Cultural and linguistic communication JACQUES DERRIDA – GRAMMATOLOGY, THE PROGRAMME OF A POSTMODERN SEMIOLOGY Paul GORBAN1 1Assoc. Prof. PhD, „Apollonia” University of Iaşi, Romania Corresponding author: Paul Gorban; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract which, according to the philosopher, has authentic Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) is one of the most important meanings and communicates much better than French philosophers who contributed to the introduction writing, being closer to authentic thinking. of the concept of postmodernism in the contemporary What the French philosopher accomplishes is culture and knowledge. His name is linked to some concepts that have been used in the philosophical basically a continuation of Heidegger’s critical journalism, but also in that of the literary theories, position on metaphysics. Therefore, if Heidegger especially within the American space, such as: deconstruction, situated the place of the human being in the writing, trace, grammatology, spacing, difference, arch-writing, language, as the original place, the French etc. which we aim to present in the following pages. Keywords: postmodernism, philosophy, semiology, philosopher takes the critique of metaphysics anthropology, structuralism. even further, using some analysis of the theories of language. In fact, the philosopher’s intentions Following the path of F. de Saussure, D. Hume, are, on the one hand, to overcome Heidegger’s Fr. Nietzsche, M. Heidegger, L. Wittgenstein, teachings on being, Dasein and language, which Derrida develops the theory of deconstructionism, express the metaphysics of the origin’s final which helps him highlight the textual character of adventure and, on the other hand, to demonstrate philosophical writing. In this regard, many that the linguistic structuralism does not miss the analysts of the French philosopher have shown metaphysical determinations which embraces that the ideas present in his papers are developed the whole history of European thinking, meaning on the basis of a literary thinking, characteristic to the phonocentrism, which according to the French the style and not on a discursive model belonging philosopher, is coextensive to logocentrism. In to classical philosophy. For example, the Cluj other words, for Derrida, speech equals writing. interpreter, Aurel Codoban, in the preface of the In this context, we can configure, right from the book Exhibitions, shows that, nowadays, Derrida first lines, the so-called derridarian programme, approaches in his papers issues regarding the which is the overcoming of metaphysics using the relationship between philosophy and non- criticism of logocentrism essentialised as philosophy, starting from a philosophical phonocentrism (TROC, 2006). discourse of literary genre. Basically, if we analyse A definition and also a criticism of logocentrism Writing and difference, Voice and phenomenon, as is achieved by the French philosopher in the well as About grammatology, papers belonging to opening pages of About grammatology, in which the French author, we notice a proximity with the this concept is presented as describing a rhetoric used in augmenting the literary theories. metaphysics of phonetic writing (of the alphabet, Following the paths of the French structuralists, for example). Derrida harshly criticises this Derrida develops his position towards the metaphysics suggested by the linguists of the (linguistic) sign. The French poststructuralist is previous century which raises at an important opposed to the logocentrism promoted by Plato and level the problem of language, more precisely of the continental metaphysics which states the idea the sing language. that words have a clear meaning which facilitates Stating that the thinking has to avoid peoples’ communication. He supports the speech metaphysics, Derrida criticises Saussure’s International Journal of Communication Research 37 Paul GORBAN linguistic structuralism or Levi Strauss’s fragmentation of the sign. This fragmentation anthropological one. Displaying his denial characterises the strengths of our weaknesses, position of logocentrism within the philosophy of which comes from the fact that the lack of power language, the French philosopher denies the separates, disengages and emancipates. According existence of the speech-writing, mind-body, to Derrida, structuralism leads to the idea of internal-external, good-evil, accident-essence, technical freedom, even if it represents in itself the identity-difference, presence-absence, the space- pure and simple conscience, perceived as a bad, literally-figurative and masculine-feminine thinking of the past, of the fact. This conscience is separations (BOTEZ, 2005). For example, Derrida catastrophic, destructive and deconstructed. “We shows that Saussure limits the writing systems to perceive structure at the moment of threat (…) it two, defined as representation systems of the oral can then be methodically threatened in order to language, no matter if they represent words, in a be better perceived and not only in its ribs, but synthetically and global manner or if the also in that secret point in which it is neither phonetically represent constitutive sound elements ascension nor ruin or instability. This operation is of words. The philosopher arguments that called to preoccupy or to request. (…) The structuralist phonetic writing has as a functional principle preoccupations and requests, when they become referring to the upholding and protection of the methodical, only facilitate the illusion of the language’s internal protection system and that technical freedom. Indeed, they produce, within Saussure’s limitation does not correspond to the the register of the method, a preoccupation and a scientific demands of the internal system. The request of the being, a historical and metaphysical latter is built as an epistemological exigency in threat of the basements. Especially in the eras of general, by the possibility of phonetic writing and historical dislocation, when we are driven out of by the exteriority of denotation in relationship to the place, this structuralist passion develops for the internal logic (DERRIDA, 2009). In Writing and itself, which is, at the same time, a sort of difference Derrida clearly highlights the idea that experimental anger and a proliferative over- the contemporary world is flooded by the simplification” DERRIDA,( 1998). structuralist invasion (which arguments its We could say that Derrida develops a methodologies and fundaments on the basis of constructivism on structuralism, situation that three concepts: of writing, of the history of can be interpreted as poststructuralist or metaphysics and of science). Under these postmodernist. In an interview with Julia conditions, despite all the differences, the universal Kristeva (DERRIDA, 2001) the French philosopher reflection receives an impulse from a restlessness explains the logocentric and etnocentric limits of regarding language, a restlessness within the the models which influence present-day language itself. No matter our lack of knowledge, semiology, meaning the model of the sign and of says Derrida, the question regarding the sign is its correlates: communication and structure. within itself more or less different that a sign of According to Derrida, because of these limitations time (a trend), and trying to reduce it only to that one cannot think that one day we could attribute means causing violence, especially since this the concept of the sign to metaphysics, and if question – historical in a completely unordinary however this were to happen, than it would way – gets closer to the point in which the nature represent both an obstacle and a progress. In of the pure sign of language becomes uncertain, order to augment this theory, Derrida uses partial and unessential. The philosopher shows examples from Saussure, showing that he that the structuralist attitude and our position confronts, when talking about the sing, the before the language or within the language do not system of the spoken language with the system only represent some moments in history but also of phonetic writing, as if this were the telos of a wonder, through language as an origin of writing. According to Derrida the sign concept history. Derrida notices that structuralism, as well has its own phonic substance, the phonè which as other systemic fundamental sciences, creates represent the significant substance, which offers the illusion of technical freedom, and this only the conscience the most intimate relationship with leads to the separation of the concepts, to the the thought of the signified concept. In other 38 Volume 7 • Issue 1, January / March 2017 • JACQUES DERRIDA – GRAMMATOLOGY, THE PROGRAMME OF A POSTMODERN SEMIOLOGY words, from this point of view, in relationship to epistemological model for all the human related the sassaurian thought, the voice represents the sciences. Phonocentrism is coextensive to conscience in itself. The French philosopher logocentrism in its different hypothesis: the wants to point out here that when he speaks, “he presence of things in front of the sight as eidos, is conscious not only of the things he is thinking, the presence as substance/essence/existence, but he also keeps his thinking closer or the concept, the presence of the cogito, of conscience, of a significant which does not fall in the world that subjectivity, etc. but essentialised as logocentrism, I understand closer to my own thinking or to the which characterizes the era of metaphysics