Unit 7 Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire UNIT 7: TRANSITIONAL PHASE: FROM THE REPUBLIC TO AN EMPIRE UNIT STRUCTURE 7.1 Learning Objectives 7.2 Introduction 7.3 Rise of the Republic- Political Structure 7.4 Women and the Republic 7.5 Society, Art, Religion and Literature under the Republic 7.6 Sports and Culture during the Republic 7.7 Let Us Sum Up 7.8 Further Reading 7.9 Answers to Check Your Progress 7.10 Model Questions 7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this Unit, you will be able to- • explain the phase of political transition in Rome, • explain the Republican structure of the Roman Government and its various political organs • describe the status of women in the Roman society • describe the development of art and literature during this period • discuss the scenario of sports, religion and culture during the transition of phase in Rome 7.2 INTRODUCTION In the previous Unit, we discussed the origin of the Roman Empire and the socio-economic structure. In this Unit, we will discuss the transition of Rome from Republic to 64 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7 Empire. The Romans had the Monarchical system of government from 753 BCE to 509 BCE and the Republican system of government from 509 BCE to 27 BCE. The Roman Empire was established in 27 BCE and it lasted till 476 CE. The Republican form of government was introduced in Rome by Lucius Junius Brutus in 509 BCE. The Roman Republic was, however, not yet a nation but a network of towns and provinces. The Republic lasted from 509 BCE to 27 BCE. It was overthrown by the establishment of the Roman Empire by Octavian Caesar (who was given the name Augustus by the Council) in 27 BCE. 7.3 RISE OF THE REPUBLIC- POLITICAL STRUCTURE The Roman Republic expanded due to the continuous wars with foreign countries, which constituted the major problems in the foreign affairs of the Roman Republic. The Roman Republic accepted the policy of expansion by establishing colonies in the neighbouring countries to handle the problem of food scarcity owing to the increase of population. It established fifteen colonies from 500 BCE to 400 BCE. The Roman Republic of this time became powerful enough even to establish their control in the Greek city states like Torentum. The period witnessed the Republic expanding its territory to the Adriatic Sea. The Roman colonies were under the Roman and Latin Law. They were under constant observation of the Roman troops. Rather, they gave them Roman citizenship. Therefore, the colonized states remained satisfied. The Romans annexed Carthage, a powerful Phoenician city state on the African coast of the Western Mediterranean, but only after a long series of three big wars. These are collectively called the Punic Wars (264-146 BCE). These wars allowed the Roman Republic to have complete control over the Southern and Western Mediterranean. History of Ancient Civilizations 65 Unit 7 Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire LET US KNOW The word “Punic” has its origin in the Latin word “Punicus” (or “Poenicus”), which means “Carthaginian” by referring to the origin of the Carthaginians in the Phoenician Civilization centred around modern Lebanon in Western Asia. The defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars compelled the Carthaginian province of Spain to become a Roman province and pay tribute for fifty years to the Roman Republic. During the times of the Punic wars, the Roman Republic engaged itself in wars also with some other kingdoms. Macedon and Syria were significant among them. The Roman Republic defeated Philip V of Macedon in a battle fought in 197 BCE. Sparta and Athens were allies of the Romans in this battle. After that the Romans defeated Antiochus, the king of Syria, in 190 BCE. The latter half of the first century BCE was a turbulent period in Roman history. After a number of wars worsened the political, social and economic condition of the Roman Republic, Gaius Julius Caesar was appointed the Dictator of the Roman Republic in 46 BCE. He was initially appointed for ten years but later he was made the lifelong Dictator of the Roman Republic. He introduced several reforms, such as land and administrative reforms. He also took measures for control of population. He introduced the Julian Calendar on January 01, 45 BCE. This calendar is almost identical to the Western calendar presently in vogue. Caesar’s growing power scared a few Senators of the Roman Republic. Instigated by Gaius Cassius Longinus and led by Caesar’s close associate Marcus Junius Brutus, they assassinated him in 44 BCE. Caesar’s death was followed by a three-man dictatorship, known as the “Second Triumvirate”, from 44-33 BCE. Caesar’s close associates Marcus Antony and Marcus Lepidus and Caesar’s grandnephew-turned-adopted son Octavian Caesar were the Triumvirs. Jealousy between the Triumvirs led to a civil war in 27 BCE, with 66 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7 Octavian ending the Roman Republic and declaring Rome as an Empire while proclaiming to be the Emperor with the name of Augustus. Political Structure under The Republic- After the establishment of the Republic in Rome, in practice the Government was run and monopolized by the Senate. It became the main organ of the Roman Republic. The Senate was the most powerful institution of the Roman Republic. Only the Patrician aristocrats could be members of the Senate. Usually the male above the age of 28 years from the aristocratic Patrician class were nominated to the Senate. The Senate was a permanent body and its members were selected for life. The Senate enjoyed a variety of powers which were not formally defined. It advised in the matters of administration and assigned military commands to the generals. It also appointed the Chief Judicial officers of the Roman Republic called Praetors. The Senate also controlled public finance and conducted the foreign affairs of Rome. They could rule the state after the death of the ruler. They became owners of a vast area of land, leaders in foreign policy, and controllers of finance, state expenditure and state treasury. The Council or the Senate, formed by the heads of the families (which might be only the Roman families) in Rome, advised the king in the administration. But the king had the power to disobey the Council. Gradually the power of the Council increased. The Assembly was another important institution of the Roman Republic. The Assembly, the third component of the government, included every youth capable to join the army. It was compulsory for these youths to join the army. Consent of the members of the Assembly was essential in the selection of an heir to the throne. Both Patricians and Plebeians could become members of the Assembly. But in reality the Patricians dominated the Assembly for all practical purposes. Comitia Curiata was the first type of Assembly which functioned during the time of kingship but under the Republic this Roman Assembly more or less ceased to function. After that came the Roman Assembly called Comitia Centuriata which was probably found around 450 BC. Throughout the whole History of Ancient Civilizations 67 Unit 7 Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Roman Republican period this was the main Assembly of all Roman citizens and the Patricians and Plebeians were members of this Assembly. In this Assembly citizens were grouped into ‘centuries’ which was the smallest unit of the Roman army. In general, each ‘century’ consisted of one hundred men. The right of declaring war and making peace was the supreme privileges of this Assembly. Though all the citizens of Rome were members of this Assembly, yet, in reality, the procedure and functioning of this Assembly were strictly regulated by the Patricians. There was another Roman Assembly called Concilium Plebis, which consisted of Plebeians only. This Assembly discussed the issues which were concerned around the Plebeians. The Roman Republic had kings or monarchs, but their power was very limited. The administration of the Roman Republic was headed by two Consuls, who were elected annually by the Assembly with the consent of the Council. The king might or might not be elected as a Consul. Junius Brutus and Valerius Poplicola were the first Consuls of the Roman Republic. The Consuls were the chief administrative officers in the Roman Republic. They were elected for a period of one year only, but were eligible for re-election without any restrictions. For the smooth running of the administration the Consuls could seek the advice of the Senate. They presided over the Senate and performed executive, judicial and military functions. Apart from the above mentioned organs and officials, the Roman Republic had several other elected magistrates who used to look after the various aspects of the administration. There were two elected magistrates called Censors, who were very powerful and were elected once in every five years. In the beginning only Patricians (mainly former Consuls) could be Censors. But later on Plebeians were also eligible for the Censorship. The Censors had to carry out the census of Rome which was confined to the Roman citizens only. The Censors recorded the names of the citizens and the amount of property possessed by each citizen. Depending upon the value of the property held by a person, the Censors determined the eligibility of a Roman citizen to appoint various elective officers of the Roman state. The Censors also used to control the public morality and they had 68 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7 the full right to take strict action against any citizen who violated the norms of public morality.