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2014
Standing-Up to the Politics of Comedy
Don Waisanen CUNY Bernard M Baruch College
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426
,_ Chapter 23 Standing-Up _to the Politics of Comedy
Don Waisanen Baruch College, City Universityof New York, USA
ABSTRACT
This study examines the discoursesof the U.S.'s JO top-earning comedians in 2009 and 2010 through systematic textualanalyses. Building from two prior case studies and workingtoward a communicative worldviewfor comedy as a pervasive mode of public communication, the results indicate that there are several generic clusters emerging across these acts involving rhetorics of optimism, uncertainty, individualism,and others. Marrydistinctive charocteristics in the comedians' messagesare also noted. Throughsuch practices, hwnoristsadvance a language with political significance-so this essay draws several connectionsand implicationsregarding comic discourses in public culture.
INTRODUCTION Overthe past decade, communication scholars have been at the forefront of these trends, critically Anyonewho makes you laughis alwaysdoing more analyzing the manifold dimensions and effects than just that. -Provenza& Dion, 2010, p. xvii. of humorous texts. Communication researcb,bas debated and explored the conventions and forms Across the spheres of entertainment. politics, and in mostly political comedy, including its potential beyond, we are living in an era inundated with to advance or undermine democratic discourses comedy. From sitcoms to YouTube parodies, the (Baym, 2005, 2007a, 2007b; Day, 2011; Feldman Internet, television, and other public forums are & Young, 2008; Gray, Jones, & Thompson, 2009; abuzz with comic discourses . Late-night programs Hariman, 2008; Hart &Hartelius, 2007; Hoffman like The Daily Show filter each day's events & Young, 2011; Holbert, 2005; Jones, 2005; La through a humorous lens, while paradoxically, marre, Landreville, & Beam, 2009; Meddaugh, political candidates are both mocked by and seek 201 O; Ffau, Cho, and Chong, 2001; Shifman, to appear on Saturday Night Live. Once a year, 2007; Smith & Voth, 2002; Xenos & Beck.er, even U.S. presidents are expected to go beyond 2009; Waisanen 2009, 201 lc, 2013). their State of the Union address .and perform a Researchers have also shown how varying stand-up comedy monologue to the nation. kinds of humor can be radical or conservative
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-5003-9.ch023
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(Christiansen and Hanson 1996; Greene 2008; does Politically Incorrect) ," scholars can track Thompson 2009), and function to both limit and how language teaches, preaches, and sensitizes liberate (Atakav 2010; LavQie2010; Lockyer and various audiences (Hart, 2000, pp. 8-10). These Pickering 2009; Lynch; 2002; White 2010) or comments echo recent calls for more standardized divide and unite audiences in their outlooks and analyses in humor research; as Hurley, Dennett, appeals (Meyer 1997, 2000). A next step in these and Adams (2011) note, "it would be mteresting efforts is to engage comic texts with wider, more to see if there are notable patterns discernible in systematicapproaches highlighting their common the history of humor creation, like the patterns anddistinctivefeatures(Waisanen,2011a, 2011b). we fmd in musical composition, poetry, etc.," Accordingly, my project seeks to expand discus raising two questions: "what progression (or even sions from emphases upon comedy in politics progress!) in style of content can be charted" and to a broader inquiry into the politics of comedy. "how important is structural or thematic novelty" Many people consider comedy nothing more in comedic texts (p. 277)? than lightheartedentertainment. From a communi As one set of authors has said, if politics is a cative perspective,however, there is much more to "struggleoveraltemativerealities,thenlanguageis these types of acts than passing judgments might the medium that reflects, advances, and interprets suggest.Park, Gabbooon,and Ch~min (2006) find, these alternatives" (Callaghan & Schnell, 2005, p. for example, that while comedy often privileges 2). At the same time, communication critics need readings of its content as harmless, its "generic to focus on structural rhetorical forms, or "certain conventions and textual devices" ·can sometimes ways of thinking, of viewing the world . .. that undermine reflective criticism and ''naturalize[s] are not necessarily implied by the substance of the racial differences" (p. 157). All forms of public discourse" (Hahn, 2003, p. 70). As such, unlike discourse are invitations t<;>.view the world in studies of explicitly political comedy, this article certain ways, and are thus inescapably suasive argues that comedy is already political through and political in focusing or deflecting various the symbols and structures comedians employ in phenomena from public attention (see Black, their performances. The organizing themes and 1970;Burke, 1969;Morris,2002;Wander, 1984). structures of comedy urge audiences to laugh, but The strategic engineering of modem comedy also to take on certain interpretive commitments. texts thus deserves attention that is more critical. Like Day (2011), I do not attribute causality to Indeed, jokes and argument forms share many isolated texts, but instead see the accumulation of features (Conley, 2004). Fine and Wood (2010) such discourses as warranting more comprehen also contend that "jokes and joke-telling serve sive investigation. complex political ends . . . . Humor, no longer a My project uses and rounds out the frame matter of amusement alone, becomes a topic of works and concepts developed from two prior, shared concern, a social problem" {pp. 299-300), exploratory individual case studies of Dennis just as stand-up comics create spaces of "social Miller and Joan Rivers (see Waisanen, 201 la, and cultural mediation" (Mintz, 1985, p. 78). 2011b) to chart a broader, more genre-focused · · As Hart (2000) argues, "when viewed rhe investigation of multiple prominent comedians. torically . . . politics becomes repositioned. It My explorations of Miller and Rivers lttl directly no longer involves just a set of power vectors to the following research question: what is com but also a relational grammar'' (p. 27). He even mon and distinctive across, and not simply within, statesthat "by taking campaign texts seriously different comedians' acts? Using DICTION, this and even by taking unserious texts seriously study will systematicallyexamine the converging temphasis added] (Jay Leno comes to mind, as and diverging discourses of the U.S.'s 10 richest
427 Standing-Up to the Politics of Comedy
comedians from 2009 and 2010, asking what examining comedians' political-communicative characteristics they· exhibit as contributions to. visions through more methodical language analy public culture. These individualswere drawnfrom sis. For this analysis, DICTION's advantage over Forbesmagazine's 2009 and 2010 lists ofAmer other programs is in not only comparing a group ica's top-earning comedians (Rose, 2009, 2010). of texts, but in juxtaposing how those texts are There are many criteria by which the comedians compared to the many other texts in its database, might have been selected, but I have cnosen to · whichholds the potential to generate internal (tex use income as at least-a partial indicator of these tual) and external (contextual) insights about the comedians'popularity orpublicprominence--that discoursesunder investigation.Lastly, in addition is, starting from the vantage point of those who to my previous studies' explanations about how could be considered "at the top of their game." the potentiallysub-textual orpolysemic meanings Transcripts were typed of every word spoken in of satirical or ironic language are still amenable the last stand-up comedy album (DVD or CD to this kind of analysis, it is worth pointing out format) to date for the following 10 top-earning a recent reception study, which found that even U.S. comedians: Bill Engvall(Berstein & Higby, if jokes are missed, audience members often still 2009), Chelsea Handler (Miller & Rickabaugh, "get the message" in comedic texts (Johnson, del 2008), Chris Rocle(Ca.llner & Gladstein, 2008), Rio, &_Kemmitt, 2010, p. 3%). Dane Cook (Cook et. al, 2009), George Lopez Similar to my two previous DICTION studies, (Jaramillo, 2009), Jeff.Dunham (Marmet, 2007), I fmd several distinct clusters emerging across Jeff Foxworthy (Williams & Foxworthy, 2004), these acts, in which the comedians largely project Jerry Seinfeld (Callner, i998), Larry the Cable rhetorics of optimism, uncertainty, and individual Guy(Higby&Bernstein,2007),andRussellPeters ism~among others. At the same time, numerous (Peters & Peters, 2Q08). distinctive characteristics of these discourses are Extended methodologicaljustifications forus aiso noted. Overall, I conclude that these com ingDICTION with specificallycomictexts can be municative themes and differences demonsttate found in Waisanen (2011a, 2011b), but there are stand-up comedy's strengths and weaknesses as some additional points worth making relative to a contribution to public discourse. As such, sev the current analysis. I would argue that stand-up eral connections and implications will be drawn comedy is one of the most fundamental arenas regarding the possibilities and limitations of this available .for analyzing trends in contemporary popular type of messaging. comedy. It is ttue that many comics come from backgrounds in other areas such as improv and sketch.But publicjoke-making is still at the root of RESULTSAND ANALYSIS most writing and performance in the U.S. comedy scene--whether in talk-shows, sitcoms, comedy Table 1 highlights the complete results from this films, speeches, or other forums. As an incred analysis. DICTION lists normal "low" (with ibly singular act, it is also the form of discourse a standard deviation of -1) and "high" (with a most likely to detail each comedian's personal standard deviation of+ 1) ranges for each variable rhetoric, as distinct from other texts that involve when comparing a text's features with general more collaborative performances. discursive norms (constructed froin a database As I have noted previously, communication of around 20,000 previously analyzed texts ui scholarship on public comedy has mostly studied contemporary discourse). To follow DICI1ON's audience effects or used interpretive readings of statistical procedures, but also to make explaIJa,, humorousartifacts (Waisanen ; 201la, 2011b ). This tions of what wasboth common and unique to the project finds an alternative to these approaches, comedians clearer, I assigned the values of verf
428 Standing-Up to the Politics of Comedy
Table 1. DICTION variables and rangesfor each of the 10 top- earning comedians
_.._ MffUII ...... c ...... _...__.. Lin)?!_-- CPlilGSM . ,~ ,. --•'!""9""" • ~-o.. --. ...• ...... _,...--, ;;.,7".;;. ;";"b-. .. ,:::.:::, , ~ -- °"·- •ilfaction.•PDfll -- --...... _., tR,1'1■11 I'""-=~- _ ..~.--__ .... CICl'ID9ffl, ..... h -· - ---·hun111tif--. ....· --_,,._-·- ·------· ------· ------, -- l'U..UV1 11',DIIII•, __, ...... ------...... ------,--__, ,---. ';;;.;;""- , __------~ - ·---· - 1N,;U\lt TY, 1 \Aitl!MCNAL..TI, - _,,.,,. ,.,,,..,, . -'Cu~, • o,,,,..,_ ,...,m,• - -••-n . COMIIC)-,,V. _.... AClMTY, -·- COllMOIW.ITY, --C0MIIONAUTY, --0011UOtUiU1Y, -'\CTMTY, COW 429 Standing-Up to the Polit/cs of Comedy the texts had been examined in an unsystematic outcomes," "natural disasters," and "incapaci fashion, however, this finding might not have ties" (p. 247). At the same time, terms of praise, become apparent. which are "affirmations of some person, group, or Optimism entails "language endorsing some abstract entity" (p. 247), all had medium to very person, group, concept or event or highlighting high scores (with Rock very high, Dunham and their positive entailments" in DICITON's (2000) Cook high, and the rest on medium). Aside from processing (p. 43). With a few exceptions high slight variations in the frequency of such terms lighted bytheregular (i.e.non-"master'') variables, across the comedians, the broad direction across the stand-up performances were filled with op most of these relevant variables was toward a timistic wording. As much·as comic acts might positiyely-inflected rhetoric. denigrate existing conditions, they also appear to Yet some qualifications should be noted. This be playfully focused on the "normative." That is, project concentrated on comedianswho are celeb as much as a comedy might critique problems, rities and financially well-off, so this optimism it also continually invokes the hope that things may be partially related to issues of class. It would could be better. Critics of comedy who see the be interesting to know if this optimism might form as wholly "cynical" have likely missed this hold for a group of struggling humorists. There other half of the comic equation, which would may also be distinctions worth parsing out further appear to comport with Booth's (1974) observa between what has been classically characterized tion that "affirming and denying are rhetorically as "Juvenalian" versus "Horatian" types of.satire. interchangeable. Every protest implies an affirma As Holbert et. al (2011) find, the former is a far tive ground for protest; {and] every affirmation more tragic, aggressive form of satire, while the implies many negations" (p. 195). latter connotes a lighter, less merciless approach In fact, all of the comedians scored very high to creating mirth. It could be the case the top co (except Cook and Peters, who scored a close medians implicitly pursue a horatian rather than "high") on the satisfactionvariable, or wordsdeal juvenalian form of satire to encourage the most ing with ''positive affective states," "moments of accepting·responses possible from broad audi~ undiminished joy," and pleasure, nurturance, and ences. Additionally, there was some noteworthy triumph (Hart, 2000, p. 247). Corresponding to variation along the blame variable. Partly, this this generally upbeat language throughout each of may be due to individual styles for "terms des the transcripts, levelsof denial terms unexpectedly ignating social inappropriateness," "downright only landed in the very low to medium ranges. evil," "unfortunate cin:umstances," "unplanned Dunham scored very low, Handler, Foxworthy, vicissitudes,'' and "outright denigrations" (Hart, · Cook, and Larry the Cable Guy (hereafter, LCG) 2000, p. 247). No one scored very low, and while scored low, andthe rest fit in themedium category Engvall and Dunham scored low on this category, for such words, which are marlcedby "standard Handler, Cook, andLCG were medium, Rock and negative contractions" and "negative function Lopez high, and Peters, Foxworthy,and Seinfeld words" (DICTION, 2000, p. 44). very high. This fmding suggests varying amounts Hardshipterms were also very low for Engvall, of denunciating language threaded throughoutthe Cook, Dunham, and Foxworthy, low for Handler, acts. Overall, I would argue that some of these Rock, Lopez, LCG, and Peters, and only medium results make further sense wherl' related to the for Seinfeld. Hardshipincludes words dealingwith next master variable finding. "censurable human behavior,"''unsavory political 430 Standing-up to the Politics of Comedy Perplexing Phenomena graspsof phenomena appear to be mostly bypassed by the comedians' very wordings. A second consistent, surprising finding across the Most of the comedians had very low tenacity results involves comedic uncertainty. Again, this terms (with the exception of Handler, Foxworthy, result confinns ageneralfindingfrommytwoprior Seinfeld, and Peters, who were merely low on case studies (Waisanen, 2011a, 2011b). All the this category-and Dunham, who had a medium comedians scored very low on the master variable score). These words document ''verbs connot[ing] certainty, except Lopez and Peters, who had close confidence and totality" (Hart, 2000, p. 246). low scores, and Rock, who landed in the medium Together with accomplishment terms, or "words range. Certainty centers upon "language indicat expressing task-completion" and "organized hu ing resoluteness, inflexibility, and completeness man behavior" (DICI1ON, 2000, p. 45), they and a tendency to speak ex cathedra" (DICTTON, were very low in the acts analyzed (apart from 2000, p. 42). Contrary to perspectives that might Lopez, Foxworthy, and Seinfeld on low and Cook see stand-up comedy as a monologic, dogmatic on medium). As also highlighted in Waisanen act, such high degrees of uncertain language use (201 lb), the transcripts evidenced what might be may indicate that, while comics pronounce and characterized as a discourse of "process" rather denounce, they generally do so with considerable than "product." Stand-up comedians take their hesitation and respect for the limits of human audiences on a tentative journey. But it is not a action. This finding makes sense when one con trip to a final destination or a discourse full of siders the tone of utter bafflement that permeates reified language. Instead, the comedy seems to comedic acts, suggesting that comedians largely serve largely expressive aims (see Gregg, 1971), find their world a puzzling place, one that their providing only qualified hope to the baffling humor struggles to make sense of and possibly nature of the present. placate. Rock's higher score on this variable might All the comedians had very low levels of in be expected given his trademark unrelenting and spiration terms, except for Seinfeld and Peters's indicting tone. Yet his having landed only in the low and Lopez's medium scores. These words medium range is still quite telling. focus on "abstract virtues deserving of universal Moreover, many of DICTION's regular vari respect" (DICTION, 2000, p. 44). Similarly, all ables support the uncertainty theme, with some the comics had very low uses of familiarity terms, caveats.Complexity wasone of only two variables with the exception of Cook's low and Seinfeld's in which every comedian fit within the same range. medium scores. Like inspiration, familiarity terms All scored very low on this calculated variable, constitute "the most common words in the English whichis "a simple measure of the average number language" (p. 46), spotlighting the comedians of characters-per-wordin a given input file" (DIC fairly idiosyncratic, simple word choices, and TION, 2000, p. 47), promoting Flesch's (1951) their general avoidance of standardized terms or notion ''that convoluted phrasings make a text's adherence to orthodox cultural language patterns. ideas abstract and its implications unclear'' (DIC A few unique qualities emerged in the results, TION, 2000, p. 47). The comedians used simple however. The range of scores on ambiva\_ence terms, likely fueled by the need to translate or terms, "expressing hesitation or uncertainty, mainstreammessages for broad audiences. Clarity implying a speaker's inability or unwillingness is necessary to "getting" setups and punch lines. to commit to the verbalization being made" (DIC Yetcomplexity also relare·sto the uncertainty find TION, 2000, p. 43) went from low to high (with ingin highlighting how more complex, conceptual the majority on medium, Engvalland Foxworthy on very high, Peters on high, and Lopez on low). 431 Standing-Up to the Politics of Comedy In total, each act reveals much uncertain wording. Ego-Driven.scope but the degree ofhedging and restraint throughout the acts may bear some stylistic variations, indicat Individualism constituted a third area around ing that stand-ups like Lopez, for instance. may which the results largely .clustered. Similar to the be slightly less likely to deflate the force of their resultsfromWaisanen(2011a,2011b), this theme claims. Greater deviations are evident in leveling resulted as much from anti:.social as individualistic terms, which "ignore individual differences and words. All of the comedians scored very high on build a sense of completeness and assurance" (p. self-reference terms, except Lopez, who was in 42) (Dunham scored very low. Handler. Rock, the ·close high range. These words are "all first Lopez, Foxworthy low. and Seinfeld. Peters, person references" (Hart, 2000, p. 247). In one Engvall medium; but Cook scored high and LCG sense, the very self-driven, singular performance very high). While the master variables tend to be of stand-up can be related to this approach. The more telling than the individual variables about self-referen~e variable also provides a reliable the general lack of certainty across the comedians. indexing "whereby the locus of action appears to in some cases comics appear to be more totalizing reside in the speaker and not in the world at large and resolute than others. (thereby implicitly acknowledging the speaker's The same conclusion might be reached from the limited vision)" (p. 247). The individualism theme insistence calculated variable results (the majority has political implications; as comic messengers scored low. with Engvall on. very low, Rock oil view the world's events thrqugh perspectives that medium. and Peters on high). DICTION assumes do not appear to go far beyond their own. on this dimension that a "repetition of key terms All the comedians scored very low on cen indicates a preference fora limited. ordered world" trality words (except Lopez, who scored low), (Hart, 2001, p. 50). At the same time, numerical which denote "institutional regularities and/or terms, which involve "any sum. date, or product substantive agreement on core values" (DIC specifying the facts in a given case" (DICTION, TION, 2000, p. 43) (a finding that also relates 2000. p. 43) and generally "hyper:.specify a claim. to the uncertainty theme). On this characteristic, thus detracting from its universality" (p. 43) pro stand:.up comedians tend not to observe typical duced only medium scores for the majority of the cultural or organizational patterns. eschewing comics (except Engvall, Cook, and Seinfeld, who outside sources of authority . At the same time, scored low). the individualism theme was supported by every Generally, while the 10 top-earning U.S. co comedian scoring very low ( except Dllllham and medians tend to maintain a critical positivity, this Engvall. whowerelow)oncollectivewoids, which positivity is characterized by a perplexed orienta- . "reflect a dependence on categorical modes· of tion. These comics sustain a hopeful rhetoric. but thought" (Hart, 2000. p. 246). it's a short-term, non-dogmatic. procesNlriven Furthermore, on cooperation words, "des commibnent that finds much of life mystifying ignating behavioral interactions among people and bemusing. At least in these cases. and given that often i;esult in a group product" (DICTION. the world's problems. comedy creates a temporary 2000, p. 48), all the comedians scored low (with shelter, afield of vision offering hope in individual Engvall and Peters on very low). Coe-structing perceptions. The next theme emerging from the a worldview grounded in the self's visions and results further reveals these connections among demands, most of the comedians scored lo~ (with uncertainty, optimism, and other findings. Dunham, Engvall, and LCG scoring very low• . 432 Standing-Up to the Politics of Comedy and Lopez medium) on the rapport variable that the dynamics of the art form. Comedians invite covers "terms of affinity," "assent," "deference," audiences to inhabit their fun-filled worlds, but "identity," and "attitudinal similarities among there are limited social spaces as trends in the groups of people" (DICTION, 2000, p. 48). On next section detail. communication terms, referring to "social inter action, both face-to-face ... and mediated," and Material Concern general modes of social intercourse (DICTION, 2000, p. 45), most of the comedians fit in the In a number of ways, the results provide some evi medium range, with Engvall, -Cook, Handler, .dence that ~omedians have moderate similarities and Lopez scoring low. Overall, these findings and differenceson rhetorical realism. The realism suggest that the top comedians skirted social and master variable describes "the tangible, imme collective emphases across their acts. diate, recognizable matters that affect people's Generally,this finding bears atelationship with everyday lives" (DICTION, 2000, p. 46), and the uncertainty theme. The discourses manifest a the transcripts demonstrated an even spread from comic optimism about each performer's immedi- - medium to very high on this quality (Engvall, ate sphere of influence. But beyond the self, the · Dunham, Rock, and LCG came in medium, Han material and social world were crafted as sites dler and Foxworthy landed in the high range, and for uncertainty and puzzlement. That the spatial very Cook, Lopez, Seinfeldand Peters very high). variable, which spotlights terms dealing with ge By and large, the discourses were skewed toward ography,distance, and measurement (DICTION, tangibility-particularly on human interest terms I 2000, p. 46), mostly ranged from very low to focusing "on people and their activities giv[ing] medium in the acts speaks volumes in this regard discourse a ~like quality" (DICTION, 2000, (withEngvall, Handler, and Seinfeld scoring very p. 47), where everyone scored very high (except low, Rock, Cook, Lopez, and Foxworthy low, and Engvall andLCG, who werein the medium.range). LCG and Peters medium). Referrals or extrapola In general. comedy is close to the human tionsto other places and spaces could not compete lifeworld,stressing a phenomenologicallanguage against a plethora of self-driven terms (see also parallel to the individualismtheme (see Waisanen, Waisanen, 2011a, 2011b). 201 la, 201 lb). The comics' agent-centeredrheto On the master variable commonality, or ric remained close to human experience, with all "language highlighting the agreed-upon values rating relatively high on present-concern terms of a group and rejecting idiosyncratic modes of (most of the comedians rated very high, except engagement"(Hart, 2000, p. 250), however,every Engvall, Foxworthy, and LCG, who were me comedian landed in the medium range. Given dium, and Handler and Dunham with a close high the nuances demonstrated in many of the regular score)--or "present-tense verbs'' corresponding variablesabove, I would argue that the ego-driven to "general physical activity,""social operations," scopeofthetop-earningcomedians' humoris best and •'taskperformance" (DICTION, 2000, p. 46) constructed from these elements, showing how taken together,thesefmdings suggestthat comedy theirrhetorics are mostly aligned with individual is quite focused on immediate, topical matters. ism. Still, this finding might be reconciled with Yet when some of the other regular variables how stand-ups perform before live, immediate are considered individually,some unique charac audiences, whose very presence is necessary to teristicsemerge between the texts.On concreteness the laughter and popularity of their acts. At least terms, Rock, Cook, and Peters scored very low, some common ground should be expected in Handler and Dunham low, Lopez, Foxworthy, Standing-Up to the Politica of Comedy Seinfeld. and LCG medium. and Engvall high. Cook scored low on this variable (and Handler, This variable is derived from "a large dictionary Dunham, Seinfeld, and Peters medium) could possessingno thematic unity other than tangibility indicate an inclination for more present-focused, and materiality" (p. 47). With the variety variable, premise-based comedy. which "divides the number of different words in a One other result is worth consideration. Com passage by the passage•s total words,ttsuggesting edy writer Mel Helitzer ( 1987) explains that all "a speaker's avoidance of overstatement and a humor is grounded in a relationship between real preference for precise, molecular statements" (p. ism and·exaggeration. In essence. comedy must 43), some diversity became apparent (Handler, alwaysbegin in truths or reality and then be bent or Rock, and Peters scored very low, Lopez low, distorted in "a transition from sense to nonsense" Foxworthy medium, Seinfeld and LCG high, and (p. 190; see also Waisanen, 2013). It may be true Engvall, Cook, and Dunham very high). that, as Berger(1997) notes, "the comic conjures Juxtaposed against DICTION's database of up a separate world, different from the world of comparative texts. comedians like Handler, Rock, ordinary reality" (p. xHut this study suggests and Peters are perhaps slightly more partial to that comedians also have robust concerns for the overemphasis, while some of the others may turn world of here and now. That the embellishment to more exacting rhetoric. Of course, tangibility variable evidenced medium scores for a major and precision are two different concepts-one ity of the comics (with Lopez and LCG low on suggesting palpability and the other accuracy this category) may further indicate that, as much and further possible subdivisions continue in this as comedians might exaggerate or take flights regard when one considers that Cook and Dunham of fancy, there is a strong language of realistic both scored in the lower ranges on concreteness, analysis present, at least more than is typicall} but very high on variety terms. assumed when comedy is inappropriately as a Toe other time-focused variables (apart from "non-serious" discourse. present-concern) suggest further differences among the comics. Temporal terms "fix a person, Discursive Movement idea. or event within a specific time interval. thereby signaling a concern for concrete and prac On variables dealing with action, force, and other tical matters" (Hart, 2000, p. 249). While Peters functional processes, the results tended to skew landed low on this score, Engvall, Handler, Rock, from very low to medium, though with a few Dunham, Foxworthy, Seinfeld, LCG, and Cook important caveats. As indicated by the activity were all medium, and Lopez very high. Consid master variable, or "language featuring move ered in conjunction with terms of past concern, ment, change, the implementation of ideas and which describe "the past-tense forms of the verbs the avoidance of inertia" (Hart, 2000; p. 247), contained in the Present Concern dictionary" (p. the comedians mainly landed within the medium 249), these words may index different preferences range (most scored medium, with Peters sconng for storytelling (i.e. over past experiences), pro very low, Handler low, and Dunham high). While viding some indication that comic groupings can most of the regular, individual variables spotlight form around temporal discourses. Since Engvall, further individual variations, the on~ very clear LCG, and Foxworthy (the three comedians of the fmding was almost all of the comedians• very "blue-collar" comedy movement) had the lowest high motion terms (except for Peters, who scoffl2 scores on present concern terms, it is notable that only medium), "connoting human movement,~ they all scored high or very high on the past con "physical processes," "journeys," and "mode$ cern variable (along with Rock and Lopez). That of transit" (Hart , 2000, p. 248). While stand-lit 434 Standing-Up to the Politics of Comedy is quite focused on the human lifeworld an~ im CONCLUSION mediate matters, this finding may illustrate how comedy tends to employ language with some Comedy is often characterized as an incredibly active qualities. On the other hand, that Peters elusive form of communication. As a type of scored very low and medium on the two forego discourse permeating contemporary life, com ing terms may imply that his performances are munication scholarship has a role to play in more contemplative and philosophically-inclined countering this assumption. The results of this than the others. project demonstrate that beyond needed audience In fact, Peters was the only comic to score very effects research or interpretive, close readings, high on cognition terms: ''cerebral processes, both systematic textual analyses can provide another functional and imaginative" or "forms of intellec important tool for pinning down some general tion: intuitional . .. rationalistic .. . and calcula aspects of modem comedy. In this spirit, there are tive (DICTION, 2000, p. 45). Some correlation a number of points suggested by these findings. between Dunham's very low, Rock, Foxworthy, Fll'St, the question of whether humorous com and Seinfeld's low, and Engvall, Handler, and munication is an art or science has been subject to Cook's medium scores on cognition words and the much speculation both among comic insiders and master activity terms is also evident. Dunham's outsiders (see Cook, 2010). This project answers high activity and very low cognition terms could this question with a resounding "both." There; indicate an opposite orientation to Peters-i.e . were clear, often unexpected, demarcations in a language that is moving but less intellectual. I the results evidencing general comic orientations found similar variations between Joan Rivers's toward optimism, uncertainty, and individualism, low intellectual terms (Waisanen, 20llb) and and to certain extents, realism and action. There Dennis Miller's relatively high use of such words are clearly generic patterns in comedy that can be (201 la) (Miller also appeared to have increased tracked, while recognizing that on some dimen his usage of these terms over time). At the same sions, a humorist's rhetoric can have distinctive time, while the comedians' discourses tend to be characteristics bypassing more regularized types assertive,they are mostly not aggressive(matching of analysis. This study thus adds to my previous the optimismtheme). A majority of the performers DICTIONprojectsoncomedy(Waisanen,2011a, scoredlow on aggression terms that relate to "hu 2011b)moregenre~basedunderstandingsofstand mancompetition and forceful action," and features up as a form of public communication. such as "social domination" and "goal direction" Differentthan whatmanypeoplemightexpect , (DICTION, 2000, p. 45) (except Engvall, Cook, humor is still a relatively undeHheorizeddomain. and Dunham on very low, and Seinfeld and LCG When one reflects on what makes something on medium). funny, scholarly and lay theories have typically Overall, despite the cluster around motion only been able to account for some examples of terms, this area had the greatest divergences humor but not others (Hurley,Dennett, & Adams, comparedwiththeresultsfortheothermastervari 2011). This project shows that at least some pat ables. While a number of other sub-themes could terns or clustered ways of viewing the world can l be discussed, these trends constitute the primary be unearthed through communication research findings emerging from the results. To narrow focusing on comic data. Since DICTION deals this analysis further, I conclude with several key with "natural data . . . political messages occur implicationsarising from this continued project. ring in real space and time in the phenomenal world-it [also]resists the severalcontaminations necessarily part of experimental, and even survey, 435 Standing-Up to the Politics of Comedy research" (Hart, 1985, p. 101)," ultimately hold A relationship between comic optimism and ing in front of us the "intriguing possibility of uncertainty also surfaces in Charland's (1994) beating the professional wordsmith at a game he observation that "rhetoric becomes the comic or she did not know was being played" (p. 122). art necessary for the continuation of civic life in Toward this end, future research could also use the face of the tragic worldly order of necessity. other computer programs to explore what comic Rhetoric, always optimistic, would emerge out language looks like via data visualizations, word of the recognition of human finitude" (p. 339). links, concept mappings, etc. Yet factors involving observational exactness, Second, the politics of comic discourses invite the possibilities for human agency and action, or some scholarly revision. Contrary to perspectives other stylistic preferences appear to vary across that cast a pejorative light on comedy as neces such acts. Additionally, as Holbert et. al (2011) sarily negative, dogmatic, or mired in groupthink, highlight, there is still much work to do in pars this project outlines how there actually tend to be ing out the features and effects of different types high degrees of critical optimism, uncertainty, of comedy, which are unlikely to be monolithic. and independence across such texts (results also Given these results, it is interesting that Burke reflected in Waisanen, 2011a, 2011b). At least (1969) connects rhetoric focusing on "agents" in the 10 cases examined here, comedy's politics with a general philosophy of "idealism.''. At the introduces audiences to an agent-centeredpara same time, the assertive (but not aggressive), digm, where individuals orient themselvesto the non-dogmatic optimism threaded through these world in a puuled but criticallyhopeful manner, comic acts parallels Burke's argument that a carving out tentative,humanist comic spacesfor comic frame "is neither wholly euphemistic, nor sharedlaughteroverhowthingscouldbebetter.It wholly debunking" (Burke, 1984, p. 166), aiming is a rhetoric of means rather than ends, of journey to "shatter one system of pieties, or frame[s] of and process rather than destinations. reference, [while] they ready audiences/viewers In essence, this study finds with Berger (2011) for another'' (Demo, 2000, p. 152). Similarly, that ''the world of comedy is the world of free ''for Burke, a comic frame does not mean seeing dom-of chance and coincidence, while the world humor in everything but refers to an open and of tragedy is one of determinism-as the tragic balanced critical stance" (Thompson & Palmieri, figures move towards their inevitable destruc~ 1993, p. 276). tion .... Comedy, then, is optimistic [emphasis Third, at least in the cases studied here, com added]" (p. 114). Previously,. Morreall (2009) edy may be less than reformist in its degrees of hinted at a relationship between comic optimism uncertain and process-oriented rhetoric. Stand-tip and normativity in describing how, "humour can comedy is seen by scholars like Campbell (2011) be beneficial .. . by promoting critical thinking," as a "modality of 'justice,"' where comedians especially as regards "a discrepancy between "master a repertoire oflinguistic and performative what people should be and what they are" (p. techniques that unsettle and disturb any assumed · 74). Given this study's fmdings, it is not the case correspondence between signifier and signified.,· that comedy is necessarily about "the social" (p. 165), inviting confrontations with received while tragedy is.about "the individual" (Berger, stereotypes and opinions. By all appearances, 2011,p. 115), Thus,morecriticalpausemightbe the transcripts I studied illustrated a larlguage shown with work assuming humor to is an avenue . eschewing received or common, institutionalized to cohesion and interpersonal development (see patterns of thinking. To the extent that popular Graham, 1995). forms of stand-up comedy ask their audiences to only inhabit ttieir comic spaces, temporarily, the 436 Standing-Up to the Politics of Comedy need for critical political judgments and more teria like humorousstyles, intent, audiencereach, policy-orientedthinking may be held in abeyance etc. seemwarranted for future work. That only one (see Waisanen,2011b). Then again, as an artifact femalecomedian who was present in the 2009 and of samplingthe 10richest U .S. comedianswho are 2010 top-earninglists also invites further inquiry mostlynot addressingspecifically political issues, into more diverse comedic demographics.While it might be expected that much of their wording focusing on words provided important insights would be more positive and less reformist. into the organization and emphases of modem A related challenge is that rising above hu comedy,it constitutedonly one way of analyzing man embeddedness to comment on the world the texts. Researchers should also combine this more theoretically or conceptually-as in more type of methodologywith performativecriticism "cosmopolitan communication" practices, for examiningthe embodied, contextual, and visual example (Pearce, 2007, p. 161)-is bypassed in dimensionsof such acts. Overall, systematic ap these rhetorics. Wilkie and Saxton (2010) argue proaches to comedy will continue to be useful that "comedians draw their audience into a world because,as Hart (2000)reminds us, ·"people have that is rooted in the moment" (p. 25). Grounded scant ability to monitor their individual language in adult-child interactions,comedy is entrenched decisions ... have no ability to monitor their pat in a young person's inability to work with "ideas terns of language choice," but most of all, "think and concepts remote in time and space" (p. 24). that they have. considerable control over such ; In other words, this is a language highly situated matters"(p. 35). within particular human settings, and that can be The comic imagination is a needed contribu both its benefit and its cost (a point also identified tion to public discourse. The successes of con in Waisailen,"201lb). temporarycomedians should not prevent us from In particular, the lack of complexity and rela surveyingcomic rhetorics with meticulousread tively individualistic visions on display in these ings, however.Their very words invite audiences texts·appearto constructlittle spacefor social rela to orient themselves to their material and social tions beyond the immediacy of the joking forum, worlds with common, or uncommon, political thereby forgoizl:gmore multifaceted approaches attitudesand positions. In the end, comedy is but to public engagement-and possibly advancing one type of communicationthat might be chosen the very uncertainty underlying these texts. In among many others-a point explored in greater other words, if all-that can be known is oneself, depth in Waisanen (2013). If, as Sanders (1995) what else is there to bold on to? As some have suggests,"very little distinguishes us from other noted previously, it is telling that many people animals, finally, except language and laughter" find stand-up comedy "to be both fundamentally (p. 5), research should continueto track how con democraticand deeply dictatorial" (Quirk, 2010, figurations of both bring unique communicative p. 121). Perhaps, then, there are paradoxes in visions to the public arena. these types of discourses that can be parsed out in further close readings. This project made a broad inquiry into the ACKNOWLEDGMENT 't discoursesof the most popular U.S. comedians as Dleasuredby income. 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