The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period1

Research Paper The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period1

Nirinthorn Mesupnikom2 Institute of East Asian Studies, Thammasat University

Abstract

This paper explores the role of Japanese local governments in implementing international activities, from the Meiji Restoration to the post-war period, by focusing on the factors that have driven Japanese local governments to play a proactive role in implementing international activities and the linkage with the Meiji Restoration period (1868-1912). The theory of “Paradiplomacy” by Alexander Kuznetsov (2015) is applied in the analysis of this research. Based on documentary research and field interviews, this study found that during the Meiji period, the centralized system of government firmly restricted the role of Japanese local authorities in the domestic and international arenas. However in the post-war period, local governments in Japan have been playing a critical role in building multi-layered and friendly international relations in a wide range of fields, fostering mutual international understanding, developing relationships of trust, and promoting Japan’s “brand”. There are four important factors that drive the increasing role of Japanese local governments in implementing international activities: (1) the nation’s constitution and laws; 2) the supportive policies of the central government; (3) economic and social issues; and (4) historical linkages. The legacy of historical linkages from the Meiji restoration period has become a criterion of some Japanese local governments for establishing relations with foreign countries. This can be found in the case of Kusatsu and Beitigheim-Bissingen in Germany; Fukui and New Brunswick in the United States of America; and Yokohama in Scotland. This article fulfills the study of the role of Japanese local governments in implementing international activities in the modern Japan, mainly focusing on the post-war period.

Keywords: local governments, international activities, post-war, Meiji restoration, driving factors, paradiplomacy

1 This article is part of the research project entitled “Thailand-Japan Relations at the Local Level: Status and Future Possibilities,” supported by the Thailand Research Fund. It was first presented at the Asia Past and Present: Graduate and Early Career Researcher Conference, September 29, 2018 at the National University of Singapore. 2 Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]. 41 วารสารญี่ปุ่นศึกษา Japanese Studies Journal

1. Introduction are not only the exchange of culture and Japanese local governments have language, but also other projects which played an increasingly important role in foreign provide more tangible benefits such as urban affairs, especially in the post-World War II development, environment, health, problem- era. According to Purnendra Jain (2005), in the solving in local communities, etc. Japanese beginning of the post-war era (the 1950s-60s) local governments had increasingly begun Japan’s international activities were mainly to establish international exchange associa- focused on international exchanges to develop tions in their respective prefectures. Japanese sister-city relations. The objectives were to local authorities claimed this initiative as their establish friendships and mutual understanding, role in fulfilling the cultural diplomacy of and to promote international peace through the state. Moreover, Japanese local govern- language and culture exchange activities for ments participated in the Official Develop- youth, including symbolic activities such as ment Assistance (ODA) hosted by the Japan the exchange of local executive official visits. International Cooperation Agency (JICA). In the 1970s, the number of sister-city affili- Through this cooperation, supportive organi- ations had increased. International activities zations were established to assist Japanese within sister-city relations not only focus on local governments in the implementation of youth exchanges and exchange of official international activities such as the Council of visits, but also other activities which were not Local Authorities for International Relations officially included in the sister-city relations (CLAIR), international exchange associations, such as international development cooperation and information centers. Importantly, CLAIR and international assistance. In response, was established in 1988 in order to provide some Japanese local governments began information, consultation, and services to establishing international exchange associations assist local Japanese governments to facilitate in their own prefectures during this period. international activities. (CLAIR, n.d.) (Jain, 2015) From the late 1990s until the present, The 1980s were coined as “the era of the number of sister-city affiliations has locality” as most of Japanese local governments increased steadily and has spread across had become strongly linked with foreign many regions around the world. According to countries. (Jain, 2015) The number of sister-city CLAIR’s May 2019 statistics, local govern- affiliations had continued to increase and ments in Japan have established sister-city Japanese local authorities strategically imple- relations with cities in 70 countries around mented international activities. International the world for a total of 1,749 affiliations. activities implemented under sister-city relations These numbers are divided as follows: 165

42 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom affiliations with prefectures, 1,240 affiliations organizations to support international activities with cities, 40 affiliations with wards, 265 have also been established in local areas. In affiliations with towns, and 39 affiliations addition, local governments have cooperated with villages. with the central government, academic The international activities of some institutions, business groups, international local governments have focused more on organizations, non-governmental organizations issue-based cooperation, especially within the (NGOs), and citizens to operate international economic dimensions such as trade, invest- activities. Most local governments have even ment, and tourism, aiming to gain mutual published information about their locality’s economic benefits. At the same time, other international activities in foreign languages, international networks were established for especially English. important multilateral relations, such as the In the post-war period, the role of Tokyo Metropolitan Government in collabo- these international activities have evolved ration with the Seoul Metropolitan Govern- each decade from diplomatic symbolism under ment, and the Delhi Metropolitan Government sister-city relations (friendship-oriented establishment of the Asian Network of 21 model) in the early post-war era to various Major Cities (ANMC21)3 in 2001. Some activities (issue-based cooperation) that local governments also set up overseas branch have represented strategic engagement in the offices, including the Tokyo, Fukuoka and present (Jain, 2005). Japan has become one Mie prefectures, to pursue benefits, typically of the most active countries in the world in economic, abroad. Some local governments paradiplomatic activities. have sent their staff to work abroad to gain Why have local governments in Ja- international experience and new perspectives. pan increasingly implemented international Japanese local governments have created activities in the post-war period? In order to international affairs divisions to focus on the fully understand this evolution of the role of implementation of international activities, and Japanese local governments, it is necessary international exchange associations in response to examine the factors that have driven the to internationalization in local communities. Japanese local governments to play a greater Information centers and other types of role in international activities. Moreover, the

3 The Asian Network of Major Cities 21 (ANMC21) is an international network of Asian capital and major cities, undertaking joint projects on common tasks regarding crisis management, environmental countermeasures, and industrial development, as well as strengthening the status of the Asian region in the international arena. Member cities include Bangkok, Delhi, Hanoi, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Seoul, Singapore, Taipei, Tomsk, Ulaan Baatar, and Yangon.

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Meiji era (明治 Meiji)4 in Japan’s history was 3. Research Methodology a period of many reformations in terms of 3.1) Data collection economy, society, politics, and administration. This research used two main qualitative It was the beginning of modern Japan and methods of collecting relevant data: 1) from was the foundation for many important major sources such as websites, books, developments .Another question is whether academic journals, government official the establishment of international activities documents, and other related documents; and at the local level during the post-war period 2) in-depth interviews with representatives can be linked to the Meiji restoration period. of Japanese Prefectural Government, namely This research aims to address both questions. Fukui and Fukuoka, and experts from an academic institution. 2. Objectives 3.2) Data analysis This paper has two objectives: To answer the above objectives, this 2.1) To examine the factors that have paper employs the conceptual framework driven Japanese local governments to play a of “Paradiplomacy” by Alexander Kuznet- greater role in the international activities of sov (2015), which systemizes the existing modern Japan. theoretical and empirical knowledge on 2.2) To explore the local level legacy paradiplomacy, for analysis of the collected international activities from the Meiji restora- data. tion period. According to Kuznetsov, paradiplomacy means the involvement of local actors in international affairs. This is a growing phe- nomenon in many countries around the world. To analyze paradiplomacy, it is essential

4 The word “Meiji” is translated into English as “Enlightened Rule”. The emperor took the name Meiji as his reigning name. Beginning in 1868, the Emperor’s power was restored to the supreme position after the previous power of government fell into the hands of the Shogunate for hundreds years. The great Emperor Mutsuhito had governed this era until his death in 1912. Under the rule of Emperor Mutsuhito and his government, effort was made to modernize the country to the same standard as western countries in an attempt to defend against foreign influence, which led to many reformations. Important operations were acceptance of Western knowledge, strengthening the military, industrial revolution, political institution reform, and infrastructure development. In this era, Japan was able to change its status from an agricultural developing country to a heavy industry country. It had strong armies, rising up as a military empire, with the highest level of economic development in Asia. Educational opportunities were varied and Japanese society improved overall.

44 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom to consider the following issues: international activities than do non-democratic 3.2.1) The Causes of Increased countries. Paradiplomacy Fourth, the domestication of foreign Kuznetsov explains that the policy and internationalization of domestic increase of paradiplomacy is due to both politics have led to an overlap between external and internal factors. External factors domestic policy and foreign policy. This are detailed as follows: directly impacts the scope of local governments’ First, globalization has essentially reach, influencing many to establish an eroded international borders in terms of their international agenda. economic, social, and cultural dimensions. It Fifth, the central government is also has encouraged local actors to pursue inefficient in its implementation of interna- economic opportunities abroad. tional affairs. Some local governments actually Second, Kuznetsov cited Michael have more knowledge and experience in Keating who provided a comprehensive this regard because many local problems are analysis of regionalization in three main related to global problems, such as climate facets: change, environmental conservation, and • As state policies (top-down sustainable development. As the central policies) that require local governments to government has failed to demonstrate political participate in the design and implementation willingness and leadership to solve these of national strategies to increase national and problems, paradiplomacy has emerged in economic status. response. • As regional or local policies Sixth, the asymmetry of constituent (bottom-up policies) that require more political, units and lack of equal economic growth in economic, and cultural power. each locality has driven local governments • As policies of both central to seek opportunities in markets outside the and local governments that address various country. Paradiplomacy, then, becomes a challenges and seek opportunities in the supplementary mechanism for the economic changing world economy. development of local governments. Third, many countries have Seventh, the role and political transitioned to democracy (democratization). ideology of local leaders and political parties. As the implementation of paradiplomacy Eighth, sharing a common border requires decisions and participation from or geographical proximity can influence local many sectors, local governments in democratic governments to determine their main mission countries have more opportunities to conduct in collaboration with their neighboring countries. 45 วารสารญี่ปุ่นศึกษา Japanese Studies Journal

3.2.2) The Prominent Motives It can be seen that Alexander First is the economic motive to Kuznetsov’s conceptual framework of receive maximum benefits from the world’s “Paradiplomacy” provides factors by which liberal market atmosphere by interacting with the growth of paradiplomacy in Japanese foreign actors. local governments can be analyzed. The Second is the incentive to cooperate analysis does not only address the causes and with foreign actors who have a similar cultural motivations of increased paradiplomacy, and linguistic identity. but also the relevant legal characteristics, Third, paradiplomacy addresses including the attitude of the central government the political goals of increased authority and towards paradiplomatic activities in the autonomy. international arena. Fourth is the desire of local governments to solve cross-border problems 4. Literature Review that occur regularly, such as environmental This section examines literature issues, transportation, emergency management, related to the international activities of and migration. These major problems affect Japanese local governments. people living in local areas and can cause • Motivations of Japanese Local negative impacts across international borders. Governments 3.2.3) The Legal Grounds Purnendra Jain (2005) argues that the To analyze paradiplomacy, it is motivation of Japanese local governments in necessary to examine national constitutions pursuing sister-city relationships is diverse, and other legal acts that outline the authority as is suggested by the broader purpose of local governments in the operation of and geographic reach of these relation- international relations. This includes mechanisms ships. Economic motivation stems from local that regulate the interactions between central governments’ limited budget allocations from and local governments and the provisions that the central government and their interest in allow local governments to create international developing economic opportunities for their treaties. own localities. Increasing trade opportunities 3.2.4) The Attitude of the Central independent of the national government is a Government primary motivation of paradiplomacy. Jain The analysis of the central govern- also mentions other factors that influence ment’s attitude towards paradiplomatic action the formalizing of local-level linkages into of local governments is important as it can sister-city relationships, such as geographic impact the ability of local governments to features, geographic proximity, historical- and conduct such international activities. 46 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom cultural linkages, industry compatibility (e.g. executives and staff, and creating epistemic fishing, wine or pearling), and exchange visits communities. for leisure, business, or education. • Japan-East Asia • Japan-Europe Purnendra Jain (2004) analyzed Clarisse Pham (2014, 2015) assessed three major types of linkages that Japanese the potential for cooperation between Tokyo local governments have developed in China: Metropolitan Government and the European (1) formalized sister relations; (2) trade Union in smart city development and business promotion; (3) technical and economic cooperation. Pham argues that opportunities cooperation. He found that China is an for cooperation between Tokyo and the attractive destination for Japanese local European Union (EU) are possible in terms governments in many ways. While China’s of business, joint research, knowledge sharing, abundance of cheap labor complements and experience. EU companies have the ability Japan’s industrial needs, Japan is relatively to invest in Japan and develop partnerships rich in the economic and technological with Japanese companies to run businesses capacities that Chinese enterprises need. in smart city development. In addition, cities Therefore, when mutual benefits from trade around the world are developing more smart and investment are strong, numerous offices cities. If Japan and the EU cooperate, it will representing Japanese local governments were enhance their international competitiveness. established in China to support their local • Japan-Asia Pacific businesses, as well as in other countries in Yasuo Takao (2010) examined the Asia. Jain believes that the establishment of sister-city relations between Hyogo Prefecture overseas offices by Japanese local govern- and the Government of Western Australia. The ments in China is a constructive way to research findings are that Hyōgo Prefecture promote their economic interests in China. had been enthusiastic to establish relations In addition, Japan’s local governments also with the Government of Western Australia to aim to provide expert assistance to Chinese share knowledge and experience, get to know local governments to address local problems each other’s cultures, and to build trust and such as environmental pollution caused by relationships. The geographic distance between industrial development, waste disposal, and the two cities was not a factor in this urban development. Japan’s local governments consideration of a paradiplomatic relationship, are proud to help prevent such problems from and activities from both sides have focused spreading to Japan’s local communities. on mutual learning and common problem- Yirang Im and Tomoyuki Furutani solving, namely student exchange, visiting of (2015) examined tourism cooperation between

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Fukuoka City in Japan and Busan City in become a cultural exchange hub of Asia, and Korea based on a policy network of local to encourage people in Fukuoka Prefecture to governments and other actors and focus- adapt to globalization and develop a global ing on the interactions amongst them. They perspective. Fukuoka Prefectural Government found that in the pre-project phase, both local has established a branch office in Bangkok governments took the central role. In the and signed cooperation agreements with other project planning phase, the importance of national government agencies in Thailand, the role of private entrepreneurs increased as such as the Ministry of Industry, the their expertise was considered necessary to Ministry of Natural Resources and Environ- implement the project. In the project ment, and the Board of Investment. These implementation phase, all actors executed roles of Fukuoka Prefecture in Thailand reflect the project enthusiastically and equally. For the new trend of international relations at the the sustainable development of cooperative local level, which is intended not only to projects, the administration should create promote friendship and mutual understanding, channels in which the private sector is better but also interest-oriented relations. able to interact with the various actors and Tonni Agustiono Kurniawan, Jose can discuss the direction of the project. Puppim de Oliveira, Dickella G.J. Premaku- • Japan-Southeast Asia mara, and Masaya Nagaishi (2013) examined Nirinthorn Mesupnikom (2018) the cooperation between the City of Kitakyushu analyzed the friendship between Fukuoka in Fukuoka Prefecture and the City of Prefecture of Japan and Bangkok of Thai- Surabaya in Indonesia, which was established land. She found that Fukuoka Prefecture has by the signing of a city-to-city cooperation played a proactive role in building relations agreement with a focus on community-based with Bangkok since 2006. The motivation approaches for solid waste management in and goals of Fukuoka Prefecture include: 2005, and later a sister-city agreement for (1) Japan’s tension with China at the state the development of a green city (Green Sister level, resulting in the Fukuoka Prefectural City) in 2012. The research findings indicate Government’s desire to build relations with that since signing the cooperation, Kitakyushu cities in other countries; (2) Bangkok is the had disseminated the knowledge and technical capital of Thailand providing many attractive methods of community waste management to benefits; (3) Both parties see potential create Takakura Home Composting (THC). mutual benefits. For Fukuoka Prefecture, this The result of cooperation on THC during relationship with Bangkok is consistent with the years 2005-2010 was a reduction of the their local government policy, which aims to amount of waste by 30 percent, and increase

48 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom of green areas in Surabaya. The cooperation and exchange, and issue-based cooperation resulted in close cooperation between all which provides tangible benefits, such as sectors, including the public, private, public, trade, tourism, technology, urban develop- and NGOs. In addition, Surabaya has received ment, etc. Japanese local governments do not environmental protection awards at both the only have relations with foreign local cities, national and international levels, as well as but also central agencies in foreign countries encouraging changes in other Indonesian cities as well, such as in the case of Fukuoka and national environmental policies. prefecture and Thailand. The literature also Bernadia Irawati Tjandradewi, Peter describes the features of activities, methods of J. Marcotullio, and Tetsuo Kidokoro (2006) project evaluation, motivation, and goals. The analyzed city-to-city cooperation between cooperation at this level has potential to the city of Yokohama and the Penang Island complement national diplomacy. However, City Council by evaluating the cooperation none of the literature explores the direct and academic exchange programs conducted linkages with the Meiji restoration. This during 1986-1995. The results indicate that article serves to fill the gap in the body the cooperation between these two cities had of knowledge about paradiplomacy, and to been successful in bringing forth important provide a study of modern Japan in order to ideas about city planning, road management, further disseminate information for academics, pedestrian construction, waste reduction, and practitioners in related organizations, and the recycling activities. Although the cooperation general public. provides benefits to the Penang Island City Council, local citizens play a relatively small 5. Research Findings role in this cooperation; therefore, additional International activities of Japanese work needs to be established in order to make local governments during the Meiji restoration the development more successful. period were less common due to the As explained above, it is apparent centralization of power by the central that Japan has received academic attention government. According to Hiroshi Ikawa regarding their practice of international (2008), under the Meiji Constitution, the relations at the local level, particularly in central government established systems of the post-war period. The literature examines local administration by forming a system of the international activities of Japanese local municipalities (cities, towns and villages) in governments with foreign cities in Europe and 1888, and a system of prefectures in 1890. Asia. Most analyses include sister-city rela- These local governments were not only local tions consisting of international cooperation governmental bodies, but also local

49 วารสารญี่ปุ่นศึกษา Japanese Studies Journal administrative organs of the central govern- 5.1) The Nation’s Constitution and ment. Prefectural governors were appointed Laws by the central government and served as In terms of the nation’s constitution central government officials. The head of and laws, there are many regulations regarding municipalities implemented the duties of decentralization and the international activities local government as an agent or organ of the of Japanese local governments. Important laws central government. In this kind of environ- detailed as follows: ment, extensive supervision and control of 5.1.1) The 1947 Constitution prefectures and municipalities was enforced The 1947 Constitution contains by the Minister of the Interior or by a chapter on local governments (Chapter 8), prefectural governors; therefore, the system which sets out the roles and responsibilities of local autonomy under the Meiji Constitu- of local governments, as does the 1947 tion can be evaluated as a centralized system. Local Autonomy Law (LAL). The principles Almost all municipal spending was devoted of this law involve respect for local govern- to three items: education, public works, and ments, their status in relation to the central general administration. The modern Japanese government, and provides considerable levels system for local government, both from an of autonomy in the fields of administration, administrative and fiscal perspective, was budget, and local legislation. The develop- established by a combination of the 1888 ment of this law was driven by the need for municipal administrative laws, the 1890 county increased autonomy and, more importantly, and prefectural administrative laws, and the by the rapid urbanization that followed the 1889 imperial constitution. (M. Nishikawa, country’s post-war reconstruction. Although M. Hayashi, & E. Weese, 2018, p.101-2). the 1947 Constitution does not mention the This implies that Japanese local governments international functions of local governments during the Meiji period did not have authority in pursuing their own interests overseas, it to organize international activities. established a new status for Japan’s local In contrast, after the end of World governments by substantially increasing their War II, the international activities of Japanese authority. (CLAIR, n.d.; Jain, 2005; Stevens, local governments increased dramatically in n.d.). the post-war period. The factors that contrib- 5.1.2) The 1988 Local Em- uted to the rise of the role of Japanese local ployees Overseas Dispatch Law governments in the international arena are as In 1988, the Local Employees follows: Overseas Dispatch Law was enacted to allow Japanese local government officers to work

50 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom outside the country in order to provide tive independence to local governments in technical assistance, work with foreign organi- managing local affairs. (Jain, 2005, p.54) It zations, collect data, promote local trade and also changed the relationship between the tourism, and deliver natural disaster assistance, central government and local governments among other roles. In addition, this law allows from a hierarchy-based relationship to an local governments to set up branch offices equally cooperative partnership. In addition, and other useful institutions abroad in order the transfer of authority from the central to create an international network of local government to local governments, and from governments. It also affirms the relationship prefectures to municipalities, was declared. between local governments and other related There was the deregulation for establishing parties, which is beneficial to the expansion organizations to increase the efficiency of of local governments’ networks (Jain, 2005, local government administration. (Ministry of p. 53-4). Executives and officers that work Internal Affairs and Communications, n.d.), in the overseas offices have the ability to and local governments were given the author- make decisions for their local governments ity and responsibility for all “regional affairs” independently of the national government. which includes almost everything that affects Although this law allows local governments people’s daily lives, such as public health, so- to set up offices abroad, in practice not all cial welfare, infrastructure building, etc. Even Japanese prefectures are able to open branch though local governments now have more offices abroad as they must have sufficient autonomy to carry out international activities, reasons to do so. For example, Aichi Prefec- they still do not have the authority to sign ture has large companies around the world, international treaties (Kiyotaka Yokomichi, such as Toyota, and therefore there are good interview, March 15, 2016). reasons for Aichi to open branch offices The Omnibus Decentralization abroad. (Susumu Yonezawa, interview, March Act gave more authority and autonomy to 8, 2016). local governments to manage local affairs, lay 5.1.3) The Laws for the the foundation of public sector participation, Promotion of Decentralization and allow other sectors, such as the think- There have been various tank institutions, NGOs, etc. to participate decentralization laws in Japan, including “the in the process of establishing local policies. Decentralization Promotion Law” of 1995, Although this law has not yet addressed the the “Comprehensive Decentralization Law” role of local governments in foreign countries, in 1998, and the 1999 Omnibus Decentrali- the emergence of Japanese local governments’ zation Act that has given some administra- paradiplomacy in the post-war period and its

51 วารสารญี่ปุ่นศึกษา Japanese Studies Journal further development can be strongly linked mutually-beneficial international exchanges, to these processes of decentralization. (Jain, and No. (3) the promotion of international 2005, p.54) tourism (Japan Tourism Agency [JTA] 5.1.4) Other Specific Laws website, 2016). It states that the national Promoting the role of Japanese government aims to promote mutual inter- local governments in the international arena national tourism exchanges and that it shall also appears in specific laws, such as: implement measures that are necessary for the The Basic Environmental Law, promotion of mutual cooperation with foreign Section 6, regarding ‘International Cooperation governments, including sister-city relations, for Global Environmental Conservation’ and international youth exchange (Tourism contains Article 34, which concerns ‘Measures Nation Promotion Basic Plan, 2012). As a to Promote Activities by Local Governments result of this Act, Japanese local govern- and Private Organizations’. This law, enacted ments have played a more proactive role in in Japan in 1993, states that the central promoting international tourism and include it government should adopt measures to promote as a part of their local government strategies. the international environmental cooperation In 2002, there were approximately 5.2 activities of local governments (Ministry million foreign visitors to Japan; however, of Environment, Japan, n.d). This law was after the development of this Act, the number codified after the government of Japan joined of foreign tourists increased rapidly. In 2018, the 1992 United Nations Conference on approximately 31 million foreign tourists Environment and Development (UNECD) in visited Japan (JTB Tourism Research and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil at which the leaders Consulting, 2019). of the participating countries recognized the The role of Japanese local importance of local governments and other governments in international affairs increased sectors in contributing to global environmental not only because of amendments to the strategies to protect the environment. (Central constitution or new laws, but the central Environmental Council, 2005) government agencies also supported and The Basic Act for Promoting allowed the implementation of paradiplomacy a Tourism-Oriented Country was enacted as a tool Japan’s national policies. in 2006 following Former Prime Minister 5.2) Supportive Policies of the Junichiro Koizumi’s keynote address from Central Government 2003 regarding the transformation of Japan Supportive government policies have to a tourism-oriented country. This Basic Act made it more effective for local governments includes Article 18, No. (2) Promotion of to conduct international activities. There are

52 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom at least four central government agencies that provide concrete benefits. The MOHA also have played important roles in the support of enacted control measures to determine the local governments’ international activities: most practical model of local governments’ 5.2.1) The Ministry of Home international activities. However, paradi- Affairs or MOHA (Ministry of Internal plomacy of Japanese local governments is Affairs and Communications or MIC) regulated by the constitution and special laws, The Ministry of Home Affairs not by central-local interactions or top-down (MOHA), which changed its name to the policies. There was also a massive allocation Ministry of Internal Affairs and Commu- of funds to Japanese local governments nications (MIC) in 2001, is responsible for for international activities through the Law managing the basic system of the country, Allocation Tax (LAT), which grants funding both economically and socially. Since the to local governments to use according to their 1980s, it has implemented many supportive own priorities, independently from the central policies regarding the international activities government’s control. (Jain, 2005, p.104) of Japanese local governments. It adjusted The MIC established the Local the organizational structure, created imple- Administration Bureau (LAB) to promote mentation plans, and provided guidance, and the decentralization of local authority. This recommendations for local governments to bureau delineates the roles between the central follow. It also urged Japanese local govern- government and local governments and pro- ments to establish local international exchange motes the initiative of transferring authority associations to promote grass-roots interna- from the central government to local govern- tional activities. As a result, according to a ments. These organizations have made it more survey conducted by CLAIR (2001), as of convenient for local governments to implement June 2001, 972 such associations had been set international activities. In addition, the LAB up by prefectures, designated cities, as well also supports the empowerment of communities. as small- and medium-sized local authorities For example, the “Regional Power Creation to host international cultural events (Menju Group” was established to support local Toshihiro, 2003, p.89). government agencies in addressing important In the 1990s, the MOHA local challenges, such as economic recovery, announced a policy under the slogan “From creating vibrant regions, initiating exchange Exchange to Cooperation”, which transformed and cooperation between countries at the international activities from exchanges, local level, and promoting localities gain focusing on friendship and mutual under- global recognition (MIC, n.d.). standing, to collaborative activities that would

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5.2.2) The Ministry of Foreign Nowadays, the MOFA, under the Affairs (MOFA) administration of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, The MOFA recognizes the has released the “All-Japan” approach to importance of internationalization in local reinforcing Japan’s comprehensive diplomatic communities, which has been increasing since capacity. To this end, the MOFA engages the 1980s, and the role of local governments, in various collaborative activities with local NGOs, and other sectors in the global arena to governments and communities based on the strengthen the MOFA’s work in enhancing the following priorities: Japanese brand in international communities • Conveying Japan’s local through the building of trust and relationships. attractions to the world, Therefore, the MOFA has implemented • Supporting the international various measures to support the capacity- initiatives of local governments and commu- building of local actors as international actors: nities, especially the promotion of people-to- • In 1971, the MOFA set up people exchanges through the JET project, a grant program to support prefectural • Providing extensive informa- governments to invite technical trainees from tion about international exchange, developing countries, especially Asian • Allowing staff from local countries and Africa, to spend several months governments to move to work in the MOFA. in Japan for training. (Toshihiro, 2003, p.92). • In 1995, the MOFA announced In addition, under the “All-Japan” the new role of local governments as approach, the MOFA also created various “international contributors” in many roles, mechanisms to promote the implementation including international disaster relief, peace- of international activities at the local level; keeping, technical cooperation programs, the for example: sciences, and commercial development (Jain, • Establishing “the Task Force 2005). on Overcoming Population Decline and • In 2006, the MOFA began Vitalizing Local Economy in Japan”, which to realize the significance of a multicultural also works to strengthen the partnership society in Japan. In response, they arranged between Japan’s local governments, communities, a conference to provide guidance on how to and foreign countries, further contributing to take care of foreigners in local communities regional vitalization in Japan. and released reports that promoted coexistence • Establishing “the Counseling in a world of multiculturalism. Center for Internationalization” as a unit to answer questions about international project

54 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom implementation for local governments and in organizing local and international coopera- other related sectors. tion activities (Jain, 2005, p.107) • Establishing “the Counseling • JICA announced the Fifteen Caravan for Internationalization” to send the Specific Measures for ODA Reform, which MOFA officers to visit local communities include supporting local agencies, as well as to answer their questions about international local people, to participate in JICA’s ODA activities. operations. • The appointment of the • JICA increased the number Advisory Committee for Local Governments’ of staff in the position of “Coordinators for International Cooperation and The Study International Cooperation” in the fiscal year Committee on Local Government and the 2002 to help coordinate between JICA and Ideal Orientation for International Cooperation Japanese local governments, as well as to together with JICA, researchers, experts and support the international cooperation programs local governments. of local governments and other local sectors. (MOFA, n.d.). The international cooperation and assistance programs that JICA is working on with local 5.2.3) Japan International governments focus on assistance in the areas Cooperation Agency (JICA) of social development and environmental JICA was established in 1974 protection, including forest destruction, with the mission to provide social and pollution control, and intellectual support economic development assistance for develop- (JICA Website). These policies do not only ing countries through its offices both in Japan provide guidance and support, but they also and abroad. As one of JICA’s objectives is serve as control measures while remaining to encourage local governments, NGOs, and consistent with the recognition of local other sectors to participate in the operations of governments’ role in addressing global chal- Official Development Assistance (ODA), they lenges. initiated policies to support the implementation 5.2.4) Council of Local Author- of cooperation programs at the local level. ities for International Relations (CLAIR) Moreover, JICA created mechanisms within CLAIR is a Japanese gov- other organizations as follows: ernment-affiliated incorporated foundation • In 1999, JICA set up the established in 1988 to provide information, Domestic Project Department as a unit to advice, and facilitation for interantional support the involvement of Japanese local activities organized by Japanese local governments, NGOs, and other network actors governments (CLAIR documents). In addition,

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CLAIR fosters people-to-people exchange see international activities provided by local through the Japan Exchange and Teaching governments as having a positive impact on (JET5) and other international initiatives, the development of national policies and the supports multiculturalism, and carries out interest of the nation as a whole. Through research on local administration. CLAIR has these mechanisms of international cooperation, a head office in Tokyo and seven overseas local governments can help to further the offices6, while the staff is mostly made up of central government’s mission. Japanese employees from local governments 5.3) Economic and Social Factors throughout Japan. To implement the JET Japan experienced substantial eco- Program, CLAIR has worked in collaboration nomic growth during the 1950s-60s, providing with other governmental agencies, namely the local governments with sufficient funding to MIC, MOFA, and the Ministry of Education, allocate for international activities (Hitoshi Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology Yoshida, 1993). Having been granted a (MEXT). Between 1987 and 2015, the JET degree of autonomy by the 1947 Constitution, program attracted 4,786 foreigners from 43 local government officials initiated activities countries (CLAIR, n.d.) and is considered one to increase awareness and understanding of of the largest international exchange programs Japan and its culture internationally through in the world. Not only does CLAIR support local-level communication and exchanges local governments in carrying out international (Fukui Prefecture, interview, March 8, 2016). activities, but it also initiates and implements During this time Japanese people were fond projects by itself, such as the Specialist of the modern culture and society of the Dispatch Project, the Local Government United States, which at the time was the most Officials Training Program, and various advanced industrialized nation in comparison seminars. to other developed countries. This influenced From the above listed roles Japanese local governments to seek and and supportive policies of these govern- maintain close ties with the U.S. through sister mental agencies, it is apparent that they city relationships, so much so that over 70

5 The Japan Exchange and Teaching or JET Program was initiated in 1986 as a result of Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone’s policy to use cultural exchanges to conduct international relations. He saw the possibility of supporting the localities as an important mechanism in linking relations with other countries. This project recruits foreigners to work in many positions, namely Assistant Language Teachers (ALTs), Coordinators for International Relations (CIRs), and Sports Exchange Advisors (SEAs). These foreigners will work in local Japanese communities to promote internationalization and enhance international understanding. 6 CLAIR has 7 overseas offices, namely Beijing, London, New York, Paris, Seoul, Singapore, and Sydney.

56 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom percent of all sister city affiliations in the reliable provider of environmental technologies 1960s had counterparts in the U.S. (Toshi- (Yokomichi, Interview, March 15, 2016). hiro, 2003, p.91). In 1964 Japan hosted the The Plaza Accord7, signed in 1985, Olympic Games, which was a major, factor resulted in the rapid appreciation of the Yen in motivating the Japanese people to become currency. Following this accord, Japanese interested in foreign affairs and eager to join companies relocated production bases to other international exchange activities. As a result, countries, especially China and Southeast Japanese local governments increasingly Asian countries, seeking lower wage costs. recognized the necessity to establish relation- Local governments in Japan saw the neces- ships with foreign cities. In the late 1960s, sity to set up branch offices or support desks the massive expansion of the industrial sector to facilitate their local companies abroad so affected the local areas, resulting in water that they could then bring the prosperity back and air pollution among other problems. As to local communities (Fukuoka Prefecture, many cities internationally were facing similar interview, November 28, 2016). At the same challenges, the local Japanese governments time, the appreciation of the Yen was an sought collaboration with foreign countries incentive for foreign workers to work in Japan. to discover potential solutions. The number of foreign residents in Japan has In the 1970s local governments increased rapidly and local governments have increasingly began to contact foreign countries had to find their own ways of handling the in order to exchange information regarding flow of newcomers. For example, in Fukui shared challenges because the central Prefecture there were many foreigner resi- government of Japan could not solve the dents, which resulted in many transnational local problems due to lack of knowledge and marriages between Japanese farmers and information about local needs and interests Chinese or Filipino women. Since this time, (Jain, 2005). In this regard, Kitakyushu has the Fukui Prefectural Government has had played a proactive role in building its inter- focused its policy on creating an international national reputation as both eco-friendly and a society within the local community, establish-

7 The 1985 Plaza Accord was the agreement between the five major countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, West Germany, and Japan, to intervene in the value of the Yen currency of Japan and the Deutsche Mark of West Germany to get more appreciation against the U.S. dollar. The objective was to reduce the trade surplus of Japan and West Germany and to decrease the trade deficits of the U.S. This agreement affected the entire economy of Japan, especially the export sector, because prices of Japanese exports in the form of U.S. dollars were higher, along with higher wages in Japan.

57 วารสารญี่ปุ่นศึกษา Japanese Studies Journal ing the Fukui International Exchange Associa- stagnation with the average GDP growth tion in 1989 with the aim to organize activities remaining around one percent over two to encourage interaction with foreigners, to decades (called the Two Lost Decades), as assist foreigners to live more conveniently well as social issues, especially the declining in the prefecture, and to provide Japanese population and the increasing number of language classes. Moreover, Fukui Prefecture elderly people. Consequently, in response to also has a policy to encourage foreign students the social issues, the central government had to study in Fukui (Fukui Prefecture, interview, to allocate a large amount of the national March 8, 2016). The increasing numbers of budget on healthcare and welfare for elderly foreign tourists in Japan and the increasing people and reduced the local governments’ numbers of Japanese tourists going abroad are budget allocation from 120 billion Yen in a strong motivational factor for local govern- 1995 to around 100 billion Yen in 2001 (Jain, ments to establish sister-city relations with 2005, p.54). cities in foreign countries. These represent Another problem was that most of local government executives’ vision to the international economic cooperation projects promote internationalization and multicultural- implemented by the central government often ism in local communities. benefitted large business groups more than The 1980s was also a period in small, local companies that were dispro- which local governments arranged a lot of portionately affected by increased imports. international conferences. As they had already Additionally, wealth amongst local com- established CLAIR in 1988 and formed munities is unequally distributed, particularly international exchange associations in local between Pacific Rim industrial zones and communities with the support of the MOHA, rural areas, such as the coastal provinces. some local governments viewed their sister-city The central government does not allocate a linkage as a starting point for commercial- and budget to support rural areas and has been other grass roots activities. Local governments’ unable to solve these economic and social international involvement has been primarily problems even today, further resulting in to provide assistance to others outside Japan negative effects that directly impact local through the utilization of their own resources, societies (David Arase, 1999). Moreover, and increasingly through their involvement in Japanese local governments have played a national ODA projects that local governments more substantial role in the international arena, now help to deliver (Jain, 2005). challenging the central government’s authority, Since the latter half of the 1990s, and supporting local governments’ determina- Japan has encountered a severe economic tion to gain greater autonomy (Jain, 2015).

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External factors also played an Local governments in Japan viewed important role in local governments’ push to foreign countries as opportunities for new go abroad. One such external factor was the export markets, sources of labor, and pro- varying international social contexts such as duction sites. Furthermore, there has been the end of the Cold War, which resulted in decreasing support from local residents the utilization of market systems as a global regarding international exchanges as symbolic mechanism for the allocation of economic activities. Rather, travelers are important to resources; trade liberalization, which resulted Fukui prefecture as ambassadors because they in a borderless economy; and advances in will visit and tell others about it later (Fukui technology, communication, and transporta- Prefecture, interview, November 28, 2016). tion, contributing to globalization. Advances Economic incentives have been in technology not only help people to travel the most important motivational factor for and communicate more easily, they also Japanese local governments to go abroad increase the possibilities for small businesses since the late 1990s. Small and medium-sized and local governments to directly interact businesses are very important to the Japanese with other countries. In addition, Japanese local governments because they create jobs, local governments have found that these new which further facilitate the ability of people to challenges are having profound effects on pay taxes. Therefore, local governments have local communities (Arase, 1997; Toshihiro, the goal of developing small and medium- 2003). sized businesses that are able to expand into Globalization, especially in its foreign countries, including Thailand (Yokom- economic manifestation, is a leading factor in ichi, Interview, March 15, 2016). If there the rise of international activities arranged by is no business there is no tax revenue, and local Japanese governments. The increasing without tax revenue local governments cannot of the role of the global market and foreign meet their residents’ needs and expectations. investments, the intensification of the interde- All of these factors have pushed local pendence between countries, and the pressure governments to engage in paradiplomacy by of economic and social issues brought both focusing on issue-based cooperation as it can important challenges and great opportunities provide more tangible benefits. For example, for Japan. Globalization and global com- Mie Prefecture’s international activities are petitiveness are the primary accelerators of based on various motivations: (1) the determi- paradiplomacy in Japanese local governments nation to reach the level of global recognition as Japan’s prosperity primarily depends on in order to gain more profit from interaction revenue from tourism, investment, industrial with foreign countries; (2) the wide-reaching development, and technology. 59 วารสารญี่ปุ่นศึกษา Japanese Studies Journal promotion of its various potentials in order has paid attention to local development and to expand business opportunities and foreign local people, it encourages local governments investment; and (3) the desire to attract to expand their projects to foreign countries. foreign investment. Cooperation based on Other important events that have motivations like these tend to be win-win occurred in today’s global society are interna- situations (The Japan Times, 2014). tionalization and decentralization. Decen- For economic-oriented tasks, many tralization of authority to local governments local governments actively established formal has been taking place in many countries cooperation by signing Memorandums of around the world, demonstrating widespread Understanding (MoUs) with various agencies, recognition of the important role that local both national and local organizations, and governments can play in problem solving, permanent overseas offices. These MoUs were particularly for topics on the global agenda focused on finding new markets to sell local such as global warming, pollution, and toxicity. products, creating incentives to attract foreign These contexts reduce the role of the state and investment, promoting tourism, and creating increase the importance of locality. Japanese or participating in international networks. local governments are also aware of the In order avoid chronic economic importance of creating formal structure of downturn, the current Japanese government, cooperation with other countries without led by the Prime Minister Abe Shinzo, has relying on the central government for decision- announced the Japan Revitalization Strategy, making, information, or resources. Due to called Abenomics. This plan aims to stimulate the central government’s inefficiency, local the economy and increase its wealth by using governments depend on their own local various financial and fiscal measures, as well knowledge and expertise. as restructuring the economy for the private In addition, many local governments sector. Restructuring of the economy for the are aware of the importance of adaptation private sector consists of four main objectives: in a changing environment and see the need promoting investment for the private sector, to adapt to be consistent with internation- creating new markets, using human resources alization. Therefore, they have encouraged efficiently, and integrating Japan with the people to participate in language and culture world economy (Government of Japan, exchange activities with foreigners in order to n.d.). These central government policies are learn about cultural diversity and have also consistent with the international activities responded to requests from overseas cities implemented by local governments. Further- to engage in cooperative problem solving more, as the current Japanese government (CLAIR, Tokyo, interview, March 14, 2016).

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Japanese local governments also carry to teach at the Medical College of Tokyo out international projects in other dimen- Imperial University (Currently, the Faculty sions, not only economic. These international of Medicine, Tokyo University). In addition cooperation and assistance programs focus on to teaching at this college, he brought many social issues, such as the environment, health, benefits to the development of medical science and agriculture. Such activities have been both in Japan. Due to his influence in Japan, he bilateral and multilateral, some in collabora- was known as the “Father of modern Japanese tion with JICA, and some as part of sister medicine,” but was also an art collector and city relations. Certainly, these international judo aficionado, credited with introducing the activities can be analyzed as projects working sport to Germany. to expand soft power of Japan. During this time, scientific The conceptual framework of research on Japanese hot springs (Onsen) “paradiplomacy” by Kuznetsov is an appropriate was flourishing. Dr. Bälz participated in this theory to utilize in the endeavor to explore research with a focus on Kusatsu City, where the rise of local Japanese governments’ one of the most famous hot springs resorts international activities. and spas in Japan is located. In 1878, Dr. 5.4) The Historical Linkage Bälz visited Kusatsu for the first time, and Although the international activities after that he decided to conduct his research of Japanese local governments emerged more there, praising the medical benefits of the hot substantially after World War II, their roots springs in Kusatsu City in his diary. He found can be traced back to the reforms during the that the mountain air, as well as the mineral Meiji period. This section provides three case waters, were beneficial to a person’s health. studies of relationships that are considered a After his death in 1913, his son published legacy of the Meiji restoration era. his diary as a book (published in English as 5.4.1) Kusatsu, and Beitighe- Awakening Japan: The Diary of a German im-Bissingen, Germany Doctor), leading to the release of his research The city of Kusatsu in Japan results on the benefits of the hot springs in and the city of Beitigheim-Bissingen in Kusatsu City. The results were also published Germany established sister-city relations in in German academic journals, prompting 1961. The background of the relationship Kusatsu hot springs’ widespread popularity. between the two cities began with a German Kusatsu’s residents praise Dr. physician, Dr. Erwin von Bälz, who was Bälz as a benefactor of the city even today. born in Bietigheim-Bissingen. In 1876, he Kusatsu and Beitigheim-Bissingen used was invited by the government of Japan this historical linkage to form a sister-city

61 วารสารญี่ปุ่นศึกษา Japanese Studies Journal relationship in order to foster friendship and in the development of Japan. Griffis was mutual understanding. Moreover, the role of considered a leading American expert on Dr. Bälz in Japan was also the beginning Japan at the time, publishing the book of the cooperation and exchange in medical “Mikado’s Empire” in 1876. This represents science between Japan and Germany, both at an important historical linkage between Fukui the city-to-city level and between academic and New Brunswick, Griffis’s birthplace. institutes, at a later time (Baelz, 1974; British Since 1982, Fukui and New Brunswick have Chamber of Commerce in Japan, 2018; Kast, been sister cities, offering the city-to-city 2004; Beyer, 2017; Saaler, 2012). exchange of education and culture, executive 5.4.2) Fukui and New Bruns- officers, and other related sectors (Bradshaw, wick, the United States of America 2015 & 2017; Lamiell, 2008; Sister Cities Kusakabe Tarô, a young samurai International, 2017; Watson, 2013; Zimmerli from Echizen (now Fukui Prefecture), was the Art Museum, n.d.). first Japanese person to attend an American 5.4.3) Yokohama and Scotland university during the Meiji Reformation. He The Scottish government and the attended Rutgers College in the city of New city of Yokohama signed a joint declaration Brunswick, New Jersey from 1867 until 1870 on collaboration in July, 2018. This agreement to study mathematics and science. However, is designed to strengthen the ties between he died of tuberculosis just a few weeks Scotland and Yokohama, which were forged before his graduation and was buried in in the early Meiji Restoration period when Willow Grove Cemetery in New Brunswick, Richard Henry Brunton, a Scottish engineer, New Jersey. After Taro died, the number of was hired by the Japanese government. He Japanese students who have studied in New went to Japan in 1868 and lived in Yokohama Brunswick has continuously increased. for eight years, building the first iron bridge William Griffis, tutor and friend in the country (in Yokohama); planned its of Tarô, who later became a professor at sewage treatment systems; built roads, light- Rutgers, was invited by Matsudaira Shun- houses, gas lights and telegraph systems; and gaku, Lord of the Echizen-Fukui Domain, in drew the first detailed maps of Yokohama. 1870 to teach and develop modern education He also founded the first engineering school for schools in Fukui. Although Griffis spent in Japan. One hundred and fifty years later, only ten months living in Fukui, he was many of the lighthouses that he built are able to achieve many goals. For example, still being used, thus proving his capabili- he established a modern scientific laboratory ties. In addition, the other objectives of this and encouraged many students to take part agreement were to exchange knowledge and

62 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom expertise regarding education, culture, tourism, independently in the international arena, but the marine and subsea industries,.and sports only in accordance with the constitutional, under the principle of “growing together” provided that such actions do not contradict (British Chamber of Commerce in Japan, national policies. 2018; Maloney, 2017). Second, the supportive policies of These three cases are evidence governmental agencies are also one of the that the founding of relationships between crucial factors. They demonstrate that the Japan and international localities further central government certainly views the paradi- represent a relationship that is linked to past, plomacy of Japanese local governments as a particularly the Meiji restoration era. These positive contribution to the development of affiliations were formed in different decades, the whole nation. These policies supplement but they used historical linkages as a basis Japan’s foreign policies making them even for choosing sister-cities. more efficient, and promote Japan’s image internationally. This provides more benefits 6. Conclusion than risks to the Japanese nation. Moreover, During the Meiji period, the highly these supportive policies reflect a strong link centralized system of government tightly between the central government and local restricted the role of Japanese local authori- governments in foreign affairs. Nevertheless, ties in the domestic and international arenas. these paradiplomatic actions do not only The active involvement of Japanese local consist of the independent initiatives of governments in international activities started Japanese local governments, but also include in the early years of the post-war period many programs that were launched, funded, (1950s). There are many factors that drove and supervised by the central government the substantial increase in local governments’ through the MOFA, MIC, and JICA. The international cooperation. MOHA (formerly the MIC) facilitated the First, one of the most crucial factors formation of supportive organizations, particu- is the nation’s constitution and other legal larly the Council of Local of Authorities for acts. They play a vital role because they not International Relations (CLAIR) and interna- only confirm the role of local governments tional exchange associations, to further handle and secure their competence in implement- international activities. All of these examples ing international activities, but also serve as testify to the idea that both local and national the primary mechanisms of intergovernmental governments’ policies seek to address various interactions between the central and local challenges and search for opportunities in the levels on all matters related to international changing world. activities. Japan’s local governments can act 63 วารสารญี่ปุ่นศึกษา Japanese Studies Journal

Third, economic and social issues and private. Japanese local governments not are another predominant driving factor of only deal with local governments abroad, but Japanese local governments to go abroad. also with the central governments in various Trends of globalization and internationaliza- countries; for example, Fukuoka and Mie tion have driven local governments to seek prefectures’ relationships with Thailand’s international opportunities, as well as to play governmental organizations. Such international an increasing role in international cooperative activities are not implemented as an option, problem-solving on a global scale. Responding but have been arranged to address the neces- to the pressure of globalization over the sity of collecting local taxes and becoming last 20 years, Japanese local governments self-sufficient without having to rely on the have actively tried to diversify their regional budget allocated by the central government. economies by developing value-added activi- Japan’s local governments; therefore, have ties in areas such as tourism, investment, and used paradiplomacy as a method to achieve technology. Since the late 1990s, paradiplo- economic, cultural, and political benefits. macy has been primarily shaped by economic Finally, some local governments in motivation, serving as an additional source of Japan used the historical linkage with the economic opportunities for local communities, Meiji period as a criterion for choosing a further benefiting the whole nation. foreign city with which to establish a formal These driving factors can be consid- relationship. Hiring foreigners to help modernize ered as strong variables that have contributed the country during the Meiji Restoration to the changes in Japanese local govern- period facilitated international relations at the ments’ international outreach. The role of local level. This can be seen in the sister-city local governments in arranging such activities relations of Fukui and New Brunswick, has been constantly evolving, as this article U.S.A., and Kusatsu and Beitigheim-Bissin- has explored. Not only by increasing the gen, Germany. These linkages were not only a numbers of sister-city affiliations, but also contributing factor in city-to-city relations, but the engagement in international cooperation also in local-to-central government relations, for common problem-solving and develop- such as the case of Yokohama and Scotland. ment assistance. Japanese local governments This study proves that the explana- have proactively initiated a broad range of tory framework of paradiplomacy proposed by exchanges in many fields, such as youth Alexander Kuznetsov (2015) is an efficient development, environmental protection, methodological instrument for analyzing of culture, and tourism; and have worked in the rising role of Japanese local governments partnership with many sectors, both public in international affairs by using qualitative

64 The Role of Japanese Local Governments in Implementing International Activities: from the Meiji Restoration to the Post-War Period Nirinthorn Mesupnikom methodology paradigms, as it offers potential Bradshaw, J. (2015, November 17). Rutgers variables that determine the growth of such graduate memorialized in Japanese mu- activities. Kuznetsov (2015) describes four seum, Retrieved from https://thecityof- sets of motives: economic, political, linguistic, newbrunswick.org. and cultural. However, this research finds that ______. (2017, October 6). Fukui friends in spite of comprehensive guidance, there is visit New Brunswick to celebrate 35th still a gap in the knowledge. Additionally, anniversary of sister cities ties. Retrieved the paradiplomacy framework proposed by from https://thecityofnewbrunswick.org Kuznetsov does not consider historical link- Council of Local Authorities for International ages or internationalization as potential factors Relations. (2013, December 6). Local of the increased paradiplomatic actions of Government in Japan 2012. Japanese local governments. ______. (2016, March 14). interview. ______. (n.d.). About CLAIR, Retrieved References from www.clair.or.jp (2015). The Direction of International ______. (n.d.). Chapter 1: An outline of Environmental Cooperation. Central local government in Japan. Environmental Council. Retrieved from ______. (n.d.). Sister city information: www.env.go.jp. Japanese local governments with affilia- (2018, July 27). Scotland and Yokohama tion agreements by country and territory. sign joint action pact. British Chamber Retrieved from http://www.clair.or.jp. of Commerce in Japan. Retrieved from ______. (n.d.). The Japan Exchange and https://www.bccjapan.com. Teaching (JET) Programme. About ANMC21. ANMC21. Retrieved from Fukui Prefectural Government. (2016, March www.seisakukikaku.metro.tokyo.jp. 8). interview. Arase, D. (1999). Japan’s approach to Fukuoka Prefectural Government. (2016, economic cooperation in Northeast Asia: November 28). interview. The role of subnational authorities, Global Government of Japan. (n.d.) About Abenomics. Economic Review, 28(2), 68-78. Retrieved from https://www.japan.go.jp. Baelz, E. (1974). Awakening Japan: The diary Hosokawa, M. (2001, July 31). Making of a German doctor. Indiana University decentralization work. Retrieved from Press Translated by Eden and Cedar Paul. https://www.japantimes.co.jp. Beyer, V. (2017, February 9). Kusatsu Onsen: Im, Y., & Furutani, T. (2015). Analysis of It’s the people you meet. Retrieved from the policy network for tourism cooperation http://visitkusatsuonsen.com between Busan, Korea and Fukuoka,

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Received : 14 / 1 / 2562 Revised : 16 / 3 / 2562 Accepted : 19 / 3 / 2562