Chapter 1 1. on Earlier Travel and on Wonder, See Mary Baine Campbell

Notes

Chapter 1 1. On earlier travel and on wonder, see Mary Baine Campbell, The Witness and the Other World: Exotic European Travel Writing, 400–1600 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988) and her Wonder and Science: Imagining Worlds in Early Modern Europe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999). 2. J. H. Elliott, First Images of America, ed. Fredi Chiapelli (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), II:880, see I:12–21. 3. The Spanish Origin of International Law: Francisco De Vitoria and His Law of Nations, trans. J. S. Brown (Carnegie Endowment Classics of international Law, 1934), ix–xl. 4. For an excellent discussion on this background, see Anthony Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982, rev. 1986); on lordship, see a full analysis in Pagden’s, Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France c.1500–c.1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995). 5. See, e.g., Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 1550–1750: The Impact of the Slave Trade on an African Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). 6. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 790. For a specialized study of this problem, see Urs Peter Ruf, Ending Slavery: Hierarchy, Dependency, and Gender in Central Mauritania (Bielefeld : Transcript Verlag, 1999). 7. Pierre Bourdieu, “Participant Objectivation,” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 9 (2) (2003), 281–94. 8. Bourdieu is distinguishing his idea of the observer from that in Marcus and Fisher (1986), Geertz (1988), or Rosaldo (1989): See G. Marcus and M. Fischer, Anthropology as Cultural Critique (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); C. Geertz, Works and Lives: The Anthropologist as Author (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988); R. Rosaldo, Culture and Truth: The Remaking of Social Analysis (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989). 9. Bourdieu has in mind Clifford and Marcus (1986) and the “interpretive skepticism” that Woolgar (1988) refers to (Gupta & Ferguson, 1997). See J. Clifford and G. Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); S. Woolgar, “Reflexivity is the Ethnographer of the Text,” Knowledge and Reflexivity: New 204 Notes to Pages 8–13

Frontiers in the Sociology of Knowledge, ed., S. Woolgar (London: Sage, 1988), 14–34; A. Gupta and J. Ferguson, eds., Anthropological Locations: Boundaries and Grounds of a Field Science (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). See Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992), 2; see, 6, 10. 10. Bourdieu, “Participant Objectivation,” 281–94; see P. Bourdieu, Science de la science et réflexivité (Cours et travaux) (Paris: Raisons d’agir Editions, 2001). 11. For instance, see Jonathan Hart, Representing the New World (New York and London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001) and with the same publisher, Columbus, Shakespeare and the Interpretation of the New World (2003), and Comparing Empires (2003).

Chapter 2 1. Richard Hakluyt, The Principall Navigations . . . (London: George Bishop, 1589), no pagination; the actual Latin inscription is “AMERICA SIVE IN DIA NOVA Ao 1492 a Christophoro Colombo nomine regis Castelle primum detecta.” Noua Francia appears to the east. 2. Ibid., 2. 3. P. Fauchille, Traité de Droit International Public, vol. 1, part 2 (Paris: Rousseau & cie, 1925), 687, cited in L. C. Green and Olive P. Dickason, The Law of Nations and the New World (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1989), 7. For similar references to François Ier on Adam’s will, see Lyle N. McAlister, Spain and Portugal in the New World 1492–1700 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 199 and Anthony Pagden, Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France c. 1500–c.1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 47. 4. Raymonde Litalien, Les explorateurs de l’Amérique du Nord 1492–1795 (Sillery: Septentrion, 1993), 53. 5. Foreign merchants sometimes lived and traded under the protection of the government where they lived: the merchants of the Hanseatic League in the Steelyard in London, the English wool merchants in Bruges, the English in Andalusia, and the Florentine community in Lyon, one of whose syndicates financed Verrazzano. See Lawrence C. Wroth, The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazano 1524–1528 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 58–9. 6. Unfortunately, we do not have Verrazzano’s original report in French for the king, but four Italian versions have been preserved, Ramusio’s version of 1555 [1556?] being the only one known for years. An English translation of the Italian text in Ramusio appears in Hakluyt’s Divers Voyages (1582) and The Principall Nauigations (1589). René Herval’s French translation, Giovanni da Verrazzano et les Dieppois à la Recherche du Cathay (1524–1528) (Rouen and Caen, 1933), was based on Alessandro Bacchiani’s Italian text (1909 edition) and was republished in Les Français en Amérique pendant la première moitié du XVIe siècle, ed. Charles-André Julien, René Herval, Théodore Beauchesne (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1946). There are four versions of Notes to Pages 13–16 205

Verrazzano’s narrative of the voyage, three of which are full accounts in the form of a letter from the leader of the expedition, Verrazzano, to François Ier, who authorized the voyage. For a detailed account of the versions of the text, see Wroth, The Voyages, 93–5. 7. John Parker, Books to Build an Empire: A Bibliographical History of English Overseas Interests to 1620 (Amsterdam: N. Israel, 1965), 21–3. See Of the new landes ..., see Edward Arber, ed. The first Three English books on America [?1511]–1555 A.D....(Westminster, 1895), xxiii–xxxvi. 8. W. P. D. Wightman, Science in a Renaissance Society (London: Hutchinson University Library, 1972), 101–2. On the knowledge of theoretical science and of practical navigation of Columbus, Vespucci, and others, see Wightman, Science in a Renaissance Society, 65–75. Concerning science in England and France, see E. G. R. Taylor, Tudor Geography 1485–1583 (London: Methuen, 1930); D. Stone, Jr., France in the Sixteenth Century: A Medieval Society Transformed (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969). 9. John Rastell, A new interlude...of the iiii elements (n.p.n.d.), fol. Ci verso, quoted in Parker, 24–5. See also Parker’s discussion on those pages. See M. E. Borish, “Source and Intention of The Four Elements,” Studies in Philology 35 (1938), 149–63. 10. Richard Eden, A treatyse of the newe India, with other new founde landes and Ilandes, as well eastwarde as westwarde, as they are knowen and found in these our dayes, after the descripcion of Sebastian Munster in his boke of universall Cosmographie: wherein the diligent reader my see the good successe and rewarde of noble and honeste enterpryses, by the which not only worldly ryches are obtayned, but also God is glorified, and the Christian fayth enlarged. Translated out of Latin into Englishe. By Rycharde Eden (London, 1553), 7. 11. Ibid., a,i, verso-a,ii, recto. 12. Ibid., 171 recto, 172 verso-173 recto. I have quoted from Eden’s translation of the bull into English, which appears to be the first extant, because this would have been the first time that the English reading public would have been able to read this donation in their mother tongue. 13. Ibid., c,i, recto. 14. Ibid., c,iii, recto. 15. A detail concerning Bermuda will illustrate the triangular relation amongst Spain, England, and France. One history of Bermuda claims that Menendez’s massacre of Huguenots in Florida started as a request to look for his son whom he thought shipwrecked in Bermuda. The king agreed that Menendez go to Florida to establish a colony, but there he massacred the Huguenots as Lutherans. This version probably underestimates the deliberate nature of Philip’s foreign policy, but, regardless of the intricacy of the intention, one detail is telling here: Menendez had gone with the king—Philip II—to England in 1554. Bermuda was a meeting place of various European ships and nations. Henry C. Wilkinson, The Adventures of Bermuda: A History of the Island from Its Discovery until the Dissolution of the Somers Island Company in 1684 (1933; London: Oxford University Press, 1958), 20–1; see 1–53. On Spain’s influence in Bermuda, see Henry C. Wilkinson, Bermuda in the 206 Notes to Page 16

Old Empire: A History of the Island from the Dissolution of the Somers Island Company until the end of the American Revolutionary War: 1684–1784 (London: Oxford University Press, 1950), II, 117–57. See also Wesley Frank Craven, An Introduction to the History of Bermuda (1938; Bermuda: 1990). An important source for information on Spain is J. H. Lefroy, Memorials of the Discovery and early Settlement of the Bermudas or Somers Islands 1515–1685 (Toronto, 1981). The Bermuda Historical Society and Bermuda National Trust, 1981 offered this reprint—volume 1, 1511–1652 and volume 2, 1650–87. This is a selection from ten volumes in the archives of Bermuda. The chronology in Lefroy is good. It includes the Spanish influence in Bermuda maps as well as discussion of Bermudez, Oviedo, Camelo as well as the inscription on Spanish rock. While in Bermuda, I examined a number of maps and books that showed the influence of Spain. For instance, I looked at two versions of the so-called Somers’s maps—MAP OF BERMUDA, 1609–1617, [PA 337 (Bermuda National Trust)]. Paget donated the original to the British Museum. One map has writing. In the upper left hand corner there a note that situates the island in relation to Cape Cod, Virginia, England Madeira and Puerto Rico. On this map there is a Flemish wrack in the Northeast of Bermuda. In the bottom right hand corner this description is found: The Island of Bermuda was so named by Juan Bermudes a Spaniard, the first Discoverer thereof: It is seated in the Latitude of 33 Degress, distant from the Coast of Spayne 1000 Leagues/And from St. Juan de Porto Rico 200. Charles th’Emperor (considering that the fleetes homeward bounde from the Weste Indies muste passe by yt Island) thoughte it conveynient (it being then desarte) to have it habited. (And to that end In Anno 1527, he Covenanted wth Hernando Camelo a Portugues granting him the whole benifitte of the Island Custome free for 20 yeares to himself & his sonne wth the title of Govnor thereof duringtheyre lives uppon condition that he shoulde inhabite the same wthin 4 yeares next ensuing. Notwthstanding theesegreat Priviledges it does not appeare that ever the said Hernando Camelo did/people the Islands. Historia General de Las Indias Decad. 4 Pag. 39: written by Alfonso de Herrera. In the early seventeenth century the English seem to have been well aware of the origins and precedents of Spain regarding the lands the English now wanted to occupy. 16. French privatering intensified and led to the burning of Havana in 1555. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 ended the Habsburg-Valois wars, but, as Ian K. Steele notes, it failed to bring peace to American waters even if Philip II had reasons to claim exclusive rights to America in the formal treaty; see Steele, Warpaths: Invasions of North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 11–2. 17. The phrase is James Froude’s; see his ‘England’s Forgotten Worthies’ (1852) in Short Studies on Great Subjects (1867; London, 1888), I, 446. For a brief discussion of Froude’s views of Hakluyt, see Jeffrey Knapp, An Empire Notes to Pages 16–26 207

Nowhere: England. America, and Literature from Utopia to The Tempest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992) 1, 3 and Mary C. Fuller, Voyages in Print: English Travel to America, 1576–1624 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 14, 159–62. 18. On the abdication of Charles V and the transition to Philip II in the Netherlands and for the English intervention, see Charles Wilson, Queen Elizabeth and the Revolt in the Netherlands (London: Macmillan, 1970), ix–xiv, 1–20 respectively. Wilson also discusses the French hatred of the English (16) and the possible alliance of France with the rebels in the Netherlands (32). 19. I am not sure, however, that the papal bulls had been superceded as much as W. J. Eccles claims. See his France in America (Vancouver: Fitshenry and Whiteside, 1972, rpt. 1973), 7 8 for below. Like Marcel Trudel’s scholarship, Eccles work in the field of French America is seminal. See also W. J. Eccles, Canada Under Louis IV, 1663–1701 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1964). 20. Eccles, France, 8. 21. Ibid. 22. The Spanish failure to conquer Florida seems to have created a vacuum for the French. See Steele, Warpaths, 7–20. On the French failure in Florida, including dissension amongst the French, and their piracy, as well as a balanced account of the conflict between Spain and France in this region, see ibid., 25–8. Apparently, the Spanish expedition to Florida, 1565–68, would cost the king one-fifth of the military budget for his empire; ibid., 27. For other discussions of this conflict, which, along with the war in the Netherlands, fed the Black Legend, see Eugene Lyon, The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565–1568 (Gainsville, FL: University Presses of Florida, 1976) and Paul E. Hoffman, The Spanish Crown and the Defense of the Caribbean, 1565–1585: Precedent, Patrimonialism, and Royal Parsimony (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 218–28. 23. On the pretensions of claims amongst the European powers, including those made by Spain and France in Florida, see Steele, Warpaths, 22–3. 24. On Geneva and America, see Frank Lestringant, Le Huguenot et le sauvage: L’Amérique et la controverse coloniale, en France, au temps des Guerres de Réligion (1555–1589) (Paris: Aux Amateurs de livres [Klincksieck], 1990), ch. 3, 83–132. 25. In Les Singvlaritez Thevet gave his account of his voyage to Brazil with Villegagnon in 1555, including his preference for the religion of the Natives, who recognized the eternal God, and the Protestants. For a discussion of Thevet regarding this voyage, see Myron P. Gilmore, “The New World in French and English Historians of the Sixteenth Century,” First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the Old, ed. Fredi Chiapelli et al., 2 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), II, 520–1 and Lestringant, Le Huguenot, 13–4. 26. Roger Schlesinger and Arthur P. Stabler, eds., André Thevet’s North America: A Sixteenth-Century View (Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University 208 Notes to Pages 18–19

Press, 1986), xxxiii, xxxix; see Jean Céard, La Nature et les prodiges: L’insolite au XVIe siècle, en France (Geneva: Droz, 1977), 283. In this century some scholars have tried to defend Thevet and to achieve a balanced view of his work. Even then, some ambivalence remains. Frank Lestringant, a specialist on Thevet, says that this cosmographer is really a writer of fiction and not a savant, although he praises Thevet’s promotion of the colonization of Canada and his discussions on the political will as being sufficient for the birth of a nation. Frank Lestringant, “L’Avenir des terres nouvelles,” La Renaissance et le Nouveau Monde, ed. Alain Parent et al. (Québec: Musée du Québec, 1984), 50–1. See also his L’Atelier du Cosmographe ou l’image du monde à la Renaissance (Paris: A. Michel, 1991) and Schlesinger and Stabler, André Thevet’s North American, xxxix–xl. In discussing Thevet’s reputation, Schlesinger and Stabler remain ambivalent. They summarize his faults— plagiarism, conceit, territorialism, pretensions as an eyewitness—but also his good qualities: his insatiable curiosity and courage as a Renaissance tourist, and recommend that his works are best treated as a kind of encyclopedic conflation or genre: travelogue, natural history, ethnography, anthropology, and romance. Without Thevet, we would lack some of the information we have about sixteenth-century America. Unlike Oviedo, Thevet did not live and serve long in the New World, but, like Oviedo, he claimed the authority of observation and the eyewitness; see Lestringant, L’Atelier du Cosmographe ou l’image du monde à la Renaissance, 29. Both historians sought the favor of their sovereigns and wanted to be the sole authority on the New World for their respective countries. They wanted to chronicle the expansion and the desire for empire at court. 27. For a discussion of the French in Florida, see Olive P. Dickason, The Myth of the Savage and the Beginnings of French Colonialism in the Americas (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1984), 193–202. 28. Parker, Books, 58–9. 29. Ibid. 30. Nicolas Le Challeux, Discours de l’histoire de la Floride, contenant la trahison des Espagnols, contre les subiets du Roy, en l’an mil cinq cens soixante cinq. (Dieppe: Pour leffé le Sellier, 1566), 51. Vallemande is, apparently, Pedro Menéndez. All translations of Le Challeux are mine. 31. Nicolas Le Challeux, “The Epistle,” A true and perfect description, A .iv. verso. I am using the British Library copy of Hacket’s translation and have consulted original French versions in the Houghton at Harvard as well as Gravier’s edition of 1872 and the one in Julien, Les Français, II, 201–38. Gravier and Julien both include the verse epistle and the “Reqveste.” 32. The Spanish themselves took into account the piracy or challenge of Huguenot then English corsairs and, from their point of view, this encroachment demanded retaliation or containment. The role of the Flemish is also consid- ered in a letter whose writer and recipient are now lost, who, in June 1569, is considering the economics of the trade between the West Indies and Spain; see Documents Concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. I. A. Wright (1932; Nendeln/Liechtenstein: Krause reprint, 1967), 5–6. Notes to Pages 19–22 209

33. See note 12 above. 34. In the “Epistle” he addresses the “tres-illvstre, et tres-vertvevse Dame Madame Clavde de Tvraine Dame de Tournon, & Contesse de Roussillon” with great praise for her bravery and exemplary behavior. François de Belle-forest Comingeois’s L’Histoire Vniverselle dv Monde ...(Paris: G. Mallot, 1570), ij. Hereafter referred to as Belleforest. 35. Ibid. 36. On Belleforest and Thevet, see Olive P. Dickason, “Thevet and Belleforest: Two Sixteenth-Century Frenchmen and New World Colonialism,” Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the French Colonial Society 16 (1992): 1–11. 37. Thevet uses the phrase “cruels jusques au bout;” André Thevet, La Cosmographie Vniverselle D’André Thevet Cosmographe dv Roy ...Tome Second (Paris: Chez P. L’Huilier, 1575), in Les Français en Amérique pendant la deuxième moitié du XVIe Siècle: Le Brésil et les Brésiliens, ed. Charles-André Julien, and notes by Suzanne Lussagnet (2 vols., Paris: Presses Universitaries de France, 1953), II, 29. 38. Thevet, La Cosmographie 82. Thevet also discussed American diseases the Spanish may have brought back from the New World; see ibid., 142. 39. Ibid., 221. 40. Ibid., 251. Portuguese slaves and rivalry with the Spanish appeared in Thevet’s account; see ibid., 263. He also discussed the Cannibals, figures Columbus originally represented; see ibid., 271. 41. “Sonet,” in Chauveton Histoire Novvelle (Geneva: Par Evstace Vignon, 1579), no pagination; my translation here and in the main text. 42. Villegagnon supplemented Coligny’s support for the Brazilian enterprise with that of the Cardinal de Lorraine, a member of the Guise family and the leader of the Catholic clergy in France. See Janet Whatley, “Introduction,” Jean de Léry, History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, trans. Janet Whatley (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), xx. 43. Jean de Léry, Histoire d’vn voyage faict en la terre dv Bresil, avtrement dite Amerique (Geneva: A. Chuppin, 1580), Aij. 44. Ibid., Aij verso. 45. Lancelot Voisin, sieur de La Popelinière, “Av Roy,” L’Histoire de France . . . (n.p. [La Rochelle]: Abraham H[autin], 1581), I, CC iij verso and CC recto; see I, 55 recto (Spanish pride); I, 74 verso (Spanish cruelty); I, book 14, 52 recto and verso (Spanish dishonor); The pagination began at 1 after the tenth book. The descriptions were brief “statements of fact” woven into detailed accounts of war but were not long and sensational as in Las Casas, Benzoni and others. 46. Ibid., I, book 14, 52 recto. On La Popelinière, see Lestringant, Le Huguenot, 156–8, 226–34, 258–61. 47. Ibid., I, 101 verso. 48. Francisco López de Gómara, Histoire Generalle des Indes Occidentales et Terres Nevves, qui iusques à present ont estre descouuertes. Traduite en françois par M. Fumee Sieur de Marly le Chatel. (Paris: Chez Michel Sonnius, 1578), ãiv verso; my translation. 210 Notes to Pages 23–24

49. Thomas Nicholas, “The Epistle Dedicatory,” The Pleasant Historie of the Conquest of the VVeast India, now called new Spayne, Atchieued by the vvorthy Prince Hernando Cortes Marques of the valley of Huaxacac, most delectable to Reade, Translated out of the Spanish tongue, by T. N. (London: Henry Bynneman, 1578), aij recto-aij verso. 50. On the English history plays, see, for instance, E. M. W. Tillyard, Shakespeare’s History Plays (London: Chatto & Windus, 1944) and Irving Ribner, The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare (1957, New York, 1965); for the English and European history play, see Herbert Lindenberger, Historical Drama: The Relation of Literature to Drama (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), Walter Cohen, Drama of a Nation: Public Theater in Renaissance England and Spain (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985) and Jonathan Hart, Theater and World: The Problematics of Shakespeare’s History (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992), 203–16, 231–50. 51. Nicholas, “The Epistle Dedicatory,” aij verso. 52. Ibid., aiv recto. 53. Ibid., aiv verso. 54. A Latin poem by Stephen Gossan, the author of a number of anti-theatrical tracts, preceded the main text of Nicholas’s translation. For his anti- representational stance, see Stephen Gossan, “Schoole of Abuse,” in Early Treatises on the Stage: Viz. Northbrooke’s Treatise Against Dicing, Dancing, Plays, and Interludes; Gossan’s School of Abuse; and Heywood’s Defence of Stage Plays (London, 1843), 7–34 . For a discussion of Gossan’s anti-mimetic and anti-theatrical works, see Jonas Barish, The Antitheatrical Prejudice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 1–37, 80–191. The connection with Gossan, who later turned his back on the theater with which he had been associated, might suggest an instability in the views of “imitation” in this circle. 55. The Quinns seem certain that Hakluyt knew this work; see David B. Quinn and Alison M. Quinn, “Introduction,” Richard Hakluyt, Discourse of Western Planting (London: Hakluyt Society, 1993), xvii. 56. “Discours au Henri III. Sur les moyens de diminuer l’Espaignol,” cited in Quinn and Quinn, xx- xxi. 57. “Discours au Henri III. Sur les moyens de diminuer l’Espaignol,” Mémoires et Correspondence de Duplessis-Mornay ...Tome Second (Paris: Treuttel et Würtz, 1824), 580. The title page of this work, just over 200 years after the death of Duplessis-Mornay in 1623, proclaimed that these memoirs and correspondence were published from original manuscripts and preceded the memoirs of Madame de Mornay on the life of her husband, written by herself for the instruction of her son. This work did not have a straightforward textual history. My translation here and below. I use “grandeur” to indicate the double meaning in French, which suggests splendor and largeness. I have chosen Christendom as opposed to Christianity. 58. Ibid., 581. 59. Ibid. 60. Ibid. Notes to Pages 24–29 211

61. Ibid. 62. Ibid. 63. Ibid., 281–82. 64. Ibid., 582. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid., 583. 69. Ibid. 70. Ibid., 583–4. 71. Ibid., 584. 72. Ibid. 73. Ibid. 74. Ibid., 585 75. Ibid. 76. Ibid. 77. Ibid., 585–6. 78. Ibid., 586. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid., 586–7. 81. Ibid., 587–8. 82. Ibid., 588. 83. Ibid. 84. Ibid., 588. 85. Ibid., 588–9. 86. Ibid., 589. 87. Ibid. 88. Ibid. 89. Ibid. 90. Ibid., 590. 91. Ibid. 92. Ibid. What is interesting here is that “stout Cortez” appears in “On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer,” a kind of conflation of the translation of study with the translation of empire. At the end of this sonnet, Keats’s Cortez, with “eagle eyes,” “star’d at the Pacific—and all his men/Look’d at each other with a wild surmise—/Silent, upon a peak in Darien.” See John Keats, The Poetical Works of John Keats, ed. Francis T. Palgrave (London: Macmillan, 1884). 93. Duplessis-Mornay, 590. 94. Ibid., 590–1. 95. Ibid., 591. 96. Ibid. 97. Ibid., 592. 98. Ibid. 99. Ibid. 100. Ibid., 593. 212 Notes to Pages 29–33

101. For a mention of the friendship, see Christopher Hill, A Tinker and a Poor Man: John Bunyan and His Church, 1628–1688 (1988; New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989), 32. 102. Ibid., see W. Hunt, The Puritan Moment: The Coming of Revolution in an English County (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 61. 103. Hill, A Tinker, 163. 104. John Bunyan, Miscellaneous Works (Oxford: Clarendon Press, gen. ed. Roger Sharrock 1976– ), vol. 2, 43–4. See Hill, A Tinker, 328–9. 105. Yelverton MS. XIV British Library Additional MS. 48014 [555 b], 131 recto. 106. Ibid., 203 recto. 107. Ibid., 206 recto. 108. Ibid., 208 recto. 109. Ibid., 228 recto-verso. 110. White Kennett, “To the Worthy Society Established For the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts,” [Dedication], Bibliothecæ Americanæ Primordia: An Attempt Towards laying the Foundation of an American Library, In several Books, Papers, and Writings, Humbly given to the Society For the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, ... By a Member of the said Society (London: J. Churchill, 1713), ii. My thanks to Stephen Ferguson, Curator of Rare Books at Princeton, for pointing this passage out to me. This Society was founded in 1701. 111. Anon., “A Discovery of Lands Beyond the Equinoctial” [Landsdowne MS., C., fol. 142–6], in Martin Frobisher, Three Voyages, Richard Collinson ed. (London, 1867), 4. Whereas Hakluyt would look to North America, this adviser and promoter of colonization is apparently thinking about the southern end of South America. 112. “A Discovery,” 7. 113. Urbain Chauveton, “Sommaire,” Histoire Novvelle dv Novveav Monde, Contenant en somme ce que les Hespagnols ont fait iusqu’à present aux Indes Occidentales, & le rude traitement qu’ils ont fait à ces poures peuples-la (Geneva: Par Evstace Vignon, 1579), no pagination [1st page recto]. Brief Discours and Requeste au roy are numbered together and continuously after Benzoni’s work, which was first published in Italian in 1565. For a discussion of Chauveton, see Benjamin Keen, “The Vision of America in the Writings of Urbain Chauveton,” in First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the Old, ed. Fredi Chiapelli et al., 2 vols., (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), I, 107–20. 114. Chauveton, “Sommaire,” no pagination [1st page verso]. My translation of Chauveton here and below. 115. Ibid., no pagination [1st page verso-2nd page recto]. 116. Richard Hakluyt, Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America, and the Islands Adjacent unto the Same . . . (London: for Thomas Woodcocke, 1582), ¶ recto. 117. Ibid., ¶ recto-¶ 2 verso. 118. Ibid., ¶ 2 verso. 119. Ibid. Notes to Pages 33–36 213

120. Ibid., ¶ 3 recto. 121. Ibid., ¶ 3 verso-¶ 4 recto For John Cabot’s letters patent in Latin and English, see ibid., A recto-A 2 verso and the note by Sebastian Cabot (including the taking of ‘three sauage men’ back to England), see A 3 recto- A 3 verso and Ramusio’s discussion of Sebastian Cabot in his Preface, see A 3 verso-A 4 recto. 122. See my Representing the New World, chapter 4 and the portrait (Fitzwilliam Museum M. 64 Philip of Spain) on the dust jacket of my Columbus, Shakespeare and the Intrepretation of the New World. 123. Richard Hakluyt, Discourse of Western Planting, ed. David B. Quinn and Alison M. Quinn (London: Hakluyt Society, 1993), 36. 124. Samuel Eliot Morison, The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages A.D. 500–1600 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 567–71; see Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Hakluyt Society, 2nd. ser. vols. 83, 84 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1940). 125. As Nicholas Canny points out, individual cases, like Thomas Stukely’s fraud for an Anglo-French settlement in Florida in 1563, could put off potential backers and colonists for Ireland and America, but other more practical objections occurred amongst the English, for instance that, in Ireland, only financing from the Crown could lead to successful colonies and that private profit had been placed before social and religious reform; Nicholas Canny, Kingdom and Colony: Ireland in the Atlantic World 1560–1800 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), 1–6. 126. For a discussion of the relation amongst Basanier, the Hakluyts, and Ralegh, see Lestringant, Le Huguenot, 163, 170–1. 127. Parker, Books, 121. 128. The passage reads: “My Lord, history being like a mirror, the means by which we form our actions to fit the virtues of those that we represent there, and reading the feats of men, is nothing other than to frequent and associate with them to profit in their company and continual conversation, so that historians are marvellously well received and welcome amongst those who make a profession of virtue.” M. Basanier, “Epistre,” Histoire notable de la Floride située ès Indes Occidentales,...(Paris: N. Roffet, 1586), ã ij recto. My translation here and below. For a modern edition, see Charles-André Julien, ed., Les Français en Amérique pendant la deuxième moitié du XVIe Siècle: Les Français en Floride, vol. 2, (Paris: Centre de documentation universitaire et Société d’édition d’enseignement supérieur réunis, 1958), 27–251. 129. Basanier, “Epistre,” ã ij verso-iii recto. 130. Laudonnière in Basanier, ed., Histoire notable, 64 recto. For another account of this mutiny and other events on this expedition to Florida, see Jacques Le Moyne, Brevis narratio eorum quae in Florida Americae provincia Gallis acciderunt, secunda in illam Navigatione, duce Renato de Laudonniere classis Praefecto, ed. Théodore de Bry (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1591), 10–13. 131. Thomas Harriot [Hariot], Briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia (London, 1590) reprinted New York, 1972. In his Introduction to 214 Notes to Pages 36–37

the Dover reprint (Rosenwald Collection Reprint Series), Paul Hutton discusses briefly the textual history of this work (vii). 132. Harriot, Briefe and true report (London, 1590), 31. 133. John White, The Trve Pictvres and Fashions of the People in That Parte of America Novv Cal-led Virginia . . . in Harriot, Briefe and true report (1590), [41]. 134. Walter, Ralegh, The Discouerie of the Large, Rich, and Bewtiful Empyre of Guiana, with a Relation of the Great and Golden Citie of Manoa (which the Spanyards call El Dorado .... (London: Robert Robinson, 1596), q 2, 76–9. 135. Ibid., 3. 136. According to Ralegh, Guiana had more gold than Peru. His evidence was the word of the Spaniards he had spoken to, they who called Manoa, the imperial city of Guiana, El Dorado. These same Spaniards attested to the riches of this city: “it farre exceedeth any of the world, at least of so much of the world as is knowen to the Spanish nation.” Ibid., 10. While under- mining the Spanish, Ralegh relied on them. He quoted at length in Spanish from chapter 120 of Lopez’s history of the Indies, which described the magnificent court of Guaynacapa, the emperor of Peru, whose descendant was, in Ralegh’s account, emperor of Guiana. His family had escaped the Spaniards. Ralegh was implicitly building a coalition against Spain. So that no one missed the description of gold and more gold in all shapes and sizes, Ralegh translated the passage. He also furnished a translation from chapter 117 from Lopez that amplified the quantity of gold. 137. All of the editions of Lescarbot’s Histoire de la Nouvelle France (1609, 1611–12, 1617–18) included an appendix consisting of a short collection of poems, Les Muses de la Nouvelle France. The last two editions involved a reshaping and a completion of the account of New France until the date of composition. Although there was a strong tendency for anti-Spanish sentiment to be Protestant, there were Catholic examples of the Black Legend. One of the functions of my discussion of Lescarbot is to provide an illustration of this modification of the stereotype of what constitutes the Black Legend. Anthony Pagden has made a similar point: “Most of what was said about Spain during the Eighty-Years War was inevitably, harnessed to the war effort. Spanish atrocities in general, and the sack of Antwerp in 1576 in particular, led to the creation, at Flemish and English hands, of the so-called Black Legend. The Spanish image in Protestant Europe (and it must be said, in many areas of Catholic Europe as well) as proud, cruel, and overbearing was in large part based on Dutch, and later English, propaganda”; see Pagden, Spanish Imperialism and the Political Imagination, Studies in European and Spanish-American Social and Political Theory 1513–1830 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 4. 138. It is a shame that no copy of the contemporary biography of Lescarbot by the poet, Guillaume Colletet, has been found. See René Baudry, “Lescarbot, Marc,” in Dictionary of Canadian Biography, gen. ed., George W. Brown, vol. 1, 1,000–1,700 (Toronto and Québec, 1966), 469–71. W. L. Grant, the translator of Lescarbot, writes of him: “Lescarbot, like Herodotus, whom he so much resembles, should be read in the original;” see Grant, “Translator’s Notes to Pages 37–38 215

Preface,” in Marc Lescarbot, The History of New France, trans. W. L. Grant and introduction by H. P. Biggar (3 vols., Toronto, 1907) I, vii. Grant notes “How lightly his Catholicism sat upon Lescarbot may be judged from the fact that his frequent quotations from the Bible are from the Geneva version of Olivetan, revised by Calvin” (I, xx). On Lescarbot, see Biggar, “Introduction: Marc Lescarbot” in History of New France, ix–xv. 139. Marc Lescarbot, Histoire de la Nouvelle France .... (Paris: Iean Milot, 1609), b ij verso. France is the mother in this address. Lescarbot emphasized the Roman connection with France, first with Julius Caesar civilizing Gaul and second with the French saving the Popes from persecution; ibid. b ij verso-bij recto. 140. Ibid., b iij recto-b iij verso. 141. Ibid., b iiij recto. 142. Ibid. H. P. Biggar called Lescarbot, “the French Hakluyt,” although Lescarbot is probably more elegant and puts more of himself in the text as he was an eyewitness in New France and Hakluyt never voyaged to America; see H. P. Biggar, “The French Hakluyt: Marc Lescarbot of Vervins,” American Historical Review 6 (1901), 671–92. Frank Lestringant thinks that Lescarbot imitates La Popelinière and puts him in the legal and historical contexts of Chauveton, Hakluyt, and Jean Bodin. Like Lestringant, I think that Lescarbot’s history goes farther than Hakluyt’s in establishing a new form, what Lestringant calls “the digressive narrative of the failures of France in the New World”; Lestringant, Le Huguenot et le Sauvage (Paris, 1990), 267; my translation. He also points out Lescarbot’s debt, in the third book, to Acosta and Lafitau, and whereas Lescarbot mostly borrowed from Léry (ten chap- ters), he did defend Thevet’s imaginative Brazil as a means of inciting others to support and transform the colony (which drew so much sarcasm in Belleforest); ibid., 266–70. Lescarbot, like a number of the French chroniclers of the New World I am discussing, is relatively unknown outside a small group of specialists. He deserves to be much better known. In a recent history of Canada, e.g., he is barely mentioned, except as the first playwright in the country; see Christopher Moore, “Colonization and Conflict: New France and Its Rivals (1600–1760),” in The Illustrated History of Canada, ed. Craig Brown (1987; Toronto: Lester Pub., 1991), 158, 169. 143. Lescarbot, Histoire (1609), b iv verso. In his address to Pierre Jeannin in the 1612 edition, Lescarbot used this language of republicanism; see Marc Lescarbot, Histoire de la Novvelle-France ...(Paris, 1612), jx. 144. August 24/September 3 1586; trans. from transcript in Brit. Mus., Additional MS 36315, fo. 92 (from A.G.I. 140.7.35), quoted in The Roanoke Voyages 1584–1590, ed. David Beers Quinn (1955; New York: Dover, 1991), II, 717. 145. See ibid., II: 722. 146. Simancas, Estado K. 1564, no. 100–168; deciphered and trans.; ibid., II: 759–60 147. May 16/26 1587, Brit. Mus., Additional MS 28363, fo. 86; trans; in ibid., II: 769. 216 Notes to Pages 38–44

148. February 27/March 9 1588; extract, Simancas, Estado K. 1564, no. 100–168,; trans., ibid., II: 770. 149. A. G. I., Patronado I. I. 1/19, in E. Ruidíaz y Caravia, Florida, II, 324, quoted in ibid., II: 772. 150. Thomas Harriot [Hariot], on a slip attached to Brit. Mus., Additional MS 6785, fo. 436, in ibid. Here, as I have done elsewhere, I would like to acknowledge the work done by the Hakluyt Society, and here and in other places particularly by David Beers Quinn. Such work makes research in the field much easier. 151. Seville, A. G. I. 54. I. 34, Santa Domingo 118, in Quinn, Roanoke Voyages, II: 786. 152. Ibid., II: 787–8. 153. Ibid., II: 789. 154. Ibid., II: 791. 155. Ibid., II: 792–4. 156. Ibid., II: 795. 157. “Relation,” June 7 1606, Seville, A. G. I., Patronado I. I. I/19, in Eugenio Ruidíaz y Caravia, La Florida su conquista y colonización por Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, II (Madrid: J. A. García, 1893); trans, in ibid., II: 818. 158. Seville, A. G. I. 54.5.9 (Santo Domingo 224); trans, Quinn, II: 826. 159. Ibid., II:829–30. 160. Ibid., II:802–3. 161. Ibid., II: 809. 162. Ibid., II: 810, 815–6.

Chapter 3 1. See Max Savelle, The Origins of American Diplomacy: The International History of Anglo-America 1492–1763 (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 3–16; Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonisation from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic 1229–1402 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), esp. 151f.; Jonathan Hart, Representing the New World (New York and London: Palgrave, 2001), 16–21. 2. Dagmar Schäffer, Portuguese Exploration to the West and the Formation of Brazil. (Providence, RI: John Carter Brown Library, 1988), 3. 3. Henry Harrisse, Jean et Sébastien Cabot (Paris: Leroux, 1882) and Les Cort- Real et leurs voyages au nouveau -monde ...(Paris: Leroux, 1883). H. P. Biggar, Voyages of the Cabots and of the Corte-Reals (Paris: Leroux, 1903); James A. Williamson, The Voyages of the Cabots and the Discovery of North America under Henry VII and Henry VIII (London: Argonaut Press, 1929), 200–3; Hart, Representing, 18–28. 4. Schäffer, Portuguese Exploration, 3. For a wider context for the western expansion of European powers, see Edward Burman, The World Before Columbus 1100–1492 (London: W. H. Allen, 1989), 189–99. 5. Binot Paulmier de Gonneville, Relation authentique ...in Les Français en Amérique dans la première moitié du XVIe siècle, ed. Charles-André Julien (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1946), 10. Notes to Pages 44–46 217

6. A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire, 1415–1808: A World on the Move (1992; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 3–4. For earlier key studies of the Portuguese empire, see Hernani Cidade, A literatura portuguesa e a expansão ultramarina, 2nd. ed., 2 vols. (Coimbra: Armenio Amado, 1963–64) and Charles R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415–1825 (London: Hutchinson, 1969). On the Portuguese in Africa, see Burman, The World Before, 171–88. 7. William D. Phillips, Jr. and Carla Rahn Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Columbus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 110–24. At his death Cecil Jane left an unfinished introduction, which he worked on until two days before he died and in which he covered 7 of 21 topics for the proposed Introduction and printed in that form because the Hakluyt Society thought “no other person could complete it in a manner which would do justice to its author,” as Edward Lynum describes in his brief “Prefatory Note” to the second volume of Jane’s edition of Columbus’s Voyages. Nonetheless, Jane left a detailed, balanced, and useful examination of contemporary Spanish representations of these negotiations, including a discussion of the views of Peter Martyr and Bartolomé de Las Casas; see Cecil Jane, “Introduction: The Negotiations of Columbus with Ferdinand and Isabella,” The Four Voyages of Columbus, ed. Cecil Jane (1929 and 1932; New York: Dover, 1988), vol. 2, xiii–lxxv. This second volume was originally of the third and fourth volume and was later bound into one volume to include all four volumes. Jane wrote the Introduction, and there are two indices, to both original volumes that came to be combined (which leaves the separate pagination of the original volumes from the Hakluyt Society). For another helpful account, see John Cummins, “Planning and Persuasion,” The Voyage of Christopher Columbus: Columbus’ Own Journal of Discovery Newly Restored and Translated by John Cummins (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1992), 31–45 and see also “Appendix I,” the procurator’s questions to Columbus, 195–203, in the same volume for subsequent questioning. 8. This is a vast field of postmodern, postcolonial, and other recent theories, so that I have refrained from creating a vast list. There is, e.g., a debate over the status of narrative in fictions and history, something I have discussed in relation to the dramatic in a number of places, including Theater and World (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992) and in relation to theory in Northrop Frye: The Theoretical Imagination (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), so that I have avoided repeating myself here. For a recent discussion of narrative and history in the possession of the New World, see Howard Marchitello, Narrative and Meaning in Early Modern England: Browne’s Skull and Other Histories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 92–123. For a view of contemporary Latin America in terms of the relation between fiction and history, see Lois Parkinson Zamora, The Usable Past: The Imagination of History in Recent Fiction of the Americas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), esp. 1–39, 196–210. On the relation between truth and lying, Montaigne had much to say, particularly in “Du démentir.” In a chapter appropriately called “The Storyteller,” Natalie Zemon 218 Notes to Pages 46–50

Davis raises an interesting relation between the culture of truth and fiction as opposed to ideas of their relation: “Where does self-fashioning stop and lying begin? Long before Montaigne posed that question to his readers in a self- accusatory essay, Pansette’s inventiveness posed it to his judges;” see The Return of Martin Guerre (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 103. 9. On the relation between politics in the British Empire on both sides of the Atlantic, see Eliga H. Gould, The Persistence of Empire: British Political Culture in the Age of Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000). 10. Peter Burke, Montaigne (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 141–17. On Montaigne’s library, see ibid., 15. 11. Marvin Lunenfeld ed., 1492: Discovery, Invasion, Encounter Sources and Interpretations (Lexington MA: DC Heath, 1991), 201. 12. Bartolomé de Las Casas, History of the Indies, trans. and ed. André Collard (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), Book III, 181–7. 13. Ibid. 14. See Lope de Vega Carpio, El Nuevo Mundo descubierto por Cristóbel Colón in Obras de Lope de Vega (Madrid: La Real Academia Española, 1900) and, in translation, The Discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus, trans. Frieda Fligelman (Berkeley: Gillick, 1940). 15. Ibid. 16. Bartolomé Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, trans. Nigel Griffin. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1992), 3–4. For Las Casas’ life, see “Bartolomé de las Casas,” Catholic Encyclopedia, Online edition, K. Knight, 2003; see www.newadvent.org/cathen/03397a.htm 17. On the Black Legend see, e.g., Julián Juderías, La Leyenda Negra (Madrid [s.n.] (Tip de la “Rev. de arch bibl: y museós”), 1914); Rómulo D. Carbia, Historia de la Leyenda Negra Hispano-Americana (Buenos Aires: [Orientacíon Española] 1943); Manuel Cardenal, “La Leyenda Negra,” in Diccionario de Historia de España, 2 vols. (Madrid: Revista de Occidente, 1952), II, 231; Pierre Chaunu, “La Légende Noire Antihispanique,” Revue de Psychologie des Peuples (Caen, 1964), 188–223; Benjamin Keen, “The Black Legend Revisited: Assumptions and Realities,” Hispanic American Historical Review 49 (1969), 703–19; William S. Maltby, The Black Legend in England (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1971); Miguel Molina Martinez, La leyenda negra (Madrid: NEREA, 1991); Inga Clendinnen, ‘“Fierce and Unnatural Cruelty:’ Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico,” Representations 33 (1991), 65–100; Anthony Pagden, “Introduction,” in de Las Casas, Short Account, xiii–xli. Jonathan Hart, “The Black Legend: English and French Representations of Spanish Cruelty in the New World,” Comparative Literature Now: Theories and Practice/ La Littérature comparée à L’Heure Actuelle. Théories et réalisations, ed. S. Tötösy and M. V. Dimi´c with Irene Sywenky (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1999), 376–87. 18. On Las Casas, history, and conversion more generally, see, e.g., André Saint- Lu, Las Casas Indigeniste: études sur la vie et l’œuvre du défenseur des Indiens Notes to Pages 50–54 219

(Paris: L’ Harmattan 1982); Santa Arias, “Empowerment Through the Writing of History: Bartolomé de Las Casas’s Representation of the Other(s),” in Early Images of the Americas: Transfer and Invention, ed. Jerry M. Williams and Robert E. Lewis (Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1993), 163–79; Luca Codignola, “The Holy See and the Conversion of the Indians,” in America in European Consciousness, 1493–1750, ed. Karen Ordahl Kupperman (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 195–243. 19. Las Casas, Short Account, 3. 20. Ibid., 96. 21. Roland Bainton, Erasmus of Christendom (New York: Scribner, 1969), 3, 32–6. My discussion is indebted to Bainton, whose account remains a fine and useful general view of the life and work of Erasmus. 22. L. Vives, Opera, 2 vols. (Basel, 1555), I, 390–2, cited in Bainton, Erasmus 36. See also Louis Dulieu, “Les ‘Théologastres’ de l’Université de Paris au Temps d’Erasme et de Rabelais,” Bibliothèque d’Humanisme et Renaissance 27 (1965), 248–71. On the relation of Erasmus and Vives and their reception in their different home territories, see Erasmus in Hispania Vives in Belgio, ediderunt J IJsewijn et A. Losada (Lovanii: In Aedibus Peeters, 1986). This axis between Spain and the Netherlands is crucial in the period, something I have examined specifically in relation to the example of Spain for France and England in Representing. 23. Erasmus Epistolae, ed. P. S. and H. M. Allen (Oxford, 1906–58), vol. 1, 25, cited in Bainton, Erasmus, 40; see also 39. 24. Lugduni Batavorum, the Leiden ed. of Erasmus, ed. Leclerc, 1703, rpt. 1963, vol. 1, 993, quoted in Bainton, Erasmus 87–88; vol. 5, 898–9, cited in Bainton, Erasmus, 89. 25. In their Introduction to More’s Utopia, Logan and Adams briefly compare the complexity of the satire in this work and Erasmus’s The Praise of Folly; see Thomas More, Utopia, ed. George M. Logan and Robert M. Adams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, rpt. 1999), xxi; see, e.g., 6n12, 67n53. 26. Erasmus Epistolae, vol. 2, 333, 70, quoted in Bainton, Erasmus, 104. See Latin original. 27. Ibid., vol. 1, 245, 492, quoted in Bainton, Erasmus, 104. 28. Sverker Arnoldsson has done detailed work on anti-Spanish sentiments in sixteenth-century Italy and Germany; see his La Leyenda Negra: Estudios Sobra sus Orígenes (Göteborg: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1960). 29. More, Utopia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, rpt. 1999 ed.), xxx, 125n26. 30. On Vespucci and More, see Martin Waldseemüller, The Cosmographiae Introductio, ed. C. G. Herbermann (1907), 97–8 and More, Utopia (1989, rpt. 1999), 10, 63n44; on Rastell, see R. W. Chambers, Thomas More (London, 1935), 141–3 and J. H. Hexter, “Introduction, Part I,” The Complete Works of St. Thomas More, vol. 4, ed. Edward Surtz and J. H. Hexter (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), xxxi. 31. On the composition of Utopia and on Vespucci, see Hexter, “Introduction Part I,” xxi–xxiii, xxxi; see Logan’s and Adams’s Introduction to Utopia, xvi. 220 Notes to Pages 54–58

32. Thomas More, Utopia, ed. Edward Surtz (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964), 6. George Logan’s and Robert Adam’s Introduction to the recent edition of More’s Utopia with Cambridge is an important work and discusses the Lucianic tradition and complex irony in Erasmus’s In Praise of Folly (1509) and Thomas More’s Utopia, [ed. G. M. Logan and R. M. Adams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, rpt. 1995), xx–xxi]. For an earlier but suggestive discussion of More, see Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning From More to Shakespeare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), where he discusses More’s self-fashioning and self-cancelation, e.g., in a letter in 1516 where he wrote in jest to Erasmus that he dreamt he had been made king of the Utopians, with a crown of wheat, but that he had asked Erasmus to find recommendations for his book by statesmen as well as scholars in order to get word out in the right places; see Greenblatt, Renaissance. 55 but also 32–58 on Utopia. For the More’s letter to Erasmus, see St. Thomas More: Selected Letters, ed. Elizabeth F. Rogers (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961), 85. 33. Surtz, Introduction and notes, Utopia, xi, 12n19. 34. I have argued that Erasmus and More satirize war and hegemony. Erasmus, More, and Montaigne all provide critiques of cruelty. As David Quint notes, in contrast to the twelfth chapter of Xenophon’s Cynegeticus, which justifies the aristocratic nature of hunting, Erasmus’s In Praise of Folly satirizes the connections among hunting, war, and nobility and More takes up this satire on hunting in Utopia, (see Surtz, Utopia, ed. 4) while Montaigne later attacks hunting as not being worthy of the aristocracy in “De la cruauté”; see Quint, 61–63. On some of these links between these writers between cruelty and hunting, see Robert M. Adams, The Better Part of Valor: Erasmus, Colet, and Vives on Humanism (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962), 43–54; on Montagne and hunting, see Timothy Hampton, Writing from History: The Rhetoric of Exemplarity in Renaissance Literature (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990), 170 and on cruelty and hunting, see Giordano Bruno, Spaccio de la bestia trionfante (Parigi: [s.n.], [London: John Charleswood], 1584). 35 More, Utopia, (Yale, 1965 ed.) 9. 36. Ibid., 9n3–4. 37. Ibid., 12–13. Original Latin in text. 38. Ibid., 15. 39. Ibid., 23 40. More, Book I, 92; the translation reads: “no amount of gold is enough for the ruler who has to keep an army” (93). 41. More, “Book II,” 218–9; Amerigo Vespucci, Quatuor Americi Vespucij nauigatones (St. Dié, 1507), vol. 1, sig.c8, rpt. The Cosmographiae Introductio of Martin Waldseemüller in Facsimile, Followed by the Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, with Their Translation into English, ed. C. G. Herbermann and trans. Mario E. Cosenza (New York: The United States Catholic Historical Society, 1907). 42. Vespucci, vol. 1, sig. c1v; Peter Martyr (Petrus Martyr Anglerius), De orbe nouo decades (Alcalá de Henares, 1516), Decades 1, 3; in French, see Notes to Pages 58–63 221

Peter Martyr (Petrus Martyr Anglerius), Extraict ov recveil des ilses nouuelleme[n]t touuees en la grande mer Oceane ou temps du roy Despaigne Ferna[n]d & Elizabeth sa femme, faict premierement en latin par Pierre Martyr de Millan, & depuis (Paris, 1532); in English, see Richard Eden, The Decades of the newe worlde of west India,.... (London: G. Powell, 1555). 43. More, Book II, 150–9, 428. 44. More, Book II, 156; the translation reads: “How much wiser the Utopians Are than the Common Run of Christians! ” (157). 45. Amerigo Vespucci, Mundus novus: Letter to Lorenzo Pietro di Medici, trans. G. T. Northrup (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1916), 6, cited in The Complete Works of St. Thomas More, vol. 4 , ed. Edward Surtz and J. H. Hexter (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), 378. 46. More, Book I, 102–3. 47. Vespucci, Quatuor Americi, vol. 1, sig. d2v-3, quoted in The Complete Works of St. Thomas More, vol. 4., 475; More, 184–87. 48. Vespucci, Quatuor Americi, vol. 1, sig. b7v, quoted in The Complete Works of St. Thomas More, vol. 4., 497; More, Book II, 200–1. 49. Janet Whatley, “Introduction,” Jean de Léry, History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, trans. Janet Whatley (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), xvii. 50. Peter Burke, Montaigne, 44–7. On the relation between history and anthropology, see Anthony Pagden, “History and Anthropology, and the History of Anthropology: Considerations on a Methodological Practice,” Imagining Culture; Essays in Early Modern History and Culture, ed. Jonathan Hart (New York and London: Garland, 1996), 27–40. See also Charles Taylor, “Interpretation and the Sciences of Man,” Philosophical Papers 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 15–57. 51. Janet Whatley, “Editions and Reception of Léry,” Jean de Léry, History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, trans. Janet Whatley (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 246n14. 52. Jean de Léry, History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, trans. Janet Whatley (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 131–2. 53. Ibid., 132. 54. Ibid., 132. 55. Ibid., 133. 56. David Quint argues that this essay is as much about France as about the New World and does not seek to congratulate Montaigne for his freedom from prejudice: “Des cannibales” “turns out to be at least equally about his own France and that the terms with which it discusses the Brazilian natives are deeply rooted in his own historical and political preoccupations” see Quint, “A Reconsideration of Montaigne’s Des cannibales,” in America in European Consciousness, 1493–1750, ed. Karen Ordahl Kupperman (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 168, see 166–91. This view supports my notion of typology between New World and Old. 57. Michel de Montaigne, Essais de Michel Seignevr de Montaigne (Paris, 1588); rpt. as Les Essais de Montaigne: reproduction typographique de l’exemplaire annoté par l’auteur et conservé à la Bibliothèque de Bordeux avec un avertisssement et une 222 Notes to Page 63

notice par M. Ernest Courbet (4 vols., Paris: Impr. Nationale, 1906–31), I, 167. Here, I am using the sixth edition of 1588, which involves a number of corrections to the edition of 1580. Courbet’s “Advertisement” (v–xv) explains some of the textual complexities of the Essais, including the intercalations and the corrections of Pierre de Brach. In Courbet’s text, if the readers so choose, they can, on facing pages, see the changes to the text, one reason I used this text rather than the many editions available to me in England, Boston, and Providence. The translation is mine here and below. Having discussed the opposition or ambivalence of humanists, like Erasmus and More, to colonization, it is appropriate to consider their relation to Montaigne; see Aldo Scaglione, “A Note on Montaigne’s Des Cannibales and the Humanist Tradition,” First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the Old, ed. Fredi Chiapelli et al., 2 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), I, 63–70. For a recent and perceptive interpretation of Des Cannibales, see David Quint, Montaigne and the Quality of Mercy: Ethical and Political Themes in The Essais (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 75–101. 58. Montaigne’s motive was a simple and true narrative of the New World, so that he sought to qualify the use of rhetorical and narrative embellishment and to establish the credentials of his man as a witness. “This man who I had, was a simple and plain man, who was in a proper condition to bear true witness, for refined people are more curious and notice more things, but they gloss them, and [faire valoir leur interpretation & la perɾuader] to add to the value of the intrepretation, and to persuade, they cannot prevent themselves from altering the History a little”; Montaigne, Essais, I, 169. Perhaps Montaigne mimics the travel literature he discussed. Michel de Certeau thinks of Montaigne’s essay on cannibals as having the same structure as a travel account, including the “outbound journey,” the depiction of “savage society,” and the “return voyage”; see Michel de Certeau, Heterologies: Discourse on the Other, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), 69–70. 59. Montaigne, Essais, I, 170. For a discussion of Montaigne’s thought, see Peter Burke, Montaigne. An especially pertinent discussion occurs in chapter 7, “Montaigne as Ethnographer,” 44–51, where Burke places Montaigne in the context of Gómara, Benzoni, Thevet, Léry, Ronsard, La Boétie, and others and compares Montaigne to Tacitus who reproached Rome with the description of the courageous German barbarians. This technique Burke aptly calls the “Germania syndrome” (46). For some important works on Montaigne, see Géralde Nakam, Montaigne et son temps: les événements et les “Essais” (Paris A. G. Nizet, 1982); Tzvetan Todorov, “L’Etre et l’Autre: Montaigne,” Montaigne: Essays in Reading, special issue of Yale French Studies 64 (1983), 113–44; Olivier Pot, L’Inquiétude étrangeté: Montaigne: la pierre, le cannibale, la mélancolie (Paris Honoré Champion, 1993) and La lecteur, l’auteur et l’écrivain: Montaigne-1592–1992 (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1993); Georges Laffly, Montaigne; libre et fidèle (Le Barroux: Editions Sainte-Madeleine, 1997); Gisèle Mathieu-Castellani, Montaigne, ou, La verité du mensonge (Genève: Droz, 2000). Notes to Pages 63–64 223

60. The translation is “Of Coaches.” 61. Montaigne, Essais, III, 399–400. 62. Ibid., 399 verso. Florio renders the passage “Oh mechanicall victories, oh base conquest;” see Montaigne, Essaies, II, 314. Michel de Montaigne, Montaigne’s Essays: John Florio’s Translation (London: Nonesuch Press, 1931), II. 314; see also Michel de Montaigne, The essays...now done into English by...john Florio (London: Val Simms for Edward Blount, 1603). 63. Montaigne, Essais, III, 399 verso. In discussing the French rituals of possession, Patricia Seed says that Montaigne, too, assumed that body language was universal, so that if this assertion were true, his criticism would be qualified and he would resemble Columbus more than I have been saying. I am not sure, none the less, that this is a general position Montaigne took, particularly in his views of Natives; see Montaigne, Apologie de Raymond Sebond, ed. Paul Porteau (Paris, 1937), cited in Ceremonies of Possession in Europe’s Conquest of the New World, 1492–1640 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 55. 64. Montaigne, Essais, III, 399 verso. The French “menasses” implies a menacing, but I have used the word “threat” here. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid., 400–1. 67. Ibid., 401. Florio emphasizes this contrast by applying the epithet “barbarous mindes” to the Spanish torturers; Montaigne Essais, II, 317. 68. Montaigne, Essais, III, 401. 69. Ibid., 401–2. 70. Ibid., 401–3. 71. Lestringant has an interesting discussion of Hakluyt’s mission in Paris; see Frank Lestringant, Le Huguenot et le sauvage: L’Amérique et la controverse coloniale, en France, au temps des Guerres de Réligion (1555–1589) (Paris: Aux Amateurs de livres [Klincksieck], 1990), 213–8. 72. Postcolonialism is not something without its own variety, differences, and contradictions, something I have argued elsewhere. For very different postcolonial views, ranging from humanism to a question of humanism, in major studies, particularly in the crucial years of the late 1980s and early 1990s for postcolonial studies, see Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978) and Culture and Imperialism (London: Chatto & Windus, 1993); Trinh T. Minh-ha, Woman, Native, Other: Writing Postcoloniality and Feminism (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1988); Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (New York: Methuen, 1987); Lisa Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994): Benita Parry, “Resistance Theory/ Theorising Resistance or Two Cheers for Nativism,” in Colonial Discourse/ Postcolonial Theory, ed. Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, Margaret Iversen (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), 172–96. For one of my earlier views, see Jonathan Hart and Terry Goldie, “Postcolonial Theory,” Encyclopedia of Contemporary Literary Theory (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 155–8. 224 Notes to Pages 65–69

73. Francisco de Vitoria, Political Writings, ed. Anthony Pagden and Jeremy Lawrence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). The text is divided according to these questions: I have not put them in quotation marks because the ellipses would be cumbersome but these marks should be under- stood surrounding these three questions. See. section 6, “On the American Indians,” 231–92. 74. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. A. M. Sheridan (Harmondsworth: Allen Lane, 1977); see his Madness and Civilization, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Pantheon Books, 1965). 75. C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint Louverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York: Dial Press, [1938]). 76. Anthony Pagden, “Introduction,” Las Casas, A Short Account, xiii–xiv.

Chapter 4 1. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, The Adventures of Don Quixote, trans. J. M. Cohen (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1950, rpt. 1979), 26. 2. Oviedo is a controversial figure. Todorov describes him as a historian who is a conquistador (148); “a rich source of xenophobic and racist judgments” (The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, Richard Howard ed., 1982 New York: Harper, 1984, rpt. 1992, 151); “already violently anti- Indian” (160); “the racist historian” (166). Elliott (The Old World and the New 1492–1650. [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970, rpt. 1992] represents an Oviedo who thinks Columbus deserves better recognition (11); as a natural historian full of wonder (21); someone who, like Las Casas, emphasizes the wonder and awe of the infinite diversity of America (31); he who respects Pliny too much (32); an advocate of the Christian republic that involved the assimilation of the Amerindians, which the religious most often favored (34); a defender of Amerindian oral sources because Castilians, too, had their own oral history and romances (35); a heroic, admirable, but amateur encyclopedist of the New World (37); a supporter of direct personal observation over traditional authority (40); a historian, like Las Casas, who sometimes used strained analogies (41); a skeptic, like Léry, about Amerindian conversion (43); an admirer of the wealth of the Indies (59, 63); a man proud of Spanish manufacture and accomplishment in the New World (78); a person of intellectual curiosity (Spain and Its World 1500–1700. [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989], 45); someone without a university education (1989, 46). Without belaboring the complexity of Oviedo’s work, I want to cite a few of the many references to Oviedo in Pagden’s works: Oviedo is an example of a European observer who describes things that looked alike as identical (Anthony Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnography, [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982, rev. 1986], 11); a classifier of the Amerindians who compares them to the Ethiopians (24–5); a predecessor to Acosta in the systematic history of America but whom Acosta never mentions (151–52); someone who looks on the Natives of the Antilles with disgust Notes to Pages 69–76 225

(Anthony Pagden, European Encounters with the New World: From Renaissance to Romanticism [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993], 17); a natural historian who has a low opinion of the Natives and whom Humboldt calls the Pliny of the New World (56, see 68). For a detailed analysis of Oviedo’s Historia general y natural de las Indias (published in the nineteenth century, a version of the first part published in 1535), including the nature of accuracy and authority of Oviedo’s vision and his relation to the self and to objectivity, see Pagden, European Encounters, 56–68, 81–84. 3. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, Natural History of the West Indies, trans. Sterling A. Stoudemire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959) [University of North Carolina Studies in Romance Languages and Literatures 32], 3. In an earlier version of this research, the Spanish appeared in the text and the English translation in the notes and the French original was in the text without translation in the notes; see Jonathan Hart, “Strategies of Promotion: Some Prefatory Matter of Oviedo, Thevet and Hakluyt,” Imagining Culture; Essays in Early Modern History and Culture, ed. Jonathan Hart (New York and London: Garland, 1996), 73–92. 4. Oviedo, Historia general 3. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., 4. 8. The original reads: esse testem temporum, vitae magistram, vitam memoriae, veritatis lucen et vestustatis nuntian. 9. Ibid., 4. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid., 5. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. Roger Schlesinger and Arthur P. Stabler, André Thevet’s North America: A Sixteenth-Century View (Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1986), xvii-xli. xxxiii, xxxix, see Jean Céard, La Nature et les prodiges: L’insolite au XVIe siècle, en France (Geneva: Droz, 1977), 283. 15. Frank Lestringant, “L’Avenir des terres nouvelles,” La Renaissance et le Nouveau Monde, ed. Alain Parent et al. (Québec, 1984), 45–51. 50–1, cited Schlesinger and Stabler, Andre Thevet’s North America, xxxix-xl. 16. Schlesinger and Stabler, André Thevet’s North America, xl. 17. See Lestringant, L’Atelier du Cosmographe ou l’image du monde à la Renaissance (Paris: Albin Michel, 1991), 29. 18. All translations of André Thevet, Les Singularités de la France antarctique (Paris: Le Temps, 1982) here and below are mine. 19. Thevet, Les Singularités. ãij recto. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid., ãij verso- ãiij recto. 22. Ibid., ãiij recto. 23. Ibid., ãiiij recto. 24. See Thevet, 68–71. 226 Notes to Pages 79–80

25. Here I am applying the first term (W. Jackson Bate’s) and the second (Harold Bloom’s), which have been used to discuss the struggle of poets for a singular voice in a weighty poetic tradition, to nations, who have built themselves and their empires, in a tradition of empires, so that the translation of empire is like the translation of poetics or the translation of study. See Walter Jackson Bate, The Burden of the Past and the English Poet (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1970) and Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973). The analogy, while imperfect, does, I think, suggest an insight about Hakluyt’s self-promotion and the promotion of empire as well as for others in the similar positions in other countries with nationalistic and imperial longings. I am not assuming a seamless personification of nations in which one can overstep the fallacy of composition and equate the part for the whole, the individual for the nation. Such analogies are suggestive but imperfect. 26. See Schlesinger and Stabler, André Thevet’s North America, xxiii. Hakluyt is described in various terms. For Wayne Franklin, he is someone who appears incidentally, as a collector of narratives and a recipient of letters (Discoverers, Explorers, Settlers: The Diligent Writers of Early America. [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979], 135–6, 160–5). Karen Kupperman discusses the Hakluyts as agents for Francis Walsingham and notes their desire for educational reforms at Oxford and Cambridge (moving from a medieval curriculum to one including mathematics and geography) (Settling with the Indians: The Meeting of English and Indian Cultures in America, 1580–1640. [Totowa, NJ: Rowan and Littlefield, 1980], 9); observes the international nature of Hakluyt the Younger’s material (23, 150); how Hakluyt recommended the robbing of Amerindian graves to achieve riches (125). Greenblatt mentions Hakluyt only twice, once in observing the paradox that the patriotic Hakluyt includes international material (Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World. [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991], 8–9) and then in connection with Mandeville (30–1). 27. Richard Hakluyt, Voyages, vol. 1 (London: Dent: Everyman’s Library, 1907, rpt. 1967), vol. 1, 6. 28. Ibid., 1. For useful discussions of Hakluyt, see Jack Beeching, “Introduction,” Richard Hakluyt, Voyages and Discoveries, ed. Jack Beeching (1972; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), 9–29; Mary C. Fuller, Voyages in Print: English Travel to America, 1576–1624 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 141–74; David Armitage, “The New World and British Historical Thought From Richard Hakluyt to William Robertson,” in America in European Consciousness, 1493–1750, ed. Karen Ordahl Kupperman (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 52–75. 29. Hakluyt, Voyages, 1. 30. Ibid., 2. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid. 34. See also Lancelot Voisin, sieur de la Popelinière, L’histoire de France . . . (n. p. [La Rochelle]: Abraham H., 1581) and his Les trois mondes ... Notes to Pages 80–87 227

(Paris Pierre L’Huillier, 1582). I discuss his work in Representing the New World (New York and London: Palgrave, 2001). 35. Hakluyt, Voyages, vol 1., 2. 36. Ibid. Here I mix translation with paraphrase: “the English, who have the spirit, means & enough valour, to acquire a great honour among all Christians,” have not exceeded others in the element of the sea that to them “should be more natural than to other peoples.” 37. Ibid., 3. 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid., 4. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid., 5. 42. Ibid. 43. Ibid. 44. Ibid., 6. 45. Ibid. 46. Walter Bagehot, Physics and Politics (London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co 1887), 2–21, quoted in E. J. Hobsbawn, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, rpt., 1999), 1. 47. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), 1; Hobsbawn, esp. 1–13; see also Ernest Renan, Qu’est ce que c’est une nation? (Paris: C Lévy, 1882); Anthony Smith, Theories of Nationalism, 2nd ed. (London: Duckworth, 1983) and The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986). Stalin, like Hobson and Lenin, linked nation, colony, and empire; see Joseph Stalin, Marxism and the National and Colonial Question (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1936). 48. Here I am using Shakespeare’s First Folio; these lines are 366–7 (I give this kind of line reference for those who have electronic versions available). Mr. William Shakespeares’ Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies. Published according to the True Originall Copies (London: Isaac Iaggard, and Ed. Blount, 1623). 49. Shakespeare, First Folio, lines 971–5. 50. Shakespeare, First Folio, lines 1237–51. 51. Hakluyt, Voyages 6. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid., 6–7. 54. Ibid., 7. 55. Ibid., 7–8. 56. Ibid., 9. 57. Ibid. 58. Ibid. 59. Ibid. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid., 10. 63. Ibid. 64. Ibid., 11. 228 Notes to Pages 87–96

65. Ibid., 12. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid. 69. For my discussion of this sexual element in the representations of the New World, see chapter 5 of Columbus, Shakespeare and the Interpretation of the New World (New York and London: Palgrave, 2003). 70. See More, Utopia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, rpt. 1999), 57–8, 63, 80, 83, 95; see Logan and Adams, Introduction to this edition, xxvi.

Chapter 5 1. Exodus 1:22, see 1: 11. 2. Exodus 5:1. 3. Matthew 2:13. 4. Charles Verlinden, The Beginnings of Modern Colonization, trans. Yvonne Freccero (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1970), 33, see esp. 34–76. This essay was published in French as “Esclavage médiévales dans la colonisation de l’Amérique,” Cahiers de l’Institut des Hautes Etudes de l’Amérique Latine 6 (1961), 29–45. 5. H. V. Livermore, “Portuguese History,” Portugal and Brazil: An Introduction, ad. H. V. Livermore (Oxford: The Claredon Press, 1953), 55–62 here and below. 6. G. R. Crone, “Introduction,” The Voyages of Cadamosto and Other Documents on Western Africa in the Second Half of the Fifteenth Century (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1937), xix 7. Carter G. Woodson, “Attitudes of the Iberian Peninsula,” Journal of Negro History 20 (1935), 202; Margaret T. Hogden, Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964); Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1968); McAlister, 54–5. 8. Cadamosto, 8, 13. 9. Ibid., 13. 10. Ibid., 13–4. 11. Ibid., 17. 12. Ibid., 17. 13. Ibid., 17. 14. Ibid., 18. See Gomes Eannes de Azurara, The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, trans. and ed. C. R. Beazley and E. Prestage (London: Hakluyt Society, 1896–99). 15. Cadamosto, 18. 16. Ibid., 49. 17. Ibid., 49; for below, see 50n1. 18. Ibid., 50. 19. Ibid., 54, see 55. Notes to Pages 96–100 229

20. Ibid., 55 21. Ibid., 68. 22. Ibid., 69. 23. The bull Romanus pontifex, January 8, 1455, in Francis Gardiner Davenport, European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and its Dependences to 1648 (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1917), 21. 24. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 46–7, 86, 89. See also Carl Sauer, The Early Spanish Main (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966) for more on Queen Isabella and Columbus. 25. Charles Henry Cunningham, The Audiencia in the Spanish Colonies: As Illustrated by the Audiencia of Manilia (1583–1800) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1919), 3, see 1. 26. J. M. Ots y Capdequí, El estado español en las Indias, 4th ed. (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1965), 45; on Castilian administration, see Mark A. Burkholder and D. S. Chandler, From Importence to Authority: The Spanish Crown and the American Audiencias, 1687–1808 (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1977), 1. 27. Maria Augusta Lima Cruz, “Exiles and Renegades in Early Sixteenth Century Portuguese Asia,” in Historiography of Europeans in Africa and Asia, 1450–1800, ed. Anthony Disney (Aldershot: Variorum, 1995), 235, 248, see 236–47. The original version, also translated by Sanjay Subrahmanyam, appeared in the Indian Economic and Social History Review 23 (1986), 249–62. 28. For an informative survey of European attitudes toward Natives, see David B. Quinn, “European Technology and Preconceptions,” in The Discovery of North America (London: Elek, 1971), 13–8; on alterity or otherness, see Tzvetan Todorov, The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), The Conquest, 42–4, 100–1, 185–6, 195–200 and, more generally, his Nous et les autres: La réflex- ion française sur la diversité; humaine (Paris: Seuil, 1989); Michel de Certeau, “Montaigne’s ‘Of Cannibals’: The Savage ‘I,’ ” in Heterologies: Discourse on the Other, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), 79; Stephen Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 135–6; Jonathan Hart, “Mediation in the Exchange between Europeans and Native Americans in the Early Modern Period,” Canadian Review of Comparative Literature: Revue Canadienne de Littérature Comparée 22 (1995), 321–2. See also Jonathan Hart, “Images of the Native in Renaissance Encounter Narratives,” ARIEL 25 (October 1994): 55–76 and Columbus, Shakespeare and the Interpretation of the New World (New York and London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). 29. Quoted in Anthony Pagden, “Introduction”, Bartolomé de Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, trans. Nigel Griffin (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1992), xxi; see xxii–xxx for below. For Las Casas’s account of Montesino, see Bartolomé de Las Casas, History of the Indies, trans. and ed. Andrée Collard (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), chs. 3–5. 230 Notes to Pages 102–104

30. Jean Alfonse, “La Cosmographie....(1545?), ed. Georges Musset (Paris: E. Leroux 1904) and Les Voyages avantureux du capitaine Ian Alfonse Sainctongeois (Poitiers: Jan de Marnef 1559). This work was reprinted in Rouen in 1578 and La Rochelle in 1590. 31. Alfonse, Les Voyages, quoted in Jean-Paul Duviols, L’ Amérique espagnole vue et rêvée. Les livres de voyages de Christophe Colomb à Bougainville ([Paris]: Promodis, 1985), 183 n23; my translation. For Duviols’s view, see ibid. 32. André Thevet, La Cosmographie vniverselle, vol. 2, livre 1, cap. 11, f. 498 verso; see A. C. de C. M. Saunders, A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal 1441–1555 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 11–12, 33. 33. Jean de Léry, History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, trans. and introduction by Janet Whatley (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 9, see 4. 34. C. R. Boxer. The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957). 106–10. 35. Patricia Seed, Ceremonies of Possession (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For a discussion of the Requerimento, and the encomiendas, which were not feudatories like the lands granted in the French colonies or the quasi-independent occupation in English America, see Pagden, Lords, 91. 36. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 23, see 74, 79–84, 91–4, 114–45, 180. I am indebted to Thomas here and below. For more on the curse of Ham and slavery, see The Curse of Ham (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003). See Aristotle, Politics, trans. Benjamin Jowett (New York: Dover Publications, 1992), bk. 1, chs. 4–5; G. Zurara (Azurara), Chronicle of the Discovery of Guinea, trans. and ed. C. R. Beazley and Edgar Prestage, Hakluyt Society, 1st ser., vols. 95 and 100 (London, 1896 and 1899), esp. vol. 95, 81–3. For secondary sources, see José Antonio Saco, Historia de la Esclavitud de la Raza Africana en el Nuevo Mundo, 3 vols. (Barcelona: J. Jépus, [etc.], 1879–93); Charles Verlinden, L’Esclavage dans l’Europe médiaévale (Brugge: De Tempel, 1955); Frederic Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972); Bailey W. Diffie and George Winius, Foundations of the Portuguese Empire (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977); Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); Pierre Bonnassie, From Slavery to Feudalism in South-Western Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). See also Leo Africanus, Description of Africa, ed. R. Brown, Hakluyt Society, vol. 93 (London, 1890); Bartolomé de Las Casas, A Short Account. A brief but suggestive discussion of slavery and empire occurs in Anthony Pagden, Peoples and Empires: Europeans and the Rest of the World, From Antiquity to the Present (2001; London: Phoenix Press, 2002), 106–18. 37. Boxer 31, The Dutch in Brazil, 43–8. 38. Willem Piso, De Indiae utriusque re naturali et medica libri quatuordecim (Amsterdam: Lodovicium et Daneilem Elzevirios, 1658). Notes to Pages 104–113 231

39. Michael Hemmersam, West-Indianische Reissbeschreibung (Nuremburg, 1663). For a helpful catalogue of this and other related books once exhibited at the John Carter Brown Library in 1988, see Dagmar Schäffer, Portuguese Exploration to the West and the Formation of Brazil 1450–1800 (Providence, RI: The John Carter Brown Library, 1988), esp. 65–6. A key study remains important; see Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil. 40. Oroonoko: Or, The Royal Slave. A True Story. By Mrs A. Behn (London: Will. Canning, 1688). 41. Behn, Ibid., A3 verso-A4 recto. 42. Ibid., A 4 recto-verso. 43. Ibid., A4verso. 44. Ibid., A 4 verso-A5 recto. 45. Ibid., A5 recto. 46. Ibid., A6 verso. 47. Ibid., A7 recto. 48. Ibid., A6 verso-A7 recto. 49. Ibid., A7recto-verso. 50. Ibid., A7 verso. 51. Ibid., A7 verso. 52. Ibid., A7 verso-A8 recto. 53. Ibid., A8 recto. 54. Ibid., 1. 55. Ibid., 2–3. 56. Ibid., 3. 57. Ibid., 4. 58. Ibid., 7. 59. Ibid., 8. 60. Ibid., 10. 61. Ibid., 10. 62. Ibid., 11. 63. Ibid., 12. 64. Ibid., 13. 65. Ibid., 14, see 13. 66. Ibid., 15–6. 67. Ibid., 16. 68. Ibid., 17. 69. Ibid., 18–19. 70. Ibid., 19. 71. Ibid., 20–1. 72. Ibid., 23. 73. Ibid., 23. 74. Ibid., 24. 75. Ibid., 25. 76. Ibid., 25. 77. Ibid., 32. 78. Ibid., 33. 232 Notes to Pages 113–115

79. Ibid., 34. 80. Ibid., 43. 81. Ibid., 62. 82. Ibid., 67. 83. Ibid., 67. 84. “Code Noir...Mars 1685” Receuils de Réglemens, Édits, Déclarations et Arrêts, Concernant le Commerce, l’Administration de la Justice, & la Police des Colonies Françaises de l’Amerique, & les Engagés. Avec Le Code Noir, Et l’Addition audit Code. Nouvelle Édition (Paris: Libraires Associés, M.DCC.LXV.), 67; see 67–83 [supplements of the changes to the Code Noir appear on 84–174]; Baldwin Room copy, Toronto Reference Library. The phrase is “les peuples que la Divine Providence a mis sous notre obéissance.” In consulting the Dictionnaire de L’Académie française, 1st ed. (1694) the word in this context is glossed as being put under a king’s domination: “On dit, Vivre sous l’obeïssance d’un Prince, pour dire, Estre sous sa domination: & on dit dans le mesme sens. Les Peuples qui sont sous l’obeïssance, dans l’obeïssance du Roy. il a reduit, rangé cette Province sous son obeïssance. dans tous les pays, dans toutes les terres de l’obeïssance du Roy. se soustraire de l’obeïssance d’un Prince. rentrer dans l’obeïssance de son Prince” (135). This dictionary is now online: see Dictionnaire de l’Académie Française Database Project directed by R. Wooldridge and I. Leroy Turcan, the ARTFL Project and The University of Chicagoat http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/ ARTFL/projects/dicos/ACADEMIE/PREMIERE/ . I chose “obeisance” in the sense of definitions 2 and 2b in the OED, which, when taken together, combines authority and dominion, both senses of the word having long histories in the English language and being related to “obedience.” See Oxford English Dictionary Online (second edition 1989). Using the same dictionaries with their access to etymologies and historical contexts, I have chosen “memorandum” for the original term: “Memoire. s. m. Escrit pour instruire, pour faire ressouvenir de quelque chose. J’oublieray vostre affaire, si vous ne m’en donnez un memoire. memoire instructif” (38). 85. “Code Noir...Mars 1685”, 67–77. “S’attrouper. v. n. p. S’assembler en troupe. Il est deffendu par les Ordonnances de s’attrouper. il s’attroupa une quantité de gens. au son du tocsin les paysans des environs s’attrouperent”; see Dictionnaire de L’Académie française, 1st edition (1694), 602; for “fouet”, see the same source: “Foüet, se dit aussi Des coups de verges dont on chastie les enfants. Donner le foüet. meriter le foüet. avoir le foüet. sujet au foüet. craindre le foüet. menacer du foüet. Il se dit aussi Des coups de verges dont la Justice fait chastier quelques criminels; & dans ce sens on dit, Condamné au foüet. avoir le foüet par les carrefours. avoir le foüet sous la custode” (481); children and criminals receive this corporal punishment. Whip or whisk are usual translations for “foüet”. The Code referred to “le jarret,” which also could have been translated as hock or ham. The fleur-de-lys was a royal emblem of France, which still appears on the flag of Quebec. For more on the Code Noir, see 6531.- Documents Historiques: Le Code Noir at http://www.haiti- reference.com/; Louis Sala-Molins, Le Code noir, ou Le calvaire de Canaan, Notes to Pages 115–119 233

4th. ed. (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1987); Le code noir / introduction et notes de Robert Chesnais (Paris : L’esprit frappeur, 1998). 86. Hety Shepard, A Puritan Maiden’s Diary, ed. Adeline E. H. Slicer, New England Magazine, n.s. 11:20–25 (1894), 23; I have listed the references to books for easier access; but these sources in this chapter and in chapter 6 on women’s views on slavery are available at the excellent North American Women’s Letters and Diaries, Alexander Street Press, L.L.C., 2001. PhiloLogic Software, 2001 The University of Chicago, 2001. 87. Letter from Sarah Kemble Knight, October 2, 1704, in Journal of Madam Knight, ed. Malcolm Freiberg (New York, NY: Wilder & Campbell, 1825), 34. 88. Ibid., 34–5. 89. Ibid., 35. 90. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., 1989, online. 91. Knight, Letter,35. 92. Ibid., 35–6. 93. The Lee Max Friedman Collection of American Jewish Colonial Correspondence: Letters of the Franks Family, 1733–1748, ed. Leo Hershkowitz and Isidore S. Meyer (Waltham, MA: American Jewish Historical Society, 1968). 94. Diary of Patience Greene Brayton, November, 1771, in A Short Account of the Life and Religious Labors of Patience Brayton: Late of Swansey, in the State of Massachusetts (New York: William Phillips, 1802), 27. 95. Letter from Isabella Marshall Graham to John Graham, January 16, 1773, in The Unpublished Letters and Correspondence of Mrs. Isabella Graham, From the Year 1767 to 1814: Exhibiting Her Religious Character in the Different Relations of Life, ed. Joanna Bethune (New York: John S. Taylor, 1838), 74, see 73. 96. Letter from Abigail Smith Adams to John Adams, July 31, 1775, in Letters of Mrs. Adams, The Wife of John Adams, 3rd ed., vol.1, ed. Charles Francis Adams (Boston: Little, Brown, 1841), 64. 97. Leonard Guelke, “Freehold Farmers and Frontier Settlers, 1657–1780,” in Historiography, 174–7, see 175–216; for an earlier version, see The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840 (Middletown CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1989), 66–108. 98. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987), 79–84; see P. G. M. Dickson, The Financial Revolution in England: A Study in the Development of Public Credit 1688–1756 (London: St. Martin’s Press, 1967); C. H. Wilson, Anglo-Dutch Commerce and Finance in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966); J. C. Riley, International Government Finance and the Amsterdam Capital Market 1740–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); and J. F. Bosher, French Finances, 1770–1795 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); R. Davis, The Rise of the Atlantic Economies (London: Weidenfeld and Niedson, 1975); J. G. Clark, La Rochelle and the Atlantic Economy During the Eighteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981); 234 Notes to Pages 119–123

A. Calder, Revolutionary Empire: The Rise of the English-Speaking Empires from the Fifteenth Century to the 1780s (London: J. Cape, 1981); Carolyn Webber and Aaron Wildavsky, A History of Taxation and Expenditure in the Western World (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986). 99. Kennedy, Great Powers, 97, see 94–115. I am once more indebted to Kennedy. See also Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery (London: A. Lane, 1976). 100. Henry Folmer, Franco-Spanish Rivalry in North America 1524–1763 (Glendale, CA: Arthur H Clark Company, 1953), 309–10. 101. Martin Kitchen, The British Empire and Commonwealth: A Short History (1994; London: Macmillan, 1996), 16. 102. Thomas, The Slave Trade, 153–61, 170–82, 197–203, 231, 247–61, 270–8; see Elizabeth Donnan, Documents Illustrative of the Slave Trade to America, 4 vols. (Washington, 1935); see I: 97; UNESCO, The Slave Trade from the Fifteenth to Nineteenth Century (Paris, 1979); Moses Finlay, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (London: Chatto & Windus, 1981); Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern 1492–1800 (London: Verso, 1997). 103. H. M. Feinburg, “New data on European Mortality in West Africa: The Dutch on the Gold Coast, 1719–1760,” in Historiography, ed. Anthony Disney, 70, 7,283, see 69–82; see the earlier version in Journal of African History 15 (1974), 357–71. 104. Robin Hallett, “The European Approach to the Interior of Africa in the Eighteenth Century,” in Historiography, 68, see 53–67; for the first appearance of this article, see Journal of African History 4 (1963), 191–206. 105. See, e.g., Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism : The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, rpt. 2000) and. David E. Stannard, American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992, rpt. 1993). 106. Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, bk. 15, ch. 1, The Founders’ Constitution, Vol. 1, Ch. 15, doc. 4, The University of Chicago Press at http://presspubs. uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch15s4.html. 107. Ibid., bk. 15, CH. 5. 108. Ibid., bk. 15, CH. 7. 109. Benjamin Franklin, A Conversation on Slavery. To the Printer of the Public Advertiser. SIR, Broad-Street Buildings, Jan. 26, 1770. The Writings of Benjamin Franklin: London, 1757–1775; http://www.historycarper.com/ resources/twobf3/slavery.htm; see also http://www.assumption.edu/ahc/ 1770s/pexpandfound.html. 110. Letter from Abigail Smith Adams to John Adams, September 22, 1774, in Letters of Mrs. Adams, 3rd ed., vol.1. (1841), 24. 111. Abigail Adams, Letter to John Adams, September 22, 1774. Massachusetts Historical Society. Africans in America. Revolution at http://www.pbs. org/wgbh/aia/part2/2h23.html. 112. Phillis Wheatley, Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral (London: Archibald Bell, 1773). This text can also be seen online electronically: the Notes to Pages 123–130 235

Renascence Editions text was transcribed from the 1786 edition of J. Crukshank, Philadelphia. 113. Aristotle, Politics, VII.14.21–22 (1333b–1334a, 290). 114. Ibid., VII.2.14. (1324b, 262). Ernest Barker’s translation uses a slightly different and more direct idiom, yet the same point comes through: “But when it comes to politics most people appear to believe that mastery is the true statesmanship; and men are not ashamed of behaving to others in ways which they would refuse to acknowledge as just, or even expedient, among themselves. For their own affairs, and among themselves, they want an authority based on justice; but when other men are in question, their interest in justice stops”; see The Politics of Aristotle, trans. Ernest Barker (1946; London: Oxford University Press, 1958), VII.ii.14 (1324b, 285–6). 115. Benjamin Franklin to Peter Collinson, May 9, 1753, in ed. Papers of Benjamin Franklin Leonard W. Labaree, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959), 36 vols., vol. 4:481–2. See also J. Norman Heard, White into Red: A Study of the Assimilation of White Persons Captured by Indians (Methuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1973) and James Axtell, “The White Indians,” in The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 302–27. 116. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. The omission. As is, except I have corrected typographical errors. The website makes the following claim: “Spurred by his conviction that natural rights accrued to all men, Thomas Jefferson, decided that slavery had a destructive conditioning effect which stamped Africans with ‘odious peculiarities.’ When he was assigned with drafting a declaration calling for separation from Great Britain, he included this short attack of King George III’s indulgence of the slave trade. But, pressure from South Carolina and Georgia and from Northern dele- gates whose ports housed and profited from slave ships, led to the clause omission from the final version. The omission of the above clause has led some historians to believe the Declaration of Independence never meant for Africans in America to share in the fruits of independence and equally in their adopted homeland.” See Afro-American Almanac. Historical Documents at http://www.toptags.com/aama/. 117. On Adams and other founders and their views of slavery, see The E Pluribus Unum Project at http://www.assumption.edu/ahc/1770s/pexpandfound. html. “Slavery in Early America:What the Founders Wrote, Said, and Did.” 118. Thomas, The Slave Trade, 481–2, 523, 577, 611–3.

Chapter 6 1. Eliza Yonge Wilkinson, Letter from Eliza Yonge Wilkinson, 1782, in Letters of Eliza Wilkinson, during the Invasion and Possession of Charleston, SC, by the British in the Revolutionary War, ed. Caroline Gilman (New York, NY: S. Colman, 1839), 67–8; this and other documents by women I use here and below can also be found at North American Women’s Letters and Diaries, Alexander Street Press and the University of Chicago, 2001. 236 Notes to Pages 130–137

2. Ibid., 68. 3. Ibid., 68. 4. Ibid., 68–9. 5. Ibid., 69. 6. Ibid., 69–70. 7. Ibid., 70. 8. Ibid., 70–1 9. Ibid., 71. 10. Ibid., 60. 11. Ibid., 60–1. 12. Ibid., 61–2. 13. Abigail Smith Adams, Letter from Abigail Smith Adams to John Quincy Adams, December 26, 1783, in Letters of Mrs. Adams, The Wife of John Adams, 3rd ed., vol.1. Charles Francis Adams (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, & Co., 1841), 204. 14. Patience Greene Brayton, Diary of Patience Greene Brayton, July, 1787, in A Short Account of the Life and Religious Labors of Patience Brayton: Late of Swansey, in the State of Massachusetts (New York, NY: William Phillips, 1802), 123. 15. Elizabeth Sandwith Drinker, Diary of Elizabeth Sandwith Drinker, January 30, 1794, in Extracts from the Journal of Elizabeth Drinker, from 1759 to 1807, A.D., ed. Henry D. Biddle (Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1889), 220. 16. Charlotte Sheldon, Diary of Charlotte Sheldon, May 29, 1796, in Chronicles of a Pioneer School from 1792 to 1833, Being the History of Miss Sarah Pierce and Her Litchfield School, ed. Emily Noyes Vanderpoel and Elizabeth C. Barney Buel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1903), 12. 17. Isabella Marshall Graham, Letter from Isabella Marshall Graham, July 4, 1797, in The Unpublished Letters and Correspondence of Mrs. Isabella Graham, From the Year 1767 to 1814: Exhibiting Her Religious Character in the Different Relations of Life, ed. Joanna Bethune (New York: John S. Taylor, 1838), 18. Drinker, Diary of Elizabeth Sandwith Drinker, July 22, 1799. 19. Editor’s Note, Olaudah Equiano, The Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African (London, 1789; rpt. Leeds, 1814; New York: Dover, 1999), iv. 20. An address to the public, from the Pennsylvania Society for promoting the abolition of slavery, and the relief of free negroes, unlawfully held in bondage...Signed by order of the Society, B. Franklin, President. Philadelphia, 9th of November, 1789. Pennsylvania Society for promoting the abolition of slavery. Philadelphia, 1789. Library of Congress. American Memory. An American Time Capsule: Three Centuries of Broadsides and Other Printed Ephemera. Library of Congress, Rare Book and Special Collections Division. Printed Ephemera Collection; portfolio 147, folder 10. 21. Jeremy Belknap, A Discourse, Intended to Commemorate the Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus; Delivered at the Request of the Historical Society in Massachusetts, on the 23rd Day of October 1792, Being the Completion of the Third Century Since that Memorable Event (Boston: Belknap and Hall, 1792), 19. 22. Ibid., 46–7. Notes to Pages 137–142 237

23. For this painting, see Hugh Honour, The New Golden Land (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975), plate 150. 24. C. R. Boxer, The Golden Age of Brazil 1695–1750: Growing Pains of a Colonial Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962, rpt.1964), 1. 25. Equiano, The Life. The American edition appeared in 1791, the German edition in 1790, and the Dutch edition in 1791. By 1837, there were nine more editions; see Note (1999), iv. The Dover edition uses the Leeds edition of 1814, which is corrected, as does Henry Louis Gates, Jr. in The Classic Slave Narratives, ed. H. L. Gates, Jr. (1987; New York: Signet, 2002). 26. Ibid., 2. 27. Ibid., 2. 28. Ibid., 3. 29. Ibid., 38–9. 30. Ibid., 184. 31. Ibid., 183–4. 32. Ibid., 184. 33. Ibid., 184. 34. Ibid., 9–10. 35. Ibid., 23. 36. Ibid., 28. 37. Ibid., 31. 38. Ibid., 31. 39. Ibid., 32. 40. Ibid., 32. 41. Ibid., 32. 42. Ibid., 32. 43. Ibid., 34. 44. Ibid., 34. 45. Ibid., 40. 46. Ibid., 40, 52. 47. Ibid., 46. 48. Ibid., 50–1. 49. Ibid., 50–1. 50. Ibid., 63, see 54–5, 65. 51. Ibid., 74. 52. Ibid., 74. 53. Ibid., 74. 54. Ibid., 74–5. 55. Ibid., 76. 56. Ibid., 77. For an appreciation of Equiano’s use of chiasmus and the double voice of the innocent and sophisticate, see Gates, Jr., Introduction, The Classic Slave Narratives, 7–8. See also Sidney Kaplan, “Olaudah Equiano,” in the Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution, 1770–1800 (Washington, DC: New York Graphic Society and the Smithsonian Institution Press, 1973), 193–207 and Houston A. Baker, Jr. “Figurations for 238 Notes to Pages 142–146

a New American Literary History,” in Blues, Ideology, and Afro-American Literature: A Vernacular Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). 57. Equiano, The Life, 77. 58. Ibid., 77. 59. Ibid., 81. 60. Ibid., 81. 61. Ibid., 82. 62. Ibid., 87, 89. 63. Ibid., 90–102. 64. Ibid., 103. 65. Ibid., 107. 66. Ibid., 121. 67. Ibid., 123–4. 68. Ibid., 125, see 126–7. 69. Ibid., 129. 70. Ibid., 137–50. 71. Ibid., 153. 72. Ibid., 155, see 156. 73. Ibid., 161–2. 74. Ibid., 167. 75. Ibid., 169–70. 76. Ibid., 172. 77. Ibid., 176. 78. Ibid., 177. 79. Ibid., 179. 80. Ibid., 179. 81. Ibid., 179. 82. Ibid., 180. 83. See, e.g., Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 516, 541, 619. 84. Ibid., 470–3. 85. Thomas Jefferson to Antoine Louis Claude Destutt de Tracy, January 26, 1811—Thomas Jefferson Papers Series 1. General Correspondence. 1651–1827, American Memory, Library of Congress. Rather than insert’ “sic” after “it’s,” I think it is fair to say that this was a literate equivalent as a possessive as the form we use today: “its.” See Simone Goyard Fabre, “Avant Propos,” Antoine-Louis-Claude Destutt de Tracy, Commentaire sur “L’esprit des lois” de Montesquieu (Caen: Centre de philosophie politique et juridique, 1992), [1–3], Bibliothèque Nationale de France [BNF]. For Jefferson’s English translation, see Destutt de Tracy, see A commentary and review of Montesquieu’s Spirit of laws (Philadelphia: printed by William Duane, 1811). 86. See M. de Bovis, Essais sur l’esprit des lois colonials (Paris: impr. de Everat, 1820), 6; BNF; my translation. This book discusses other aspects of slavery in the colonies; see esp. 5–7, 35–6. 87. Philip Schofield, “Editorial Introduction,” Jeremy Bentham, Colonies, Commerce, and Constitutional Law: Rid Yourselves of Ultramaria and Other Notes to Pages 146–152 239

Writings on Spain and Spanish America, ed. Philip Schofield (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), xv–xvi. 88. Bentham, Letter 15, Part 1, Colonies, 126–7. 89. Ibid., Letter 16, Part 1, 130. 90. General Treaty signed in Congress at Vienna (London, 1816), 132, quoted in Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 585. See Thomas, 291–302, 315, 370–1, 414, 423–4, 449–63, 482–4, 499–510, 526–85. 91. Ibid., 592, see 587–91. On slavery more generally, see John Wesley, Thoughts Upon Slavery (London: R. Hawe 1774); Thomas Day, A Fragment of a Letter on the Slavery of Negroes (London: J. Stockdale, 1785); James Stephen, The Crisis in the Sugar Colonies (London: Printed for J. Hatchard, 1802); William E. Channing, Remarks on Slavery (Boston: J. H. Eastburn, 1836); R. I. and S. Wilberforce, The Life of William Wilberforce (London: J. Murray, 1838); Mariano Torrente, La cuestión importante sobre la esclavitud (Madrid: Jordané Hijos, 1841); T. Nelson, Remarks on Slavery and the Slave Trade (London, 1846); Joseph Denman, West India Interests, African Emigration and the Slave Trade (London: James Bigg & Son, 1848); Theodore Canot, Memoirs of a Slave Trader (New York, 1850); Frederick Law Omstead, A Journey in the Southern Slave States (New York, 1856); Andrew H. Foote, Africa and the American Flag (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1862); Rafael Labra, La abolición de la esclavitud en el orden económico (Madrid: J. Noguera á Cargo de m. martinez, 1873); W. E. B. Dubois, The Suppression of the African Trade to the United States of America (New York: Longmans, Green, 1896); Thesis (Ph.D) Harvard University, 1895; Harvard Archives. 92. For a black and white reproduction of this painting, see Hugh Honour, The European Vision of America (Cleveland: The Cleveland Museum of Art, 1975), plate 316. 93. See this connection on the website of the United States National Park Service at http://www.nps.gov/wori/ugrrexhibit.htm and http://www.nps.gov/ wori/ugrrpanel%205.htm. 94. Douglass, quoted in James M’Cune Smith, “Introduction,” Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and my Freedom (New York, Miller, Orton & Mulligan, 1855), 8–9. For an online version of this text, see Avalon Project: My Bondage and Freedom by Frederick Douglass; 1855 at http:// www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/treatise/douglas/douglas01.htm. 95. Second Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln, Saturday, March 4, 1865, Avalon Project, here and above. 96. Abraham Lincoln, January 4, 1855 (Notes on the history of the African slave trade), The Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress, Series 1. General Cor- respondence. 1833–1916, ms. 2pp. [431 marked on first page], here and below. 97. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF LIBERIA, Afro-American Almanac, Historical Documents. 98. From Abraham Lincoln to James N. Brown [Fragment of a Draft or Copy], October 18, 1858; the complete text of Lincoln’s letter to Brown is in Collected Works, III, 327–8. 240 Notes to Pages 153–158

99. Orlando Figes, Natasha’s Dance: A Cultural History of Russia (2002; London, Penguin, 2003), 143–6. 100. See Thomas, The Slave Trade, 793–8. 101. First Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln, Monday, Monday, March 4, 1861, Avalon Project, Yale Law School, here and below at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/lincoln1.htm. 102. Abraham Lincoln, Emancipation Proclamation; September 22, 1862, the Avalon Project, at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/emancipa.htm. 103. Gettysburg Address, November 19, 1863, Avalon Project at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/gettyb.htm. 104. Second Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln, Saturday, March 4, 1865, Avalon Project, here and below. 105. Lincoln, “Second Inaugural.” 106. Paul Kennedy: The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987), 158–82 here and above. See A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1954); K. Bourne, Britain and the Balance of Power in North America 1815–1908 (London: Longmans, 1967); K. Bourne, Victorian Foreign Policy 1830–1902 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970); H. Hattaway and A. Jones, How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1983); A. R. Millett and P. Maslowski, For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States of America (New York: Free Press, 1984). 107. For an interesting discussion of race and empire, see Allison Blakely, Blacks in the Dutch World: The Evolution of Racial Imagery in Modern Society (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993). See Lynn Hunt et al., The Making of the West: People and Cultures (Boston, New York: Bedford St. Martins, 2001), 904–09, 922. 108. Great Speeches, 169; see James Creelman, On the Great Highway: The Wanderings and Adventures of a Special Correspondent (Boston: Lothrop Publishing, 1901), 299–302. Textual production and delays affect many works, such as those by Columbus, Jean de Léry, Shakespeare, James Joyce, and others, so that this transmission and delay are reminiscent of Marco Polo dictated his story to Rusticello, a French writer of romance, while he was in prison. I have discussed some aspects textual transmission and authorship in earlier works like Columbus, Shakespeare and the Interpretation of the New World (New York and London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). 109. Mary Morton Dexter, Letter from Mary Morton Dexter, September 8, 1811, in Memoirs and Letters of Mrs. Mary Dexter, Late Consort of Rev. Elijah Dexter, ed. William T. Torrey (Plymouth, MA: A. Danforth, 1823), 141. See North American Women Letters and Diaries, Alexander Street Press with The University of Chicago, 2001; the texts here and below are also available electronically. 110. Ibid., 142. Notes to Pages 159–163 241

111. Anne Mott, Letter from Anne Mott to James Mott, 1819, in James and Lucretia Mott: Life and Letters, ed. Anna Davis Hallowell (Boston, MA: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1884), 70–1. 112. Angelina Emily Grimké Weld, Diary of Angelina Emily Grimké Weld, 1829, in The Grimké Sisters: Sarah and Angelina Grimké, The First American Women Advocates of Abolition and Woman’s Rights, ed. Catherine H. Birney (Boston, MA: Lee & Shepard Publishers, 1885), 92. 113. On this biography, see North American Women’s Letters and Diaries as well as James, and Boyer’s Notable American Women 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary (Cambridge MA: Belknap Press, 1971); Lynda G. Adamson’s Notable Women in American History (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1999); Kathryn Cullen-DuPont’s The Encyclopedia of Women’s History in America (New York: Facts on File, 1996); Frank N. Magill, ed., Great Lives from History: American Women Series (Pasadena: Salem Press, 1998). 114. Lydia Maria Francis Child, Letter from Lydia Maria Child to E. Carpenter, September 4, 1836, in Letters of Lydia Maria Child with a Biographical Introduction by John G. Whittier and Appendix by Wendall Phillips, ed. John G. Whittier, Wendall Phillips (Boston, MA: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1883), 20. 115. Ibid., 21. 116. Ibid., 21. 117. On this biography, see North American Letters and Diaries and James’s, and Boyer’s Notable American Women 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary; Adamson’s Notable Women in American History; Lina Mainiero, ed., American Women Writers: A Critical Reference Guide from Colonial Times to Present (New York: Ungar, 1979–94). 118. Sarah Pugh, Letter from Sarah Pugh, May 8, 1837, in Memorial of Sarah Pugh: A Tribute of Respect from Her Cousins (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1888), 16. For this biographical information, see North American Women’s Letters and Diaries and James’s, and Boyer’s Notable American Women 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary. 119. Pugh, 17. 120. Sarah Moore Grimké, Letter from Sarah Moore Grimké to Mary S. Parker, October 20, 1837, in Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, and the Condition of Woman. Addressed to Mary S. Parker (Boston: I. Knapp, 1838), 124–5. 121. Ibid., 125. 122. Frances Kemble, Letter from Frances Kemble to Elizabeth Dwight Sedgwick Rackemann, Febuary 14, 1839, in Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839 (London, England: Longmans & Co., 1863), 183–4. 123. For Kemble’s biography, see North American Women’s Letters and Diaries; Jonathan Yardley, Washington Post Book World. September. 17–23, 2000; Notable American Women 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary American Women Writers: A Critical Reference Guide from Colonial Times to Present, ed. Lina Mainiero. 242 Notes to Pages 163–165

124. Lucretia Coffin Mott, Letter from Lucretia Coffin Mott to Richard D. Webb, May 14, 1849, in James and Lucretia Mott: Life and Letters, ed. Anna Davis Hallowell. (Boston, MA: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1884), 321. For Mott’s biography, see North American Women’s Letters and Diaries and James and Lucretia Mott: Life and Letters. 125. Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, Diary of Ella Gertrude Thomas, January 2, 1859, in Secret Eye: The Journal of Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, 1848–1889, ed. Virginia Ingraham Burr (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 168–9. 126. Elizabeth Leslie Rous Wright Comstock, Letter from Elizabeth Leslie Rous Comstock, February 8, 1860, in Life and Letters of Elizabeth L. Comstock, ed. Catherine Hare (Philadelphia: John C. Winston & Co., 1895), 81; on her life, see Elizabeth Comstock, Life and Letters of Elizabeth L. Comstock (Philadelphia: John C. Winston & Co., 1895); “Comstock, Elizabeth Leslie Rous,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 1999–2000. 127. Catharine Maria, Sedgwick, 1789–1867, Letter from Catharine Maria Sedgwick to Lucy Russell, January 5, 1861, in Life and Letters of Catherine M. Sedgwick, ed. Mary E. Dewey (New York, Harper & Row, 1871), 389. 128. Letter from Lydia Maria Child to Sarah Blake Sturgis Shaw, May 05, 1861, in Letters of Lydia Maria Child, 151. 129. On slave narratives and African American writing, see Federal Writers’ Project, Slave narratives, a folk history of slavery in the United States from interviews with former slaves. Typewritten records prepared by the Federal Writers’ project, 1936–38, assembled by the Library of Congress project, Work Projects Administration, for the District of Columbia, sponsored by the Library of Congress, illustrated with photographs (Washington, 1941); Charles H. Nichols, Many Thousand Gone: The Ex-Slaves’ Account of Their Bondage and Freedom (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1963); Paul D. Escott, Slavery Remembered: A Record of Twentieth-Century Slave Narratives (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979); Robert B. Stepto, From Behind the Veil: A Study of Afro-American Narrative (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979); Houston A. Baker, Jr., The Journey Back: Issues in Black Literature and Criticism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Marion Wilson Starling, The Slave Narrative: Its Place in American History (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982); Henry Louis Gates, Jr., The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of Afro-American Literary Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Paul Q. Tilden, African-American Literature: An Overview and Bibliography (New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2003). 130. See, e.g., Valerie Smith, Self-Discovery and Authority in Afro-American Narrative (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987) and her Not Just Race, Not Just Gender: Black Feminist Readings (New York: Routledge, 1998). 131. Gates, Introduction, Classic Slave Narratives, 9; see William Andrews, “Six Women’s Slave Narratives, 1831–1909,” in Black Women’s Slave Narratives, ed. W. L. Andrews (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987). Notes to Pages 165–169 243

132. Mary Prince, “The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave. (Related by Herself),” in The Classic Slave Narratives, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (1987; New York: New American Library, 2002), 255, see 253–4. 133. Ibid., 260–1. 134. Ibid., 262. 135. Ibid., 266, see 262–5. 136. Ibid., 269, see 267–8. 137. Ibid., 269. 138. Ariel’s words at line 348 of Shakespeare’s First Folio captures yet another instance of the vexation of slavery in a place where Prince was born. Ariel alludes to Bermuda even though Shakespeare’s play, having as its one of its source a manuscript about a shipwreck there en route to Virginia, takes place on an island between Italy and North Africa in the Mediterranean. See William Shakespeare, The Tempest, The First Folio of Shakespeare, The Norton Facsimile, ed. Charlton Hinman (New York, W.W. Norton & Company, 1968). 139. Prince, “The History of Mary Prince,” 270. 140. Ibid., 278. 141. Ibid., 279. 142. Ibid., 284–6. 143. Ibid., 287. 144. Ibid., 288. 145. Ibid., 288. 146. Ibid., 288. 147. William Lloyd Garrison, Preface, Frederick Douglass, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass in The Classic Slave Narratives, ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 325. 148. Ibid., 326. 149. Ibid., 326–7. 150. Ibid., 327. 151. Ibid., 328. 152. Ibid., 328, see 329. 153. Ibid., 329. 154. Ibid., 330. 155. Ibid., 331. 156. Ibid., 333, see 332. 157. Ibid., 333. 158. Ibid., 333–4. 159. Phillips, in Douglass, Narrative, Classic Slave Narratives, ed. Gates, 335. 160. Ibid., 335. 161. Ibid., 335. 162. Ibid., 336. 163. Ibid., 336–7. 164. Frederick Douglass, Narrative, Classic Slave Narratives, ed. Gates, 339. 165. Ibid., 341. 166. Ibid., 341. 244 Notes to Pages 170–175

167. Ibid., 347. 168. Ibid., 349. 169. Ibid., 353. 170. Ibid., 354. 171. Ibid., 363. 172. Ibid., 365. 173. Ibid., 373, see 366–72. 174. Ibid., 376, see 375. 175. Ibid., 379. 176. Ibid., 388, see 385–7. 177. Ibid., 394, see 393, 395. 178. Ibid., 397, see 398. 179. Ibid., 412. 180. Ibid., 421. 181. Ibid., 423. 182. Ibid., 427. 183. Ibid., 427. 184. Ibid., 429. 185. Ibid., 431. 186. Ibid., 433. 187. Ibid., 436. 188. William Kaufman, Introduction, Sojourner Truth, Narrative of Sojourner Truth (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1997), iv–vi. 189. Ibid., Narrative of Sojourner Truth, 2. 190. Ibid., 16. 191. Ibid., 22, see 21, 23. 192. Ibid., 45–6. 193. Ibid., 62. 194. Ibid., 73. 195. Harriet Jacobs, Preface by the Author, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (Mineola, NY: Dover, 2001), 2. 196. L. Maria Child, Introduction by the Editor, Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, 4. 197. Ibid., 4. 198. Ibid., 5. 199. Ibid., 5. 200. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, 8. 201. Ibid., 8. 202. Ibid., 8–12. 203. Ibid., 34. 204. Ibid., 34. 205. Ibid., 36. 206. Ibid., 68. 207. Ibid., 64. 208. Ibid., 64. 209. Ibid., 103–5. Notes to Pages 175–180 245

210. Ibid., 105–9. 211. Ibid., 114. 212. Ibid., 118. 213. Ibid., 122. 214. Ibid., 137. 215. Ibid., 138. 216. Ibid., 138–45. 217. Ibid., 147. 218. Ibid., 149. 219. Ibid., 149. 220. Ibid., 150. 221. Ibid., 150. 222. Ibid., 151. 223. Ibid., 153. 224. Ibid., 155–69. 225. Ibid., 164. 226. Ibid., 164. 227. Ibid., 165–7. 228. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States of America, 1638–1870 (1896; Mineola, NY: Dover, 1999), 199. 229. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Forethought, The Souls of Black Folk (1903; Mineola, NY: Dover, 1994), v. 230. W. E. B. Du Bois, Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil (1920; Mineola, NY: Dover, 1999), 17. 231. Ibid., 18. 232. Ibid., 29. 233. James Weldon Johnson, The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (1912; Mineola, NY: Dover, 1995), 99. 234. Ibid., 100. 235. Mary Anderson, interviewed at age eighty-six, When I Was a Slave: Memoirs from the Slave Narrative Collection, ed. Norman R. Yetman (Minneola, NY: Dover, 2002), 3; the interviews were conducted from 1936 to 1938 and compiled as a manuscript collection in the Library of Congress in 1941. 236. Ibid., 4. 237. Ibid., 4. 238. Boston Blackwell, interviewed at age ninety-eight, When I Was a Slave, 13. 239. Ibid., 13. 240. Ibid., 13. 241. Ibid., 13–4. 242. Tines Kendricks, interviewed age one hundred and four, When I Was a Slave, 82–3. 243. Ibid., 84. 244. Ibid., 85–6. 245. Ibid., 86. 246. Ibid., 87. 246 Notes to Pages 180–184

247. Ibid., 87. 248. Fannie Moore, interviewed at age eighty-eight, When I Was a Slave, 91. 249. Ibid., 93. 250. Bill Simms, interviewed at age ninety-seven, When I Was a Slave, 123. 251. Ibid., 124. 252. Ibid., 124. 253. Ibid., 126. 254. See Gates, Introduction, Classic Slave Narratives, 1. 255. Thomas, The Slave Trade, 804–5. I am using Thomas’s estimated statistics as the basis of my analysis here. 256. These estimates are based on those in various sources, but most recently, Hugh Thomas’s Appendix Three, 804–5. See also Philip Curtin, The Slave Trade, A Census (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969); Leslie Rout, The African Experience in Spanish America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); Joseph Inikori, Forced Migration (London: Hutchinson University Library for Africa, 1982) and Jean-Michel Déveaux, France au temps des négriers (Paris: France-Empire, 1994). 257. See, e.g., R. Law, ed., From Slave Trade to Legitimate Commerce (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). 258. Martin Luther King, Stride, Toward Freedom:The Montgomery Story (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958). 259. M. K. [Mahatma] Gandhi, Hind Swaraj and Other Writings, ed. Anthony J. Parel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) xiv–xvii. 260. Ibid., 72–3. 261. ‘The Atlantic Conference: Joint Statement by President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill, August 14, 1941, Avalon Project, at http://www. yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/wwii/atlantic/at10.htm#2. 262. PROCEEDINGS IN THE SENATE, MONDAY, DECEMBER 8, 1941, DECLARATION OF STATE OF WAR WITH JAPAN; Declarations of a State of War with Japan, Germany, and Italy: Part 4, Avalon Project. 263. On British economic decline, see E. J. Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969); and C. Barnett, The Audit of War (London: Macmillan, 1986) and Hunt et. al, 1073. On decolonization, see, e.g., L. von Albertini, Decolonization (New York, 1971); C. Barnett, The Collapse of British Power (New York: Morrow, 1972); R. F. Holland, European Decolonization: The British, French, Dutch and Belgian Empires 1919–63 (London, 1978); T. Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World Since 1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); D. A. Low, Eclipse of Empire (1991; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Frances Gouda, Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900–1942 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1995). On Churchill, Eisenhower, and general ideas about the beginnings of the Cold War, see Robert Dallek, The American Style of Foreign Policy (New York: Knopf, 1983), 170; M. Balfour, The Adversaries: America, Russia and the Open World, 1941–1962 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981), 71; Kennedy, Great Powers 366–72; on the Notes to Pages 184–193 247

nuclear issue, see B. Brody, The Absolute Weapon (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1946); J. Prados, The Soviet Estimate: U. S. Intelligence Analysis and Russian Military Strength (New York: Dial Press, 1982); W. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971); L. Freeman, Britain and Nuclear Weapons (London: Royal Institute of International Affiars, 1980); J. Baylis, Anglo-American Defense Relations, 1939–80 (London: Macmillan, 1981); D. Holloway, The Soviet Union and the Arms Race (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1983). 264. Universal Declaration of Human Rights Written at the U.N. in 1948, at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/un/unrights.htm. 265. Bunche paid tribute to his grandmother in Reader’s Digest, “My Most Unforgettable Character”; see “Ralph Bunche—Biography,” Nobel e-museum, at http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1950/bunche-bio.html. 266. Ralph Bunche—Nobel Lecture,December 11, 1950, “Some Reflections on Peace in Our Time,” here and below at http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1950/bunche-lecture.html. 267. Hunt, The Making of the West, 1177. 268. Top Secret, Foreign Office telegram No. 2938 to Washington, 2; see page 76 of Public Record Office Reference, PREM 11/2880. 269. Souvenir of the Visit of the Rt.Hon. Harold Macmillan Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to the Houses of Parliament, Cape Town, Wednesday, 3rd February, 1960, Printed on the Authority of Mr. Speaker (Parow: Cape Times Limited [n.d., 1960?]), 5; see [ms 11], Public Record Office Reference, PREM 11/4937. 270. Macmillan, 7 [ms. 12]. 271. Ibid., 7 [ms. 12]. 272. Ibid., 8 [ms. 13]. 273. Ibid., 8 [ms. 13]. 274. Ibid., 9 [ms. 14]. 275. Ibid., 9 [ms. 14]. 276. Ibid., 10 [ms. 15]. 277. “Martin Luther King’s Letter from Birmingham Jail,” April 16, 1963, at http://almaz.com/nobel/peace/MLK-jail.html. This version keeps all original typographical errors. Possibly, “stiff” is “still”. 278. “The I Have a Dream Speech,” The United States Constitution Online, at http://www.usconstitution.net/dream.html. 279. “Martin Luther King’s Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech,” December 10, 1964, Oslo, Norway at http://www.nobelprizes.com/nobel/peace/MLK- nobel.html for quotations from this speech here and below. 280. Martin Luther King, “I’ve Been to the Mountaintop,” at http://www. afscme.org/about/kingspch.htm, © American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, 2002. 281. Nelson Mandela – Nobel Lecture, Acceptance and Nobel Lecture, Norway, 1994 at http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1993/mandela-lecture.html. 282. F. W. de Klerk, Acceptance and Nobel Lecture, Norway, 1994, at http:// www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1993/mandela-lecture.html. 248 Notes to Pages 193–198

283. Thomas, 593–623, 629, 656–5, 672–3, 712, 726–45, 774–85, 790–3, 861–62. On China, the Exhibition of 1851, and economic and political imperialism, see Hunt et. al, 823–5, 841. See also Jonathan Sperber, The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). On slavery and economic contexts, see also W. L. Mathieson, Great Britain and the Slave Trade (London: Longmans, 1929); H. G. Soulsby, The Right of Search and the Slave Trade in Anglo-American Relations (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1933); C. Lloyd, The Navy and the Slave Trade (London: Longmans, 1949); C. L. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1969); Arthur P. Corwin, Spain and the Abolition of Slavery in Cuba (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1967); Philip Curtain, The Slave Trade, A Census (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969); W. E. F. Ward, The Royal Navy and the Slavers (London: Allen & Unwin, 1969); Leslie Bethell, The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); Seymour Dreschler, Econocide, British Slavery in the Era of Abolition (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977); Enriqueta Vila Vilar, Hispanoamerica y el comercio de esclavos (Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1977); Joseph Inikori, Forced Migration (London: Hutchinson University Library for Africa, 1982); David Brion Davis, Slavery and Human Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); Stuart Schwartz, Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); John Lynch, The Spanish American Revolutions (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1986); David Eltis, Economic Growth and the Ending of the Slave Trade (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Jean-Michel Déveaux, France au temps des négriers (Paris, 1994); Robin Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery 1776–1848 (London: Verso, 1998).

Chapter 7 1. R. A. Skelton, Introduction, Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage: A Narrative Account of the First Circumnavigation, trans and ed. R. A. Skelton (1969; New York: Dover, 1994), 5–6. 2. Pigafetta, Magellan’s Voyage, 148, see 181n24, 27, 28. 3. “Pedro de Castañeda’s Narrative,” in Pedro de Castañeda et al., The Journey of Coronado, trans. and ed. George Parker Winship (1904; 1933; New York: Dover, 1990), 5. 4. Ibid., 5. 5. William Apes, “Eulogy on King Philip,” Great Speeches by Native Americans, ed. Bob Blaisdell (Mineola, NY: Dover, 2000), 93–4. 6. Ibid., 112. 7. Ibid., 114. 8. Ibid., 114–5. 9. Ibid., 115. 10. See Ibid., 95–6. Notes to Pages 198–202 249

11. Mary Reynolds, interviewed at age hundredϩ, When I Was a Slave: Memoirs from the Slave Narrative Collection, ed. Norman R. Yetman (Minneola, NY: Dover, 2002), 104. 12. Richard Hakluyt, Voyages and Discoveries: The Principal Navigations [,] Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation, ed. Jack Beeching (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972, rpt. 1985), 105–16. Beechings’s selection is taken from the second edition of Hakluyt’s Principal Navigations brought out between 1598 and 1600. 13. Ibid., 106–7. 14. N. A. Worden, “Rural Slavery in the Western Districts of Cape Colony During the Eighteenth Century,” Ph.D. thesis (University of Cambridge, 1982), 14, 408. 15. Professor G. Graham, “Slave Traders in the Indian Ocean,” Library Talk, Royal Commonwealth Society, May 2, 1961; Royal Commonwealth Library in Cambridge University Library (Manuscript Room), 1, 6, see 2–5, 7–8. 16. Le Sr. de Cussy au Cap Coste de St Domingue, October 18, 1685, Archive d’Outre Mer, France, page 1 of 4 pp. ms. 17. Mr. C. H. Fyfe, Library Talk on Sierra Leone, Royal Commonwealth Society, November 4, 1958; Royal Commonwealth Library in Cambridge University Library (Manuscript Room), 4, see 1–3, 5 for the general discussion of Sierra Leone and the figures here discussed. 18. In the question period following Fyfe’s talk, (among others) Sir Alan Burns and Dr. M C F. Easmon, who has written on doctors from Sierra Leone and who said that he was descended from a Maroon and a Nova Scotian from that group. See Fyfe, 6–7. 19. See Alan Stewart, Philip Sidney: A Double Life (2000; London: Pimlico, 2001), 265–76. 20. Richard Price, Two Tracts (1778), in Political Writings, ed. D. O. Thomas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 72. 21. Ibid., 30. 22. William Lloyd Garrison, The Liberator (Boston), January 1, 1831, in The Declaration of Independence and Other Great Documents of American History 1775–1865, ed. John Grafton (Mineola, NY: Dover, 2000), 70. 23. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. N. H. Thomson (1910; New York: Dover, 1992), 44. 24. Rabindranath Tagore, Gitanjali (Song Offerings) (1912), in Empire Writing: An Anthology of Colonial Literature 1870–1918, ed. Elleke Boehmer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 379. W. B. Yeats seems to have a hand in the translation and editing of this and other poems in this volume. Index

abolition/abolitionist(s), see slavery, 3, Alfonso the Wise, 43 91, 117–18, 122, 127, 135–8, allegorical/allegory, 58–9, 72, 77 144–54, 157, 159–75, 181–2, 201, Alexander the Great, 77, 82, 197 236n20 Alexander II, (czar [tsar] of Russia), 153 Acosta, José de, 73, 215n142, 224n2 Álvares, Jorge, 44 Acuera, 100 ambivalence/ambivalent, 3, 5, 9, 11, Adam, 101, 204n3; Adam and Eve, 110 14, 16, 21, 33, 44–7, 49, 52, 56, 59, Adams, Abigail Smith, 118, 123, 134 62, 65, 73, 85, 88, 96, 100, 103, Adams, John, 118, 123, 127, 235n117 104–6, 114, 118, 122, 136, 173, Adams, John Quincy, 134, 164 181, 193, 199, 208n26, 222n57 Adams, Robert M., 219n31, Ammonio, Andrea, 53 220n32, n34 Anderson, Mary, 179 Africa/African, see also South Africa, 3, Ango, Jean, 103 6–7, 9, 13–4, 17, 19, 28, 32, 43–4, anthropologists/anthropology, 7, 60, 52, 85, 91–167, 177, 182–3, 72, 74, 208n226, 221n50 186–200, 217n6, 235, n116, Antwerp, 14, 53, 55, 93, 214n137 242n129, 243n138; Angola, 101; anxiety/anxieties/anxious, 14, 17–18, Ashanti, 146; Azanaghi, 95; 31, 55, 79, 155, 159, 187; sexual Barbazini (Barbacenes), 96; Barbary, anxiety, 88 27, 93, 95; Ceuta, 93; Congo, 44, Apes, William, 197–8 101; Gambra, 96; Ghana, 97, 188, Arab(s)/Arabia/Araby/Arab States, 191; Guinea, 93, 152, 172; Ibos, 3, 6–7, 77, 95, 121, 146, 186, 199; languages—Joloff, Mende, 193, 199 Yorubas, 199; Mauritania, 7, 193; archive(s), 14, 18, 20, 22, 24, 32, 69, Liberia, 152; Marrakesh, 103; 206n15 Morocco, 92–3, 103; Mozambique, Aristotle, 2, 6, 68, 73, 77, 93, 100–1, 199; Nigeria, 138, 186, 188; 106, 121, 125–7, 164, 201 Scramble for Africa, 156, 183; Sereri art of persuasion, see rhetoric, 6, (Serer), 96; Sierra Leone, 19, 153, 68, 173 198–200, 249n17; Somalis, 199 Asia, 17, 29, 43–5, 65, 82, 86, 97, 99, African Americans, 7, 89, 129, 131–2, 102–3, 105, 118–9, 145, 187–9, 134–5, 149–50, 152, 155–6, 198–9; Ceylon (Sri Lanka), 55, 188; 189–90, 195, 198 Malacca, 100; Malaya, 188; Pakistan, agon/agony, 1, 9, 178, 194–5, 201 188; Philippines, 98; Singapore, Ailly, Pierre d’, 52 148, 186 Alfonse (Alphonse), Jean (João Azurara, Gomes Eannes de (also Affonso), 102–3 Zurara), 6, 95 252 Index

Atlantic, 1–2, 15, 27–8, 38, 44, 65, 67, biblical authors/figures, Aaron, Herod, 70, 77, 89, 92, 94–5, 97–9, 103–4, Isaiah, Jesus, Joseph, Matthew, 119, 121, 127–8, 139, 147, 152, Moses, 92 157, 167, 182, 184, 195–6, 198, Black Legend, 16, 19, 28, 36–7, 40, 46, 218n9; Atlantic islands—Azores, 50–1, 53, 64, 136, 207n22, 182; Canarians (Guanche), Canaries 214n137, 218n17 (Canary Islands), 92, 94–5, 101; Blackstone, William, 93, 145 Madeira (the Madeiras), 7, 39, 92, Blackwell, Boston, 179 94, 101, 182, 206n15; Atlantic Blake, William, 125, 193 charter, 184; Atlantic world, 2, 94 Bloom, Harold, 226n25 Auratus, Johannes, 76 Bodin, Jean, 215n142 Australia, 145, 157, 186 Bolívar, Simon, 146 Austria, 7, 24–6, 147–8, 153 Bonaparte, Napoleon (born Napoleone Avilés, Pedro Menéndez de, 38, 40, Buonaparte), 119, 145–7, 195 205n15, 208n30 Boston (Massachusetts), 116, 123–4, 160, 168, 176–7, 197–8, 222n57 Bainton, Roland, 219n21 Bourdieu, Pierre, 7–8, 203n8–n9 Baker, Richard, 140 Bovis, Monsieur de, 145 Banneker, Benjamin, 125 Boxer, C. R., 137 barbarian(s)/barbaric/barbarism/ Brach, Pierre de, 222n57 barbarity/barbarous, 2, 11, 20, Brayton, Patience Greene, 117, 134 27, 37, 45, 51, 60–2, 65, 75–6, Brayton, Preserved, 117 97, 111, 124, 126, 134–5, Brazil, 146, 148–50, 153–4, 182, 186, 144, 168, 170, 185, 222n59, 193, 207n25, 209n42, 215n142, 224n67 221n56 Barker, Ernest, 235n114 Brent, Linda, 173 Barros, João de, 99 Britain, see England, xvii, 12–13, 31, Basanier, Martin, 34–5, 213n126 85, 89, 118–22, 127, 129, 134, 136, Bate, W. Jackson, 226n25 138, 145–50, 153, 155–6, 182–4, Batimaussa, Lord, 96 186–8, 192–3, 199–201, 235n116; Baxter, Richard, 105 Royal Navy, 118, 145, 147, Behn, Aphra, 6, 105–15, 138; 199–200; Scotland, 25, 161, 199; Oronooko, 6, 105–15, 138 United Kingdom, 188; Wales, 83, 86 Belgium, 183 British Empire, xvi, 3, 24, 31, 146, Belknap, Jeremy, 136–7 150, 182, 186, 188, 195, 200–1, 218 Belleforest, François de, 17, 19, 73, British North America, xvi, 7, 120–3, 76–9, 209n34, n36 136, 156–7, 182 Bengorion, Joseph, 85 Brown, James N., 152 Bentham, Jeremy, 7, 146 Brown, John, 161 Benzoni, Girolamo, 21, 28, 32, 60, Bruès, Guy de, 47 209n45, 212n113, 222n59 Bruges, 93, 204n5 Berardi, Juanotto, 98 Buchanan, James, 153 Bermuda, 165, 186, 205n15; Juan Bunche, Ralph, 182, 185–6, 247n265 Bermudez, 206n15 Bunyan, John, 29, 212n101 Biard, Auguste-François, 148 Burgundy, 13, 26, 57 Index 253

Burke, Peter, 47, 60, 222n59 Castañheda, Pedro de, 196 Burleigh, Lord, 87 Castile/Castilian, see Spain, 12, 49, Burns, Alan, 249n18 54–5, 57, 59, 63, 72, 93, 98–9, Burrowgh, William, 87 224n2, 229n6 Butler, Pierce, 163 Castlereagh, Lord (Robert Stewart), 147 Catalan(s), 44, 92; Catalan Atlas, 93 Cabot, John (Giovanni Caboto), 14, Cathay (China), 71, 81–2 33, 41, 43–5, 56, 67, 86, 213n121 Catholic(s)/Catholicism, 1, 15–19, Cabot, Sebastian, 14, 18, 213n121 29–31, 35, 37, 62, 69, 71, 97, 104, Cabral, Pedro Álvares (Alvarez or 115, 143, 152, 170, 190, 200, Pedralvarez), 44, 54 209n42, 214n137, 215n138; Cadamosto, Alvise, 94–6 Catholic Church, 1, 30, 120; Calvin, Jean, 215n138; Calvinist(s), Catholic emancipation, 170; 17, 199 Jesuit(s), 17, 44 Camelo, Hernandéz, 206n15 Certa, Don Luis de la, 43 Camillus, 92 Certeau, Michel de, 222n58 Canada, 7, 12, 16–17, 73, 119, 148, Cervantes (Miguel de Cervantes 156–7, 163, 171, 176–7, 181, 184, Saavedra), 68 186, 192, 208n26, 215n142; Champlain, Samuel de, 37 Montreal, 118, Nova Scotia, 13, 200, Charles I, 99; Charles V, Holy Roman 249n18; Quebec, 118, 232n85 Emperor, 2, 13, 52, 54, 69, 71, 101, Candish, Thomas, 87 152, 196, 207n18 Canning, George, 147 Charles III (Spain), 120 Canny, Nicholas, 213n125 Chateaubriand, François-René de, 147 Canzo, Gonzálo Méndez de, 40 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 78, 81 Capdequí, J. M. Ots y, 99 Chauveton, Urbain, 21, 32, 212n113 Cape Breton, 44; Cape Cod, 206n15; Child, David Lee, 160 Cape of Good Hope, 43–4; Cape Child, Lydia Maria Francis (also known Verde islands, 43 as Francis), 160–1, 172–4 capital/capitalism, 12, 91, 93, 101 China, 44, 81–2, 99–100, 148–9, 186, Cardinal Morton, 56; Cardinal 191, 248n283 Riario, 53 Christ, Jesus, 18–9, 52–4, 158, Caribbean, see also West Indies, 7, 171, 182; Christendom, 19, 24, 18–19, 48, 99, 101, 114, 120, 127, 28–9, 52, 63, 86, 210n57 138, 143, 145, 154, 173, 186; Christian/Christianity, 2, 4–5, 13–5, Barbadoes, 141; Guadeloupe and 23, 29, 32, 37, 40, 43, 46–53, 58–9, Martinique, 7; Jamaica, 127, 137, 61, 82, 86, 88, 91, 93–7, 100, 103, 143, 200; Santo Domingo (Sainte- 113, 124–5, 127, 137, 141, 143–4, Domingue), 98–9, 119, 199; Taino 151, 156, 158–9, 168, 171, 183, Indians, 98 188, 190, 196, 210n57, 224n2, Carlisle, Thomas, 109 227n36; Christian, 5, 46; humanist Carpenter, E., 160 critique, 46; critique of empire, 15; Carpio, Lope de Vega, 49 republicanism, 37; Judeo-Christian, 1; Cartier, Jacques, 16, 18, 33, 67 hypocrisy of Christianity, 171; Castanheda, Fernão de, 99 non-Christians, 2 254 Index

Churchill, Winston, 184, 186–7, 95, 97–100, 105, 108, 111, 136–7, 246n263 157, 195–7, 205n8, 209n40, 217n7, Cicero/Ciceronian, 47, 55–6, 71, 75, 223n63, 224n2, 229n24, 224n108 77, 93 Columbus, Diego (Colón), 48–9 Cieza, Pedro de, 36 companies, 86, 120; British East India class, 7, 56, 95–6, 100, 107–8, 111, Company, 148; Companie of 128–9, 156, 160, 163–4, 181 Muscovy Marchants, 86; Company Classical world, see Greece and Rome, of Senegal, 199; Dutch East India 12, 47, 52, 62–3, 73, 85, 87–8, 123; Company (VOC), 105, 198; Carthage, 57; classical allusions/ Netherlands or Dutch West India myths, 46, 61, 73; antecedents, Company, 104, 120; Royal Africa 91–2; authority/tradition, 73; Company, 121 inheritance, 1, 6; knowledge/ comparative context, 201; comparative learning, 64, 69; past, 13, 46, 73, method, 3; comparative cultures and 85; classicism, 62; Hannibal, 201; empires, 8; comparative discussions, Syria, 57 5; comparative ethnology, 72; Clayton, George, 149 comparative European context, 66; close attention/reading, 6, 68 comparative study of empires, 9 Cobden, William, 150 Comstock, Elizabeth Leslie Rous Code Noir, 6, 114, 127, 145, 232n85 Wright, 163 Cohinto, Diègue, 44 conquer/conqueror(s)/conquest, 1, 4, Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 114 12, 16, 21, 23–4, 26–7, 33, 36, 38, Cole, Christien, 199 57, 63–4, 82, 86, 93, 96, 99, 105, Colet, John, 53 112–3, 123, 136, 184, 207n22, Coligny, François de, 21; Coligny, 224n2 Gaspar de, 16–18, 21, 24, 35, 209n42 conscience/conscientious, 12, 104, 168, collection(s), 16, 32, 68–9, 85, 94, 179, 173, 180, 185, 194–5 214n137, 245n235 contest(s)/contestation/contestatory/ Colletet, Guillaume, 214n138 contesting, see agon, xv–xvii, 1–4, colonial/colonies/colonists/colonization/ 7–9, 67, 84, 88, 102, 107, 118, 131, colonizer/colony, xvii, 2–9, 13–14, 164, 178, 184, 193–7, 200–1 16–23, 29–40, 46, 49–51, 59–60, contesting empires, xv, 1, 3–4, 194 62–9, 73, 75, 86, 88, 92, 97–100, contradiction(s)/contradictory, 3, 7, 9, 102–7, 114, 117–20, 122–3, 126–7, 11, 16, 47, 49, 64, 69, 88, 103, 122, 129–30, 135–7, 145–50, 152–3, 148, 155, 166, 173, 181, 193, 195, 156–7, 181, 188–90, 195–201, 199, 200, 223n72 205n15, 208n26, 212n111, Cope, William, 87 213n125, 215n142, 230n35, Córdoba, Pedro de, 49 238n86; decolonization, 181, 183, Coronado, Francisco Vásquez de, 186–7, 190, 193, 195, 246n263; 196–7 postcolonial/postcolonialism, 64, Correia, Gaspar, 99 217n8, 222n57, 223n72, 227n47 Corte Real, Gaspar and Miguel Columbus, Christopher (Colón), 1, (brothers), 44 4–6, 12, 15, 24, 32, 35, 41, 43–8, Cortés, Hernán (Cortez),, 23, 28, 60, 53–4, 56, 58–9, 67–8, 71–3, 86, 88, 211n92 Index 255 cosmographer/cosmography, 14–15, cultural glass, 76; high culture, 4; 17–20, 55, 67, 73–4, 76, 78–9, interpretation of cultures, 7; meeting 85–6, 88, 102, 208n26 of cultures, 9; metropolitan culture, Courbet, Ernest, 222n57 8; multicultural states/democracy, Couto, Diogo do, 99 186, 192; transcultural translation, 8 Creelman, James, 156 Crignon, Pierre, 102 Dances with Wolves, 157 critique, 19, 32, 46, 51, 56, 59, 62–3, Davies, William, 199 76, 81, 116, 140, 183, 220n34; Davis, John, 86 alternative/oppositional, 48, 51, 64 Davis, Natalie Zemon, 217–18n8 Cromwell, Oliver, 47 De Bry, Theodor (Theodore), 36, 51 Crone, G. R., 93 Declaration of Independence, 122, Crowther, Bishop Adjai, 200 124–7, 152, 169, 185, 190, 192, cruel/cruelty, 41, 46, 51, 61–3, 139–40, 197, 201, 235n116 174, 201, 209n37, 220n34; cruel democracy/democracies/democratic, 3, blessedness, 41; cruelty as a word or 89, 146, 183, 185, 192–3 term, 139, 174; cruelty of Americans, De Monts, Pierre du Gua, sieur, 37 151, 158, 197; of the British, 127, Dexter, Mary Morton, 158; Mrs. N. N. 130, 139; of Christians, 158; of (her sister), 158 Europeans, 139, 174, 197; of the Dias, Bartolomeo, 43 Spaniards, 5, 12, 19, 22–4, 28, Diaz, Pedro (Pero), 39–40 30–2, 37–8, 46, 48, 50–1, 60–1, 63, Diderot, Denis, 66, 122 100, 136, 139, 195, 201, 209n45, Dier, Edward, 87 214n137, 218n17; of the Natives, discover/discover, see recognition/ 20, 23, 61, 96, 123; of slaveowners/ misrecognition, 1, 8, 13, 16–18, 20, slavery, 138, 140, 141–3, 151, 158, 23, 25, 32–3, 35–7, 39, 47, 57, 62, 165–6, 169–74, 180, 201; of whites, 68, 71, 76, 78–80, 85–7, 102, 106, 140, 197; drama of cruelty, 140; 123, 136, 176, 178, 191, 206n15 papal cruelties, 143; theme of cruelty, displace/displacement, xvi, 4, 11, 140, 165 16–17, 28, 65, 73, 79, 103, 151, Cuba, 120, 137, 146, 148–9, 153, 182 154, 178 Cullen, James and Ann, 144; Miss donation(s) (bulls), papal, 2, 15, 32, 35, Cullen, 144 43–5, 88, 96–7, 100, 127, 205n12, culture(s), xv, 1–9, 29, 60, 64, 67, 83, 207n19 91–4, 99, 108, 113, 120, 130, 156, Douglass, Frederick, 150–1, 166–71, 198–9, 201; cultural and economic 175–6; figures in narrative, practice, 91; cultural capital, 91; Mr. Covey, 170; Mr. Gore, 170; cultural comparison, 143; cultural Mr. Severe, 170 difference, 116; cultural domination, Drake, Francis, 24, 28, 35, 38, 40, 1; cultural exchange, 94; cultural 85–7 framework(s), 48, 111; cultural Drinker, Elizabeth Sandwith, 134–5 history, 64; cultural imposition, 156; Du Bellay, Joachim, 18, 73 cultural relativism, 49, 185; cultural Du Bois, W. E. B., 157, 177–8, 198; studies, 6; culture of truth and Souls of Black Folk, 177–8; Suppression fiction, 218n8; ethnological and of the African Slave-Trade, 177 256 Index

Dudley, John (earl of Warwick and 146–7, 149–50, 156–7, 178, 181–8, duke of Northumberland), 15 193–201, 207n22, 208n26, 211n92, Dulcanquellín, 49 226n25, 227n47, 240n107 Duplessis-Mornay, Philippe (Philippe Empiricus, Sextus, 47 du Mornay, seigneur du Plessis- emulate/emulation, 4–5, 11–12, 16, 31, Mornay), 23–31, 80, 210n57 65, 119; imitate/imitation, 17, 20, Duviols, Jean-Paul, 102 33, 35, 53, 75, 77, 88, 132, 210n54, 215n142 early modern, 12, 47, 68, 78, 92, 196 England, xv–xvi, 3–6, 11–18, 22–5, 27, Easmon, M. C. F., 249n18 29–39, 44–6, 50–1, 53–7, 62–6, East Indies, 24, 28 79–85, 87–9, 97, 101, 120–1, Eccles, W. J., 207n19 134–6, 138, 142–3, 146–7, 162–3, economic(s)/economy, 8, 17, 56, 65, 165–6, 176, 183, 201, 205n8, n15, 91, 93–5, 97–9, 104, 119–20, 137, 213n121, 219n22, 222n57; Church 144–7, 150, 155–6, 168, 174, 182, of England, 17 186, 188, 192–3, 197–8, 208n32, English America, 92, 117, 123, 248n283; Atlantic economy, 98; 230n35; British America, 2, 121–2, British economy, 119, 137, 144, 125, 129, 133–4, 136 246n263; economic analysis, 193; English Commissioners, list of (Peace economic and political imperialism, of 1604), x 248n283; economic dependence, 89; English Empire, 24, 31, 65 economic and political restraints, 34; Enlightenment, 12, 65–6, 83, 115, economic development, 186–7, 193; 122, 129, 145 economic growth, 193; economic envy, 11, 17, 37, 162 models and trade patterns, 28; Equiano, Olaudah (Gustavus Vassa), economics of slavery/bondage, 3, 7, 122, 137–44, 158, 165, 237n56; 103; economic opportunity and The Life of Olaudah Equiano, 137–44 safety, 186; economic servitude, 186; Erasmus, Desiderius, 4–5, 46–7, 51–4, European economy, 118–19; market 59, 64, 201, 219n2–22, n25, economy, 12; world economy, 146 220n32, n34, 222n57 Eden, Richard, 14–16, 33, 85, 205n12 Erondelle, Pierre, 37 Eisenhower, Dwight, 184, 186, ethnography/ethnographic, 8, 73–4, 246n263 208n26; ethnographical description, El Dorado, 59, 214n136 94; ethnographical estrangement, 60; Elizabeth I (England), 18, 23, 25, 29, ethnographer, 60; ethnographic 34, 81–2, 101, 103, 147, 157 writing, 8 Elliott, J. H., 1 ethnology/ethnological, 6, 9, 56; emancipation, see slavery, 127, comparative ethnology, 72; 153–4, 164–8, 170, 175, 177, ethnological lens/glass, 61, 76 180, 189, 198 example of Spain (instance or model of empire(s), xv–xvii, 1, 3–5, 7, 9, 11, Spain), 3, 14, 16, 21, 34–8, 44, 59, 12–17, 23, 26, 29, 33–4, 36, 41, 65, 101, 123, 219n22; after Spain, 4, 44–7, 50, 53, 59, 64, 66–7, 70, 11, 41, 65, 201 72–5, 78–9, 82–3, 88, 91–2, 94–5, eyewitness, 50, 54, 61, 69–70, 73–4, 76, 100–2, 105, 113, 118, 126, 144, 86–7, 109, 172, 208n26, 215n142 Index 257

Feinburg, H. M., 120 Gage, Thomas, 123 Fenton, Edward, 86 Gama, Vasco da, 43 Ferdinand II of Aragon (V of Castile), Gandhi, Mahatma (M. K.), 7, 182–3, 45, 70–1, 98–100 190, 192; Hind Swaraj, 183 Ferdinand VII, 146 Garrison, William Lloyd, 159, 166–8, Ferguson, Stephen, 212n110 171, 201 Fichet, Guillaume, 52 Garthe, Richard, 87 Fisher, M., 8, 203n8 Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 237n25, n56 Flanders, 13, 22, 26–7, 39, 54, Gaugin, Robert, 52 57, 93 Geertz, Clifford, 8 Flemish, xv–xvi, 39, 55, 93, 206n15, gender, 7, 107, 112, 128–9, 132–3, 208n32, 214n137; Flemish 149 Commissioners, list of (Peace of Genoa/Genoese, 29, 86, 92, 97 1604), xvi geographer(s)/geographical/geography, Flores (Florius), Lucius, 81–2 14, 16, 27, 54, 73, 77, 79, 226n26 Florida, 16–21, 31, 35–6, 38–41, 64, George II, king of Britain, xvi 80, 86, 100, 120, 196, 198, 200, George III, king of Britain, xvi, 122, 205n15, n22–n23, 208n27, 127, 235n116 213n125 n130 German Empire, 26 Florio, John, 34, 223n62, n67 Germania syndrome, 222n59 Foster, Abby Kelley, 150 Germany (German states), 25–6, 65, France, 3–6, 11–44, 46, 48, 50–8, 119, 183–4, 186, 219n28, 222n59; 60–8, 73–7, 80, 84, 88, 97, 102–3, Brandenburg, 120 118–21, 127, 145, 147–8, 153, 157, Gerrard, Thomas, 200 182–3, 186, 196, 199, 205n8, n15, Gilbert, Humphrey, 32, 34, 86, 200 207n18, n22–n23, 209n42, Gilbert, Olive, 172 215n139, n142, 219n22, 221n56, Giles, Peter, 53–6 232n85 Giovio, Paolo, 99 François Ier (king of France), 13, 16, Gladstone, William, 156 45, 52, 157, 196, 204n3, 205n6 glorify/glorious/glory, 12, 14–15, 17, Franklin, Benjamin, 122, 126, 136 23, 33, 37, 52, 59, 70, 72, 77, 81–5, Franklin, Wayne, 226n26 112, 124, 133, 135, 138, 150, 178, Franks, Bihah Abigail Levy, 117 192; la gloire, 37 freedom, 53, 89, 92, 96, 106, 122–3, Gómara, Francisco López de, 21–3, 60, 125, 129, 134, 138–9, 141–2, 150, 222n59 152, 154–6, 159, 162–3, 166–7, Gonneville, Binot Paulmier de, 41, 169, 171–3, 175, 177–91, 195, 200, 44–5 202, 221n56; freedom of Gordon, Nathaniel, 153 worship/conscience, 30, 104, 169 Goropius, Joannes, 82 French Empire, 114, 119 Gossan, Stephen, 210n54 Frobisher, Martin, 23, 32, 34, 86 Gourges, Dominique de, 35 Froude, James, 206n17 Graham, G., 199 Fugger (merchants), 101 Graham, John, 117 Fumée, Martin, 22 Graham, Isabella Marshall, 117–18 Fyfe, C. H., 200 Grant, W. L., 214n138 258 Index

Greece, 17, 62, 77, 88; Greek(s), 12, Herodotus, 60, 214n138 55, 62–3, 78, 80, 92, 116, 184, 199 Herrara, Alfonso de, 206n15 Greenblatt, Stephen, 220n32, 226n26 Hill, Christopher, 29 Grenville, Richard, (Grinfil), 34–5, Hispaniola, 48, 86, 99–100 38–9 historiography, 37, 67, 75; the Grey, Lady Jane, 15 historiography of expansion, 20, 78 Grey Owl (Archie Belaney), 157 history, 6, 9, 13, 16–17, 19, 21, 24, 34, Grimké, John Faucheraud, 159 48, 50, 52, 60, 68–74, 81–2, 99, Grimké, Mary Smith, 159 106–7, 109, 121–2, 127, 167–8, Grimké, Sarah Moore, 161 184, 187, 189, 191, 214n136, Grotius, Hugo, 84 215n142, 217n8, 218n18, 221n50, Guaynacapa (emperor of Peru), 222n58; chauvinistic history, 52; 214n136 Ciceronian history, 71; critical Guiana, 36, 106, 110, 112, 154, history of race, 178, 184; cultural 214n136 history, 64, see culture, 64; history as Guzman, Nuño de, 196–7 event or writing, 21; as memory and glory, 23; as mirror, 213n128; as Habsburgs (House of, Spain and representation of the heroic, 77; as Austria), 13, 24, 51; Bourbon representation or observation, 69–70; (House of), 31 as story and inquiry, 78; as story Hacket, Thomas, 18, 20, 208n31 and/or truth, 106, 109–10; history Hakluyt, Richard the Elder, 79, of Bermuda, 205n15; history of 213n126 conquest, 23; history of discourse, Hakluyt, Richard the Younger, 3–4, 6, 20, 35; history of slavery/the slave 12–13, 16, 20–4, 28–34, 36–7, trade, 152, 167; history plays, 23, 64–9, 78–88, 200–1, 204n6, 210n50; natural history, 16, 69–74, 206n17, 210n55, 212n111, 77, 208n26; official history, 75, 154; 213n126, 215n142, 223n71, oral history, 224n2; political, legal, 226n25–n26, n28, 249n12; Hakluyt constitutional history, 189–90; Society, 216n150, 217n7 school history, 154; scientific history, Hallett, Robin, 120 78; systematic history, 224n2; textual Hancock, John, 124 history, 20, 94, 210n57, 214n131; Hawkins, John, 6, 18–19, 86–7, universal history, 50; world 103, 198 history, 43 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 196 Hitler, Adolf, 184 Hemmersam, Michael, 104 Hobson, John A., 227n47 Henri de Navarre/Henry IV (France), 3, Homer/Homeric, 56, 77–8, 133, 23; Henri II (Henry II, France), 16, 211n92 21; Henri III (Henry III France), Horace/Horatian, 46, 77, 138 23–8 Horton, James Africanus, 199–200 Henry, Patrick, 167 Huguenot(s), 3, 16–21, 23–4, 28–31, Henry VII (England), 11, 82, 86; 34–5, 64, 80, 118, 200, 205n15, Henry VIII (England), 82, 86 208,n32 Henry the Navigator (Prince Henry of humanism/humanist(s), 14–15, 17, Portugal), 93 37, 46–7, 51–6, 59, 64, 99, Index 259

183, 222n57, 223n72; humanist figures in narrative, Benny, 176–7; critique, 46 Dr. Flint, 175–7; Ellen, 176–7; human rights, 3, 7, 65, 129, 149–50, Mr. and Mrs. Bruce, 176–7; 159–60, 162, 168, 181–2, 184, 189, Mr. Sands, 175–6 201; Universal Declaration of James, Daniel, 166 Human Rights, 185 James I (England, James VI of Hutchinson, Thomas, 124 Scotland), 29, 36, 83 Hythlodaeus, Raphael, 54–9 Jane, Cecil, 217n7 Japan, 44, 82, 184 ideological/ideology, 1, 131, 145; Jeannin, Pierre, 215n143 ideological Cold War, 184; editor, Jefferson, Thomas, 122, 125, 127, 145, 49; voice, 68 173, 201, 235n116, 238n85 imperial/imperialism, 68–9, 73, 79, Jenkinson, Anthonie (Anthony), 86–7 88, 103, 105, 120, 145, 148–9, Jew(s)/Jewish, 62, 92, 99, 104, 115, 156, 178, 182–4, 186, 188, 195–6, 117, 119, 121, 151, 185, 190, 201 214n136, 226n25, 248n283 João III (John III of Portugal), 54, India, 3, 43–4, 85, 99, 148, 156, 183, 99–100, 196 186, 188, 190–3 Johnson, James Weldon, 178; Inquisition, 30, 48, 143 Autobiography of a Ex-Colored interpret/interpretation/interpreter(s), 3, Man, 178 7, 8, 13–14, 21, 43, 46, 49, 59, 61, Johnson, Lyndon, 186 65, 69, 81, 96, 99, 127, 135, 155, Joyce, James, 240n108 168, 174, 198, 203n9, 222n57–n58 Juvenal/Juvenalian, 46, 76, 139 Iodelle, Estienne, Seigneur du Limodin, 75–6 Keats, John, 28, 191, 211n92 Ireland, 83, 213n125 Kemble, Charles, 162 ironic/ironies/irony, 9, 46–8, 52, 54, Kemble, Frances Anne (Fanny), 162–3 56, 64, 96, 106, 108, 112–3, 123, Kemble, Maria Theresa de Camp, 162 125, 138, 151, 164, 171, 220n32 Kendricks, Tine, 180; figures in the Isabella I of Castile (and Aragon), 45, interview, Arch Kendricks, 180; 70–1, 98, 229n24 Reverend Dickey, 180; interviewer, Italy, see Rome, 13, 26–7, 52–3, 57, Watt McKinney, 180 59, 61, 65, 77, 93, 183, 221n28, Kennedy, John, 186 243n138; Florence/Florentine, 13, Kennedy, Paul, 119 97–8, 121, 204n5; Genoa/Genoese, Kennett, White, 31 29, 86, 92, 97; Milan, xvi, 13, 27, kidnap/kidnapper/kidnapping, 99, 101, 57, 94; Naples, 27, 57; Sicily, 26–7, 103, 113, 121, 123, 138–9, 144, 95; Venice/Venetian, 28, 52–3, 156, 193 57, 105 Kilham, Hannah, 119 ivory, 93, 104, 150 King, Martin Luther, 7, 164, 177, 182–3, 189–92, 195 Jackson, Andrew, 160 King Philip (Metacom or Metacomet), Jackson, Isaac, 161 115, 197–8 Jacobs, Harriet, 160, 172–7; Incidents in Knight, Sarah Kemble, 116–17 the Life of a Slave Girl, 160, 172–7; Kupperman, Karen, 226n26 260 Index

La Boétie, Estienne de (Étienne), Le Challeux, Nicolas, 18, 18–21, 28, 222n59 208n30 Lafayette, marquis de (Marie Joseph Ledesma, Martín de, 101 Paul Yves Roche Gilbert du Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 193, 227n47 Motier), 148 Leon, Ponce de, 100 Lafitau, Joseph-François, 215n142 Léry, Jean de, 11, 17, 20–1, 60–2, 66, Lane, Ralph, 34 73, 102, 240n108 La Popelinière, Lancelot Voisin, sieur Lescarbot, Marc, 17, 37, 60, de, 22, 80–2, 209n46, 215n142 214n137–n138, 215n139, Las Casas, Bartolomé de, 3, 5–6, 19, n142–n143 21–3, 32, 40, 41, 46, 48–53, 58–66, Lestringant, Frank, 73, 207n24, 100–3, 108, 110, 128, 136, 138–40, 208n26, 209n46, 213n126, 142, 157, 164–5, 174, 197, 200, 215n142, 223n71 209n45, 217n7, 218n16, n18, liberty, see freedom, 7, 28, 32, 88, 118, 224n2, 229n29 122–3, 126–30, 133–7, 142, 144, Latin, 12, 20, 36, 47, 52–3, 75–6, 146, 150, 154–6, 160, 166–7, 177, 80–3, 87, 94, 116, 204n1, 210n54, 184, 190–2, 195, 197, 200–1 213n121; Latin America, 16, 146–7, life-writing, autobiographies, 109, 217n8 122, 137, 139, 157, 173, 178; Laudonnière, René de Goulaine de, biographies, 109, 159–60, 214n138, 18–19, 35 241n117–n118, n123, 242n124, law, 13, 19, 32–3, 37, 43–4, 57, 91–2, 247n265; diaries, 7, 115, 117, 129, 98–9, 116, 121, 127, 142, 145, 134–5, 138, 157, 159; memoirs, 105, 152–4, 160, 162, 169, 174–6, 180, 139, 163, 175, 178, 210n57, 232n84 185–6, 193; antislavery laws, 147–8; literary/literature, 6, 64, 76, 80, 137, Athenian Constitution, 126; canon 148; Latin literature, 47; literary law, 96; civil law, 30, 145; Civil and cultural studies, 6; literary and Rights Act (US), 190; constitution, historical representations, 5; literary 146, 152, 189; Constitution of fame, 124; literary/literature, 6; Liberia, 152; divine/holy law, 13, literary representations, 5, 12; literary 18; Fugitive Slave Law, 177; studies, 9; literature of expansion, 78; illegitimate/outlawed, 7, 89, 127, literature of the Black Legend, 36; 182, 236n20; international law, 2; literatures, histories and politics, 9; Jim Crow law, 180; private law, 2; promotional literature, see law of nations, 84, 145, 164; law of promotion, 34; travel literature, 83, nature (natural law), 2, 84, 93, 145; 222n58; Western literature, 124 lawmakers/lawyer(s), 37, 45, 50, 56, Lincoln, Abraham, 7, 151–5, 172, 182, 146, 159–60; Laws of Burgos, 101; 189–90 legitimacy/legitimate, 32, 97, 101, Lisbon, 44, 93, 97, 100–1, 121, 182 187; New Laws of, 1542, 101; Liverpool, Lord (Jenkinson), 147 Roman-Dutch law, 104; Roman law, Lloyd, Selwyn, 189 92, 98; rule of law, 188; terra nullius, Logan, George, 219n31, 220n32 13, 157; U.S. Constitution, 126, Lok (Locke), Michael, 23, 34 137, 146, 153–4, 164, 189–90, London, xv–xvi, xviii, 3, 15, 22, 23, 192, 198 33, 52, 54, 117, 119, 123, 137, Index 261

143–4, 148–9, 161–2, 165, 176, Mediterranean, 27–8, 94, 101, 119, 199, 204n5; Royal Academy, 143, 196, 243n138; Malta, 148 137, 148 Mendoza, Bernardino de, 38 Lopez, Aaron, 119 Mercer, General, xvi Lopez, Francisco, 36, 214n136 Mexico, 20, 31, 63, 86, 101, 154, Loring, E. G., 160 186, 196 Lorraine, Cardinal de, 209n42 Middle Ages, 1, 48, 84, 92–3, 95, Louise of Savoy, 196 97, 178 Louis XIV (France), 31, 37, 114, 119 Middle East/Near East, Egypt/Egyptian, Louisiana, 118–20 77, 92; Gulf of Arabia, 28; Iran, 186; Lowther, George W., 177 Israel/Israelites, 45, 92; Levant, 76–8; Lucian/Lucianic, 46, 52, 55, 58, Saudi Arabia, 186; Suez, 28, Suez 220n32 Canal, 183, Suez Crisis, 186 Lynum, Edward, 217n7 military-clerical complex, 41 Milton, John, 142 Mabo case, 157, see law (terra nullius) Mirandola, Gianfrancesco Pico della, 47 Macarthy, Charles, 199 Molucca(e)(s) (Indonesia), 28, 81 Machiavelli, Niccolò, 201 Montaigne, Michel de, 4–5, 11, 34, Macmillan, Harold, 182, 186–9, 191 46–7, 56, 59–64, 76, 108, 110, 113, Magellan, Ferdinand (Fernão de 138, 201, 217–18n8, 218n10, Magalhães), 22, 44, 81, 196–7 220n34, 221n56, 222n57–n59, Maitland, Lord and Lady, 106–8 223n63 Mandela, Nelson, 182–3, 188–9, 192 Montesino, Antón (Antonio Mandeville, John, 59–60, 226n26 Montesinos), 2, 48–9, 64, 100, Manifest Destiny, 19 229n29 Manuel (king of Portugal), 44; Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Manuel I, 54 Baron de, 121–2, 145, 201 Marchionni, Bartolommeo, 97; Montúfar, Alonso de, 101 Marchionni merchants, 98 Moor(s), 6, 49, 91, 93, 95, 99, 105 Marcus, G., 8, 203n8–n9 More, Thomas, 4–5, 11, 14, 46–7, Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain 52–9, 76, 88, 201, 219n25, n30, de, 122 220n32, n34, 222n57; Utopia, 5, Marquand, Allan, xvi 46–7, 51, 53–9, 76, 88, 219n25, Marqués, Pedro Menéndez, 38–40 n30–1, 220n32, n34, 222n57 Martyr, Peter (Pietro Martire Morland, George, 137 d”Anghiera), 15, 58, 217n7 Motive(s), 4, 15, 39, 88, 108, 121, Marx, Karl, 168, 193 131, 188, 222n58; synecdochic Mary I (England), 14–15, 22, 31, 33 motive, 15 Massachusetts, 118, 123, 159, 161, Mott, Anne, 159 163–4, 171, 177 Mott, James, 159 Maurits, Johan, 104 Mott, Lucretia Coffin, 163, 242n124 mediate/mediation/mediator(s) Moura, Bastiam, 44 (go-between[s]), see interpret, 16, Muslim (culture, empire, traditions, 30, 36, 41, 96, 131, 177, 229n28 slavers), 91, 94, 97–8, 103, 146, Medici, Lorenzo Pietro di, 59 156; Islam/Islamic, 94 262 Index

Münster, Sebastian, 14 object/objectivation/objectivism/ Musquito, 143 objectivity, 8, 71, 87, 110, 225n2 Muthos (mythos), 23; oceans, see Atlantic; Indian, 198–9; mythology/myths, xvi, 13, 20, 46, Pacific, 28, 189, 211n92 83, 94, 154, 198 Ockham, William of, 47 Oliveira, Fernão de, 101 nation/national/nationalities/nationalis opposition/opposition-from-within (to m, 4–5, 9, 11, 14, 16–17, 21–2, 24, expansion, empire, slavery), 1–5, 9, 28–9, 31, 35, 38, 43–7, 51–3, 57, 34, 36, 41, 43–67, 100–1, 105, 110, 61, 63, 66, 68–9, 71, 73, 76–7, 115, 135–7, 147–8, 152, 154, 158, 80–9, 97, 102–3, 112, 119–20, 123, 163, 166–7, 181, 183–4, 195, 199, 138, 141, 143, 145, 149, 151, 153, 201, 222n57; self-criticism, 11, 65 155, 158, 161, 164, 177–8, 181–4, Oré, Luis Jerónimo de, 40 186–99, 201, 205n15, 208n26, origins, 14, 32, 35, 53, 71, 118–19, 214n136, 226n25, 227n47; 162, 206n15 multinational, 101, 105; League of Oviedo, Gonzalo Fernández de, 4–5, Nations, 147; nation above race, 189; 17, 50, 66–75, 79–80, 87–8, National Assembly of France, 137; 206n16, 208n26, 224–5n2 National Maritime Museum Oxnam, John, 86 (Greenwich), ix; National Portrait Gallery (London), xvi; Pagden, Anthony, 66, 214n137, 224n2 self-determination, 188, see United Paris, xviii, 13, 19, 23, 38, 52, 64, 80, Nations 94, 120, 127, 148, 153; Convention Native(s), 1, 2, 5–6, 12–13, 15–16, of Paris, 127; Peace of Paris, 153 18, 20–4, 32–4, 36, 40–1, 45–51, Parker, John, 18 56, 58–65, 89, 97–103, 110, Parker, Mary S., 161 116, 122–3, 126, 136, 138, 143, Parmentier, Jean, 102 148, 156–7, 160, 181, 195–8, Peale, Charles Willson, xvi 207n25, 221n56, 223n63, 224n2, Peale, James, xv, xvi, xviii 229n28 Peckham, George, 200 natural historians/history, 5, 16, 68–71, Peru, 28, 31, 35, 36, 63, 81, 98, 73–4, 77, 208n26, 224n2 101–2, 105, 214n136 Netherlands, xvi, 5, 11–12, 16, 23–32, Peters, John, 125 35, 38, 50–3, 64–5, 89, 97, 102–5, Philip II (prince then king of Spain), 4, 120, 127, 147, 182, 195, 200, 14–15, 22–3, 25–6, 33, 37–8, 102, 207n18, n22, 246n263 205n16, 206n16, 207n18, 213n22 Nettesheim, Agrippa of, 47 Philip III, 40 New England, 37, 115, 119, 123, 137, Phillips, Wendell, 168–9 158, 160 Pigafetta, Antonio, 196 Newfoundland, 44, 198 Piso, Willem, 104 New Zealand, 148 Pitt, William, xvi, 122, 137 Nicholas, Thomas, 22–3, 210n54 Plato, 46, 54–7, 59, 62, 75, 77–8, Nobel, Alfred, 191; Nobel Prize, 185, 183, 185 190, 192 Plautus, 58 Northwest Passage, 13, 44, 86 Pliny, 69–70, 73, 81, 224n2 Index 263

Plutarch, 109 promotion (of expansion, empire, politics/political, 3, 7–9, 17, 27, 34, 46, slavery), xvii, 1, 3, 6, 11, 15, 23, 34, 57, 65, 73, 76, 83, 91–3, 96–7, 99, 41, 45, 67–89, 167, 195, 199, 104, 119–22, 126, 133, 136–7, 226n25; promotional tracts/ 144–6, 151, 156, 162, 168, 174, literature/tactics, 6, 34, 45, 67; 183, 187–9, 192, 195, 197, 200–1, self-promotion, 68, 226n25 208n26, 235n114, 248n283; Protestant(s), 12, 14, 16–21, 24–5, European politics, xvi, 41; political 29–31, 34–5, 37–8, 50, 62, 64–5, independence, 189; political 80, 83, 190, 196, 200, 207n25, persecution, 186; political 214n137; Calvinist(s), 117; Calvinist philosophy, 185; politics of the certainty, 198 British Empire, 218n9, 221n56; Prussia, 7, 147–8, 153 politics of racism, 181; religious Ptolemy, 76–7, 79, 85 politics, 96; triangulation of Spain, Pugh, Catherine, 161 England and the Netherlands, xvi Pugh, Jesse, 161 Polo, Marco, 46, 60, 196, 240n108; Pugh, Sarah, 161 Rusticello, 240n108 Purchas, Samuel, 16, 21, 37 Pope/papacy/papal, 1–2, 5, 7, 12, 15, 17, 32, 35, 43–5, 47, 51–3, 63, Quaker(s) (Society of Friends), 117, 88, 97, 100, 127, 143, 207n19, 121, 127, 134–6, 143, 152, 160–1, 215n139; Papal Inquisition, 48; Pope 163, 172, 177, 199 Alexander VI, 15; Benedict, 143; Quincy, Justice, 123 Julius II, 53; Leo X, 100; Nicholas V, Quinn, David and Alison, 210n55; 43, 96; Urban VIII, 105 David, 216n150 Portugal, 2, 5, 12–13, 15–18, 21–4, Quint, David, 220n34, 221n56, 27–8, 32–3, 35, 43–5, 48, 54–5, 65, 222n57 87–8, 91, 93–9, 101–3, 120, 122, 127, 137, 147–8, 157, 182–3, Rabelais, François, 52, 63 195–6, 200 race/racial/racism, 6, 94, 100, 106–7, Portuguese Empire, 102, 118, 217n6 111–2, 118, 124–5, 129, 133, 140, Post, Amy, 177 143, 149–51, 156, 162, 167, 169, practice(s), 3, 7, 9, 16, 22, 41, 49, 77, 173, 177–8, 180–2, 184, 186–7, 89, 91–3, 95, 97, 99, 103–4, 114, 189–90, 193, 197–8, 224n2, 127, 129, 134, 137, 139, 143–6, 240n107; Klu Klux Klan, 178–80; 148, 162, 169, 173, 181, 186, Nazi(s), 178, 181, 184–6, 201 189–90, 193, 198, 208n5 Ralegh, Walter, 24, 29, 34–6, 38, 87, Pratt, Mary Louise, 8 213n126, 214n136 Price, Richard, 200–1; Two Tracts, 200 Ramusio, Giovanni Battista, 33, 204n6, Prince, Mary, 165–6, 172, 243n138; 213n121 figures in her narrative, Daniel James, Rastell, John, 14, 53, 219n30 166; Hetty, 165; Mash, 166; Mr. and Raynal, Abbé Guillaume, 66 Mrs. Williams, 165; Mrs. Pruden, razzias/raids (seizures of slaves), 6, 97 165; the Woods, 166 recognition/misrecognition, 1, 8, 168, Princeton (New Jersey), ix–xii, 176, 185, 224n4 212n110 Reed, Ishmael, 181 264 Index religion, 4, 12, 15–17, 19, 22, 25, 29, Ríos, José de los, 105 31, 33, 35, 45–6, 48–50, 53–4, rival(s)/rivalry/rivalries, 4–5, 11–14, 17, 59–65, 80, 83, 92, 94, 96, 108, 20, 22, 25, 31, 34, 44–6, 50–1, 65, 115–17, 120–3, 135, 137–8, 141–52, 71, 81, 102, 119, 196, 201, 209n40 158, 166, 168–76, 183, 190, 192, Roberval, Jean-François de la Rocque, 196–201, 207n25, 213n125, 224n2 16, 18, 102, 196 Remond, Charles Lenox, 167 Rocha, Frei Manuel Ribeiro da, 122 Renaissance, 1, 12, 16, 23, 68–9, 74, Roman(s), 12–13, 28, 49, 75, 86, 88, 122, 185, 208n26 92, 111, 215n139; dictator, Republican/Republicanism, 37, 47, Camillus, emperors, Titus and 154, 215n143 Vespasian, 85; Holy Roman Requerimento (Requirement), 100, 103 emperor/Empire, 13, 24, 26; revolt, 22; Revolt of/in the Netherlands, Roman-Dutch law, 104; Roman 5, 12, 16, 30–1, 35, 38, 64, 146, emperor/Empire, 25, 73, 85, 187, 207n18, n22; Dutch Revolt, 191; Roman law, 92, 98; Rome, 6, 103, 200 12, 17, 47, 52–3, 57, 70, 73, 81–2, revolution/revolutionary, 125, 127, 92, 99, 185, 222n59 151, 167, 174, 177; American romance, 74, 105, 107–8, 112, 144, Revolution (War of Independence), 208n26, 224n2, 240n108 ix, 2, 6, 7, 47, 89–137, 148, 150, Ronsard, Pierre de, 18, 73, 76, 222n59 157, 167, 177; English Revolution, Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 184 7, 129, 134, 136, 146; French Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 110, 122 Revolution, 7, 65, 128–9; Glorious Ruggles, David, 171 Revolution, 128; Revolutions of Russell-Wood, A. J. R., 44 1848, 149 Russia/Russian, 7, 86, 91, 147–8, 153, Reynolds, Mary, 198; figures in her 191; Kiev, 86; Moscow, 86; Soviet narrative, Master, 198; Miss Union (USSR), 184 Sarah, 198 rhetoric, 3–4, 6, 8, 12, 15–17, 34, 41, Saint Augustine, 55–6, 93, 107, 174; 52, 58, 65, 67–8, 70–3, 77, 81, 85, Saint Thomas Aquinas, 93 127, 166, 174; outsized rhetoric, 166; Saint Bartholomew’s Day/Massacre rhetorical analysis, 8, 68; rhetorical (La Charité-sur-Loire), 11, 19–21, and narrative embellishment, 60; Sancerre (famine/siege), 20, 60–1 222n58; rhetorical flourish, 166; Santa Cruz, Pedro de, 38 rhetorical heritage, 88; rhetorical satire/satirical, 4, 9, 11, 46, 51–2, 54, history, 78; rhetorical magpie, 85; 56–8, 60, 64, 76, 125, 138, 178, rhetorical means and motives, 88; 219n25, 220n34 rhetorical moves, 72, 74; rhetorical Scandinavia, Denmark, xv, 25, 120, proofs (exempla), 78; rhetorical 137, 182; Norway, 190; Sweden, 25, squint, 72; rhetorical strategy, 70; 120, 147, 186 rhetoric of freedom, 167; rhetoric of Schlesinger, Roger, 73–4, 208n26 seduction and/or exploitation, 88, science/scientific, 8, 14, 47, 52, 75, 112; rhetoric of texts, 17 77–8, 111, 125, 138, 144, 173, 188, Ribault, Jean (also Ribaut), 18–21, 205n8; human sciences, 8; natural 28, 33 philosophy, 8 Index 265

Sedgwick, Catherine Maria, 164 antislavery cities, 103–4; antislavery Seed, Patricia, 223n63 laws, 147–8; antislavery societies, self-government, 157, 184, 188 American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Seneca, 58, 87 Society, 150; American Anti-Slavery Sens, Cardinal de, 74 Society, 160–1; American Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de, 2, 23, 50, Colonization Society (antislavery), 100–1 152; American Women’s Anti-Slavery serf(s)/serfdom, 7, 153, 157; servitude, Convention, 161; antislavery 6, 89, 92, 100, 152, 186, 197 petition, 159; Anti-Slavery Society Seville, 33, 51, 97–8, 100, 121 (New York), 159; British and Foreign Seward, William, 153 Anti-Slavery Society, 161, sex/sexual, 6, 88, 107, 112–13, 126, Pennsylvania Society for Promoting 133, 141, 161, 193, 228n169; sexing the Abolition of Slavery, 136; of America, 88; sexual and racial Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery equality, 150 Society, 159, 161; curse of Ham, Shakespeare, William, xvii, 39, 58, 103; Slave Narrative Collection 83–4, 105, 107, 112, 204n11, (Federal Writers’ Project), 179; 210n50, 227n48, 228n69, 229n28, theory of natural slavery (Aristotle), 240n108, 243n138; As You Like It, 2, 6, 23, 100–1, 126, 164; 107; Othello, 105 Underground Railroad, 161; West Sheldon, Charlotte, 134–5 India code, 142 Shepard, Hety, 115 slave trade, 2, 6, 9, 18, 89, 91–195, Sidney, Henry, 32 198, 235n116; asiento, 119 Sidney, Philip, 4, 29–30, 33, 106, 200 Smith, Adam, 193 Simms, Bill, 180–1; interviewer Leta Smith, John, 60 Gray, 180 Smith, Valerie, 242n130 Sitting Bull (Tatanka Yotanka), 156–7 social, 6, 8, 46, 56, 61, 95, 107–8, 120, Skelton, R. A., 196 149, 151, 154, 191, 197; Social slave ports, Amsterdam, 149; Bahia, 101, Darwinism, 186; social change/ 121, 149; Bristol, 149; Florence, 121; reform, 149, 213n125; social Glasgow, 118; Havana, 119, 149, movement/mobility— 206n16; La Rochelle, 118; Lisbon, 93, emigrant(s)/emigration, 150; 110, 121; Liverpool, 118–19, 147, immigrant(s)/immigration, 156, 186; 149; London, 119; Nantes, 119, 149; migrant(s)/migration, 7, 186; social New Orleans, 149, 160; Newport myth, 154; social strife/unrest, 56, (Rhode Island), 119, 123; New York, 198; sociology, 7 117–19, 130, 134, 149; Pernambuco, Somerset House, xv–xvi, xviii 101, 104, 149; Rio de Janeiro, 149; sovereign/sovereignty, 2, 30–1, 45, 70–1, Salem, 119; Seville, 97–8, 100, 121; 74, 84, 119, 157, 184, 188, 208n26 New York/abolitionists/antislavery Soto, Domingo de, 101 courts/women’s rights, 153, 159, 161, South Africa, 118, 183, 186–93, 198; 171–2, 176–7 Bishop Desmond Tutu, 192; Boers, slavery, 2, 3, 6–7, 9, 58, 88, 91–194; 156; Cape Town, 153, 187, 198; antislavery, 105, 137, 148, 152, 156, Chief Albert Luthuli, 191; F. W. de 159–63, 166–72, 177, 184; Klerk, 192; Xhosa, 156; Zulu, 156 266 Index

Spain, xv–xvi, 2–5, 11–46, 48–55, 58–9, theory/theoretical/theorists, 2, 6–7, 22, 62–7, 70–2, 84, 88, 91, 94–103, 64, 93, 97, 100–1, 127, 129, 164, 119–20, 123, 127, 136, 146–7, 189, 198, 208n5, 217n8; racial 152–3, 157, 182, 195–6, 198, theories, 167, 181; theory of 200–1, 205–6n15, 207n22–n23, empire, 126 208n32, 214n136–n137, 219n22; Thevet, André, 4, 6, 16–17, 19–20, 60, Madrid, 43; Spanish Armada, 20, 62, 66–9, 73–82, 87–8, 102, 201, 35; Spanish Commissioners, list 207n25, 208n26, 209n36–n38 n40, of (peace of 1604), xv1; Spanish- 215n142, 222n59 Flemish-English Peace Conference Thomas, Ella Gertrude Clanton, 163 (1604), xv–xvi Thomas, Hugh, 103, 147, 230n36, Spanish Empire, 23, 64, 86, 102, 246n255–n256 146, 182 Thompson, George, 161 spice trade, 43, 102; Carreira da Thoreau, Henry David, 183 India, 43 Thorne, Robert, 33 Stabler, Arthur P., 73–4, 208n26 Thorpe, John, 119 Staël, Madame de (Germaine de Staël- Todorov, Tzvetan, 224n2 Holstein), 148 Toscanelli, Paolo, 43 Stafford, Edward and Lady, 23, 80 Tracy, Antoine Louis Claude Destutt Stalin, Joseph, 227n47 de, 145, 238n85 Steele, Ian K., 206n16 trade, 5, 16, 19–22, 27–9, 34, 36, Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 153, 163, 43–5, 82, 92–8, 101–6, 111, 114, 172; Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 153, 118–22, 127, 144–52, 159, 194, 163–4 208n32; foreign merchants, 204n5 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 163 translation/translator, xvi, xvii, 4, 8, Staper, Richard, 87 14–16, 18, 20–3, 28, 33–7, 59, Strabo, 76 64–5, 81, 83, 85, 87–8, 94, 145, Stukely, Thomas (Stucley), 18, 153, 160, 172, 183, 196, 204n6, 213n125 205n12, 208n30–n31, 209n41, subjective/subjectivity, intersubjectivity, 8 n48, 210n54, n57, 212n114, sugar, 7, 97–9, 101–2, 104, 110, 213n128, 214n136, n138, 119–20, 137, 145–50, 154, 169, 215n142, 218n14, 220n40, 182, 195 221n44, 222n57, 223n60, 225n3, Surinam, 105, 113, 182 226n25, 227n36, 230n31, 232n85, Swift, Jonathan, 113, 138; Gulliver’s 235n114, 238n86, 249n24; Travels, 54, 141 translation of empire (translatio symbol/symbolism, 125, 189 imperii), 11–12, 17, 28, 47, 62, 70, 73, 88, 144, 211n92, 226n25; of Tacitus, 222n59 faith, 88; of poetics, 226n25; of Tagore, Rabindranath, 201; Gitanjali, study, 17, 73, 211n92, 226n25 200–2 treaties, 147, 153, 184, 206n16; Tarquin; 47, 92, 185; Lucretia Quintuple Treaty, 148; Treaty of (Lucrece), 47, 185 Paris, 120 Tejo, 196 trope(s), 12, 69, 74, 78–9; of God Terence, 124 and gold, 45; of translation of Index 267

empire (translatio imperii), 17, 47, Victoria (queen of Britain), 156 70, 85, 94 Villegagnon, Nicolas Durand de (also Trowbridge, Caleb, 116 Villegaignon), 16, 20–1, 61–2, 102, Trudel, Marcel, 207n19 207n25, 209n42 Truth, Sojurner (Isabella Baumfree), Virgil/Virgilian, 47, 56, 77–8 172; figures in her narrative, the Virginia, 36–7, 40, 86, 104, 127, 153, Wagenens, 172 161, 206n15, 243n138 Tupinamba, 44, 60; Tupinikin, 44 Vitoria, Francisco de, 2, 65, 84 Turgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich, 153 Vives, Juan Luis de, 52, 219n22 Turk(s)/Turkey, 26, 28, 49, 77, 87, 98, Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de, 105, 143, 196 122, 185 typological/typology, 1, 5, 12, 21, 29, 38, 46, 61, 92, 95, 107, 138, 166, Walsingham, Francis, 23, 34, 79, 82, 169, 176, 187, 221n56; typological 200, 226n26 comparison, 60, paradigm, 46, war, xv, 1, 3–4, 6, 12, 22–7, 37–9, urge, 1 47–8, 51–3, 56–60, 88–9, 92, 98, tyrannical/tyranny/tyrant, 2, 13, 23–4, 101–2, 110–2, 119–23, 126–7, 30–1, 47–8, 61–2, 92, 122, 133, 130–1, 134, 136, 147, 151, 154–6, 135, 138–42, 175, 185 164, 180–1, 183–8, 193, 195–201, 206n16, 209n45, 220n34; American United Nations, 89, 91, 147, 182, Civil War, 127, 144, 151, 153–5, 184, 186, 189, 193; Charter 161, 164, 168, 177, 181; Cold War, (U.N. and League of Nations), 184, 193; Crimean War, 153; 147; Universal Declaration of Eighty-Years War, 214n137; English Human Rights, 185 Civil War, 47; First and Second United States, xvi–xvii, 3, 7, 19, 89, 92, Opium Wars, 149; First World War, 119, 122, 126–7, 134–7, 145–57, 183, 187; French Civil War, 21, 24, 163–5, 167, 169, 171, 177, 181–2, 35, 64; hegemony, 31, 60, 220n34; 184, 186, 189–91, 193, 195, 197, King Philip’s War, 115; Napoleonic 199–200, 242n129 wars, 146, 199; propaganda war(s), Usselincx, Willem, 104–5 12–13, 65; Second World War, 178, utopia/utopian, 5, 6, 46, 51, 53–60, 184–8; Seven Years’ War, 119; War 68, 76, 88, 190, 219n31, 220n32; of 1812, 148; War of Spanish utopian descriptions of America, 6 Succession, 16, 31; Wars of Religion, 18, 35, 60–1; world wars, 181, 187; Valladoid, Juan de, 97 war with the Turks, 105 Valverde, Francisco, 38 Washington (DC), 155, 189–90 Venezuela, 51, 127, 146 Washington, George, xvi, 197 Venice, 52–3, 57, 105 Weld, Angelina Emily Grimké, 159 Verlinden, Charles, 92 Weld, Theodore, 159 Verrazzano, Giovanni de (also Wellington, duke of (Arthur Verrazano), 5, 13, 18, 33, 45–6, 102, Wellesley), 147 204n5–n6 West, Benjamin, xvi Vespucci, Amerigo, 14, 53, 55–6, 58–9, West India/West Indian/West Indies, 6, 205n8, 219n30–n31 13, 18, 32, 36–8, 68–70, 86, 97–8, 268 Index

West India—continued 201, 235n1; and the exotic, 110; 104, 118–20, 122, 136, 138, 141–3, First 145, 148, 150, 159, 166, 182, Women’s Rights Convention, 149–50; 198–9, 208n32 slavery, 118, 142, 158–9, 163, 165, Wheatley, John, 123–4 169–73, 179, 233n86; rights, 7, 94, Wheatley, Phillis, 123–5 149–50, 159, 161–3, 172; Native White Indians, 126, 156, 178 women, 111; women’s suffrage, 161, White, John, 1, 35–6 182; writing about slaves/slavery, Whittier, John Greenleaf, 170 129–35, 157–66, 201 Wilberforce, William, 7, 137, 147–8 Worden, N. A., 198 Wilkinson, Eliza Yonge, 130–4 Wordsworth, William, 191, 193 Wilson, Charles, 207n18 Withrington, Robert, 86 Xenophon, 220n34 Wolfe, James, 140 women, 114–5, 117, 128, 133–5, Yearsley, Mrs., 135 149, 157, 163, 165, 186, 197, Yeats, W. B., 249