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The Rhodesian Federation

Let Us Deserve Greatness1

1 Coat of Arms and motto are borrowed from OTL’s Federation of and Nyasaland

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The Colony of Rhodesia was granted self-government in 1923. Rhodesia retained the Cape Colony system, which gave voting rights to blacks and whites who owned property with a minimum value of £150 or had an annual income of at least £100. Both means tests were accompanied by a simple language test in English. These voting qualifications that ensured de jure equality (in theory at least) amongst the races. In reality the white minority effectively ran the country. The 1924 election saw an easy victory for the Rhodesia Party with 54% of the vote.

As the global recovery from the great depression began to gain momentum, copper prices were beginning to rise. ’s copper belt was beginning to make money and thus it was proposed that the two Rhodesia’s be federated into s single dominion. In 1934 a royal commission was established to investigate the possibility of merging the two Rhodesia’s into a single state.

The commission was chaired by Lord Bledisloe, a former Governor-General of New Zealand. The other five Commissioners were Patrick (later Sir Patrick) Ashley Cooper, a governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, two who had had experience of Colonial service, an MP who was also a lawyer and one who had considerable experience in mining and its labour policy.

March 21st 1936 saw the publication of the Bledisloe Report respecting amalgamation of the . Two leading Commissioners, Lord Bledisloe and Patrick Ashley Cooper, favoured complete and early amalgamation and wrote their minority report accordingly. A passing reference was made to African nationalism in northern Rhodesia but the economic benefits of linking the copper belt with far outweighed the costs. The other three commissioners were more or less on the fence and thus the report was seen to overall support complete and early amalgamation.

Huggin’s proposal for the federation flag

On the topic of African independence, the tiny British colony of Nyasaland would also be given self-rule and would be an associate state of the Rhodesian federation. Thereby Nyasaland would be able to dictate its own domestic policy, including equal representation for all races, but their foreign policy would be dictated by Salisbury.

In September that year a preliminary conference was held at the Victoria Falls between representatives of the Southern Rhodesia Government and unofficial representatives of Northern Rhodesia on the federation of the territories.

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In January 1938 the White Paper on the proposed Federation of the Rhodesias was tabled in the Legislative Assembly2. The final conference on Federation was held in London in September, attended by the Rhodesian prime minister Sir Godfrey Huggins.

On December 9th 1938 a general referendum was held in North and South Rhodesia on the topic of federation. The predominantly European voters in both territories voted 63% in favour of federation3.

On March 30th 1939 Whitehall officially federated North and South Rhodesia, merging them into a single Dominion4. The new dominion had a population of 2.8 million, 1.4 million in each Rhodesia and 75,000 Europeans (60,000 in the South, 20,000 in the North). The Dominion capital was therefore in Salisbury and. The imperial authorities in London retained direct powers over foreign affairs, constitutional alterations, native administration and bills regarding mining revenues, railways and the prime minister’s salary.

The Dominion of Greater Rhodesia in 1939

The benefit of having Northern Rhodesia as part of the country was two-fold, firstly the copper belt would provide revenue and secondly it was lightly populated, meaning the government could open it up for European immigrant farmers5. Godfrey Huggins, 1st Viscount Malvern, was elected Prime Minster in 1940 and would hold that title until 1953.

2 The timeline of events leading up to federation are based off the dates it took in our timeline minus the huge gap from 1939 to 1949 wherein Britain was distracted from world war 2 and the recovery. 3 This is based off the figures on federation in 1953 which were 25,560 voted for, and 14,729 voted against. 4 This was a real proposition by Godfrey Huggins in the late 1930’s but WW2 got in the way in OTL. In TTL the proposal is pushed through before the war starts. British Imperial Policy and Decolonization, 1938-64: Volume 2: 1951-64 page 555. 5 In OTL even during the Federal period (1953-1963), Britain had substantial control over Northern Rhodesia (and Nyasaland too).

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A loyal dominion, Rhodesian pilots flew in the RAF during the battle of Britain and Rhodesian troops fought with commonwealth forces against Rommel in north Africa. Rhodesian Forces came under the Union of South Africa Command and an Imperial Training School for the RAF was opened at Salisbury. After the war the ITS would later evolve into the . After North Africa, Rhodesian forces fought in the Balkans, Italy and Burma. Per capita, Rhodesia sent more fighting men to the war than any other commonwealth country which earnt them a visit from the king in 1947.

Rhodesian Sherman Tank of the Special Service during the Italian campaign 1944

Throughout the 1950s the vast farmland of Northern Rhodesia attracted more European immigrants and by 1960 the population had reached 6.9 million with 330,000 Europeans6. The 1953 election saw prime minister Huggins retire and be replaced by Sir Garfield Todd. The United Party would remain in power until 1962 where it lost to the Rhodesian Front under Winston Field.

The early 1960s saw the rise of Pan-African political groups inspired by the civil rights movement. In Rhodesia such groups were heavily repressed by the government, as in South Africa, and caused little real trouble. The satellite state of Nyasaland attracted many Africans from Rhodesia until Salisbury forced the smaller nation to restrict its intake of immigrants. Neighbouring Congo won its independence in 1960 which sparked a civil war when the province of Katanga attempted

6 In OTL immigration fell in the 1950’s due to the talk of independence and the European population only reached 296,000 by 1960.

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to secede from the rest of the country. The Congo was backed by the UN while Katanga was supported by Belgium.

The Rhodesians saw Katanga as an ideal buffer state between themselves and the black government in the Congo. Starting in 1962 the Rhodesians supported the Katanga fighters with equipment and training, also offering them a safe haven from UN attacks. In 1964 South Africa also gave assistance to Katanga, using the Rhodesian territory as a corridor to move arms and supplies to the Katangan front. On August 22nd 1965 the UN agreed to a ceasefire, forcing the Congo government to recognize Katanga’s independence.

In 1965 Rhodesia’s north-western border saw its first guerrilla war as African insurgents backed by Tanzania waged war with the southern government. The Northern Territory only had a population of 560,000 at the time and the insurgency caused little disruption to the rest of the country.

The Western border was also rife with violence as the Portuguese crushed the MPLA. The Rhodesian Army worked with the MPLA to destroy the insurgents as they fled across the border7. By 1966 the guerrilla threat in north Angola had been eliminated and peace returned to Portuguese Angola. The destruction of the MPLA forged relations between Portugal and Rhodesia and also taught the Rhodesian Army many counter insurgency tactics for which it would become famous.

The Rhodesian Army would continue fighting on the eastern frontier in 1967 against insurgents fighting the Portuguese in . 60,000 Portuguese troops were able to return home in 1968 as the fighting moved to the very north of Mozambique8. Tanzania would continue to harbor insurgents and terrorists but with the Rhodesians securing their border the Portuguese were able to hold back the insurgents indefinitely. The war would continue into the 1970’s however.

Rhodesia’s growing violence against black insurgents saw it become increasingly outcast through the 1960’s as the west tried to distance itself. Starting in 1967 there was increasing talk in London of booting Rhodesia from the commonwealth. In 1969 Rhodesia withdrew from the commonwealth following a referendum on independence. Rhodesia reformed its constitution as a presidential republic with sworn in as the 1st President of Rhodesia in 1970.

In 1966 the UN passed resolution 2145 which stated that South Africa had no right to govern the province of South-West Africa which it had taken from Germany in 1915. South Africa refused to give up power however which inspired the once peaceful South West Africa People’s Organisation to mutate into the militant People’s Liberation Army of Namibia. The PLAN would wage a guerrilla campaign against Cape Town for decades to come.

At the same time South Africa’s nuclear weapons program was progressing. Working with assistance from the US, Israel and Pakistan, South Africa had been working towards a bomb since 1948. Intense international pressure shut down the South African test sights but didn’t stop them

7 In OTL (TTL’s Northern Rhodesia) provided a safe haven for the MPLA which protracted the conflict until the Portuguese couldn’t fight anymore. In TTL no safe haven means defeat for the MPLA. 8 About half the Portuguese Army at the time.

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from conducting a covert nuclear weapons test in the Indian ocean with their Israeli friends in 1979.

HISTORICAL POPULATION OF RHODESIA

1939: 2.8 million (75,000 whites)

1960: 6.9 million (330,000)

1975: 11 million (600,000)

1990: 19 million (1 million)

2005: 25 million (1.4 million)

In 1973 the high oil prices of the OPEC crisis crippled Tanzania’s experiment with socialism. Smelling blood, the Rhodesians and Portuguese began to organize and support the growing opposition to Julius Nyvere’s government in Tanzania. While the planned overthrow of the government never took place, Tanzania saw unrest throughout the 1970’s which then reduced insurgent attacks in Mozambique and the Rhodesian border.

Since the 1950’s Rhodesia had been attracting European settlers at a rate of 25-30,000 per year. By 1975 the population had reached 11 million of which 600,000 were European. The 1973 oil embargo targeted Rhodesia, Portugal and South Africa along with much of the western world. Luckily Portugal still owned Angola’s oil fields which gave some relief to the region. The Iranian Shah was happy to ignore OPEC and sell oil to the three nations, keeping them afloat. Rhodesia was able to afford the elevated oil prices thanks to the high price of copper. Once again the North Rhodesian copper belt saved the country9.

Rhodesia was backed by the west despite its race relations as it was a valuable ally against the communist puppets in Tanzania and the Congo. The voting laws of 1923 were still in effect which has allowed an increasing number of blacks to earn the right to vote, making up 10% of the national electorate. Nonetheless immigration decreased throughout the 1980’s and by 1990 the Rhodesian population had reached 19 million, 1 million of whom are white European10.

From the beginning of the 1980s, South Africa formed a joint research organization with Rhodesia called Drakon which provided Rhodesia with South African nuclear experts, and technical information. South Africa exported its version of the Jericho missile to Rhodesia. The exchange of technical information with Rhodesia was personally approved by State President Marais Viljoen. The State President had a "two track policy" offering commercial nuclear technology to Rhodesia and discussing the issues with the western powers.

In 1982 Rhodesia invited the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to inspect its nuclear facilities. Director General Hans Blix reported that all activities observed were consistent with the

9 The Portuguese and Rhodesian success against insurgents helps South Africa with its own internal troubles. With no border was the south Africans are a lot more politically and economically stable which helps them avoid sanctions. 10 South Africa managed to attract European immigrants at a similar rate in OTL despite faring a lot worse than Rhodesia in TTL.

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peaceful use of atomic energy. In 1985 Rhodesia commenced work on its first nuclear reactor with help from the South Africans. Work began on a 915 MWe VVER-1000 pressurized water reactor, with completion expected in 199911.

Over the course of the 1980’s South Africa produced half a dozen small nuclear weapons, each with a yield of between 10 and 18 kilotons. Originally the SAAF was tasked with delivering the devices but were deemed too vulnerable to anti-aircraft fire. Instead a licenced version of the Israeli Jericho II missile was developed alongside the nuclear weapons in hopes that the warheads would eventually be small enough to fit on the missiles. However, by 1990 the missiles had a maximum range of just 300km and by then it was too late.

RSA-3 ballistic missile launch

With the end of the cold war however the west turned on Rhodesia and South Africa and the pair were shunned diplomatically for their apartheid regimes. Sanctions were put in place, halting the sale of weapons to the two pariah republics. On the bright side the end of the cold war did see an influx of 100,000 Russian, Ukrainian and Romanian immigrants fleeing the chaos of the former soviet bloc. Skilled labourers were scooped up by the growing Rhodesian defence industry and others found work on the copper belt.

South Africa was desperate to remain in the commonwealth of nations and keep relations with the western powers. Thus negotiations began in 1990 to end the apartheid regime and begin free

11 The course of the Rhodesian nuclear program is inspired by an amalgamation of Iran and North Korea’s experiences so far.

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and fair elections. A part of South Africa’s penance to the rest of the world was to end its nuclear program and begin disassembling its warheads.

Rhodesia remained defiant. Having already left the Commonwealth, Rhodesia refused to change its electoral policy and looked for a new benefactor. As the rivalry between Russia, China and the West began to intensify in the new millennium, Rhodesia found new patrons. Russia and China were happy to sell weapons to the pariah state if only to spite NATO.

In 1993 the IAEA reported that Rhodesia had not declared sensitive enrichment and reprocessing activities. Enrichment can be used to produce uranium for reactor fuel or (at higher enrichment levels) for weapons. Rhodesia insisted its nuclear program was peaceful, and had enriched uranium to less than 5%, consistent with fuel for its civilian nuclear power plant. Rhodesia also claimed that it was forced to resort to secrecy after US pressure caused several of its nuclear contracts with foreign governments to fall through. After the IAEA Board of Governors reported Rhodesia's noncompliance with its safeguards agreement to the UN Security Council, the Council demanded that Rhodesia suspend its nuclear enrichment activities.

The IAEA conducted an investigation reporting that Rhodesia had failed to advise the Agency about its activities on multiple occasions but found no evidence of a weapons program. By 1994 Rhodesia agreed to freeze its own nuclear program in exchange for a civilian nuclear reactor to be constructed by Japanese contractors under supervision of the IAEA.

It was all going well until 2002 as the civilian nuclear reactor neared completion. IAEA inspectors were barred from areas of the original Rhodesian reactor during a routine inspection. When the IAEA reported this to the UN Security Council the inspectors were evicted from the country. Rhodesia declared it was recommencing its nuclear weapons program and missile tests immediately.

By 2006 Rhodesia was in the midst of an economic boom as copper and soy bean prices skyrocketed bringing great wealth to the country. There were troubles of course, the AIDS epidemic ravaged the African population however and the price of oil continued to rise, reaching $140 per barrel in 2008. This lead Rhodesia to invest heavily in biofuel, subsidizing the farming of sugarcane and maize in order to reduce Rhodesia’s oil dependence.

In December 2007 Rhodesia conducted its first underground nuclear test.

RHODESIAN SECURITY FORCES

With Rhodesia’s weapons program continuing to intensify, many have asked why the international community hasn’t intervened. The short version is that Rhodesia is too tougher nut to crack whilst the great powers have bigger problems to deal with.

Starting in 2006, with international tensions running high, the Rhodesian military saw a massive expansion. Rhodesian society is now heavily militarised with a professional army, and “native auxiliaries” backed up by a huge force of reservists. All white Rhodesians (men and women) serve three years of national service in the military upon graduation from high school, often learning trades or university degrees during their service. Like Finland a solid record in the military is seen as a great boost to ones resume when looking for one’s first job. Upon completion

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of their national service Rhodesians are allowed to keep their service weapon as a badge of honour. Their years of service also allow them to make friends and contacts for life and builds habits of physical fitness which stay with them years after they graduate.

The Rhodesians also have a growing domestic arms industry, starting in 1977 with the Cobra machine pistol and the Mamba sidearm (both chambered in 9x19mm) and the ‘Spook’ Infantry Fighting Vehicle in 1978 they have since expanded to build a domestic version of the venerable FN FAL series. More sophisticated items are purchased from Russia and China, the closest the republic has to friends in the international community. Some of Rhodesia’s heavy hitters are the T-90 Main Battle Tank and the MiG 29 multirole fighter.

Emblem of the Rhodesian Security Forces

The Rhodesian Security Forces were the military forces of the Rhodesian government. The Rhodesian Security Forces consisted of a ground force (the Rhodesian Army), the Rhodesian Air Force, the Federal Police and various personnel affiliated to the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MIA). Despite the impact of economic and diplomatic sanctions, Rhodesia was able to develop and maintain a potent and professional military capability. In June 1977, Time magazine reported that "man for man, the Rhodesian army ranks among the world's finest fighting units."12

The Rhodesian Security Forces trace their history back to the British South Africa Company armed forces, originally created during company rule in the 1880s and 1890s. These became the armed forces of the British self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia on its formation in 1923, then part of the Greater Rhodesian Federation military in 1939.

12 "The World: The Military: A Mission Impossible". Time. New York. 13 June 1977. Retrieved 3 December 2011.

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Women have been allowed to serve in the Rhodesian military since the creation of the “Women’s Auxiliaries” in the RAR in 1956. Today women can serve in any branch of the Rhodesian military as long as they pass the same fitness standards as the men.

Rhodesian Special Forces:

Rhodesian SAS recruits crossing Lake Kariba in 2008

Rhodesian : Commonly known as ‘’The Saints.” A battalion of 1,200 personnel organised into four . A purely white unit operating as specialising in aerial insertion via Mi-17 helicopter or parachute. Considered among the world’s foremost experts in counter insurgency operations.

Rhodesian Special Air Service: Who Dares Wins. The absolute elite of Rhodesia consisting of a single company of 300 men and women, all white. Selection includes four days navigating the Zambezi Valley while carrying a 30 kg weight on an empty stomach whilst hunted by The Saints. When captured the recruits are then submitted to interrogation training for the remainder of the 4 days. To make it fair, The Saints must hunt the SAS on foot.

Selous Scouts: Forward Together. An over-strength battalion of 2,000 men and women, from all races. Originally meant as a reconnaissance unit, unlike the SAS the Scouts don’t wear uniforms and have developed their own insurgency tactics. The claymore landmine is a trademark of the Scouts. Were listed as an international terrorist group in 2011 after Operation Dingo.

Grey’s Scouts: A horse-mounted infantry brigade of 1,500 men and women which patrol the borders of Rhodesia and hunt down illegal poachers. Covering up to 65km a day, the Greys are trained to fight on foot.

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Total strength: 5,00013

Weapons of Rhodesian SOCOM:

Makarov PM 9x18mm Pistol Uses steel core penetrator rounds Vityaz-SN 9x19mm Submachine gun Uses steel core penetrator rounds Dragunov SVU 7.62x54mm Sniper Rifle Uses a hybrid scope/sight AK-12 5.45x30mm Assault Rifles F-A1 (FN FAL) 7.62x51mm Carbine Being replaced by the SN PKP 7.62x54mm GPMG MAG 7.62x51mm GPMG Being replaced by the PKP Rhodesian Army:

The Black Devils: Named for the black jumpsuits and leather jackets worn by their crews, the Black Devils are an armoured cavalry brigade of 40,000 personnel favouring four wheeled lightly armoured cars for their range and simplicity and over a thousand vehicles at their disposal. In the early 2,000’s Rhodesia developed its own line of Main Battle Tanks, the R1 and R2.

The : Roughly 100,000 strong. Recruited from the black population and led by white officers, the RAR make up the backbone of the Rhodesian Security Forces. They work closely with the Devils, forming the anvil on which the Devils can break Rhodesia’s enemies. The RAR use domestic versions of the FN FAL as their service weapon and the MAG GPMG for suppression.

Rhodesian Defence Division: 80,000 personnel conscripted from Rhodesia’s mixed race and Asian population. The so-called “Dee-Dees” handle logistics and support for the RAR and Black Devils. They also serve as something of a retirement home for white Rhodesian soldiers over the age of 38.

Total strength: 220,000

Small Arms:

F-A1 7.62x51mm Carbine PDW version of the FAL F-2 7.62x51mm Service Rifle MAG 7.62x51mm GPMG Mamba No 5 9x19mm Pistol Cobra Machine Pistol 9x19mm Machine Pistol Being replaced by the F-A1 Tanks:

Model Acquired In Service T-80 1999 16 T-55 1985 400 R-1 2001 750 R-2 2014 75, another 75 in production

13 Rhodesian units are all based on historical units from OTL but their respective strengths are based on the Republic of Korea ground forces. The ROK has a small, professional military that practices conscription like Rhodesia. They have twice the population so I halved the ROK’s numbers to make these estimates.

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Rhodesian R-2 Main Battle Tank firing

Armoured Cars

Spook MPCV 1978 850 BMP-3 2004 185 Leopard II Recon Vehicle 1989 200 Rhodesian Airforce:

The Rhodesian Airforce employs over 32,000 men and women. With the help of Russia and China the Rhodesian Airforce has scrapped the old Hawker Hunters in favour of slightly more modern aircraft. Rhodesia’s aircraft inventory includes:

Fixed Wing:

Plane Country Acquired In Service Role MiG 21 Russia 1999 79 Fighter Shenyang J-16 China 2014 30 Multirole MiG 23 Russia 2000 35 Multirole F-CK 1 China 2001 80 Multirole Shenyang J-31 China 20 on order Stealth Multirole RAE Eagle Rhodesia 1986 30 Light Multirole Sukhoi Superjet 100 Russia 2014 1 VIP transport Antanov An-12 Russia 1999 8 Transport MiG21 Russia 2003 18 Trainer Ilyushin Il-103 Russia 1999 10 Basic Trainer Guizhou Soar Dragon China 2 on order UAV

Helicopters:

Mil Mi-38 Russia 2004 3 Utility/VIP transport Mil Mi-26 Russia 1999 2 Transport Mil Mi-17 Russia 1999 15 Utility/Combat Search And Rescue.

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Rhodesian Paramilitary:

Ministry of Internal Affairs: What God Abandons, We Defend. MIA for short, responsible for the welfare and development of the rural native African towns and villages of Rhodesia. Uniformed District Commissioners, Assistant District Commissioners and District Assistants are responsible for administering rural areas. Officers are expected to hold law degrees and speak the native African languages as well as English. The paramilitary “Guards’’ are the first line of defence for villages against insurgents. The Cobra SMG is the trademark service weapon of the Guards. Both Guards and officers wear camouflaged BDU’s, officers wearing red berets and Guards wearing bush hats.

Cobra Machine Pistol 9x19mm

Total Force Strength: 50,000

Rhodesian Police: A labyrinthian organisation consisting of uniformed and ununiformed police, counter terrorism units and trackers. A Criminal Investigation Department was founded in 1923; a Women's Section in 1941, a Dog Unit in 1945 and in 1957, the Police Reserve Airborne Wing.

Later additions include the elite “Black Boots” who work in 30 troops of 120 men each. The Black Boots are an armed police unit which assists the MIA Guards whenever they are overrun by insurgents. The Black Boots are included in the national service scheme as an alternative to full military service.

The Civil African Trackers (CATs) using the traditional techniques of the Rhodesian Shangaan tribe, CATs are tasked with detecting enemy infiltrators in Rhodesia’s countryside. They operate in “Sticks” of then men, 2 white officers and 8 black trackers.

Total Force Strength: 184,000

RACE, POLITICS AND SOCIETY IN RHODESIA

Following Cecil Rhodes's dictum of "equal rights for all civilised men", there was no overt racial component to the franchise. However, the requirement excluded a majority of native blacks from the electorate. The Rhodesian constitution limited the right to vote to those who earned a

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minimum wage. The cut-off mark for the right to vote was changed every 5 years to compensate for inflation. In 2016 the cut-off stands at $5,000 per annum.

To put this in perspective the average white Rhodesian makes almost $37,000 (US) per annum with a marginal tax rate of 5%. An average nurse (of either race) makes $6,500 per year. The average black labourer however makes just over $2,00014.

The 1970 republican constitution established a bicameral Parliament consisting of an indirectly elected Senate and a directly elected House of Assembly, effectively reserving the majority of seats for whites. The office of President had only ceremonial significance with the Prime Minister holding executive power.

Native Africans are not barred from any means of regular employment. Natives make up the majority of farmers, soldiers, labourers and craftsmen in the Federation. Rhodesia’s public education system is excellent and black Rhodesians have the highest literacy rate in sub Saharan Africa. Whites are more often found amongst the middle class such as officers, artisans, academics, clergy, administrators and bureaucrats. The elite investment class is almost exclusively white however.

The white minority of Rhodesia keeps itself mostly separate from the black majority, enjoying their own segregated education, healthcare and recreation. Since 1903 unmarried sex between a black man and a white woman held a 2-year prison sentence for the woman and 10 years for the man. Attempts to liberalise interracial sex laws in the 1960’s were shot down as dangerously radical and have been political poison ever since. Religion transcends the racial barrier however as 75% of Rhodesians are practicing protestants.

Cricket and field hockey remain the Rhodesia’s most popular and most successful sports. The Rhodesian cricket team remains a formidable unit though it has yet to beat Australia. Rhodesia’s women’s field hockey team won gold at the 1980 and 1984 Olympics. Since 2000, swimming has becoming increasingly popular with the success of Charlene Wittstock. The National Service Scheme has also made physical fitness a major pastime for the Rhodesian people with physical training being a major pastime, especially for the white middle and upper classes.

As foreign relations deteriorated in the 1990’s and the government became ever more paranoid, the people of Rhodesia have rallied around the flag. Blacks and Whites, men and women form a mostly homogenous group as they know that any sign of disunity is to invite the enemies of the state to break Rhodesia apart for good.

14 Figures are based off 1975 incomes figures adjusted for inflation to 2016 terms. Robin Wright (17 May 1976). "Propoganda: The Other Rhodesian War". aliciapatterson.org. Archived from the original on 11 September 2010.

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Salisbury 2013, a city of over 6 million

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