EurAsian Journal of BioSciences Eurasia J Biosci 14, 5889-5897 (2020)

Dryland farming management in food-insecure areas in East Manggarai

Erlyna Wida Riptanti 1*, Masyhuri 2, Irham 2, Any Suryantini 2 1 Department of Agribusiness, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Sebelas Maret, 2 Department of Agribusiness, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Gadjah Mada, INDONESIA *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Dryland is potential to increase migration, social structure damage, low productivity, limited economic growth, and marginalization without any support and assistance and East is one of the areas with those possibilities. The purpose of this article is to scrutinize the management of dryland farming in supporting the necessities of life in food-insecure areas. This research belongs to descriptive analytical study and applies survey technique. The samples were taken using purposive sampling technique. A total of 80 respondents took part in this research; they were from four villages in two selected food-insecure sub-districts, namely Borong and Kota Komba. Effective dryland farming management is highly relevant to the supply of food and raw materials. The management in the studied areas mostly applies minimum inputs and leads to commercialization. Land tenure is used for the production of staple food and plantation crops. Staple food crop yields are used to ensure the availability of staple food, while plantation yields are used to meet other necessities. Limited transportation infrastructure contributes to less optimum potential for the development of staple food and plantation crops.

Keywords: minimum input, commercialization, land tenure, dry land farming management

Riptanti EW, Masyhuri, Suryantini A (2020) Dryland farming management in food-insecure areas in East Manggarai Regency. Eurasia J Biosci 14: 5889-5897.

© 2020 Riptanti et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License.

INTRODUCTION poor farmers, small farm systems, the landless, resource endowments, the socioeconomic environment Agriculture and food security in developing areas are and externalities (Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002). vital for interference under climate change. Agricultural East Manggarai is a regency with most of the areas production in Ethiopia is highly at risk of climate change that are hilly and mountainous. The agricultural sector with major consequences for food security (Zemedu and plays a dominant role in the economic structure of the Mesfin 2014). Frequency and intensity of drought have regency. Taking into account the 2017 Gross Regional troubled sustainable agriculture and worsened food Domestic Product (GRDP) that was calculated based on insecurity of Ethiopians (Benti and Chimdi 2019). This the base price of 2010, agriculture contributes the phenomenon is similar to the condition in East highest GRDP for the regency, amounting to 45.39%. Manggarai Regency. Opposing the issue of insecurity is On the other hand, agricultural yield productivity in this particularly essential for programs attempting to deal area is lower than the national productivity (BPS 2018). with an environmental issue (Haro and Doyo 2005). These conditions are paradoxical, thinking through the Agricultural systems around the world are coping with fact that East Manggarai is one of the eleven food- the pressure to enhance their sustainability (Bell et al. insecure areas in Province. All sub- 2008). districts in East Manggarai are food-insecure at 3 priority Climate change and variability present new scale (Dewan Ketahanan Pangan NTT dan World Food challenges for agriculture, particularly for smallholder Programme 2015; Riptanti et al. 2018). Purwantini et al farmers who maintain to be the bases of food production (2007) informs that the category of high food insecurity in developing countries. Recent global food crises have of an area is characterized by relatively limited carrying uncovered the structural susceptibility of globalized agri- capacity of agriculture on food productivity, poor human food systems, emphasizing climate change as merely resources, inadequate facilities and infrastructures, one of a complex set of environmental, demographic, social and economic drivers contributing to instability and food insecurity (Brooks and Loevinsohn 2011). Received: October 2019 Poverty is a problem for rural areas and continues to be Accepted: March 2020 a tenacious multidimensional dilemma. It is linked to Printed: November 2020

5889

EurAsian Journal of BioSciences 14: 5889-5897 (2020) Riptanti et al. limited agricultural land and livestock ownership, farming activities. With these strategies, optimization of average income that is below poverty line, and dominant dryland utilization needs to obtain certain plant share of food expenditure. commodities with a high level of market assurance and Farmer households with their indigenous knowledge without leaving the characteristics of agribusiness interact and adapt to the limitation and vulnerability of system and scheme (Zainal 2005). Integrated natural resources (Maina et al. 2012). Households in agriculture is a system of land utilization by managing food-insecure areas are always challenged with plants and livestock economically in the same areas by agricultural production risks (Harvey et al. 2014). practicing various techniques to create an environment Climate change may shrink farm profitability in the that is suitable for the growth of plants and animals observed area due to the decline in the area of crops on (Allen et al. 2007). farms (John et al. 2005). Moreover, households are under economic pressures to fulfill their daily needs, MATERIAL AND METHODS agricultural commodity price fluctuation, increase in Basic method agricultural input price, and lessened workforce The analytical descriptive method is the basic (Monjardino et al. 2010). These impact on dryland method for this research. The data used in this study farming management by farmers. This article aims at were obtained using the cross-sectional technique. The scrutinizing dryland farming management in food- descriptive study also explains the extent to which insecure areas in East Manggarai, Eats Nusa Tenggara. agreement on the results that are presented (Irianto and Dryland farming in this regency is carried out by sub- Mardikanto 2011). system farmers, but farming practices have been directed to commercialism. Problems or limitations in Sample of research location dryland management are varied in each area, either in The determination of research location was based on technical, technological, institutional, infrastructural or the condition that East Manggarai was one of the socio-economic aspects (Ramakrishna and Rao 2008). regencies in Island, East Nusa Tenggara, with the Further, the farmers in East Manggarai encounter most food-insecure areas, based on the data provided problems in dryland farming management due to by Dewan Ketahanan Pangan NTT dan World Food poverty, high dependency on dryland farming Programme (2015). Astronomically, This regency lies management and livestock breeding, decreased land between 08° 14ʼ - 09° 00ʼ South Latitude and 120° 20ʼ - fertility, and insufficient infrastructures, limited access to 120° 55ʼ East Longitude (BPS 2018). Two sub-districts, markets, limited input and technology utilization. Borong and Kota Komba, with food insecurity and Farming management applies management practices in relatively easier transportation access, were taken as responding to physical, biological and socio-economic samples. One food-insecure village and one food- environments in limited conditions to achieve farmers' secure village were taken from each sub-district. targets and expectations. Therefore, this study is focus Borong Sub-district: Poco Rii and Kota to be carried out to investigate the characteristics of NdoraVillages farming, the current conditions and the strategies to Kota Komba Sub-district: Rana Bata and Gunung improve dryland farming management. Baru Villages The success of the dryland farming system is highly Samples of respondents determined by integrated land, water, plant, livestock, The research population was farmers who practiced and nutrient management. To manage multiple risks of dryland farming in food-insecure areas. Samples were dryland farming systems, diversification, flexibility, and taken using a purposive sampling technique, by adaptability system of farming are required. considering the following criteria: 1) farmers have Inappropriate enlargement of the planting area in communication ability and 2) farmers practice dryland dryland by utilizing technology is the potential to failure farming. Samples of farmers were taken using snowball (Kasryno and Soeparno 2012). The result of the sampling with a total of 80 respondents, consisting of 40 research by Mulyani et al (2014) on the acceleration of farmers in food-insecure villages and 40 farmers in food- dryland farming development in Nusa Tenggara show secure villages. that agricultural development the technology of superior Problem limitation varieties, nutrient management, communal cages, and Dryland farming is an advantageous crop production agricultural waste management requires assistance and business without irrigation facilities when practiced on guidance. the land that receives rainfall between 150 - 750 According to Zainal (2005), by considering the socio- mm/year with uneven distribution of rain and a planting economic condition of the society in dryland, there are period of 1 - 179 days (FAO 2008). Dryland farming is three strategies to optimize farming, which include: 1) limited to food crops, horticulture, plants for animal feed, plant management using agribusiness system and and other annual crops and or integrated with annual scheme, 2) development of agricultural commodities, crops or livestock cultivated by farmers. The research except plants, and 3) utilization of dryland for integrated

5890

EurAsian Journal of BioSciences 14: 5889-5897 (2020) Riptanti et al.

Table 1. The characteristics of dryland farming in food-insecure areas No Characteristics Unit Area 1. Average land tenure - Field (bare land) Ha 0.632 - Tegalan (dryland) Ha 0.854 - Yard Ha 0.038 2. Average planting pattern in a year - Field (bare land) Corn, upland rice, cassava, sweet potato, pumpkin, beans, taro – rice - Tegalan (dryland) - Coffee, cacao, candlenut, areca nut - Clove, coffee, vanilla, candlenut, areca nut, taro, pumpkin - Corn, upland rice, pumpkin, cassava, sweet potato, beans – rice - Yard Papaya, banana, corn, cassava, chili, pumpkin, betel leaves, taro, orange 3. Average pig ownership 2-3 4. Average input utilization - Upland rice seeds produced by farmers Kg 22 - Corn seeds produced by farmers Kg 9 - Family labor active in farming Person 2 - Manure Kg Unidentified - Chemical fertilizer (Urea, SP-36, KCL, NPK) Kg 41.9 - Pesticide bottle 2 5. The average yield of the main commodity - Upland rice Kg 527.9 - Shelled corn Kg 239.9 - Cacao seed Kg 109 - Coffee seed Kg 56.73 6. Farming efficiency (ratio) - Inefficient person 34 - Breakeven person 1 - Efficient person 45 Data source: Primary data analysis, 2019 was carried out in April 2019 and data on costs, land tenure affects farmers’ enthusiasm to partake in production and farmers’ revenue generated from management activities. Land tenure in this area is based agricultural products at this study for one year in 2018. on inheritance or division from the chieftain who controls Data analyzing method the area. Land controlled by farmers is not entirely used Data in this research were collected using surveys, for farming because of the limited labor capacity to interviews, and observation methods. The survey was manage the land. carried out by visiting respondents to obtain information, In one area of land, various types of plants are distributing questionnaires to them and requesting them planted in a polyculture where the harvest is not to fill out the questionnaires by providing the scores and completed in one period. Within the year, farmers their perception. This method was applied when the commonly grow rice and corn once because both plants selected respondents understood the items of questions have a planting age of 5-6 months. In the food-shortage, in the questionnaires well. Meanwhile, the interview was taro and cassava are the main sources of staple food for conducted with respondents who had lower knowledge. a living. The house yard provides sources of vegetables Questionnaires were filled out by the researchers after for farmers' household needs. listening to the respondents' responses during the The utilization of farming input is commonly limited to interview. The observation was performed by directly both internal and external inputs. The use of manure is observing the object of study and the data obtained were not identified because pig manure is not processed into field notes (Solimun et al. 2018). Data were analyzed fertilizer but is directly placed around the plants. The quantitatively and qualitatively to provide a depiction of average yield of key commodities is relatively low but the situation, events, the relationship among more than half is efficient farming practices. Farmers phenomena and implications of each problem in this use of low external input. research. Dryland farming management The main objective of farming activities is to fulfill RESULTS AND DISCUSSION households’ consumption needs, even though more farmers make serious efforts to produce more The characteristic of dryland farming commercial crops (Canali and Slaviero 2010), Farming systems practiced in the studied areas particularly cacao, coffee, and vegetables that are combine seasonal plants, plantation plants, and marketed locally. The ability to manage dryland farming livestock. Dryland farming is inseparable from the is based on indigenous and local knowledge, family characteristics of farming management. The labor, and the ability to adapt climate change. characteristics of dryland farming include the For farmers, farming management to cope with characteristics of land tenure, index per plant, input problems has always been supportive in solving their utilization, productivity and efficiency (Asih 2009), as problems (McCown and Parton 2006). Water scarcity is detailed in Table 1. According to Dolisca et al (2006),

5891

EurAsian Journal of BioSciences 14: 5889-5897 (2020) Riptanti et al.

Fig. 1. Dryland farming management in food-insecure areas the most dominant factor in determining the type of plant et al. 2012). Communities can do rainwater harvesting and the time of planting. Other various problems occur on a large scale by making traditional reservoirs in managing to farm in the studied areas so (embungs) and on a small scale by making dikes management of production, land, and finance are (galengan) and trenches around agricultural lands for required and adaptation efforts are more likely to be food catching rainwater. secure than less innovative farming households Input management (Kristjanson et al. 2012). The explanation of dryland Crop residues affect agricultural sustainability by farming management in the studied areas is presented improving productivity. Most studies from developing in Fig. 1. countries show positive effects of retaining crop residues Water and land management (Turmel et al. 2015) but this did not happen in the study Dealing with land management, farmers in the area. Minimal uses of crop residue, fertilizers and other observed areas have not fully performed soil and water external inputs are due to poor farmer households. On conservation to maintain soil fertility and availability of the other hand, farmers assume that providing crop agricultural water. Land conservation is carried out with residue, fertilizer and purchased inputs cannot increase the use of minimum tillage, in which remains from the yields if the risk of crop failure is high (Rockstroom et al. preceding crops are left on the surface (Turner 2004; Jin 2002). et al. 2007). Land conservation has not been practiced Pigs and dogs are the most widely bred livestock in by farmers. Unfamiliarity and limited workforce capacity the studied areas. Animal manure as fertilizer in crop- due to the remote location of agriculture are contributing livestock integration has not been implemented well. factors. This is so for farmers are not familiar with and do not Crop water use efficiency (WUE, yield per unit of understand how to make quality manure. They habitually water use) is vital for agricultural production with tie pigs and put them around plantation crops (coffee restricted water resources (Evett and Tolk 2009) but is and cocoa) and if there is a lot of manure around these not applied in the studied areas. This is because plants, they move pigs to places near other plants. agricultural production merely depends on rainfall, Meanwhile, dogs guard houses and fields/dry fields. In instead of on irrigation water. Water conservation is fact, the economic value of livestock manure is high if significant for improving crop yields in semi-arid regions. collected and processed into quality fertilizers (Quansah Water harvesting is highly essential to increase et al. 2001). productivity in drought-prone areas (Rockstroom et al. In general, farmers use local seed varieties when 2002; Harvey et al. 2014). Farmers practice water cultivating corn and upland rice because both plants do harvesting by making dikes to hold rainwater and deep not require much fertilizer and pesticides and are drainage (Turner 2004; Jin et al. 2007) for annual crops. drought-resistant. They rarely adopt hybrid seeds Meanwhile, land and water conversation is not carried because they need to spend more money to purchase out when cultivating coffee and cocoa plants. fertilizers and chemical pesticides (Cavatassi et al. Rainwater harvesting should be practiced by the 2011). To control pests and diseases, they burn grass communities in the studied areas to improve water on their lands before the end of the dry season and this availability and crop production in the dry season (Biazin

5892

EurAsian Journal of BioSciences 14: 5889-5897 (2020) Riptanti et al. is indigenous ecological. On the other hand, this habit (Altieri 2004) such as the management of pests and can damage the environment in the long run. diseases with the slash and burn techniques. Farmers’ attitude towards risk does not change their The minimum application of GAPs is because the farming management, particularly in the use of input diffusion process of Field Extension Officers to resources. This finding is different from Kingwell’s farmers/farmer groups is constrained by inadequate research finding (1994) that increasing risk aversion officers, road infrastructure and communication. attitude has a strong relationship with the allocation of Therefore, the process of adopting technology in the use resources in mixed farming. This is because the main of agricultural technology does not run well, although the focus of farmers is to produce staple food (corn and role of agricultural extension is vital in farming upland rice), while plantation crops and livestock support management (Kingwell et al. 2008). farmers’ needs during a food shortage. Adaptation Financial management Traditional farming systems implemented by farmers Financial management includes activities of product in the studied areas can trigger the vulnerability and marketing and input purchasing, cash flow, and financial maladaptive practices (Fox 2000), such as slash and risk. The management takes place within one out of two burn. Areas that have a high risk of crop failure as a planting seasons. Farmers understand that the input is result of climate change and have a high dependency on balanced with output. However, due to financial agriculture need to adapt to their agricultural cultivation limitations, they cannot afford to purchase inputs even (Cavatassi et al. 2011) and make the natural resource though the inputs are subsidized. They buy inputs when management in balance (Haro and Doyo 2005). they already fulfill basic food needs although the inputs Response to the risk of drought in tactical decision are important for increasing productivity. making is important in the management of mixed Financial management of farmer households in the farming of livestock, food crops and plantations studied area is simple because they are subsistence for (Thornton and Herrero 2014). the production of staple crops while their plantation Two overriding themes that arise from agroecology, commodities become commercial. Excess food stocks rural development, and natural resource management will be stored for reserves of food in the following year or pieces of literature are the significance of diversity and for sale when there are urgent needs. If they do not have learning in adaptive management systems (Darnhofer et the financial capacity, farming management is limited to al. 2011). Further, existing practices that are plant maintenance without any fertilization or control encouraged to farmers as proper means for adaptation efforts with chemical pesticides. to climate change are well-considered standard 'best Farming practice practices' for reasons other than climate change, or else The farming system applied combines food crops, are not currently widely adoptable due to their adverse plantations, and livestock in a field. The integration economic performance when implemented at large system of livestock and plants can improve sustainable scale (Asseng and Pannell 2013). farming systems, environmental quality, and social Training farmers in the production and conservation stability. This integration system is widely developed in of livestock feed as well as in soil and water conservation rural areas in developing countries including in the practices appear to be strategic choices appropriate to studied areas. Livestock waste becomes agricultural fortify farmers’ capacity to adapt to and cope with input and agricultural waste becomes animal feed so drought (Murendo et al. 2011). Zero tillage, stubble that the mutual interaction is formed (Devendra and retention, early sowing, and intensive weed control are Chantalakhana 2002; Murendo et al. 2011). However, all common practices in the region and are considered the practice of mixed crop - animal farming has not been to be the standard components of 'good practice' well-integrated in the studied areas. adaptation (Anderson et al. 2005). Farmers are not yet aware of the importance of Risk management applying Good Agriculture Practices (GAPs) in Risk management is required to reduce or avoid the managing their farming (Amekawa 2009). Farmers do risk of crop failure and improve resilience (Zemedu and not entirely apply GAPs as an effort to increase yields Mesfin 2014). Risk management is carried out by and efficiency of rainwater use through agronomic farmers in the studied areas by applying the following practices such as minimum tillage, appropriate fertilizer strategies. use, improved weed/disease/insect control, timely a) Mixed farming practices (Belay 2004; Maina et al. planting, and a range of rotation options, in conjunction 2012) with new cultivars (Turner 2004). The agricultural Farmer households apply a mixed farming system by management practices are limited, particularly in using combining livestock - food crops - plantation crops, agricultural technology, as the practices in other food- although the practices have not been well integrated. insecure areas (Kristjanson et al. 2012). They base their Local knowledge of mixed farming is based on farming practices on an indigenous ecological strategy experience which is considered better to deal with risk.

5893

EurAsian Journal of BioSciences 14: 5889-5897 (2020) Riptanti et al.

b) Yield diversification (Belay 2004; John et al. 2005; In their opinion, the use of external inputs is not Harvey et al. 2014; Zemedu and Mesfin 2014) equivalent to the expected increase in production. In One area of land is generally planted with food crops addition, the risk of drought is also a barrier to increase using the intercropped system, combining upland rice external inputs. and corn, with cassava that is planted on the edge of the h) Application of one planting season land. For land planted with coffee and cocoa, taro and Most farmers practice one planting time in a year pumpkin are planted under the canopy of plant the because of their fear of crop failure in the next planting sources of staple food. Taro and pumpkin as sources of season due to drought. Their experiences for years have life when food shortage comes can be harvested at any proven that in the second planting season, a lack of time. water in vegetative growth often occurs so that plants c) Vegetable planting in the home garden (Maina et wither and later die. al. 2012) Improvement of dryland farming management Planting vegetables in the yard creates warung hidup The main goal of dryland farming management is or a yard planted with vegetables for daily consumption, increasing revenue. The strategies that can be practiced particularly for farmer households. The function of the to improve dryland farming management in the studied house yard is optimized planting vegetables and fruits. areas include: The vegetables that are commonly grown with this 1. Implementation of agricultural insurance system include chilies and eggplants, while the fruits One of the government interventions in risk grown are papaya and banana. management is agricultural insurance (Thomas 2008), d) Proper planting time modification (Belay 2004; but it has not been implemented in the researched John et al. 2005; Maina et al. 2012; Harvey et al. areas. Application of agricultural insurance policies in 2014; Zemedu and Mesfin 2014) the areas will facilitate and improve farmers’ capacity in Farmers predict the time rain comes as a basis for dryland farming management and farming management accelerating the beginning of planting by sowing seeds. can be more sustainable (Knutson et al. 2011; Preparation for planting with land clearing and minimum Hasanabadizadeh et al. 2019). tillage is carried out in November. The beginning of 2. Adoption of dryland farming GAPs planting time with seed spreading is performed in Farmers’ capacity in terms of knowledge, skills, and December and the harvest period is in April/May. mastery of GAPs technology is relatively low so that Improper determination of initial planting can result in capacity building for farmers needs to be conducted abnormally grown/dead seeds or crop failure due to (Pretty et al. 2011) in the integration of the mixed farming drought. system, which combines food crops and plantation e) The use of local seed varieties that are resistant to crops. The role of Field Extension Officers or agents of drought (Belay 2004) change in diffusing research results to farmers/farmer Local seeds are those produced by farmers. Farmers groups is vital in the process of technology adoption use these seeds due to the consideration that the seeds (Uaiene et al. 2009). Activities undertaken include are more suitable with the conditions of agricultural land counseling, discussion, comparative studies, the joint than the hybrid seeds. According to farmers, the seeds application of technology practices, and demonstration can grow limited water during the vegetative period and plots (Adesina and Chianu 2002). Through these do not require chemical fertilizers. activities, farmers will be aware of the importance of f) Yield saving for local rice/corn seeds applying GAPs in farming management (Diagne and Farmers' households do not have agricultural Demont 2007) and their sustainability. insurance so that they need to work hard to buy 3. Improvement of infrastructure seedlings in case of crop failure. Approximately 10-20% Limited infrastructure in the studied areas becomes of rice/corn seeds of the total production are stored to an obstacle in the management of dryland farming. ensure seedling availability for the next planting season. Inadequate infrastructures (roads, electricity and Farmers have estimated the seed requirements so that telephone networks, and market) contribute to if they experience failure when planting seeds, they still hampered communication, input purchases, output have extra seeds. The same strategy is also applied by sales, diffusion processes, and technology adoption. farmers in Ethiopia to minimize the risks, such as the The improvement of infrastructure will facilitate farmer seeds do not grow and are eaten by pests, as well as communication and mobility in managing their farming rain does not come and cause the seeds to die (McGuire (Makhura and Wasike 2010). 2007). 4. Crop management g) Minimum use of external inputs (Giller et al. 2009) To date, crops that have been sold have not been Poverty causes farmer households unable to processed well to produce added value. Farmers sell purchase external inputs to increase productivity. On the their crops based on their needs, rather than on high other hand, households who can relatively afford to buy prices of the commodities in the market. To generate external inputs also minimize the use of external inputs.

5894

EurAsian Journal of BioSciences 14: 5889-5897 (2020) Riptanti et al. more revenue, they need to process yields and/or sell and the constraints they face when practicing farming. commodities at high prices. The storage system needs Besides, farmers have also applied risk management to to be improved to maintain the quality and stability of lessen the risk of crop failure. However, most farming product prices (Riptanti et al. 2017). practices are inefficient. Hence, efforts have to be made to improve the management of dryland farming by CONCLUSION applying for agricultural insurance, adopting GAPs in Dryland farming in food-insecure areas is managed dryland farming, improving infrastructure and managing well. Farmers have adapted to the physical environment crop yields.

REFERENCES Adesina AA, Chianu J (2002) Determinants of farmers’ adoption and adaptation of alley farming technology in Nigeria. Agroforestry Systems 5(2): 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020556132073 Allen VG, Bakeer MT, Segarra E, Brown CP (2007) Integrated irrigated crop-livestock system in dry climates. Agronomy Journal 99(2): 346–360. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2006.0148 Altieri MA (2004) Linking ecologists and traditional farmers in the search for sustainable agriculture. Front Ecol Environ 2(1): 35–42. https://doi.org/10.2307/3868293 Amekawa Y (2009) Reflections on the growing influence of good agricultural practices in The Global South. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 22(6): 531–557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-009-9171-8 Anderson WK, Hamza MA, Sharma DL, D’Antuono MF, Hoyle FC, Hill N, Zaicou-Kunesch C (2005) The role of management in yield improvement of the wheat crop - A Review with special emphasis on Western Australia. Aust J Agric Res 56(11): 1137–1149. https://doi.org/10.1071/AR05077 Asih DN (2009) Analysis of characteristics and earning level of shallots farming system in Central Sulawesi. J Agroland 16(1): 53–59. http://jurnal.untad.ac.id/jurnal/index.php/AGROLAND/article/viewFile/217/185 Asseng S, Pannel DJ (2013) Adapting dryland agriculture to climate change: Farming implications and research and development needs in Western Australia. Climatic Change, 118(2): 167–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584- 012-0623-1 Belay K (2004) Management of droughts and famines in Ethiopia. Journal of Social Development in Africa 19(1): 93–127. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jsda.v19i1.23882 Bell LW, Byrne F, Ewing MA, Wade LJ (2008) A preliminary whole-farm economics analysis of perennial wheat in an Australian dryland farming system. Agricultural Systems 96(1–3): 166–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2007.07.007 Benti F, Chimdi A (2019) Climate change-induced agricultural drought over moist-cool and moist-warm climatic zones: A case study in Ale and Adami-Tulu Woredas, in Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia. Caraka Tani: Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 34(2): 188-199. http://doi.org/10.20961/carakatani.v34i2.29344 Biazin B, Sterk G, Temesgen M, Abdulkedir A, Stroosnijder L (2012) Rainwater harvesting and management in rainfed agricultural systems in Sub-Saharan Africa – A Review. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 47–48: 139– 151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2011.08.015 BPS (2018) Manggarai Timur in Figures 2018. https://manggaraitimurkab.bps.go.id/publication/ 2018/08/16/9bdf6335c6adc3a6721dae67/kabupaten-manggarai-timur-dalam-angka-2018.html Brooks S, Loevinsohn M (2011) Shaping agricultural innovation systems responsive to food insecurity and climate change. Natural Resources Forum 35(3): 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2011.01396.x Canali M, Slaviero F (2010) Food insecurity and risk management of smallholder farming systems in Ethiopia. 9th European IFSA Symposium, 4-7 July 2010, 1267–1278. http://ifsa.boku.ac.at/cms/fileadmin/Proceeding2010/2010_WS2.5_Canali.pdf Cavatassi R, Lipper L, Narloch U (2011) Modern variety adoption and risk management in drought prone areas: Insights from the sorghum farmers of Eastern Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics 42(3): 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2010.00514.x Darnhofer I, Bellon S, Dedieu B, Milestad R (2010) Adaptiveness to enhance the sustainability of farming systems: A Review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 30(3): 545–555. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2009053 Devendra C, Chantalakhana C (2002) Animals, poor people and food insecurity: Opportunities for improved livelihoods through efficient natural resource management. Agriculture 31(3): 161–175. https://doi.org/10.5367/000000002101294010

5895

EurAsian Journal of BioSciences 14: 5889-5897 (2020) Riptanti et al.

Dewan Ketahanan Pangan NTT, World-Food-Programme (2015) Peta Ketahanan dan Kerentanan Pangan (FSVA) NTT 2015. https://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp285131.pdf?iframe Diagne A, Demont M (2007) Taking a new look at empirical models of adoption: Average Treatment effect estimation of adoption rate and its determinants. Agricultural Economics 37(2–3): 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574- 0862.2007.00266.x Dolisca F, Carter DR, McDaniel JM, Shannon DA, Jolly CM (2006) Factors influencing farmers’ participation in forestry management programs: A case study from Haiti. Forest Ecology and Management 236(2–3): 324–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2006.09.017 Evett SR, Tolk JA (2009) Introduction: Can water use efficiency be modeled well enough to impact crop management? Agronomy Journal 101(3): 423–425. FAO (2008) Water and Cereals in Drylands. http://www.fao.org/3/i0372e/i0372e00.htm Fox J (2000) How blaming 'slash and burn' farmers is deforesting mainland Southeast Asia. AsiaPacific issues no 47. Honolulu: East-West Centre. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/3832 Giller KE, Witter E, Corbeels M, Tittonell P (2009) Conservation agriculture and smallholder farming in Africa: The heretics’ view. Field Crop Research 114(1): 23–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2009.06.017 Haro GO, Doyo GJ, McPeak JG (2005) Linkages between community, environmental, and conflict management: Experiences from Northern Kenya. World Development 33(2): 285–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.07.014 Harvey CA, Rakotobe ZL, Rao NS, Dave R, Razafimahatratra H, Rabarijohn RH, Mackinnon Z L (2014) Extreme vulnerability of smallholder farmers to agricultural risks and climate change in Madagascar. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 369: 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0089 Hasanabadizadeh N, Omidi-Najafabadi M, Mirdamadi SM, Lashgarara F (2019) An agricultural micro-insurance development model for rural areas of Iran 13: 2071–2077 Irianto H, Mardikanto T (2011) Metode Penelitian dan Evaluasi Agribisnis. Surakarta: Program Studi Agribisnis. Fakultas Pertanian. Universitas Sebelas Maret. Jin K, Cornelis WM, Schiettecatte W, Lu J, Yao Y, Wu H, Hartmann R (2007) Effects of different management practices on the soil-water balance and crop yield for improved dryland farming in the Chinese Loess Plateau. Soil & Tillage 96(1–2): 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2007.05.002 John M, Pannel D, Kingwell R (2005) Climate change and the economics of farm management in the face of land degradation: Dryland salinity in Western Australia. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics 53(4): 443–459. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7976.2005.00029.x Kasryno, Soeparno (2012) Pertanian lahan kering sebagai solusi untuk mewujudkan kemandirian pangan masa depan. In Buku Prospek Pertanian Lahan Kering dalam Mendukung Ketahanan Pangan. Badan Penelitian Dan Pengembangan Pertanian. Kementerian Pertanian. Kingwell RS (1994) Risk attitude and dryland farm management. Agricultural Systems 45(2): 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-521X(94)90178-I Kingwell RS, John M, Robertson M (2008) A review of a community-based approach to combating land degradation: Dryland salinity management in Australia. Environ Dev Sustain 10(6): 899–912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668- 007-9091-6 Knutson CL, Haigh T, Hayes MJ, Widhalm M, Nothwehr J, Kleinschmidt M, Graf L (2011) Farmer perceptions of sustainable agriculture practices and drought risk reduction in Nebraska, USA. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 26(3): 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1017/S174217051100010X Kristjanson P, Neufeldt H, Gassner A, Mango J, Kyazze FB, Desta S, Coe R (2012) Are food insecure smallholder households making changes in their farming practices? Evidence from East Africa. Food Sec. 4(3): 381–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-012-0194-z Maina I, Miruka M, Rono B, Njeru PNM, Amboga S, Gitari J, Murithi F (2012) Adaptive strategies and local innovations of smallholder farmers in selected agri-food systems of Central Kenya. African Crop Science Journal 20(1): 77–84. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/47556/1/cs12008.pdf Makhura MN, Wasike WSK (2010) Patterns of access to rural service infrastructure: the case of farming households in Limpopo Province. Agrekon 42(2): 129-143. https://doi.org/10.1080/03031853.2003.9523616 McCown RL, Parton KA (2006) Learning from the historical failure of farm management models to aid management practice. Part 2. Three Systems Approaches. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 57(2): 157–172. https://doi.org/10.1071/AR05052

5896

EurAsian Journal of BioSciences 14: 5889-5897 (2020) Riptanti et al.

McGuire SJ (2007) Vulnerability in farmer seed systems: farmer practices for coping with seed insecurity for shorgum in Eastern Ethiopia. Economic Botany 61(3): 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1663/0013- 0001(2007)61[211:VIFSSF]2.0.CO;2 Monjardino M, Revell D, Pannell DJ (2010) The potential contribution of forage shrubs to economic returns and environmental management in Australian dryland agricultural systems. Agricultural Systems 103(4): 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2009.12.007 Mulyani A, Nursyamsi D, Las I (2014) Acceleration of agricultural development in dryland with dry climate in Nusa Tenggara. Pengembangan Inovasi Pertanian 7(4): 187–198. http://ejurnal.litbang.pertanian.go.id/index.php/pip/article/view/2369/2052 Murendo C, Keil A, Zeller M (2011) Drought Impacts and related risk management by smallholder farmers in developing countries: Evidence from Awash River Basin, Ethiopia. Risk Management 13(4): 247–263. https://doi.org/10.1057/rm.2011.17 Pretty J, Toulmin C, Williams S (2011) Sustainable intensification in African agriculture International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 9(1): 5–24. https://doi.org/10.3763/ijas.2010.0583 Purwantini TB, Ariani M, Marisa Y (2007) Analisis Kerawanan Pangan dalam Perspektif Desentralisasi Pembangunan (Kasus Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur). In Monograf (Vol. 26). http://pse.litbang.pertanian.go.id/ind/pdffiles/monograph_26_2005_4.pdf Quansah C, Dreschel P, Yirenki BB, Asante-Mensah S (2001) Farmers’ Perceptions and management of soil organic matter – A case study from West Africa. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 61(1–2): 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013337421594 Ramakrishna R, Rao RT (2008) Strengthening Indian agriculture through dryland farming: need for reforms. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 63(3): 461–476. https://econpapers.repec.org/article/agsinijae/204592.htm Riptanti EW, Masyhuri M, Irham I, Suryantini A, Mujiyo M (2018) The Development of leading food commodities based on local wisdom in food-insecure area in East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research 16(6): 7867–7882. https://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1606_78677882 Riptanti EW, Qonita A, Suprapti (2017) Barns society as a buffer stock (Case in Nglaris Village Bener District Purworejo Regency). IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 193, 012051. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/193/1/012051 Rockstroom J, Barron J, Fox P (2002). Rainwater management for increased productivity among small-holder farmers in drought prone environments. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 27(11–12), 949–959. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-7065(02)00098-0 Solimun, Armanu, Fernandes AAR (2018) Metodologi Penelitian Kuantitatif Perspektif Sistem. Malang: UB Press. Thomas RJ (2008) Opportunies to reduce the vulnerability of dryland farmers in Central and West Asia and North Africa to Climate Change. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 126(1–2): 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2008.01.011 Thornton PK, Herrero M (2014) Climate change adaptation in mixed crop-livestock systems in developing countries 3(2): 99–107. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2014.02.002 Turmel MS, Speratti A, Baudron F, Verhulst N, Govaerts B (2015) Crop residue management and soil health: A system analysis. Agricultural Systems 134: 6–16. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.05.009 Turner NC (2004) Agronomic options for improving rainfall-use efficiency of crops in dryland farming systems. Journal of Experimental Botany 55(407): 2413–2425. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erh154 Uaiene RN, Arndt C, Masters WA (2009) Determinants of agricultural technology adoption in Mozambique. In Discussion Papers No. 67E. http://cebem.org/cmsfiles/publicaciones/Determinants_of_agricultural_ technonolgy_adoption_in_Mozambique.pdf Zainal M, Fahrurrozi (2005) Pendekatan agribisnis dalam optimalisasi pemanfaatan lahan kering di Provinsi Bengkulu. Proceeding Seminar Nasional Inovasi Tehnologi Pertanian Mendukung Pembangunan Pertanian Lahan Kering. Bengkulu 11-12 November 2005. Zemedu L, Mesfin W (2014) Smallholders’ vulnerability to food insecurity and coping strategies: In the face of climate change, East Hararghe, Ethiopia. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development 5(24): 86–100. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.734.8000&rep=rep1&type=pdf

www.ejobios.org

5897