J., 2001. Aid, shocks scr/2009/cr0912.pdf. Accessed on 17 December 2012. and growth. Policy Research Working Paper 2688. World Bank. Karl, T. L., 1997. The paradox of plenty: Ottaway, M., 2003. Democracy challenged: oil booms and petro-states. Berkeley: Univer- The rise of semi-authoritarianism. New Corbera, E., et al., 2011. Rights to land, sity of California Press. York: Carnegie Endowment for International forests and carbon in REDD+: Insights Peace. from Mexico, Brazil and Costa Rica. For- Klare, M. 2001. Resource wars: the new ests, 2, pp.301-342. landscape of global conflict. New York: Owl Ping, L. and Nielsen, R., 2010. A case Cotula, L., and Mayers, J., 2011.Tenure in Books. study on large-scale forestland acquisition in REDD: Start-point or afterthought? Natural China, The Stora Enso Plantation Project Resource. 15. Lujala, P., and Rustad, S., 2012a. Part 5: in Hepu County, Guangxi Province. The Cotula, L. et al. 2011. Agricultural invest- Livelihoods: Introduction. In: High-value Rights and Resources Initiative in collabo- ment and international land deals: evidence natural resources and peacebuilding. London: ration with the Rural Development Institute. from a multi-country study in Africa. Food Earthscan. Radon, J., 2007. How to negotiate an oil Security. 3 (Supplement 1): S99-S113. agreement. In: M. Humphreys, J. D. Sachs, Deninger, K., et al., 2011. Rising interest in Lujala, P., and Rustad, S., 2012b. High- and J. E. Stiglitz, eds, Escaping the resource farmland: can it yield equitable and sustain- value natural resources: a blessing or a curse curse, New York: Columbia University Press. able results? Washington DC: The World for peace? In: P. Lujala and S. A. Rustad, Reno, W., 1999. Warlord politics and Afri- Bank. eds. High-value natural resources and Peace- can states. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. Dupuy, K., and Detzel, J., Appeasing the building, ed.. London: Earthscan. Richards, P. 2001. Are ‘forest’ wars in Af- warlords: Power sharing and peacebuild- rica resource conflicts? The case of Sierra ing in Liberia. In: Fragile bargains: Civil Lujala, P. 2010. The spoils of nature: Leone. In: N. Peluso, and M. Watts, eds. conflict and power sharing in Africa, ed. S. Armed civil conflict and rebel access to natu- Violent environments. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Gates and K. Strøm. Unpublished manu- ral resources. Journal of Peace Research, University Press. script; on file with authors. 47(1), pp.5–28. Rustad, S., Lujala, P., and Le Billon, P., 2012. Building or spoiling peace? Lessons Fearon, J., 2004. Why do some wars last Lujala, P., 2009. Deadly combat over natu- from the management of high-value natural so much longer than others? Journal of Peace ral resources: gems, petroleum, drugs, and the resources. In: P. Lujala, and S. A. Rustad, Research 41(3), pp.275–301. severity of armed civil conflict. Journal of eds. High-value natural resources and peace- Conflict Resolution, 53(1), pp.50–71. building. London: Earthscan. Fearon, J., and Laitin, D., 2003. Ethnicity, insurgency and civil war. American Political Middle East Economic Survey (MEES) Stanislaw, J., 2008. Power play: resource Science Review 97(1), pp.75–90. (2006). Middle East Economic Survey, 25 nationalism, the global scramble for energy September and the need for mutual interdependence, De- Gianadda, S., and de Brito, J. 2012. Sourc- loitte US. ing of natural resources from Western Sa- Miguel, E., Satyanath, S., and Sergenti, E., hara. Ethos, October. 2004. Economic shocks and civil conflict: An Stedman, S. J., 1997. Spoiler problems instrumental variables approach. Journal of in peace processes. International Security, Hallam, D., 2011. International investment Political Economy, 112(4), pp.725–753. 22(2), pp.5–53. in developing country agriculture: issues and challenges. Food Security 3 (Suppl 1): S91- NATO. 2012. Global dynamics of national Stevens, J., and Pearce, R. A., 2000. Land S98. security: alliances and resources - the future law. London: Sweet and Maxwell. Hilhorst, T., et al., 2011. Agrarian change of resource conflicts: the Africa pattern. under the radar screen: Rising farmland NATO, http://www.libraryindex.com/ Vermulen, S. and Cotula, l., 2010. Making acquisitions by domestic investors in fran- pages/1941/Global-Dynamics-National- the most of agricultural investment: a survey cophone West Africa. Paper presented at the Security-Alliances-Resources-FUTURE- of business models that provide opportunities International Conference on Global Land RESOURCE-CONFLICTS-AFRICA- for smallholders. International Institute of Grabbing, April 6-8 2011, Brighton, UK. PATTERN.html Accessed on 17 December, Environment and Development. Humphreys, M., Sachs, J.D., and Stiglitz, 2012. J.E., 2007. Escaping the resource curse. Ward, H., 2009. Resource nationalism and New York: Columbia University Press. Nelson, I., Pritchard, M., Corriveau-Bour- sustainable development: a primer and key is- que, A., Standfield, D., Unruh, J., 2012. sues. International Institute for Environment Hayes, K., and Perks, R., 2012. Women in An analytical Framework for researching and Development. the artisanal and small-scale mining sector large-scale land acquisitions in forestry set- of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In: tings. Paper prepared for the Center for Inter- Williams, N., 2009. Alarm bells over Af- P. Lujala and S. A. Rustad, eds. High-value national Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia rica land deals. Current Biology, 19(23). natural resources and peacebuilding. London: Earthscan. Newnham, D. (2012) Sudan-South Sudan Yasmi, Y., et al., 2010. Conflict over forests International Monetary Fund (IMF), security talks to resume. Upstream: The In- and land in Asia. The Centre for People and 2009. Country report No. 09/12. Janu- ternational Oil and Gas New Source. Avail- Forests.

158 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION Prof. Ogaba Danjuma Oche Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, Lagos

Introduction: Conflicts in Africa

ost regions of in ways that enhance peace, security, velopment Bank showed that between the world be- and social justice. The authors judged 1990 and 2005, Africa accounted for came more a country’s capacity for peace-build- approximately half of the world’s bat- secure as the ing to be high if it was able to avoid tle deaths. Other reports show that turbulence that armed conflicts, manage movements from 2002-2007, the combined total accompanied for self-determination, maintain sta- of inter-state and intra-state conflicts the Cold War ble democratic institutions, and was declined by 64% from 39 to 14, while was largely contained by the end of free of serious threats from its external the official battle-related deaths over 2000. Although the end of the Cold environment. The study character- the same period decreased by over War freed up political energies and ized countries that make up the broad 70% from 9,368 to 2,727. Although material resources for institutional re- middle belt of Africa—from Somalia the general analysis of conflict in Af- form and constructive management in the east to Nigeria in the west, and rica follows the general global trend of conflicts, serious armed violence from Sudan in the north to Angola in of a decline in armed conflict, more persists in parts of Africa and Asia. the south as a “bad neighbourhood”. recent trends point to an increase in The Centre of International Devel- However, the study viewed southern armed violence from around 2010, opment and Conflict Management Africa countries with promise, as they potentially reversing the gains made (CIDCM) produced a report which were seen to have managed to avoid immediately after the end of the Cold was summarised in a Peace and Con- serious conflicts and political instabil- War. More recent reports show that flict Ledger that ranks countries of ity. 2014 alone was one of the most tur- each world region according to their bulent years in the continent’s long capacity to manage societal conflicts A 2008 report from the African De- history of instability. Along with the

159 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN horrific outbreak of Ebola in West Af- conflicts or civil wars; conflicts that After 2000, a new peace and security rica and the pockets of violence that are spread over a number of countries architecture was contextualised with- erupted as a result, the continent as a - such as the conflicts in central and in the principles of African leader- whole experienced widespread pro- west Africa ; and conflicts over trans- ship and ownership via the member tests, unrest, civil wars, and insurgen- boundary resources (e.g. water). This states and RECs. Regional economic cies. The most recent flare-up of this paper addresses the role of traditional communities such as the Economic new wave of violence resulted in Boko and communal institutions in ensur- Community of Central African States Haram’s deadliest attack to date, the ing peace, justice and reconciliation (ECCAS), the East African Commu- massacre of an estimated 2,000 peo- within their community. It focuses nity (EAC), the Arab Magreb Union ple in the north eastern village of on informal institutions and specific (AMU), the Southern African De- Doron Baga. mechanisms adopted in resolving vio- velopment Community (SADC), the lent conflicts within the context of in- Economic Community of West Af- Different perceptions of the African tercommunity relations, with specific rican States (ECOWAS) and the In- continent often create different and reference to traditional institutions tergovernmental Authority on Devel- sometimes conflicting understandings in West and Eastern Africa. The opment (IGAD) have taken on more as to why conflicts occur in Africa. A State’s role and how it has harnessed responsibilities for conflict prevention, popular view is that ethnic and reli- this form of peace-building to ensure management and resolution. The gious diversity within countries cause greater State security, is also be ad- formation of the Peace and Security inescapable cleavages and violent con- dressed. Council (PSC) in 2004, established flicts. That African rebel movements concrete institutions dedicated to the are almost always ethnically defined is Understanding Conflict Resolu- promotion of peace, security and sta- often taken as supporting evidence for tion in Africa bility on the African continent. The this view. In this view, the solution to Conflict or dispute resolution can be AU has a formal mandate to engage in African conflicts requires radical so- viewed as the use of nonviolent resist- mediation as a form of peace-making, cial change: complete eradication of ance measures by conflicted parties in which is legislated in the 2002 Proto- tribal and religious hatred. Others ar- an attempt to promote effective reso- col Relating to the Establishment of gue that deep political and economic lution. A wide range of methods and the Peace and Security Council of the factors are the main determinants of procedures for addressing conflict ex- African Union. conflicts in Africa. The solution to the ist, including but not limited to: ne- problem therefore has to be both po- gotiation, mediation, diplomacy, and A substantial body of literature ex- litical and economic. However, a more creative peace-building. Mediation ists predominantly from scholars from systematic and comparative analysis is an integral component of peace- Western societies whose analysis have of the causes of civil wars in Africa by making and has the potential to be dominated contemporary scholar- Elbadawi and Sambanis suggests that instrumental in preventing, managing ship of conflict resolution in Africa. conflict patterns in Africa conform to and ending conflicts. International For quite some time, the assumption the global pattern: a combination of mediation is a long-term process and seems to have been made that West- political and economic as primary fac- depends on relationships between ex- ern techniques of conflict prevention, tors, reinforced by ethno-religious and ternal and internal actors to be one management and resolution also ap- cultural factors. Studies conducted by of equitable partnership, synergy ply to developing nations. Increas- Collier and Hoeffler suggests that the and complementarity. Collaboration ingly, a number of scholars from de- risk of civil war is reduced by oppor- between African and international veloping countries are challenging this tunity cost of rebel labour and greater actors has become critical in strength- view. For example, Ineba Bob-Manuel natural resources are associated with ening the African Union’s role in argues that today’s predominant pat- higher risk of civil war. Put more sim- conflict prevention and mediation. tern of conflict in Africa is proving ply, the economic cause of some con- Africa entered a new era of conflict resistant to the available and accepted flicts can be attributed to the struggle resolution and peace-building after tools of conflict management. It ne- for natural resources: land, water or the adoption of the Constitutive Act cessitates the need for a new range minerals. The political cause, on the of the AU in July 2000. It became im- of flexible and adaptable instruments other hand are attributed more to the perative for organisations such as the that can take the more subjective, struggles for legitimate control over African Union (AU) in collaboration complex and deep-rooted needs and those resources which in a State struc- and coordination with strategic part- interests that underpin conflicts in ture ensures the control of the wealth ners – namely the regional economic Africa into account. As a result, it is of the State. communities (RECs), the UN and the argued that special attention should European Union (EU) – to develop be given to the valuable contributions It is not easy to classify conflicts. This specialist expertise and a systematic from Africa, especially from the field is primarily due to the fact that not mediation practice. of traditional measures of conflict all conflicts in Africa hold the same resolution. It is only until conflicts characteristics. However, the litera- This is in contrast to the OAU’s em- in Africa are understood in their so- ture on conflict suggests four main phasis on State sovereignty, which cial contexts that there can be hope categories: interstate conflicts or con- resulted in its non-interventionist ap- for their resolution. “It is important flicts between countries; intrastate proach towards conflict resolution. for values and beliefs, fears and sus-

160 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN picions, interests and needs, attitudes partial incorporation of customary seen differently as it is at most times and actions, relationships and net- authorities and their procedures into applied on a smaller scale, either be- works to be taken into consideration”. modern institutional settings has been tween communities, families or indi- During the years of traditional leader- adopted by successive governments in viduals. In these circumstances, the ship in Africa, various conflicts caused Ethiopia and in Nigeria, helping to involvement of either religious, tribal by different issues were resolved us- ease the burden of modern structures or community leaders to communi- ing different approaches. Most con- in dealing with conflict situations. cate difficult truths indirectly through flicts and resolution methods were a third party and making suggestions predominantly local. Conflicts were Conflict resolution as both a profes- through stories are applied. Inter- between individuals, villages, commu- sional practice and an academic field cultural conflicts are often the most nities or tribes who lived in the same is highly sensitive to culture. In West- difficult to resolve because the expec- or adjoining areas. Those who inter- ern cultures, such as Canada and the tations of the disputants can be very vened were often local elders, tribal United States, we are made to believe different, and there is much occasion leaders or both. When kingdoms de- that successful conflict resolution usu- for misunderstanding. veloped about the 5th century BC in ally involves fostering communication West Africa for example, stronger and among disputants, problem solving, In many cases, issues that result in wider authority came into being, but and drafting agreements that meet conflict may be similar. However, in the traditional methods of instigat- their underlying needs. Such tech- most, the procedures and rules to set- ing and resolving conflicts underwent niques have been spread by western tle the disputes may differ subject to relatively minor changes. ideologies and infused into the mo- cultural diversity and customs. It is dalities of the modern State structure. the process of conflict management On the other hand, Osaghae argues Thus, in most practising democra- and resolution that differs, depend- that integration of traditional ap- tises, communities are subjected to ing on the environment in which the proaches with modern negotiation the retributive justice system which, process is needed. In Southern Sudan and diplomacy strategy is feasible. In over many years, has been adopted for example, each of the major eth- federal Ethiopia, the context of decen- from primarily Western culture. In nic groups (Nilotics, Nilohamites, and tralisation and devolution of power to these situations, conflict managers Bantu and Sudanese ethnic groups) regions provided ample opportunity often talk about finding a mutually have rules and procedures of conflict for co-existence between community satisfying scenario for the parties in- resolution. These conflict resolution justice and formal government institu- volved. In many non-Western (some mechanisms, as they are often called, tions that promote individual human argue, less liberal-democratic) cultural form the foundation of traditional in- rights. This system of co-option and environments, conflict resolution is stitutions in dispute resolution. The

161 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN main actors in conflict resolution da, with the Western legal ones. In cused on the same centre. The centre among the Dinka are the Bany Bith Lanek’s evaluation, the Western legal of the circle represents the underly- and the Kuar Kwac in the Nuer com- approach to justice or conflict resolu- ing issues that need to be resolved munity. Their offices are spiritual and tion was more concerned with estab- to attain peace and harmony for the hereditary, held by special priestly lishing guilt and executing retribution individuals and the community. The clans. Although these leaders have and punishment without reference to continuum represents the entire pro- no political or executive authority to the victim or the wider families or fu- cess, from disclosure of problems, to compel parties in a conflict to abide ture re-incorporation of the offender discussion and resolution, to making by the decision, they are however, well into the community. Physical and ma- amends and restoring relationships. respected enough to make the par- terial penalties and the use of force, The methods used are based on con- ties to a conflict to comply. Another including costly prisons, provide the cepts of restorative and reparative jus- important actor in conflict resolution sanctions against the offender. The tice and the principles of healing and mechanism is the Bany Alath who the process, according to Lanek, encour- living in harmony with all beings and government appoints as chief. The ages the accused to deny responsibil- with nature. Bany Alath is a member of the cus- ity while the Acholi method of peace, tomary court – bridging a gap that conflict resolution and reconciliation Similarities with other indigenous could have been formed between tra- are co-operative and can be indirect justice systems lie in the reliance on ditional and state conflict resolution and circumstantial which, in his view, the mending process for renewal of institutions. The Bany Alath interacts effectively encourages the accused to damaged personal and communal re- with the Bany Bith. The introduction admit responsibility. lationships. In this regard, the victim of customary courts into the Dinka or the community is the focal point, and Nuer societies did not contradict Retributive justice theory considers and the goal is to heal and renew the the role of the two actors. Cases that proportionate punishment, to be the victim’s well-being. It also involves require traditional customs such as best response to crime. When an of- deliberate acts by the offender to re- taking oath are referred to the Bany fender breaks the law, she or he for- gain dignity and trust and to restore Bith or the Kuar Kwac before the feits or suspends her or his right to personal and communal harmony. Beny Alath makes the ruling. something of equal value, and justice Reparative principles refer to the requires that this forfeit be enacted. process of repairing relationships to Seeking justice to prevent conflict This is sometimes taken to mean that avoid further disputes. It is essen- There are two distinctive patterns of justice involves seeking vengeance on tial for the offender to make amends conflict resolution which are best il- behalf of the aggrieved party, to ap- through apology, asking forgiveness, lustrated by the enforcement of jus- pease the victim, to satisfy society’s making restitution, and engaging in tice in different communities. One is desire for revenge, or to reconcile the acts that demonstrate a sincerity to based on what Ada Pecos Melton calls offender to the community by paying make things right. The communal as- an American paradigm of justice, a debt to society. It does not offer a pect allows for crime to be viewed as and the other is based on what can reduction in future crime or repara- a natural human error that requires be called an indigenous paradigm. tion to victims. As Melton states, the corrective intervention by families The American paradigm has its roots American paradigm applies justice and elders or tribal leaders. Thus, of- in the world view of Europeans and through an adversarial system such as fenders remain an integral part of the is based on a retributive philosophy the use of the courtroom to determine community because of their impor- that is hierarchical, adversarial, puni- a defendant’s guilt or innocence. A tant role in defining the boundaries of tive, and guided by codified laws and forum where evidence found through appropriate and inappropriate behav- written rules, procedures, and guide- adversarial fact finding is presented iour and the consequences associated lines. The vertical power structure is and where punitive sanctions limit with misconduct. upward, with decision making limited accountability of the offender to the to a few. Lanek presented a paper in state, instead of to those he or she has The Acholi, a Luo speaking tribe oc- 1999, which he called:” ‘Mato Oput’, harmed or to the community. cupying northern Uganda, for gen- the drinking of Bitter Herb” to the erations have used Mato Oput as a All-Africa Conference on African The indigenous justice paradigm means of reconciliation within the Principles of Conflict Resolution and can be best described by the holistic context of their tradition. The Acholi Reconciliation which was held from philosophy and the world view of believe in leadership through consen- the 8th until the 12th of November the aboriginal inhabitants of North sus, allowing everyone in their local- 1999 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. In America. These traditional systems ised clans to have a voice while the his paper, he was concerned with in- are guided by unwritten customary traditional head of each clan rules by tegrating indigenous approaches with laws, traditions, and practices that consent. A major function of the tra- national and international mecha- are learned primarily by example and ditional chiefs is to act as arbitrators nisms for conflict resolution and rec- through the oral teachings of tribal el- and reconcilers when disputes occur onciliation. He also compared in- ders. The holistic philosophy is a cir- in order to restore peace and maintain digenous approaches, especially the cle of justice that connects everyone harmonious relations between fami- Acholi approach, common with the involved with a problem or conflict lies and clans. The reconciliation pro- Acholi people of northern Ugan- on a continuum, with everyone fo- cess he describes is called the “Mato

162 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Oput” process (Mato Oput - an Acho- In the south-west of Zamfara state is supervised access with a payment to- li vernacular meaning drinking the Dan–Sadau Forest Reserve and con- ken fee of N10 per cow. This system herb of the Oput tree) because it ends nected to it is the neighbouring Ka- remains in place and is being moni- in a significant ceremony of “Mato muku National Park in Birnin Gwari tored by the Emirate Councils from Oput”, the traditional drinking of Local Government, Kaduna State. A the two states. a bitter herb of the Oput tree. The large number of the pastoral groups bitterness of the drink symbolises the using the Dan-Sadau Forest Reserve A deeper look into the meaning of psychological bitterness that prevailed as wet season base camps also use the conflict to traditional communities in the minds of the parties in conflict. converted Kamuku National Park as opens up an even deeper understand- their traditional resting point en-route ing of the functions of traditional The significance of traditional to the south for dry season grazing. In mechanisms of conflict resolution. institutions in conflict resolution 2002 the national park officials denied Conflicts can be generally viewed as The frequency of conflicts in Africa pastoral groups access to the area and non-isolated events, within a social has led to the use of conventional blocked three stock routes leading context. According to Brock-Utne, mechanisms of conflict resolution that into the area. There was resistance “when Africans sit down to discuss have excluded traditional approaches from the pastoralists and conflict be- a conflict, the talking usually covers which are, according to Ofuho, now tween the herders and the national all kinds of relevant background and in greater demand than ever. The park guards resulted in the shooting goes into the thoughts and intentions collapse of the Somali nation-state and wounding of three pastoralists. In of others. The elders from a family, and the reversion to the post-tradi- reaction, the pastoralists mobilized for clan or state see their traditional ob- tional method of social and political revenge. Although the matter was re- jectives in conflict resolution as mov- organisation in northern Somaliland ported to the federal government and ing away from accusations and coun- shows how dynamic these traditional a committee set up to resolve it in liter-accusations, to soothe hurt feelings systems can be. The restoration of aison with Zamfara and Kaduna state and to reach a compromise that may the gurtii system of clan elders who governments, little was achieved. In help to improve future relationships”. intervene to settle conflicts differ- light of persistent clashes, the Gusau They also dwell on values, aspirations, ent warlords has helped to maintain Emirate Council took the initiative perceptions and visions. All over Afri- a semblance of order and stability to constitute a committee which in- ca, people have deeply rooted cultural in an otherwise hostile environment. cluded the district heads of Maru and commitments, and in many of the The dia-system which was based on Dan-Sadau and the pastoral leaders. conflicts in Africa this cultural herit- bloody compensation and revenge, The committee collaborated with the age plays a decisive role. In Africa, is undergoing transformation, while Birnin-Gwari Emirate Council to dis- family ties and community network- also providing a reference point for cuss and resolve the matter. The two ing are constantly respected, main- the reorganisation of Somali society, councils met the officials of the na- tained and strengthened because of conflict resolution and conflict man- tional park and it was agreed that the the impact on dispute resolution and agement. pastoralists would have limited and conflict management. When there is

163 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN a dispute between different parties, man, meeting regularly to review the them out in their families, communi- priority is given to restoring the com- peace and security situation. All first ties, nations, regions and the world. munal relationships. class chiefs and emirs are members, in For an elder man or woman to be an a structure reminiscent of the North- agba he or she must be fearless (alaki- The Afar people strongly believe that ern House of Chiefs and indeed mak- kanju); must be knowledgeable and all disputes within their ethnic group ing use of the same building. The fo- wise but must be someone who gives should be settled peacefully and ac- rum met three times in 2006 and on room for criticisms (ologbon, oloye, cording to their long standing custom- 17th August 2006, changed its name afimo ti elomiran se); must be- toler ary laws (Mad’aa). Mad’aa consists of to a council to reflect the increasing ant (alamumora); must be upright in specified guidelines and rules on how role it expects to play in peace-mak- all ways (olotito, olododo); and must to handle dispute cases. This is a tradi- ing. not be selfish (anikanjopon). tion followed from the time of Hama- du Sirat, whom informants identified A western mediator may begin the Similarly amongst the Afar people, as their apical ancestor and the father exploration by retracing the steps of there is a strong sense of respect for of all Afar in the area. Once a con- the parties to the point of the initial the legendary traditional rules and flict is in the hands of elders, there can conflict, but an experienced tradi- guidelines that was passed to them be very little room for an individual to tional elder, considering the social re- from their forefathers. One such further his/her interests by force. This alities, may start from a vantage point fundamental norm is the fear of and seems to be the norm no matter how further back and try to form a frame respect for elderly personalities in the long it takes the elders to process the of social reference. He may ask ques- respective villages. Elders are believed dispute and reach a settlement. In this tions like: Who are you, and where to have the wisdom and insight ac- regard, the modern legal principle are you from? Explain your family cumulated over long periods of time that ‘justice delayed is justice denied’ link. Where did you grow up? What and are instrumental in the transfer of does not hold true among the Afar. do you like doing? These may pro- traditional knowledge and custom to vide clues, not only about immediate successive generations. They not only The key actors in traditional con- causes, but potentially, long-standing provide informal education and teach flict resolution institutions grievances, offering a wider and deep- younger generations on preventing Conflict managers such as judges, er insight into the differences and violent conflicts, they are also believed mediators, conciliators, counsellors, similarities between the parties. Par- to have a spiritual link to supernatu- negotiators and lawyers exist within ties often have fairly similar needs, but ral forces in the conviction that living the state structure. At the traditional rather different interests. They may longer on earth is a gift from God sig- African level, dispute settlements nor- also have similar or different ideolo- nifying some purpose. Gerontocracy mally involve supporters of the dis- gies and beliefs. The age and power is therefore at the centre of traditional puting parties and the elders meant differences must also be considered. patterns of behaviour and social ac- to talk the matters through. Relation- All these help the African elder in the tion. In other traditions, it is either the ships are given prime attention. Rela- discussion to get at the remote and monarch or the religious leader who tionships are viewed in ‘historical and immediate causes. act as conflict managers. future perspectives’. Indirect relationships are analysed along with direct According to Lawrence O. Bamikole’s Pastoral efforts ones to see cross-stitching potentials. paper, “Agba (elder) as Arbitrator: Ofuho,In his paper on ‘African Princi- For example, if each of the disput- A Yoruba Socio-political Model for ples of Conflict Resolution and Rec- ing parties happen to be musicians, Conflict Resolution”, conflict resolu- onciliation’ Ofuho brings to light the this commonality may be utilised as a tion sometimes requires a third-party experiences of grassroots peace-mak- converging factor. or certain persons who enjoy the con- ing efforts among the communities of fidence of their fellow human beings the Kidepo Valley of Eastern Equato- In northern Nigeria, family issues are in a political society. The concept of ria. Kidepo is a big forest that starts handled by traditional rulers at all agba (elders) is a Yoruba socio politi- from Karenga Hills in the north-east levels including emirs or chiefs, de- cal model for conflict resolution, and of the border with Uganda and ex- pending on proximity. In theory, an it is the third-party that is responsible tends deep into South Sudan. The important emir can never refuse to lis- for effective conflict resolution in - people living along both divides of the ten to a subject on the pretext that he digenous Yoruba societies. The agba valley regard Kidepo as a major asset is busy. Nonetheless, in reality, emirs are usually relied upon as arbitrators in terms of both water and grazing play their most important role in me- and agents of conflict resolution in resources, particularly during the dry diating and resolving larger-scale civil view of certain qualities possessed by season. Communities of the region conflicts. The Northern Traditional members of the community. Agba have lived in hostility and co-existence Leaders’ Forum has been reactivated are respected individuals identified by for years. Their conflicts have just re- with the Sultan of Sokoto as Chair- age and other qualities, which mark cently picked up intolerable propor-

164 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN The elders from a family, clan or state see their traditional objectives in conflict resolution as moving away from accusations and counter-accusations, to soothe hurt feelings and to reach a compromise that may help to improve future relationships

tions due to the proliferation of mod- Traditional processes and meth- fixed by customary law. In practice, ern weapons. The common source of ods however, payments are negotiable. conflict in the Kidepo Valley is cattle Indigenous methods of conflict reso- For example, according to the law, the rustling as cattle herds are the main lution include traditional dispute payment for murder is 100 heads of source of income. The communities resolution, peace-making, talking camel; but following bargaining less within this area have made attempts circles, family or community gather- than half may actually be paid. and practices of peace-making as ings, and traditional mediation, de- there have been wars over resources scribed only by the language of the Verbal accountability is an important in the region. Each member group of tribal community. All these refer to process because it is key in discovering the communities often begin their at- the methods of resolving problems the underlying factors precipitating tempts of peace-making by first iden- and to the methods of restorative and conflicts and when the offender has tifying the root causes of the problem. reparative justice. The structure of the opportunity to express remorse to Most problems arise as a result of re- relationships in many tribal commu- the victim and the victim’s family. The venge for death previously committed nities is tantamount to a legal system decision making process is character- over cattle rustling or during fighting exemplified by the clan system. Trib- ised by consideration of the social over grazing and water resource areas al law determines clan identification, importance of conflict resolution as in the Valley. Once problems are iden- which is often matrilineal. Among social relations and internal solidar- tified, communities convene meet- the Pueblo communities, moiety and ity are crucial. At this stage having ings that may last two to three days clan affiliations determine for which looked at both sides, your community in isolation in some forest where they group an individual will dance, sing, may suggest that you - the one party deliberate over resolutions. The role or hunt in social activities, which re- - make this concession. It would then of what may be called opinion lead- ligious or medicine groups one may be fair to expect you - the other party ers and council of elders is crucial in join, which political positions one may - to respond by reciprocating conces- the conflict resolution process. These hold, whom one may court or marry, sion from your side. The point is to elders have gained their authorita- or what property one may own. The make a fair exchange for public recog- tive influence through wisdom and clan system regulates the behaviour nition. Consensus seeking is the next experience. Another way of grass- of its members. The interlocking rela- important approach. This may devel- roots peace-making used by these el- tionships in tribal communities often op into an extended search as every ders, is the use of the curse by elders determine the flow of how problems new consensual outcome confirms the to deter the young mojirimots from are handled. The Afar people prac- validity and value of the time-proven continuous raids. The curse of elders tice Afar customary law known as tradition of this process. It also cre- are believed to be capable of leading, Ma’ada. The laws regarding com- ates confidence that such a jointly among other effects, to mysterious pensation payment among the Afar developed decision will prove to be ef- deaths. The word of elders are bitter people are elaborate and detailed. fective and long lasting. In traditional and those who have caused troubles Virtually every offence has a -cor Yoruba societies, early intervention often vanish from society. Rituals, responding compensation payment. is essential to the process of conflict symbols and interpretation of myths Even nail injury has its specified com- resolution. Conflicts are usually man- are all mechanisms for conflict resolu- pensation. In principle, the Afar claim aged such that they do not degener- tion in many traditional systems. that all compensation payments are ate into violence and armed conflicts.

165 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN It is important for government to not adopt a ‘one solution’ fits all approach to conflict resolution. There is a need to codifying such traditional practises.

166 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN The early intervention of the agba in were developed as agencies of local in 1824 had an estimated population reconciling disputing factions often governments to be integrated into of between 30,000 to 40,000. Today, prevents disputes from turning violent a parliamentary system of govern- only hints of the Sokoto Empire exists. conflicts. ment. Native Authority (NA) was the This is primarily because the Sokoto administrative name for the ensemble Sultanate has no supervisory role over The relationship between tradi- of emir and councillors who were any emirate or chiefdom. However, tional and State institutions responsible for a defined area, such the Sultan of Sokoto still functions The status of tribes as sovereign na- as Zaria in northern Nigeria. The primarily as the paramount leader of tions and their traditional institutions Emir and his council in turn consti- the traditional institutions in Sokoto are both pre-constitutional and extra- tuted a Native Administration which state and his supreme authority in constitutional. Traditional cultures took care of much day-to-day ad- Islamic matters transcends territorial have existed long before the introduc- ministration under guidance of the boundaries, as he is considered the tion of the state system and although Resident. Although there have been overall leader of Nigerian Muslims. the administration of justice, law, and many efforts to limit the jurisdiction In 1804, Shehu Uthman Dan Fodio’s order is a function of government of tribal justice systems, tribes retain jihad state and his followers imposed retained by the tribes as sovereign the authority to determine the legal the emirate system throughout most nations, it is within this realm that structure and forums to use in admin- of what is now Northern Nigeria indigenous justice systems exist and istering justice and to determine the and the ruling Hausa dynasties were is at times called upon as an alterna- relationship of the legal structure with replaced by Fulɓe. The hierarchical tive conflict resolution approach by other governing bodies. Although structure of traditional leadership in the state in times when state measure traditional rulers had significant state the core Hausa and Fulɓe states start proved ineffective. powers, this was changed as the 1976 with the Emir/Lamido as the top, as local government laws changed the the paramount ruler in-charge of one In Ethiopia, the role of the state at the status of traditional rulers from ad- or more local government areas; fol- inter-clan level seems to be very weak ministrators of local government to lowed by district heads (Hakimi), a because of weak links between the advisers. traditional ruler in charge of one or modern Woreda Court officials and more village areas; village area heads the indigenous council of conflict res- It is argued that this system was de- (Dakaci); and lastly ward heads (Mai olution. Generally, the council makes signed to meet the aspirations of Ungwar). no appeal to the court. Rarely, indi- emerging regional elites and the new vidual disputants may, on their own political parties they were joining. In Today these rulers function as gov- accord, take their cases to the court. the process of political modernisation, ernment appointees and are subject Moreover, court officials usually tell the authority of traditional rulers was to civil service rules. However, they disputants to go to their respective seriously undermined. According to can appoint officials directly as well as clan heads in order to allow interven- Miles, Hausa chieftaincies in both Ni- allotting titles to individuals who then tion by the indigenous council. It has geria and Niger had been co-opted by become advisors to the ruler. One of now become an established fact in the nation state who now owed their the most important duties of tradi- Afar region in Ethiopia that this is the survival and continuing legitimacy to tional rulers is to be present at gov- only solution as far as inter-clan dis- this source rather than to traditional ernment occasions such as foundation putes are concerned. Accounts point loyalties. At the time of the first mili- laying ceremonies, project commis- to a situation where modern courts tary coup and the reorganisation of sioning, welcoming visiting govern- are not effective in handling such dis- the states and local government in ment officials and so on. However the putes. Conflicts resolutions made at Nigeria, the powers of traditional rul- daily business of most traditional lead- this level have generally failed to bring ers in the NA were reduced. Key law ers is the settling of disputes involving long lasting peace to the community. and order functions were removed family, communal and religious life. Only in incidents inducing chaos and from the NAs by stripping them of In many ways this is both useful to the feud would the government adminis- their control over courts and the po- community and valuable to the state, trative and military organs intervene lice. In April 1968 the administration as many disputes that might otherwise to prevent further escalation of con- of justice at local level was taken over clog up court system are settled in- flict. Once relative peace is restored, by the government when area courts formally and usually in ways that ac- however, the government police and were established to replace the previ- cord with the local community’s sense military units hand over the case to ous native courts. Following an earlier of appropriateness. For instance, in the council and prepare the necessary recommendation, the NA police were some matrimonial cases, rulers have ground for resolution of the conflict also taken over and integrated into the been known to provide hospitality to a according to custom. national police force. woman during the period of arbitra- tion, if they are perceived to be suffer- In northern Nigeria, in an attempt Northern Nigeria has long had a cen- ing injustice from both religious and to modernise the political system, the tralised traditional political system. judicial avenues. government decided to merge tra- Gobir, Katsina, Kano, Zaria and ditional institutions into the formal Borno in the early sixteenth century Conclusion State system. ‘Native Authorities’ are examples of such structure. Kano The trends of conflicts and violent

167 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN conflicts in today’s world are very erty, unemployment; human rights Model for Conflict Resolution” in Fayemi, complex. This is far from surprising abuses; or result in a political end Ademola Kazeem. Journal of Law and Con- considering the expanding popula- rather than an end to violence. Was- flict Resolution, 2009: 060-067. tions, multi-complex structure of sara illustrates with the seizure of cat- contemporary societies, diverse (and tle in Nuer communities as the basis Blench, Roger, Selbut Longtau, Umar Has- sometimes interlocking) interests of for settling disputes, which in effect re- san, and Martin Walsh. 2006. The Role of people and serious complications in kindles more violence in cattle owning Traditional Rulers in Conflict Prevention and the very causes of conflict. In this communities. Traditional conflict res- Mediation in Nigeria. Prepared for DFID, regard, the indigenous model of con- olution can also be restrictive to many Nigeria. Final report, Nigeria: DFID flict resolution becomes very impor- international instruments of human Brock-Utne, Birgit. 2001. “Indigenous con- tant, especially when the state and rights. Taking a girl for compensa- flict resolution in Africa.” A draft presented local communities can find a middle tion, passing judgement on a person to the week-end seminar on indigenous solu- ground on ways of resolving internal based on immaterial evidence such as tions to conflicts held at the, Oslo. disputes. The issue to consider here magic or sorcery are summarised as Bugnacki, John. 2015. “Critical Issues is that traditional institutions and so- flagrant violations of human rights by Facing Africa: Terrorism, War, and Po- cial behaviour have undergone radi- Wassara. The practices of conserva- litical Violence.” American Society Project. cal change as the result of the many tive traditional authorities often over- http://www.americansecurityproject.org/ factors – some more uncontrollable look, such rights enshrined in the con- critical-issues-facing-africa-terrorism-war- than others. The mechanisms of constitution of the State, not to mention and-political-violence/ (accessed November flict resolution outlined above can as those at the international level. 3, 2015). easily be damaged by these factors. Cilliers, Jakkie. October 2014. Africa’s con- This includes civil war, poverty, high Although there is a growing concern flict burden in a global context. ISS paper unemployment, to name just a few. that African cultural traditions are 273, Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. However, today’s trends have also losing their influence in a global sys- Govender, Kruschen, and Yvette Ngandu. shown that other new actors have tem that relies heavily on external 2014. Towards Enhancing the Capacity of emerged in the field of traditional traditions and values. It is however, the African Union in mediation. Durban: conflict resolution. These actors not important not only for States but for AU, ACCORD, Minisitry of foreign rela- only include state and local govern- the people involved to hold on to such tions, Finland ments, but NGOs and civil society traditions and for the State to ensure Gurr, Ted Robert, Monty G Marshall, and organisations (CBOs). For example, that such authorities are not used for Deepa Khosla. 2000. A Global Survey of faith based organisations such as the political gain or to further margin- Armed Conflicts, Self-Determination Move- New Sudan Council of Churches alise or discriminate against certain ments, and Democracy. Maryland: Center (NSCC) combined both traditional groups. for International Development and Conflict and modern values of conflict resolu- Management tion to build peace in Dinka and Nuer To this end, there is a need for gov- Elbadawi, Ibrahim, and Nicholas Sam- communities of Upper Nile and in ernments to protect and monitor such nanis. 2000. “Why are ther so many civil Bahr el Ghazal during the period of traditional authorities by assuming wars in Africa? Understanding and prevent- active warfare. such institutions into State institu- ing violnet conflict.” Journal of African tions. It is important for government economies: 244-269. The operations of these actors con- to not adopt a ‘one solution’ (in this Melton, Ada Pecos. 2004. “Indigenous Jus- tinue in the post-conflict period, wid- case a ‘one institution’) fits all ap- tice Systems and Tribal Society.” American ening the scope of traditional conflict proach to conflict resolution. There Indian Development Associates. http:// resolution beyond dispute resolution is a need to codifying such traditional www.aidainc.net/Publications/ij_systems. to include post conflict development practises. In doing so it means that htm strategies. These strategies are more such practices have gone through cer- Mottiar, S. & Van Jaarsveld, S., 2009, long term as they are developmental tain legal, political and societal tests Mediating peace in Africa, securing conflict in nature. They require all parties to ensure that it will does not work prevention. ACCORD. Durban. to look to the future to work towards against the constitution and laws of Ofuho, Cirino Hiteng, 1999: Community conflict resolution strategies that en- the state; is democratic; and follows Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation in the sure such conflicts do not remerge in the norms and practises akin to the Kidepo the future. Structural development, state. Reda, Kelemework Tafere. 2001. “Conflict peace councils have been known to and alternative dispute resolution among have partnered with traditional insti- References: the Afar pastoralists of Ethiopia .” African tutions to ensure a sustained peace. African Development Bank. 2008. African Journal of History and Culture (AJHC), Not all models of the indigenous of development report 2008/2009: Conflict 2011: 38-47. conflict resolution result in peace. The resolution, peace and reconstruction in Afri- Wassara, S Samson. March 2007. Tradi- application of the principles in the ca. African development report 2008/2009, tional Mechanisms of Conflict Resolution. communities mentioned above can New York: Oxford University Press Berlin: The Berghof Foundation for Peace lead to other social-economic con- Bamikole O. Lawrence. 2009. “Agba (el- Support (BFPS). cerns such as increased violence, pov- der) as Arbitrator: A Yoruba Socio-political

168 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Nathan Holland / Shutterstock.com

RETHINKING SECURITY

INProf. Samuel M.AFRICA Makinda Murdoch University

169 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN hy do African African states achieved independence ordinary people often avoid any en- security planners on the basis of self-determination, counter with the police because of the and strategists and self-determination is the only fear that they would use their status need to rethink group right currently recognized in to extort money or to demand other security and the international law. kinds of favors. threats to it? To what extent do state security officials To this extent, it could be argued In general, national security threats interact with African security ana- that sovereign statehood in Africa is may emanate from a number of lysts, scientists and other knowledge based on self-determination or hu- sources, including other states as well producers in tertiary institutions and man rights. Therefore, the pursuit as non-state actors such as mercenar- think tanks? Should the ordinary peo- of the “national interest” by African ies, terrorist and other armed groups. ple in Africa be afforded opportuni- states ought to revolve around the Most national security threats in Af- ties to participate in national security needs, hopes and aspirations of the rica in recent years have come from debates? Answers to these questions people. Given the crucial relationship non-state actors. There have been no could help African state authorities to between self-determination and sov- inter-state conflicts in Africa since the begin to effectively tackle numerous ereign statehood, there is a need for end of the Cold War. Indeed, the mil- national security threats, including recognition of the view that the secu- itary in Africa hardly ever engages in those posed by militant groups such rity of African states derives from the fights with other professional military as Boko Haram and Al Shabaab and security of their people. Moreover, formations or national armies. The the breakdown in law and order in in an era in which human rights and 2011 air strikes on Libya by Western various countries, including Somalia, democracy have been recognized as countries, which led to the fall of the South Sudan and the Central African global entitlements, no definition of Muammar Gaddafi regime, was a Republic. security should ignore the people and rare recent example of a formal ag- their needs. As the African people’s gression by a collection of foreign National Security in Africa values, interests, and needs evolve, powers on an African nation-state. I define ‘national security’ in the Af- the definition of security also has to rican context as the protection of the evolve. This people-centered security What has become more frequent in African people and the preservation is achievable only under conditions the past two decades is transnational of their values, interests and resourc- where sovereignty is also defined in terrorism (I have excluded terrorism es, in the face of military and non- terms of the African people’s needs, that was limited to one country, such military threats. Non-military threats hopes, and rights. as FIS in Algeria in the early 1990s). to national security may include, but Starting with the Al Qaeda sponsored are not limited to, natural disasters, The diversified nature of national se- attack on the US diplomatic mis- ecological and environmental deg- curity threats in Africa means that a sions in Nairobi (Kenya) and Dar es radation, poverty, severe economic military or armed forces approach is Salaam (Tanzania) in August 1998, problems, human rights abuses, and only one albeit a critical component there have been a number of attacks the erosion of democratic institutions. of guaranteeing national security. in several African states. The frequent The above definition of security is Non-military action, or actions by terrorist attacks by Al Shabaab and broad enough to include the preser- actors other than national security Boko Haram against Kenya and Ni- vation of the state, as well as the struc- agencies are just as important in en- geria respectively, are examples of tures, principles, and institutions on suring national security. However, transnational terrorist attacks. Al which it is anchored. It incorporates many African countries tend to have Shabaab and Boko Haram are driven many elements of traditional security a narrow and often factional concep- by a global jihadist ideology. So far, that is largely based on the pursuit tion of national security. The concep- at least, responses by many African of the “national interest”, which in- tion of national security in Africa is governments to transnational terror- cludes the survival of the state in an seldom ‘people centered’. This in and ism have raised a lot of questions. For anarchical international system. of itself is a major constraint to na- example, the Kenya government’s tional security. perceived disproportionate focus on The protection of state boundaries ethnic Somalis in Nairobi in 2014 fol- and the governing structures and The lack of a people centered con- lowing a spate of terrorist attacks in elites need not be privileged over the ception to national security has led to that country provoked a fierce debate protection of the people. This people- any number of challenges. In many on both the wisdom of its counter-ter- centered security is predicated on the conflict affected African countries, the rorism strategy and the right balance assumption that the African people military and other state security agen- between national security and civil are the foundations of their states. cies have turned out to be the main liberties in the fight against terrorism. The political communities that we threats to security, often brutalizing Given that Al Shabaab has recruited call sovereign states have internation- the very people whose security and people from different ethnic groups in al legitimacy only because they are sovereignty they are sworn to protect. Kenya, a more effective counter ter- organized around people. Moreover, In a number of other African states, rorism strategy against them would

170 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN be much broader in outlook – to in- vision of basic public services. Poor rity will be threatened. Corruption clude working closely with the general governance also constrains the formu- and nepotism are not just social vices. Kenyan public, including ethnic So- lation of clear and effective national They undermine national cohesion malis to combat radicalization. security strategies and plans. A good and provide fertile ground for unpre- example of a place where poor gov- dictability and insecurity. At the nor- Transnational terrorism is just but one ernance has generated insecurity for mative level, it is plausible to argue increasing threat to national security everyone is South Sudan: the newest that security in any African country in Africa. Other growing threats to and youngest African country. While may be achieved and enjoyed only if national security in Africa emanate ethnic differences exist among the there is an environment in which the from non-military sources. For ex- South Sudanese groups, it is poor gov- people, institutions, and other agents ample, ecological and environmental ernance that has set one group against in the country respect each other and national security threats result from another. Contrary to many claims, the are willing to operate in accordance the activities of governments, corpo- main problem in the country is not with the rule of law. rations, communities and individual between the Dinka and the Nuer. Nor citizens. In the past few years, many is it between the military groups and At the bureaucratic level, national se- analysts have explained conflict and the party machinery. These divisions, curity will be achieved only if the vari- insecurity in Africa in terms of ethnic in addition to those between the edu- ous security agencies are individually differences. Others have explained cated elite and the semi-literate power and collectively competent, effectively these problems in terms of competi- brokers, exist, but the country implod- commanded, controlled and coordi- tion over resources, the depletion of ed in late 2013 primarily due to poor nated. The police, the military, and the environment, the scarcity of wa- governance: lack of effective political intelligence agencies need to be highly ter, the persistence of misguided mac- leadership; a weak bureaucracy; in- trained, adequately equipped, com- ro-economic policies, and the lack of ability to adhere to the rule of law, etc. manded and controlled in a profes- adequate access to vital services, such National Security in Africa should be sional and disciplined manner. They as health, food and shelter. Indeed, an integral part of political leader- need to establish effective mechanisms some of these problems have been ob- ship. for exchanging information and for served in conflict and war situations, Quality leadership incorporates re- coordinating responses, while main- but are they the underlying causes of flection and self-examination, a will- taining and respecting a clear division instability and insecurity or are they ingness to abandon old habits and of labor or roles and responsibilities. manifestations of deeper problems? make room for new ways of perform- Should ethnic differences be regarded ing, and the capacity to mobilize like- I conclude that national security in as a cause of insecurity and instabil- minded individuals or groups in order Africa hinges on what the political ity or do they become a problem only to make transformative change. It is leaders, governments, military estab- through the intervention of other this type of leadership that sets the lishments and the ordinary members variables? The UK has more African policies and environment in which the of the public do. Honest and respon- ethnic groups than any single African people can enjoy and enhance secu- sible governments are likely to consult country, but it does not experience the rity. Moreover, dealing with security experts, design viable national strate- political instability or the kind of inse- or terrorist threats and establishing gic plans, and generate appropriate curity that affects much of Africa. the appropriate conditions for peace conditions for peace and security. Dis- and order requires broad political le- honest, corrupt or irresponsible politi- I believe that terrorism, insecurity, and gitimacy and prestige. Unfortunately, cal leaders and governments are more political instability in much of Africa few African leaders command these likely to ignore expert advice, place are underpinned by one crucial factor, qualities. unqualified personnel in key positions, namely bad or poor governance. Poor and aggravate factional or partisan governance facilitates corruption, un- The concept of national security is national divides. A people centered dermines public trust, national unity embedded in norms, rules and insti- approach to national security has the and the effectiveness of public institu- tutions. If these values are in atrophy potential to diminish or to restrain tions, and adversely impacts the pro- or in a state of decay, national secu- these tendencies.

171 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN GODAN AIMS TO FILL CRITICAL KNOWLEDGE GAPS FOR SDG #2 Diana Szpotowicz, GODAN ustainable Development Goal #2 aims to achieve ‘zero hunger’ by achieving food security, improving nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture. Ini- tiatives focused on science, innovation and technology (STIs) play an increasingly vital role in ensuring the success of the goal’s outcome.

One such technologically-driven resource is the Global Open Data for Agriculture and Nutrition (GODAN) initiative, which shares ‘open data’ to make information about agriculture and nutrition available, accessible and usable to farmers, governments and organisations throughout the developing world.

The GODAN initiative is a voluntary association that was announced at the Open Government Partnership Conference in Oc- tober 2013 following G8 discussions in 2012. It is a rapidly growing group with over 160 partners from national governments, NGO and private sector organisations. Together, they cooperate to build a high-level of support for growing the volume of data generated by new technologies to benefit farmers and consumers.

Andre Laperriere, the Executive Director of GODAN, explains that ‘open data’ is “information that is available for anyone to use. There are some conditions to make it achievable, which is accessibility, meaning that it is easy to find, as well as usability, which means it should be in a format that allows users to make use of it.”

The ultimate purpose of ‘open data’ is for “all people -- be it government officials, CEOs, civil society leaders, farmers, and regular people alike -- to make enlightened

172 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN I’ve seen the potential of having accurate data. We sometimes have natural disasters that wipe out entire investments in the country. We had a disaster in 2008 where for three to six months farmers were unable to farm

decisions to improve their food and we used to before and make sure it ed,” he explains. nutritional situation through yield in- reaches those who need it.” creases, cost reduction and better dis- GODAN recently held a summit in tribution channels,” says Laperriere. “Through open data, we found that The Hague, Netherlands which ex- He adds that the idea of sharing countries, cities and organizations can plored how national policies and agri- knowledge is a centuries-old practice. better prepare to mitigate and if not cultural innovation can be enhanced “Even before the time of the com- possible, to adapt, to the effects of by different technologies such as sat- puter, there was a tradition of socie- climate change. Therefore, we can re- ellites and drones, with the aim that ties passing along knowledge from duce the negative impact of climatic their collected data can become ac- one group or village to another, and disasters that are becoming more fre- cessible to producers with even the from one generation to the next. Now quent these days,” he adds. smallest farms. GODAN is organizing this in a more One of GODAN’s most active part- systematic manner,” he says. ners is the Government of Kenya, It’s the use of these new technologies which practices a policy of open ac- that Laperriere says “brings addition- Some of the initiative’s partners in- cess and transparency through its al means to obtain more information clude the US Government, the UK’s Kenya Open Data Portal. and to share it with a broad range of Department for International Devel- people that would either wise be un- opment and the Open Data Institute. According to Casper Sitemba, the able to benefit from this ‘next step’ in GODAN is supported by a small sec- Director of Intergovernmental Rela- the food production progress.” retariat hosted by The Centre for Ag- tions in the Deputy President’s office riculture and Biosciences Internation- and the lead figure in his country’s He explains that “this is especially al (CABI) in Wallingford, UK. Any partnership with GODAN, the coun- important for Africa, where a lot of organization that supports ‘open ac- try is now in a better position to stimu- farmers manage very small farms and cess’ to agriculture and nutrition data late its production and better protect have limited economic means, was a is encouraged to join the network. its agricultural industries with ‘open result of which they generally can- data.’ His motivation to join the or- not afford the use of more advanced According to GODAN, closed or in- ganisation came from the idea that technologies as developed countries accessible data limits the effectiveness “data could play a key role in ensur- have.” of research and innovation in agricul- ing better incomes for the very poor tural and nutritional policies. The ini- in Kenya.” The GODAN team is now focused on tiative seeks to advocate for new and “I’ve seen the potential of having the upcoming Global Forum for In- existing ‘open data’ projects with a accurate data. We sometimes have novations in Agriculture in Durban, focus on agriculture and nutrition and natural disasters that wipe out entire where it will participate in a workshop aims to expand their wider use by the investments in the country. We had with African farmers in order to talk rural and urban poor. a disaster in 2008 where for three to about innovation in agriculture, with six months farmers were unable to a specific focus on Africa. Soon after, Laperriere says initiatives like farm,” he says. it will be advocating its role in con- GODAN are important because As a result, ‘open data’ is “good exam- tributing to the fight against climate “soon there will be three times more ple of a win-win-win position,” says change at the upcoming COP21 cli- people on the surface of the Earth Laperriere. mate change conferences in Paris. than there was 100 years ago. This “The government is in a better posi- means that in order for everyone to tion to increase agricultural produc- For further information on the GODAN ini- survive in good health, we need to tion, the private sector experiences tiative or to learn how to become a partner, collectively be able to produce much less losses through insurance cover- visit its website at www.godan.info or follow more food and much better food than age, and the farmer is better protect- it on Twitter at @godanSec

173 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN PICTORIALS ACTS IN THE WORLD!

The Executive Director of ACTS Dr Cosmas Ochieng, presents his credentials to the Kenyan Cabinet Secretary for Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Hon Amina Mohammed.

ACTS TO HOST THE ECOSYSTEM BASED FOOD SECURITY ASSEMBLY (EBAFOSA) SECRETARIAT AND TRUST FUND. The EBA for Food Security Assembly was formally es- To date, EBAFOSA National Branches and bureaus/sec- tablished during the 2nd EBA for Food Security Confer- retariats have been established in 35 African countries in ence (EBAFOSC 2), which took place from 30-31 July Eastern, Southern, Western and Central Africa. National 2015, at the UNEP headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya. The memberships are multi-stakeholder based: government two-day conference which was attended by 1200 del- ministries and agencies, private sector, universities and egates from across the African continent adopted the research institutes, civil society organizations, NGOs, EBAFOSA constitution as well as a Conference Declara- CBOs and farmer organizations. Besides the 35 national tion: The Nairobi Action Agenda on Africa’s Ecosystem branches, 7000 individuals and organizations have reg- Based Adaptation for Food Security. The Declaration istered as EBAFOSA members. Organizational members observes that EBA is essential for climate resilience, include private sector organizations, universities and re- ecosystem productivity, food security, job creation and search institutes, NGOs and CBOs. Individual member- value addition in Africa. The Assembly seeks to promote ship is also multi-stakeholder based. The Continental environmentally friendly approaches to food security Secretariat and Trust Fund have both been established and ecosystem health. The Assembly appointed ACTS and are operational at the African Centre for Technology to serve as interim Host Institution of the Assembly Sec- Studies (ACTS) retariat and its Trust Fund.

174 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Dr Cosmas Ochieng (ACTS) H.E. Rhoda Peace Tumusime, Commis- addresses the EBAFOSA delegates sioner for Agriculture, African Union Commission addressing delegates

Dr. Richard Munang (UNEP) addressing EBAFOSA delegates

175 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ACTS JOINS THE LAUNCH OF THE KENYA NATIONAL DATA FORUM The First National Forum on Sustainable Data for Development (NFSDD) in Kenya was convened at Laico Regency Hotel in Nairobi (August 28-29) under the auspices of Presidency through the Office of the Deputy President in collaboration with Local Development Research Institute (LDRI), Partnership for African Social and Governance Re- search (PASGR) and the Kenya Association of Manufacturers (KAM). The Forum emphasizes the domestication of the data revolution as a key step in accelerating the implementation of Kenya’s national development agenda. The Forum is organized around 5 Key Thematic Pillars and 4 Cross-Cutting Thematic Pillars. The 5 Key Pillars are based on the current focus of National Vision 2030: These are Education; Transport; Health Water & Sanitation; and Peace and Security. Each thematic pillar is led by co-chairs from Government, private sector, academia, research institutions and civil society. ACTS co-chairs the Pillar on Climate Change.

PILLAR CO-CHAIR ORGANIZATION/S 1 Agriculture Agriculture Transformation Team (ATT) /Ministry of Agriculture Equity Group Foundation Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) 2 Education Strathmore University Twaweza East Africa 3 Transport National Transport and Safety Authority (NTSA) Kenya Association of Manufactur- ers 4 Health, Water and Sanitation St. John Ambulance Weltel Inc. National Aids Control Council (NACC) Africa Population Health Research Center (APHRC) 5 Peace and Security National Intelligence Service (NIS) The Consulting House Kenya Alliance of Residents As- sociation (KARA) Cross-Cutting Thematic Pillars Cross-Cutting Thematic Pillars Cross-Cutting Thematic Pillars 1 ICT and Innovation ICT Authority Infonet Africa iHub Research Kenya ICT Network (KICTANET) 2 Inclusivity Nairobi Women’s Hospital & its Gender Violence Recovery Center Christian Blind Mission (CBM) National Gender and Equality Commission of Kenya 3 Financial Services Management Social Investments Focused Agenda (SIFA) Institute of Economic Affairs Intergovernmental Budget and Economic Council 4 Climate Change Climate Change Fund, National Treasury Africa Center for Technology Stud- ies (ACTS)

176 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN H.E. William Ruto, Deputy President of the Republic of Kenya arrives for the National Data Forum

Participants at the Kenya National Data Forum

177 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ACTS AT COP 21! ACTS and its partners convened a number of Side Events ment Institute (DIE): Speakers: Dr. Pieter Pauw (Ger- at the Global Climate Change Summit in Paris in Decem- man Development Institute) Dr. Clara Brandi, (German ber 2015. These included: Development Institute), Kennedy Liti Mbeva (ACTS), • Tackling Climate Change through Data and Commu- Dr. Anne Olhoff (UNEP Riso Centre), Manish Shrivas- nity Based Adaptation (Speakers: Dr. Cosmas Ochieng tava (TERI), Axel Olearius (GIZ) (ACTS), Mr. Jonas Osore (Office of the Deputy Presi- • Scaling Up Adaptation Action: Opportunities for dent, Kenya) and Martin Parr (Godan) Knowledge (Hosted by World Resources Institute • Climate Relevant Innovation Systems Builders (WRI) Speakers: Dr. Nambi Appadurai (WRI), Anand (CRIBs): How to Strengthen the UNFCCC Technol- Kumar (Development Alternatives), Fiona Percy ogy Mechanism (Speakers: Dr. Rob Byrne (University (CARE), David Jackson (UNCDF), Dr. Cosmas Ochieng of Sussex), Dr. Adrian Ely (University of Sussex), Mr. (ACTS) Jonah Osore, (Director of Policy and Research in the • Scaling Up Adaptation Action: Opportunities for Office of the Deputy President of the Republic of Ken- Knowledge (Hosted by World Agroforestry Centre ya), Dr. Heleen de Coninck (Radboud University), Dr. (ICRAF): Speakers: Dr. Dennis Garrity, Dr. Margaret Cosmas Ochieng (ACTS) Kroma (ICRAF), Dr. Lisa Duguma (ICRAF), Dr. Ed Bar- • Looking beyond Mitigation Targets: INDCs on finance, row (IUCN), Dr. Larwanou Mahamane (Africa Forest fairness and adaptation (Hosted by German Develop- Forum), Winnie Khaemba (ACTS).

Mr. Jonas Osore (Director of Research and Planning, Office of the Deputy President, Republic of Kenya), Dr. Cosmas Ochieng, (Executive Director, ACTS) and Mr. Martin Parr (GODAN) at the ‘Tackling Climate Change through Data and Community Based Adaptation’ Side Event at the Africa Pavilion in Paris.

Kennedy Liti Mbeva (ACTS) Winnie Khaemba (ACTS) speaks at a Side Event on INDCs tapes an interview at COP 21 jointly organized with the German Development Institute (DIE).

178 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ACTS HOSTS THE FIRST FORUM OF THE SCIENCE GRANTING COUNCILS INITIATIVE IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA ACTS hosted the first forum of the Science Granting their countries and across sub Saharan Africa. The initia- Councils Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa (SGCI) at the tive’s specific objectives are to strengthen the ability of Safari Park Hotel in Nairobi, Kenya on the 11th and 12th Science Granting Councils to: manage research; design of September, 2015. The SGCI is a 5-year initiative that and monitor research programs based on the use of ro- aims to support research and evidence-based policies bust science, technology and innovation indicators; sup- that will contribute to economic and social development. port exchange of knowledge with the private sector; and It is jointly funded by the United Kingdom’s Department establish partnerships with other science system actors. for International Development (DFID), Canada’s Interna- tional Development Research Centre (IDRC), and South The Forum was attended by more than 50 participants Africa’s National Research Foundation (NRF). The Initia- including 34 senior management representatives from tive works with Science Granting Councils and/or organ- 12 Science Granting Councils: Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, izations with similar mandates in order to enhance their Rwanda, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimba- ability to effectively support research and innovation in bwe, Burkina Faso, Cote D’Ivoire and Namibia.

Participants of the First Forum of the Science Granting Councils Initiative in Sub Saharan Africa.

Dr Stephen McGurk (IDRC); Ms Lisa Philips (DFID); Dr Beverly Damonse (NRF) and Dr Moses Rugutt (NACOSTI) during the opening ceremony of the First Forum.

179 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ACTS CONVENES A POLICY MASTERCLASS ON DATA SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT In collaboration with the University of Nairobi and the Artificial Intelligence Research Laboratory of Makerere Univer- sity, ACTS convened a Policy Masterclass on Data Science for Development in Africa on the 12th and 13th of October 2015. Dr Raymond Mugwanya of ACTS and Dr Fred Kiwanuka from the Artificial Intelligence Research Laboratory, Makerere University were the main resource persons.

Participants of the Data Science Policy Masterclass held at the School of Computing, University of Nairobi

ACTS CONVENES THE FIRST AFRICAN NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT POLICY MASTERCLASS The 1st African Nanotechnology for Development Policy Masterclass was successfully held at the University of Gond- ar, Ethiopia, 11-13 August 2015. The Masterclass was organised by ACTS in collaboration with the Kenya National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI) and the University of Gondar (UoG). It was attended by 65 participants from new and established universities in Ethiopia, Kenya and Nigeria as well as representatives from the African Union, UN Economic Commission for Africa and the Ethiopian Science Technology and Information Centre (STIC). Resource persons included: Prof Roger Brownsword, King’s College London, Dr Guillermo Foladori, Autonomous University of Zecatecas, Mexico, Prof Erastus Gatebe, Kenyan Industrial Research Development Insti- tute (KIRDI), Prof Teketel Yohanes, Addis Ababa University, Dr. Hailemichael Demissie (ACTS) and faculty from the University of Gondar.

180 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN 181 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN SUBMIT AN ARTICLE TO THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN!

The African Technopolitan is open to policy and research insights, analysis, commentary, opinions and other forms of relevant submission by scholars, policymakers, technocrats, bureaucrats and members of the public.

The African Technopolitan welcomes contributions that offer constructive, provocative and original ideas, analysis and commentary on how applications of science, technology and innovation can be harnessed to address Africa’s fundamental development challenges: enhancing agricultural productivity and food security; sustainable energy access for all; universal clean water access; sustainable biodiversity conservation and use; climate change adaptation and mitigation; industrial development; infrastructure and human resource development.

We invite submissions of not more than 3000 words from across academic disciplines and policy spheres. We are particularly interested in submissions that are multi or interdisciplinary, based on empirical work, advance original or alternative theories; and challenge conventional schools of thought on contemporary issues in science, technology and innovation policy research and practice in Africa.

Please send your submissions to: [email protected]

We look forward to publishing your article in the next Issue of the African Technopolitan!

182 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN ACTS DONORS AND PARTNERS

183 THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN Oﬀering customizable packages to suite your conferencing needs

Whatever the size of your meeting, our team takes care of every detail - from thoughtful room amenities to above-and-beyond service - so that you can focus your attention on hosting an impressive event.

For reservations contact our Reservations Oﬀice on Tel: +254 (02)808 0777/ +254 729 866 956/ +254 737 999 110 Email: [email protected] | www.prideinn.co.ke

THE AFRICAN TECHNOPOLITAN 184 PrideInn Hotels @PrideInnHotels & Conferencing