African Documentaries, Critical Interventions: the Non-Fiction Film Production at the Origins of Francophone West African Cinema
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Critical Interventions Journal of African Art History and Visual Culture ISSN: 1930-1944 (Print) 2326-411X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcin20 African Documentaries, Critical Interventions: The Non-Fiction Film Production at The Origins Of Francophone West African Cinema Vincent Bouchard To cite this article: Vincent Bouchard (2017) African Documentaries, Critical Interventions: The Non-Fiction Film Production at The Origins Of Francophone West African Cinema, Critical Interventions, 11:3, 214-227, DOI: 10.1080/19301944.2017.1401375 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19301944.2017.1401375 Published online: 14 Dec 2017. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 18 View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rcin20 AFRICAN DOCUMENTARIES,CRITICAL INTERVENTIONS:THE NON-FICTION FILM PRODUCTION AT THE ORIGINS OF FRANCOPHONE WEST AFRICAN CINEMA Vincent Bouchard, Indiana University Ousmane Sembene, the indisputable father “perruquer,” 1980, p. 49), was the starting point of African cinema, is known for his numerous of new audio-visual instances (“body-institutions”; full-length feature fiction films. It is interesting Dubois, 1978) of production, training, and recep- now to explore the incubation period of his cin- tion. In exploring the production of documenta- ema and, more broadly, that of francophone ries—or proto-documentaries—by African African cinema, by examining the various pro- pioneers, the objective of this article is to highlight ductions of alternative audio-visual projects, other forms of audiovisual production that including educational films and documentary occurred at the same time as the emergence of projects made in the often-troubled contexts of West African cinemas. Not seeking to be exhaus- colonial and post-colonial institutions. It is thus tive, it will instead draft a number of lines of interesting to compare the diversity of film practi- reflection structuring a host of cultural practices in ces in the Africa of the Independences (1950– the context of a nascent audiovisual institution. 1970). Describing the premises of a cinemato- This article does not aim to be definitive, serving graphic institution (institution liminaire, Biron, instead as an invitation to strengthen the research 2000), whose first players aim to establish a fair concerning a larger corpus of audio-visual distance from the ex-colonial tutelage, allows us productions. to re-examine the generally accepted version of Starting with the educational background of history that begins with full-feature films. This is Senegalese directors and technicians, we will com- done by showing how this period is characterized pare this system with the Sahelian experience, i.e., by a diversified production of less glamorous cin- the collaboration between the Comitedufilmeth- ematographic projects. nographique and the Centre culturel franco-nigerien This article will thus explore the non-fiction and the audiovisual production in the Upper Volta films made by African pioneers, generally co-pro- in the 1960s. First, we need to examine the general duced at different levels with the Cooperation characteristics of the budding cinematographic francaise¸ . It will particularly address the ways in institution as it was created in Senegal, C^ote- which filmmakers in West African Francophone d’Ivoire, Niger, and Upper Volta during the countries (mainly Senegal, Burkina Faso, and 1960s. First, it can be defined by a high level of Niger) used various tactics (Certeau, 1980) to interactions between agencies: the same person adapt the diverse cultural, educational, and audio- could occupy different institutional role such as visual projects—financed by the newly former production, validation, or distribution. At a pre- colonial power (France) or by international insti- liminary stage, institutions have few rules, which tutions (UNESCO)—to their goal of creating resultsinaspaceofgreatflexibility.Sincethefilm- movies. This process (Certeau called it makers are coming from extra-cinematographic Critical Interventions 11, Issue 3 2017 © 2017 Critical Interventions: Journal of African Art History and Visual Culture https://doi.org/10.1080/19301944.2017.1401375 THE ORIGINS OF FRANCOPHONE WEST-AFRICAN CINEMA | 215 backgrounds, subverting aesthetic or technical have difficulty in getting recognition for their codes, and exploring various filming approaches, artistic practices. Thus many young participants the result is often heterodox, and the delineation try their hand in the industry before finding their betweengenresisfluid.1 More broadly, the emerg- path in other domains. This is particularly valid ing cinematographic field is dependent2 on other in the audiovisual sector due to the multiplicity local cultural institutions, on the political and of techniques to be mastered, the constraints social contexts, and the policies of the newly inde- related to the material, and large aesthetic mar- pendent government as well as the ex-colonial gins. In this context, it is interesting to see how power. Body institutions (instances)atastarting the filmmakers remembered in the institutions point cannot distance themselves from the social (Paulin Soumanou Vieyra, Ousmane Sembene, environment: there is a close proximity to the Alassane Mustapha, Oumarou Ganda, etc.) filmmakers’ sociopolitical and the aesthetic inten- forged a path through chaotic situations. tions. The state control of the modes of produc- In the case of West Africa, the corpus of post- tion and distribution often interferes with the independence films is relatively small and pro- filmmakers’ goals to express their own political duced by a handful of filmmakers. Consequently, views. Having defined themselves as artists and each individual’s input takes on great importance intellectuals connected with the masses, they and its own meaning. If we compare the training appropriated Fanon’s category of intellectuel de la of Francophone film and television directors and troisieme periode (Fanon, 2002) and saw them- technicians in West Africa (specifically Senegal, selves as responsible for “decolonizing the imagi- C^ote d’Ivoire, Niger, and Upper Volta), two naries” and disseminating a postcolonial mode of models emerge: Senegalese or Ivorian filmmakers thought. The West African cinematographic insti- would obtain aesthetic and/or technical training tution has a low level of autonomy from French while abroad in Europe (mainly France and the cultural institutions: the first films were in French, USSR). Upon their return, some would struggle more or less financed through cooperation, and to remain creators, whereas others chose comfort greatly influenced by the practices current at that in administrative activity. The vast majority of time within the French film academy. This Nigerien and Burkinabe (Voltaic) filmmakers remains true for the Senegalese, Nigerien, and began by making films before participating in Burkinabe examples. short-term distance learning. Although not all who participated went on to become recognized directors, most of them continued their participa- FILMMAKER AND TECHNICIAN BACKGROUND tion in audiovisual activity. Let us start with the IN SENEGAL example of the Republic of Senegal. Like culture, a wide range of processes can be In 1952, Paulin Vieyra was admitted to the observed that are difficult to synthesize. As men- IDHEC, the Institut des Hautes Etudes tioned, this is characteristic of liminal cultural Cinematographiques (now FEMIS). In 1954, he institutions, where there is a lot of flexibility and was the first West African graduate of IDHEC. few standards: pioneers have difficulties in In 1955, in collaboration with Mamadou Sarr obtaining the right training. By definition, they and Jacques Caristan, he directed Africa-sur-Seine come from another cultural tradition, and, with- (Paulin Soumanou Vieyra, Mamadou Sarr, Jac- out established methods of accreditation, they ques Caristan, 1955) about the situation of Interventions 216 | Bouchard African students in France. The film was shot is classical and demonstrates nearly identical entirely in Paris because it was impossible for choices that would have been made by European Africans to obtain permission to film in the filmmakers undertaking similar themes: the French colonies during the colonial period. From absence of direct sound renders the reality more 1957 onward, Vieyra organized the Senegalese abstract, and the commentary in French dictates cinema and news service in the Senegalese gov- the meaning of purely illustrative images. Certain ernment. While awaiting the arrival of the French expressions recall the characteristic exoticism of collaborators, Andre Jousse and Christian colonial productions: “Life continues, pictur- Lacoste, Vieyra put himself behind the camera. esque, noisy and colored” (10000); “One relaxes, Later, he recruited and trained Senegalese pho- one is happy, one sways with the rhythm” tographers, including Baidy Sow, Georges Cari- (12030).3 This holds true in the introductory stan, and Momar Thiam. The training of audio maps of West Africa and Senegal that open the and visual technicians varied. Some learned their film. For these reasons, this film is representative trade on the spot; others collaborated with the of the weak autonomy of the Senegalese audiovi- elders trained in Europe or with French partners. sual production, both in terms of means and aes- Others were invited to take short courses