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Pure Appl. Biol., 9(3): 1962-1975, September, 2020 http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2020.90209

Review Article

Impact of single use shopping bags on environmental pollution, a comprehensive review

Ayesha Hussain1, Zafar Javed2*, Farzana Kishwa3, Muhammad Kashif Bangash4, Hafiz Muhammad Zeeshan Raza5 and Mehrin Farooq6 1. Department of Home Economics, Government College Women University Faisalabad. Pakistan 2. National Textile University Faisalabad-Pakistan 3. Government College Women, Lahore-Pakistan 4. Department of Textile and Technology, University of the Punjab, Lahore-Pakistan 5. Biosciences Department, COMSATS University Islamabad, Sahiwal Campus, Pakistan 6. The Islamia University of Bahawalpur. Pakistan *Corresponding author’s email: [email protected] Citation Ayesha Hussain, Zafar Javed, Farzana Kishwa, Muhammad Kashif Bangash, Hafiz Muhammad Zeeshan Raza and Mehrin Farooq. Impact of single use polyethylene shopping bags on environmental pollution, a comprehensive review. Pure and Applied Biology. Vol. 9, Issue 3, pp1962-1975. http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2020.90209 Received: 27/02/2020 Revised: 18/05/2020 Accepted: 22/05/2020 Online First: 02/06/2020 Abstract Thousands of factories are tons of plastic products and plastic goods. Plastic-made products and bags are widely used worldwide due to the advantages of convenience, availability, and cheapness. Because of the non-biodegradable nature, plastic causes many negative and hazardous impacts on the ecosystem and environment. Recently many countries, including Pakistan, Yemen, Bangladesh, South Africa, India, Nigeria, and Kenya, have banned the plastic bags because of the pressing concerns over the negative and hazardous impact on the water, land, and marine ecosystem and natural environment. The primary cause of environmental pollution is the disposal of plastic wastes. The trend of dumping plastic garbage into the marine ecosystem, jeopardize the survival of enormous species because of infections with plastic scraps. Many species have already announced to be endangered due to anthropogenic activities. Marine animals are affected by the ingestion and entanglement of plastic litter. Tackling plastic waste is one of the major issues of environmental pollution. Many steps are necessary to be taken by the governments to regulate the plastic businesses and to bring in the waste management. Creating public awareness regarding the healthy environment, managing wastes, alternative disposal methods, establishing the incineration mechanisms, and drop-off-areas facilities for also recommended to ensure a healthy environment. This review paper emphasizes the hazardous of single-use polyethylene shopping bags on the environment and the emerging trends to tackle the management of plastic wastes. It also offer help for policymakers to consider regulatingthe manufacture and use of plastic bags. Keywords: Anthropogenic activities; Environmental pollution; Non-biodegradable waste; Polyethylene Plastic products; Plastic bags waste; Waste management Introduction popularity in retailers, customers, and Since 1970 the plastic bags utilization has consumers. Across the world, plastic bags been observed [1] and its use gained rapid are available in many varieties and large

Published by Bolan Society for Pure and Applied Biology 1962 Hussain et al. amounts. About 500 billion plastic bags are detrition of environment are poor being used annually around the globe [2]. management of waste and lack of The utilization of plastic bags is due to the awareness regarding negative and significant attributes of convenience and hazardous impacts of plastic bags on the cheapness. After a single-use, the majority environment [10]. The basic aim of this of the plastic bags are discarded and thrown review was to evaluate major effects of as litter or waste. The estimated persistent single use polythene bags on the time of plastic bags in the environment is up environment and to suggest the strategies to 1000 years. It requires natural and methods employed to avoid hazardous degradation and disposal of plastic that is a effects in near future. great challenge without being degraded by Consumption and future predictive the light of the sun or microbes [3]. The production of polythene bags accretion of plastic bags and their wastes The manufacturing and utilization of causes many types of environmental polythene bags and plastic items have pollution, which can be manifested in a enormously increased as compared to other variety of ways. The primary concern is the materials, because of the rapid shift of deterioration of the natural environment durable plastic production of single-use and its beauty [4]. Many other common . The manufacture of plastic is issues coupled with plastic wastes are chiefly contingent on fossil, deaths of wild as well as domestic animals, which is referred as the non-renewable marine species, etc. In order to safeguard resources [11]. If the production of plastic the different species which are near to the continues to grow at the same rate, it is point of extinction, necessary proactive estimated that the plastic may measures must be taken [5, 6]. Sewerage account for 20% of total oil of the world systems blockages also a common problem until 2050 [12]. In North-East Asia, aroused due to plastic bags in cities. The including China, Taiwan, Korea Hong, instruments like taxes and levies must be Kong and Japan, the single-use plastics implemented to restrict the production and manufacturing consumes more than one- use of plastic bags [7, 8]. To reduce the fourth of the entire world's resins [13]. This usage and problems due to manufacturing is followed by Europe, respective wastes in the environment, the Middle East and North America. The voluntary initiatives along with taxes and observation of the plastic wastes can help to levies have also been implemented in many estimate the total global production and countries. The utilization of plastic bags has consumption of plastic, as shown in (Fig. been dramatically increased due to light in 1). Plastic packing is referred as the single- weight and wind can take them everywhere. use, particularly the application in plastic The plastic bags are also very cheap to be business and customer, and most of the recycled or reused. The spread of plastic plastic is also redundant the same year in bags in the environment also brought about which it is manufactured. Out of overall pollution and environmental damage. Due global wastes, 47% observed to be a waste to plastic bags proliferation scene of of plastic packing, in 2015, and most environment replaced derision. Various importantly, Asia accounts for half of the reports [9] revealed that plastic bags are a total plastic waste. However, worldwide the source of causing severe health damages in biggest generator of plastic wastes is China humans, animals and cause environmental [14]. pollutions. The major reasons behind this

1963 Pure Appl. Biol., 9(3): 1962-1975, September, 2020 http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2020.90209

Figure 1. Global plastics waste generation 1950 – 2015[15]

The recent estimates suggested that79% of agreement to set a packaging recycling total plastic waste is formed till date resides target of 65%, till 2025, further will be in dumps, landfills, and environment. increased to 70% till the year 2030. The Consequently, due to less robustness in plastic packaging recycling specific goal is data, precautions and actions against usage observed to be 50% till 2025, and 55% till of plastic bags, it is not possible yet to the end of 2030.Based on per-capita the demonstrate the breakdown similar in all United States of America (USA) is the the regions. Likewise in December 2017 the largest producer of plastic packing waste, European parliament, council and subsequently, Japan and Europe followed commission conclude a preliminary the list (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Global plastic production (2015)

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If the production, consumption and would require mega investments and management practices of plastic utilization indirectly discourages the policies boosted do not improve rapidly, it is estimated that for the reduction of generating plastic approximately 12 billion tons plastic litter waste. The management of waste hierarchy and waste will become the part of natural and prevention of pollution by plastic waste landfills and environment 2050 [15]. must always be the utmost priority.(Fig. 3) Processes of energy recovery are the most demonstrates the countries who are preferable instead of improper management involved in producing vast and of waste and landfill. Nevertheless, to set up mismanaged wastes of plastic and plastic the infrastructures of energy recovery, it products [16].

Figure 3.Polythene bags regional distribution and manufacture [17]

Single-use plastic shopping bags U.V. irradiations [19]. The Single-use Plastic is a resistant and trivial substance plastics or plastic bags are usually known as that can be transformed and molded the disposable material which is frequently indifferent shapes and has an extensive used in packaging, including products range of utilization and applications as which are only used once and then illustrated in (Table1). The plastics do not discarded, wasted or reused after corrode or rust like various metals. Most of Recycling. It includes containers, grocery the plastics types are non-biodegradable but bags, straws, cups, food packaging, cutlery has the ability to photo-degrade. It is slowly and bottles. The most common usage of converted into small pieces or fragments Single-use plastic bags is to carry items or which are referred as micro-plastics [18]. goods at sale points to the customers. The The fragmentation or break down of large shopping bags are usually made of a plastic items of plastic items into smaller micro- type known as polythene or polyethylene. plastics is commonly observed on beaches Polyethylene is a synthetic resin which is due to effects of high radiations of flexible, light and robust. It is manufactured (U.V.) and abrasion caused by by carrying out the polymerizing process of water waves, but process of degradation is ethylene [20]. The used in very slow in sea and oceans because of low production and manufacturing of Single use temperatures and less exposure of high plastic bags is demonstrated in (Fig. 4).

1965 Pure Appl. Biol., 9(3): 1962-1975, September, 2020 http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2020.90209

Categories of plastics

Thermoplastics Themosets

Figure 4. Categories of plastics

Table 1. Examples and single-use plastic and their applications Plastics types Examples Applications Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET), Thermoplastics are molded form of plastic low-density polyethylene (LDPE) which can be changed into different forms and high-density polyethylene upon heating and slow cooling it is also Thermoplastics (HDPE), Expanded referred as the reversible type of plastic. It (EPS), has the capability of reshaping, reheating, (PVC) repeatedly (PUR), Silicone, Thermosets undergo a permanent Phenolic, , Acrylic, Urea- Thermosets chemical change upon heating, resulting formaldehyde (U.F.) resins, Vinyl in 3D network. It cannot be reform ester

Emerging trends of polythene and increased composting in houses, management cafeterias and restaurants To encounter such issues, Improvements in the systems of waste global commitments emphasize a broad- management spectrum sentiment against single-use. Permanent bans on polythene bags and Various actions can be taken by private, items made of Styrofoam can efficiently public sector and the entities of resolve many hazardous effects. governments which are aimed at reduction Nevertheless, innovative and effective of production, manufacture and utilization methods for waste management, in of Styrofoam and plastic bags [21]. conjunction with circular thinking, can Improvements in the management of waste, facilitate to achieve a long-term solution to environment-friendly alternative encounter the issues of plastics bags and promotion, social awareness, voluntary their impact on the environment[24]. agreements and minimization strategies, Schematic waste management system to Recycling [22], permanent bans on plastics minimize dumping and landfilling[25] is and polystyrene, utilization of solar energy, shown in (Fig. 5) and the circular economy trash emptying wireless monitoring [23] [19] and its stakeholders in (Fig.6).

1966 Hussain et al.

Waste Recycling Environmental Segregation Segregated waste collection in in dumping & (paper, landfilling plastics,metals, effective way economical organic waste way minimized etc)

Figure 5. Schematic waste management system to minimize dumping and landfilling

Design

Recycle Manufac ture All the stake holders including public, private sector and customer awareness & will bring processes to get high , productivity Repair/ & economic progress Distribute Reuse Consume

Figure 6. Circular economy[19]

Many research studies showed the attitude, increased to 160 in 2018 [35]. Bans and behavior, attitude and effects of public levies have been put in various countries. policies towards the consumption of plastic eleven states of the U.S. have enacted laws bags in individual countries, like England to confine local governments from [26], Botswana [27], Ireland [28], USA adaptability to plastic bags [29]. Many [29], Portugal [30] and in cities, like countries have also introduced the Toronto [31], Buenos Aires [32] federal regulations and policies on the usage of states [33]. Some studies consider a global plastic bags and Styrofoam products they perspective on the use of plastic bag includes, France, Ireland, Hungary, USA, initiatives [34-36]. Many public policies China, Australia, Benin, Botswana, aimed at the restriction of plastic bag use Burkina Faso, Egypt, Africa, Ethiopia, has also significantly increased since 2000. Gambia, Kenya, Morocco, South Africa, In 2003, there were only 20 policies which Tanzania, Uganda, Tanzania, Bangladesh,

1967 Pure Appl. Biol., 9(3): 1962-1975, September, 2020 http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2020.90209

Bhutan, China, India, Pakistan and many and are referred as carcinogenic. It can more [37]. cause many harmful effects on the health of Impacts of polythene bags on animals and humans mainly affects environment respiratory, nervous, digestive, Many research reported that the reproductive(Fig.7)and other vital systems, degradation of Styrofoam and polythene and also cause damage to liver and kidneys containers and bags need hundreds or [41]. The toxins found in polystyrene and thousands years. There are many hazardous Styrofoam can be transferred through effects of plastic bags on the environment containers of drinks and food. The risk is [38] which includes the pollution and observed to be accentuated by reheating of contaminating of water, and land soil thus that the food in the container [42]. The renders the cause of significant tangling, domestic waste containing plastic items is ingestion and choking hazards to the seen to be frequently burnt. Irresponsible aquatic [39], domestic and wildlife [40] burning of plastic increases the emission of because of balloon shape and negligible toxic fumes and gases containing dioxins weight they can easily blow up and travel and furans. In many countries, due to by air or ends up in distant land, ocean and inadequate management and regulations of beaches. The shopping bags impact on the waste, litter and plastic bag intensify environment can be observed in the form of pandemics. The blockage of sewage photochemical oxidation, fossil fuels, provides high grounds of breeding pests eutrophication, global warming, water and and insects like mosquitoes, and thus, land use. plastic bags can also elevate the risk of Impacts of polythene bags on health vector-borne diseases transmission, Plastic materials contain heavy chemicals including malaria and dengue [34]. like benzene and , which are toxic

Figure7. Impacts of polythene bags on health

Impacts of polythene bags on animals blockage of digestive systems and stomachs The high environmental level of plastic of thousands of various animal species. In items produces momentous hazards to the marine ecosystem, the plastic bags in ecosystems of oceans and land, water seems like a jellyfish this cause the predominantly plastic shopping bags, have ingestion of plastic bags by many dolphins been observed to be the cause of blocking and turtles which mistakenly take it as food airways passages during breathing and [43]. It is evident that various harmful

1968 Hussain et al. chemicals and toxic materials are dissolved plastic because of their size and the or added during manufacturing of the complex composition becomes hard even to plastic which is ingested by many animals detect or remove from the marine and transfer it into their blood, and different ecosystem and oceans [45]. Hence the vital tissues eventually become the part of primary strategy for effective mitigation is the food chain [44]. The breakdown of to minimize the input of plastic in the water plastic bags converts it into small fragments (Fig.8). called micro-plastic particles. The micro-

It is estimated that 99% of seabirds will ingest plastic till 2050

Marine littering challenge for Over 600 seas & oceans species of 15% of species marine are are endangered harmed by which were Marine litter affected by marine litter

Figure8. Impacts of polythene bags marine ecosystem

Plastic bags can cause choking of natural plastics cannot be recycled unless provided waterways and may aggravate natural with specialized plants. Due to the porosity floods and disasters. In Bangladesh, during nature of foamed plastic products, the 1988, the failure of drainage system clean-up of such items contaminate the occurred due to clogging by plastic bag and drinks and food, which will increase the litter resulted in devastating flooding, and overall recycling cost. The cost estimated many deaths [46]. According to the for cleaning beaches and shores is reported survey of 2015, 16 third world approximately 630 million Euros annually countries with poor waste management are in Europe [48]. Research also revealed that in the list of top 20 countries responsible for the imparted damage on the economy due polluting marine ecosystem by plastic to plastics on the marine ecosystem is littering [16]. almost 13 billion dollars [49] (Fig.9). Impacts of polythene bags on economy Alternatives to polythene bags The major economic issue faced by plastic Many countries have been replacing plastic bags and plastic litters is developing shopping bags with biodegradable bags to countries and small islands, which majorly reduce the utilization of single-use plastic depend on as a source of gross bags [50]. The biodegradable items made of domestic product (GDP). Single-use plastic plastic include single-use plastic containers and plastic items also contribute to visual and bags detrition prolongs exposure to pollution. The economic impact on high temperatures approximately 50°C. shipping, fishing, and tourism due to The plastics made of renewable natural marine plastics is estimated to be resources like cassava roots corn, approximately 1.3 billion dollars, according sugarcane, and starch [51] or by the process to Asia Pacific Economic of fermentation of lipids and sugar by Cooperation(APEC) alone in this region bacteria do not degrade automatically in the [47]. Styrofoam and some other type of ecosystem or environment.

1969 Pure Appl. Biol., 9(3): 1962-1975, September, 2020 http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2020.90209

Figure 9. Impacts of single-use plastics and its examples

Biodegradable plastics which are directly consumed by the Biodegradable plastics include fossil-based microbes, by enzymes. The most and bio-based polymers on the basis of commonly used biopolymer is Starch microbial assimilation and biodegradability because of the advantages of abundance, degree. The process involved in plastic availability, cheapness, as well as the biodegradation involves hydrolysis, which ability of biodegradability in the may be enzymatic or non-enzymatic [52]. environment [57]. The major factors which play a key role in The polymers of the starch and starch-based the efficiency of biodegradation are the are classified as: type of microorganism, the pretreatment a. Starch-filled nature, Characteristics of a polymer. b. Starch-based polymer Moreover, crystallinity, molecular weight, These are the polymers that are readily mobility, functional groups, chemical degraded by different microbes like algae, components, tactility, and the nature of fungi and bacteria [58]. The additives in plastics are also important microorganisms like Comamonas species, aspects to consider in the degradation [53]. Variovoraxparadoxus, Acidovoraxfaecilis, The degradation process occurs due to P. lemoigneiandAspergillus fumigates are microbes which secrete enzymes involved observed to degrade all the bio-based in disintegration polymer and their plastics under anaerobic as well as aerobic complexes, convert into small fragments processes [59]. Polyactic acid (PLA) and called . These small fragments (PHA) are are used as energy sources of bacteria [54]. conventional biodegradable polymers [60]. Both aerobic, as well as anaerobic reactions Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are involved in biodegradation [55]. It is biodegradable and belongs to the bio- Biodegradable plastics are classified as based , which is produced by the follows: lipids and sugar fermentation by bacteria Bio-based biodegradable plastics [61]. It is readily degraded by These are the plastics which are derived Nocardiopsis, Bacillus, Cupriavidus, and from renewable resources [56]. The Burkholderia, Micromycetes and examples of bio-based biodegradable Mycobacterium [62]. plastics are starch, cellulose, and polymers based on starch. These are the polymers

1970 Hussain et al.

Polylactic acid (PLA) Management Strategies and It is also bio-based , Recommendations to reduce the use of which is derived from tapioca roots, corn Polythene Bags starch, or sugarcane[63]. The species B. The management strategies which can be licheniformis and Amycolatopsis sp.[64] adopted for effective management of plastic and Cryptococcus sp. are involved in its waste are as follows: degradation biodegradation [65]. Improvements in the waste management Fossil-based biodegradable plastics system Fossil-based biodegradable plastics have The permanent bans on single-use plastic been used mainly in the packaging industry. and polythene bags and items made of In pharmaceutical products packaging, Styrofoam can efficiently resolve many packaging of food items, makeup items, hazardous effects due to the overuse of and the chemicals. Different microbes are plastic. Nevertheless, innovative and involved in their degradation, but the effective systems for waste management, in process is too slow [66]. conjunction with circular thinking, can Polyethylene succinate (PES) facilitate to achieve long-term solutions and It is the type of thermoplastic impacts to encounter the issues regarding synthesized by copolymerization of plastics bags and their effects on the succinic anhydride and ethylene oxide. It is environment. degraded by Pseudomonas species AKS2 a Environmental friendly substitute mesophilic bacterial strain [67]. It is promotion degraded by microbial enzymes like The introduction of supporting projects, esterases and lipases [68]. Aspergillus sp. economic incentives that can assist in has also been reported to degrade Recycling and scaling-up process of polycaprolactone (PCL) [69]. recycling the single-use plastic bags and Biodegradable polymer blends items, and motivating the establishments of Making a blend of various polymers is a micro industries in private and governments cheaper, faster, easier, and cost-effective sector can ensure the environmentally method in comparison to the friendly substitute the plastics of single use copolymerization method. These are [73]. wholly biodegraded by microbial enzymes. Social education and awareness [70]. Social education and awareness are the Starch/polyester blends essential elements towards the change in The blends of Starch and polyester are perception and behavior of the consumers degradable because of their composition. towards the usage of plastic bags. A steady, The polyesters thermoplastics are versatile effective and the transformational and can be used in genetic engineering. The progression is critical to achieving targeted microbial enzyme secreted by of R. delemar goals. The change in attitude and cultural and R. arrhizus are involved in the behavior regarding issues of pollution of hydrolysis of these blends [71]. the environment are not achievable only by Starch/ polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) blends brief campaigns of awareness [74]. It can be Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) being used in achieved by embedding the messages in blends is fossil-based, aqueous soluble, and regular practices and curriculums of biodegradable. Various microorganisms schools from the very beginning. Strategies have been reported to be involved in the of Public awareness should not focus only enzymatic hydrolysis of starch/PVA blends the resources recycling or/and reuse, but [72]. also encourage the minimization and liable utilization of plastics and generation of waste.

1971 Pure Appl. Biol., 9(3): 1962-1975, September, 2020 http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2020.90209

Effective policies implementation: alternative ways of disposal, the If the governments, public, private sector, establishment of mechanisms of and industries support collectively the incineration and landfills, facilities of promotion and development of effective recycling plastic are also the significant policies against polythene and plastic bags recommendations. and utilization of alternatives of plastics, Conclusion the phase-out of single-use plastics bags There must be strict policies and can effectively and progressively achieve. regulations for restricting the use of Public pressure polythene bags to a definite quantity. For the decision making of policies, the Awareness encampments should be pressure exerted by the public can also planned in each corner of the metropolitan, trigger the response. The "Bye Bye Plastic particularly in slum zones to attentive Bags" social campaign was initiated in Bali, people on confining the use of polythene which leads the youth mobilization to do bags and to only using biodegradable not use plastic bags. It lasted for four years polythene bags. The maximum microbes until the ban of plastic bags on the island that can decompose the polythene must be [75]. In New Zealand, the students of high screened to distinguish the exact school launched a petition to impose levy degradation mechanism. of0.10dollars on the markets using plastic Authors’ contributions bags 17,000 people signed after the launch Conceived and designed the experiments: A of petition. This leads to recommendations Hussain, Performed the experiments: Z to impose on plastic bag usage nationwide Javed, Analysed the data: F Kishwa & by the government [76]. Therefore the HMZ Raza, Contributed materials/ pressure by the public is also renowned as analysis/ tools: MK Bangash, Wrote the the precipitating choices of the private paper: A Hussain & M Farooq. sector. References Voluntary agreements 1. Williamson L (2003). It's Not My Bag, It is also one of the reduction strategies Baby! On Earth 25(2): 32-34. which involve the Voluntary agreements 2. Spokas K (2008) Plastics-still young, but among retailers, manufacturers, and the having a mature impact. J Waste Manage government to use plastic alternatives and 28(3): 473-474. prohibition on plastic bags. Private and 3. Stevens ES (2002). Green plastics: an public collaboration is a useful instrument introduction to the new science of in tackling this issue[35]. By building biodegradable plastics (Princeton awareness in manufacturers and retailers University Press). can indeed change the behavior towards the 4. Adane L & Muleta D (2011). Survey on the usage of plastic bags. The main usage of plastic bags, their disposal and stakeholders who can effectively contribute adverse impacts on environment: A case study in Jimma City, Southwestern towards the achievement of a healthy and Ethiopia. J Toxicol Environ Health clean environment are: Sci 3(8): 234-248. Entities of the local and national 5. Flores MC (2008). Plastic materials and government, Authorities of waste environmental externalities: Structural management, Environmental Non- causes and corrective policy. governmental organizations (NGO's), 6. Macur BM & Pudlowski ZJ (2009). Plastic Manufacturers of single-use plastics, bags-a hazard for the environment and a Industry and trade associations, Retailers, challenge for contemporary engineering Society groups, and citizens. Additionally, educators. World Trans. Engineer. the awareness of the public regarding the Technol. Educ 7(2): 122-126. importance of environment, controlling 7. Hasson R, Leiman A, & Visser M waste mechanisms, generation of plastics, (2007). The Economics of Plastic Bag

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