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Chapter 1 1. on Earlier Travel and on Wonder, See Mary Baine Campbell Notes Chapter 1 1. On earlier travel and on wonder, see Mary Baine Campbell, The Witness and the Other World: Exotic European Travel Writing, 400–1600 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988) and her Wonder and Science: Imagining Worlds in Early Modern Europe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999). 2. J. H. Elliott, First Images of America, ed. Fredi Chiapelli (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), II:880, see I:12–21. 3. The Spanish Origin of International Law: Francisco De Vitoria and His Law of Nations, trans. J. S. Brown (Carnegie Endowment Classics of international Law, 1934), ix–xl. 4. For an excellent discussion on this background, see Anthony Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982, rev. 1986); on lordship, see a full analysis in Pagden’s, Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France c.1500–c.1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995). 5. See, e.g., Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 1550–1750: The Impact of the Slave Trade on an African Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). 6. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 790. For a specialized study of this problem, see Urs Peter Ruf, Ending Slavery: Hierarchy, Dependency, and Gender in Central Mauritania (Bielefeld : Transcript Verlag, 1999). 7. Pierre Bourdieu, “Participant Objectivation,” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 9 (2) (2003), 281–94. 8. Bourdieu is distinguishing his idea of the observer from that in Marcus and Fisher (1986), Geertz (1988), or Rosaldo (1989): See G. Marcus and M. Fischer, Anthropology as Cultural Critique (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); C. Geertz, Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988); R. Rosaldo, Culture and Truth: The Remaking of Social Analysis (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989). 9. Bourdieu has in mind Clifford and Marcus (1986) and the “interpretive skepticism” that Woolgar (1988) refers to (Gupta & Ferguson, 1997). See J. Clifford and G. Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); S. Woolgar, “Reflexivity is the Ethnographer of the Text,” Knowledge and Reflexivity: New 204 Notes to Pages 8–13 Frontiers in the Sociology of Knowledge, ed., S. Woolgar (London: Sage, 1988), 14–34; A. Gupta and J. Ferguson, eds., Anthropological Locations: Boundaries and Grounds of a Field Science (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). See Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992), 2; see, 6, 10. 10. Bourdieu, “Participant Objectivation,” 281–94; see P. Bourdieu, Science de la science et réflexivité (Cours et travaux) (Paris: Raisons d’agir Editions, 2001). 11. For instance, see Jonathan Hart, Representing the New World (New York and London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001) and with the same publisher, Columbus, Shakespeare and the Interpretation of the New World (2003), and Comparing Empires (2003). Chapter 2 1. Richard Hakluyt, The Principall Navigations . (London: George Bishop, 1589), no pagination; the actual Latin inscription is “AMERICA SIVE IN DIA NOVA Ao 1492 a Christophoro Colombo nomine regis Castelle primum detecta.” Noua Francia appears to the east. 2. Ibid., 2. 3. P. Fauchille, Traité de Droit International Public, vol. 1, part 2 (Paris: Rousseau & cie, 1925), 687, cited in L. C. Green and Olive P. Dickason, The Law of Nations and the New World (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1989), 7. For similar references to François Ier on Adam’s will, see Lyle N. McAlister, Spain and Portugal in the New World 1492–1700 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 199 and Anthony Pagden, Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France c. 1500–c.1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 47. 4. Raymonde Litalien, Les explorateurs de l’Amérique du Nord 1492–1795 (Sillery: Septentrion, 1993), 53. 5. Foreign merchants sometimes lived and traded under the protection of the government where they lived: the merchants of the Hanseatic League in the Steelyard in London, the English wool merchants in Bruges, the English in Andalusia, and the Florentine community in Lyon, one of whose syndicates financed Verrazzano. See Lawrence C. Wroth, The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazano 1524–1528 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 58–9. 6. Unfortunately, we do not have Verrazzano’s original report in French for the king, but four Italian versions have been preserved, Ramusio’s version of 1555 [1556?] being the only one known for years. An English translation of the Italian text in Ramusio appears in Hakluyt’s Divers Voyages (1582) and The Principall Nauigations (1589). René Herval’s French translation, Giovanni da Verrazzano et les Dieppois à la Recherche du Cathay (1524–1528) (Rouen and Caen, 1933), was based on Alessandro Bacchiani’s Italian text (1909 edition) and was republished in Les Français en Amérique pendant la première moitié du XVIe siècle, ed. Charles-André Julien, René Herval, Théodore Beauchesne (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1946). There are four versions of Notes to Pages 13–16 205 Verrazzano’s narrative of the voyage, three of which are full accounts in the form of a letter from the leader of the expedition, Verrazzano, to François Ier, who authorized the voyage. For a detailed account of the versions of the text, see Wroth, The Voyages, 93–5. 7. John Parker, Books to Build an Empire: A Bibliographical History of English Overseas Interests to 1620 (Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1965), 21–3. See Of the new landes ..., see Edward Arber, ed. The first Three English books on America [?1511]–1555 A.D....(Westminster, 1895), xxiii–xxxvi. 8. W. P. D. Wightman, Science in a Renaissance Society (London: Hutchinson University Library, 1972), 101–2. On the knowledge of theoretical science and of practical navigation of Columbus, Vespucci, and others, see Wightman, Science in a Renaissance Society, 65–75. Concerning science in England and France, see E. G. R. Taylor, Tudor Geography 1485–1583 (London: Methuen, 1930); D. Stone, Jr., France in the Sixteenth Century: A Medieval Society Transformed (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969). 9. John Rastell, A new interlude...of the iiii elements (n.p.n.d.), fol. Ci verso, quoted in Parker, 24–5. See also Parker’s discussion on those pages. See M. E. Borish, “Source and Intention of The Four Elements,” Studies in Philology 35 (1938), 149–63. 10. Richard Eden, A treatyse of the newe India, with other new founde landes and Ilandes, as well eastwarde as westwarde, as they are knowen and found in these our dayes, after the descripcion of Sebastian Munster in his boke of universall Cosmographie: wherein the diligent reader my see the good successe and rewarde of noble and honeste enterpryses, by the which not only worldly ryches are obtayned, but also God is glorified, and the Christian fayth enlarged. Translated out of Latin into Englishe. By Rycharde Eden (London, 1553), 7. 11. Ibid., a,i, verso-a,ii, recto. 12. Ibid., 171 recto, 172 verso-173 recto. I have quoted from Eden’s translation of the bull into English, which appears to be the first extant, because this would have been the first time that the English reading public would have been able to read this donation in their mother tongue. 13. Ibid., c,i, recto. 14. Ibid., c,iii, recto. 15. A detail concerning Bermuda will illustrate the triangular relation amongst Spain, England, and France. One history of Bermuda claims that Menendez’s massacre of Huguenots in Florida started as a request to look for his son whom he thought shipwrecked in Bermuda. The king agreed that Menendez go to Florida to establish a colony, but there he massacred the Huguenots as Lutherans. This version probably underestimates the deliberate nature of Philip’s foreign policy, but, regardless of the intricacy of the intention, one detail is telling here: Menendez had gone with the king—Philip II—to England in 1554. Bermuda was a meeting place of various European ships and nations. Henry C. Wilkinson, The Adventures of Bermuda: A History of the Island from Its Discovery until the Dissolution of the Somers Island Company in 1684 (1933; London: Oxford University Press, 1958), 20–1; see 1–53. On Spain’s influence in Bermuda, see Henry C. Wilkinson, Bermuda in the 206 Notes to Page 16 Old Empire: A History of the Island from the Dissolution of the Somers Island Company until the end of the American Revolutionary War: 1684–1784 (London: Oxford University Press, 1950), II, 117–57. See also Wesley Frank Craven, An Introduction to the History of Bermuda (1938; Bermuda: 1990). An important source for information on Spain is J. H. Lefroy, Memorials of the Discovery and early Settlement of the Bermudas or Somers Islands 1515–1685 (Toronto, 1981). The Bermuda Historical Society and Bermuda National Trust, 1981 offered this reprint—volume 1, 1511–1652 and volume 2, 1650–87. This is a selec- tion from ten volumes in the archives of Bermuda. The chronology in Lefroy is good. It includes the Spanish influence in Bermuda maps as well as discus- sion of Bermudez, Oviedo, Camelo as well as the inscription on Spanish rock. While in Bermuda, I examined a number of maps and books that showed the influence of Spain. For instance, I looked at two versions of the so-called Somers’s maps—MAP OF BERMUDA, 1609–1617, [PA 337 (Bermuda National Trust)]. Paget donated the original to the British Museum. One map has writing. In the upper left hand corner there a note that situates the island in relation to Cape Cod, Virginia, England Madeira and Puerto Rico.
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