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Unit 7 Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire

UNIT 7: TRANSITIONAL PHASE: FROM THE REPUBLIC TO AN EMPIRE

UNIT STRUCTURE 7.1 Learning Objectives

7.2 Introduction

7.3 Rise of the Republic- Political Structure

7.4 Women and the Republic

7.5 Society, Art, Religion and Literature under the Republic

7.6 Sports and Culture during the Republic

7.7 Let Us Sum Up

7.8 Further Reading

7.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

7.10 Model Questions

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to-

• explain the phase of political transition in ,

• explain the Republican structure of the Roman Government and its various political organs

• describe the status of women in

• describe the development of art and literature during this period

• discuss the scenario of sports, religion and culture during the transition of phase in Rome

7.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we discussed the origin of the and the socio-economic structure. In this Unit, we will discuss the transition of Rome from Republic to

64 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7

Empire. The Romans had the Monarchical system of government from 753 BCE to 509 BCE and the Republican system of government from 509 BCE to 27 BCE. The Roman Empire was established in 27 BCE and it lasted till 476 CE. The Republican form of government was introduced in Rome by in 509 BCE. The was, however, not yet a nation but a network of towns and provinces. The Republic lasted from 509 BCE to 27 BCE. It was overthrown by the establishment of the Roman Empire by Octavian (who was given the name by the Council) in 27 BCE.

7.3 RISE OF THE REPUBLIC- POLITICAL STRUCTURE

The Roman Republic expanded due to the continuous wars with foreign countries, which constituted the major problems in the foreign affairs of the Roman Republic. The Roman Republic accepted the policy of expansion by establishing colonies in the neighbouring countries to handle the problem of food scarcity owing to the increase of population. It established fifteen colonies from 500 BCE to 400 BCE. The Roman Republic of this time became powerful enough even to establish their control in the Greek city states like Torentum. The period witnessed the Republic expanding its territory to the . The Roman colonies were under the Roman and Latin Law. They were under constant observation of the Roman troops. Rather, they gave them Roman citizenship. Therefore, the colonized states remained satisfied. The Romans annexed Carthage, a powerful Phoenician city state on the African coast of the Western Mediterranean, but only after a long series of three big wars. These are collectively called the (264-146 BCE). These wars allowed the Roman Republic to have complete control over the Southern and Western Mediterranean.

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LET US KNOW

The word “Punic” has its origin in the Latin word “Punicus” (or “Poenicus”), which means “Carthaginian” by referring to the origin of the Carthaginians in the Phoenician Civilization centred around modern Lebanon in Western .

The defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars compelled the Carthaginian province of Spain to become a Roman province and pay tribute for fifty years to the Roman Republic. During the times of the Punic wars, the Roman Republic engaged itself in wars also with some other kingdoms. Macedon and Syria were significant among them. The Roman Republic defeated Philip V of Macedon in a battle fought in 197 BCE. Sparta and Athens were allies of the Romans in this battle. After that the Romans defeated Antiochus, the king of Syria, in 190 BCE. The latter half of the first century BCE was a turbulent period in Roman history. After a number of wars worsened the political, social and economic condition of the Roman Republic, Gaius was appointed the of the Roman Republic in 46 BCE. He was initially appointed for ten years but later he was made the lifelong Dictator of the Roman Republic. He introduced several reforms, such as land and administrative reforms. He also took measures for control of population. He introduced the Julian Calendar on January 01, 45 BCE. This calendar is almost identical to the Western calendar presently in vogue. Caesar’s growing power scared a few Senators of the Roman Republic. Instigated by and led by Caesar’s close associate Marcus Junius Brutus, they assassinated him in 44 BCE. Caesar’s death was followed by a three-man dictatorship, known as the “”, from 44-33 BCE. Caesar’s close associates Marcus Antony and Marcus Lepidus and Caesar’s grandnephew-turned-adopted son Octavian Caesar were the Triumvirs. Jealousy between the Triumvirs led to a civil war in 27 BCE, with

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Octavian ending the Roman Republic and declaring Rome as an Empire while proclaiming to be the Emperor with the name of Augustus.  Political Structure under The Republic- After the establishment of the Republic in Rome, in practice the Government was run and monopolized by the Senate. It became the main organ of the Roman Republic. The Senate was the most powerful institution of the Roman Republic. Only the aristocrats could be members of the Senate. Usually the male above the age of 28 years from the aristocratic Patrician class were nominated to the Senate. The Senate was a permanent body and its members were selected for life. The Senate enjoyed a variety of powers which were not formally defined. It advised in the matters of administration and assigned military commands to the generals. It also appointed the Chief Judicial officers of the Roman Republic called . The Senate also controlled public finance and conducted the foreign affairs of Rome. They could rule the state after the death of the ruler. They became owners of a vast area of land, leaders in foreign policy, and controllers of finance, state expenditure and state treasury. The Council or the Senate, formed by the heads of the families (which might be only the Roman families) in Rome, advised the king in the administration. But the king had the power to disobey the Council. Gradually the power of the Council increased. The Assembly was another important institution of the Roman Republic. The Assembly, the third component of the government, included every youth capable to join the army. It was compulsory for these youths to join the army. Consent of the members of the Assembly was essential in the selection of an heir to the throne. Both Patricians and could become members of the Assembly. But in reality the Patricians dominated the Assembly for all practical purposes. Comitia Curiata was the first type of Assembly which functioned during the time of kingship but under the Republic this Roman Assembly more or less ceased to function. After that came the Roman Assembly called Comitia Centuriata which was probably found around 450 BC. Throughout the whole

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Roman Republican period this was the main Assembly of all Roman citizens and the Patricians and Plebeians were members of this Assembly. In this Assembly citizens were grouped into ‘centuries’ which was the smallest unit of the Roman army. In general, each ‘century’ consisted of one hundred men. The right of declaring war and making peace was the supreme privileges of this Assembly. Though all the citizens of Rome were members of this Assembly, yet, in reality, the procedure and functioning of this Assembly were strictly regulated by the Patricians. There was another Roman Assembly called Concilium Plebis, which consisted of Plebeians only. This Assembly discussed the issues which were concerned around the Plebeians. The Roman Republic had kings or monarchs, but their power was very limited. The administration of the Roman Republic was headed by two Consuls, who were elected annually by the Assembly with the consent of the Council. The king might or might not be elected as a Consul. Junius Brutus and Valerius Poplicola were the first Consuls of the Roman Republic. The Consuls were the chief administrative officers in the Roman Republic. They were elected for a period of one year only, but were eligible for re-election without any restrictions. For the smooth running of the administration the Consuls could seek the advice of the Senate. They presided over the Senate and performed executive, judicial and military functions. Apart from the above mentioned organs and officials, the Roman Republic had several other elected magistrates who used to look after the various aspects of the administration. There were two elected magistrates called Censors, who were very powerful and were elected once in every five years. In the beginning only Patricians (mainly former Consuls) could be Censors. But later on Plebeians were also eligible for the Censorship. The Censors had to carry out the census of Rome which was confined to the Roman citizens only. The Censors recorded the names of the citizens and the amount of property possessed by each citizen. Depending upon the value of the property held by a person, the Censors determined the eligibility of a Roman citizen to appoint various elective officers of the Roman state. The Censors also used to control the public morality and they had

68 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7 the full right to take strict action against any citizen who violated the norms of public morality. Leasing out public lands, granting state contracts were some additional functions of the Censors. The post of was created in 367BC. The Praetors were the judicial officers and they had the right to pursue the civil cases of the Roman Republic. Initially there were two Praetors, one was called Praetor Urbenus and the other was called Praetor Perigrinus. Later on with the expansion of the Roma, these Praetors were asked to look after the administration of the province. In addition to this, there were numerous other elected junior magistrates in the Roman Republic. Among them Aediles and Quaestors deserved special mention. The Quaestors were in-charge of the revenue department.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions: Q 1: When was Caesar assasinated? ...... Q 2: Who was Marcus Lepidus? ...... Q 3: Who were the Praetors? ...... Q 4: Name the Assembly which functioned during the time of kingship? ......

7.4 WOMEN AND THE REPUBLIC

The chastity and modesty of woman were much valued under the Republic. The men enjoyed unquestioned authority. However the women were considered as citizens of the state. The women of as like those in ancient did not enjoy any legal freedom. Women in Rome had important role to play in the religious rituals

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and celebrations. Women from all social standings took part in these festivities. The visibility of women in religious rituals was very high. Even though a female deity was worshipped by the male priests, the public appearances of women were not restricted. Dowries were part of the social practice and on the annulment of the marriage it was restored back to the bride’s family. A wife who came without any dowry was assumed to have a status of a concubine than someone who came with large amount of dowry. Women and young girls were taken as slaves and they had to face much hardship due to the physical and sexual abuse. However they did have a chance for freedom but they were obliged to their former owners financially and socially. Women’s lives were as fragile as the males due to the political upheaval that ancient Rome witnessed.

7.5 SOCIETY, ART, RELIGION AND LITERATURE

 Society: The expansion of the Roman Republic changed the Roman society and economy to a great extent. The colonies brought much wealth to the Republic. Sudden increase in wealth brought social differences among the Romans. Lives of the Consuls and the members of the Council became luxurious, while the condition of the common people became deplorable. The expansion of the Roman Republic introduced the system of slavery there. Slaves were brought to Rome from the defeated countries. The condition of the slaves in the Roman Republic was deplorable. They revolted thrice against the Roman Republic in protest against their exploitation by their owners. These are known as the Servile Wars. The first two were fought in , while the third took place in mainland . The is also known as the “Gladiator War” or the “War of ”. The Romans suppressed the slaves with an iron hand. Under the Republic, the landed aristocracy assumed much power. Wealth became the prime factor for social recognition. The rich lived in

70 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7 luxury and kept themselves away from any responsibilities related to the public. Extravagant games were held for their amusement. The poor were deprived from all sides- with no proper shelter or employment, no police protection and enough food, they lived in utter misery. The charity measures taken up by the Government couldn’t mitigate the problems of the poor.

 Art

The was influenced by the Greeks and despite this fact it cannot be denied that the Roman art had its own distinct originality. The Romans did not emphasise much on ornamentation except as a touch up towards the end. Religion also influenced the art forms in ancient Rome example- the Basilica, St. Peter’s Church. The originality of the Roman art can be found in the and the bas- reliefs. The “Unknown Roman” of the Republic era is the best specimen of Roman . In case of paintings, most of the paintings are lost. Pliny mentions it as a dying art. We will discuss more about art in the next Unit.

 Religion

In early time, family deities and spirits were part of ancient Roman religion and there was no external influence. With the development of city states, worshipping of images of gods, building temples became the normal routine. Obeisance to State gods was a formal civic affair and many new gods were introduced during this period like Minerva, Diana etc. Many other forms of religious practices also developed like-Mysticism, Gnosticism etc.

LET US KNOW

Gnosticism- This religious practice was a mix of religious, astrological and philosophical concepts. The basic belief of Gnosticism was- Knowledge is the only way through which salvation can be gained

We will discuss in details about Religion in the next Unit.

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 Literature

The Roman literature was written in the Latin language. The development of literature began in the late third century BCE, when Livius Andronicus, a former Greek slave in Sicily and then a war-prisoner in Rome, did an adaptation of a Greek play in Latin and then translated Homer’s epic Odyssey from Greek into Latin. The first phase of the literature (230-80 BCE), also known as the period of early and literature, included the first poem on a Roman theme by Gnaeus Naevius, the first chronological and epical account of the Roman by Quintus Ennius, the first scientific histories by Polybius, comedies by Plautus and Terrence, the first Roman satires by Gaius Lucilius and political prose pieces by . The second phase of the literature (80 BCE-180 CE) was also known as the period of Classical Latin Literature. It had two parts, viz., the Golden Age (80 BCE-17 CE) and the Silver Age (17-180 CE). The Golden Age existed between the first speech by and ’s death and included poetry by , Catullus, , and Ovid, prose by Julius Caesar, Cicero, Varro and Vitruvius, and histories by , Nepos, Sallust and Titus Livius or . One of the famous writers of ancient Rome was Horace. His writings were classified into 4 parts- Satires (comedy), (poem-songs), (letters) and (long poems). Among all these, he was specially known for his Odes. Love, friendship, village life, patriotism, peace etc amongst others were the main subject matter of his Odes. These Odes had greatly influenced the 18th, 19th century British poets. The shining star of ancient Roman literature was Publius Vergilius Maro, who was popularly known as Virgil. Virgil’s Aeneid became the national epic of the Roman Empire. The Silver Age in the second phase of the literature started after Ovid’s death and ended with the death of the philosopher-Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It had less brilliance than the Golden Age. It included poetry by Lucanus, Martialis and Statius, prose by Petronius, Pliny the Elder, Quintilian, Pliny

72 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7 the Younger, Platonicus and Marcus Aurelius, revenge tragedies by Seneca, satires by and and historical writings by and . The third and final phase of the literature (180-476 CE) was also known as the period of Late Latin literature. It was a decadent phase. It is marked by the rise of Christian Latin literature. It includes poetry by the last major Roman Classical poet Claudian, Ausonius, Prudentius and Paulinus of Nola (Last two were Christian poets) and prose by Symmachus and St. Augustine (Both were Christian writers). Roman literature was sometimes directly linked with the socio-political situations in the territory. The best example in this context is the Law of the Twelve Tables, which was written in the context of the Patrician-Plebeian conflict and had aspects like minimization of power of the Patricians and prohibition on selling land to foreigners. As the Roman territory expanded for a long time, many literatures of different places got added to the body of the literature of the Roman civilization. Most of these literatures were written in languages other than Latin, but they failed to constitute a significant body.

7.6 SPORTS AND CULTURE DURING THE REPUBLIC

Annual games were held very early in the ancient Roman history however there was no specific time period. With the passing of time, new games were added and days were extended and by the end of the Republic, it was recorded that 76 days a year were spent on holding the Games and a huge sum of state resources were also used for organising the Games. The Games held in ancient Rome were a mostly a spectacular treat for the eyes. Chariot racing, gladiatorial combats, mock sea battles, display of wild beasts became a rage among the spectators. We will be discussing the sports culture in details in the next chapter.

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After transitioning back to an Empire, Rome had to go through rough phases. The fall of the Roman Empire took place officially in 476 CE, when the Germanic King Odoacer overthrew Romulus Augustulus as the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire, the stronger part of the Roman Empire, continued to exist as the Byzantine Empire till 1453. It, however, did not have the spirit of the Roman Empire. Vastness of the empire, weakening of solidarity and economy of the Empire due to the bipartite division of the Empire, increase in corruption, high taxes, political instability caused by civil uprisings, and barbaric invasions by the Vandals, the Goths, and the Huns may be cited as a few of the reasons behind the decline of the Roman Empire

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions- 5. Where did the Third Serville War take place? ...... 6. State the best example of Roman sculpture...... 7. Name the author or Aeneid...... 8. When did the Roman Empire fall? ......

7.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that-

 Lucius Junius Brutus introduced Republic in Rome in 509 BCE. However the Republic couldn’t last long and it was declared an Empire under a dictator.

 Under the Republic, the king had limited powers. The Senate became the most powerful institution. Besides the Senate, there were the Consuls, the Assembly etc.

74 History of Ancient Civilizations Transitional Phase: From the Republic to an Empire Unit 7

 The societal traditions and laws did not allow women much freedom even though they were visible in the public spaces.

 Despite the influence of Hellenistic world, the Roman art flourished.

 Religion played an important role and its influence was felt in the Annual Games.

7.8 FURTHER READINGS

1) Allcroft, A.H. & Masom, W.F. (1958). The Tutorial (to A.D. 69). University Tutorial Press: London

2) Weiand, Helen E. (1917). The Position of Women in the Late Roman Republic: Part I. The Classical Journal. 12 (6). pp. 378-392

3) Poynton, J. B. (1938). The Public Games of the Romans. Greece & Rome. 7 (20). pp. 76-85

4) Culham, Phyllis. (2014). The Cambridge Companion to Roman Republic (2nd edition). Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/ core/books/cambridge-companion-to-the-roman-republic/women- in-the-roman-republic/ED42DDD4C5B9428A7019760DB6324658/ core-reader

7.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No.1: 44 BCE Ans to Q. No.2: Caesar's close associate Ans to Q. No.3: Judicial Officers under the Roman Republic Ans to Q. No.4: Comitia Curiata Ans to Q. No.5: Italy Ans to Q. No.6: The “Unknown Roman” sculpture Ans to Q. No.7: Virgil Ans to Q. No.8: 476 CE

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7.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in 50 words)-

Q 1: How many Serville Wars were fought? Q 2: What was the function of Comitia Centuriata?

(B) Short Questions (Answer each question in 150 words)-

Q 1: Define Gnosticism. Q 2: Write a short note on- • Status of women in ancient Rome • Ancient Roman society

(C) Long Questions (Answer each question in 300-500 words)-

Q 1: Discuss the state of art and literature during the Roman Republic. Q 2: Describe the political structure under the Republic.

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REFERENCE

 Adler, Philip J. & Pouwells, Randall L. (2006) World Civilizations, 4th edition, , Thomson Wadsworth, USA.  Allcroft, A.H. & Masom, W.F. (1958). The Tutorial History of Rome (to A.D. 69), University Tutorial Press, London.  Chaudhuri, K. C., (2001), History of Greece, New Central Book Agency Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta.  Gadalla, Moustafa (2007). The Ancient Egyptian Culture Revealed, Tehuti Research Foundation, USA.  Hundley, Michael B. (2013). Gods in Dwellings: Temples and Divine Presence in the Ancient Near East, The Society of Biblical Literature, USA.  Jacques, Gernet. (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization, (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press, U.K.  Laistner, M.L.W. (1929). A Survey of Ancient History to the Death of Constantine, 1929, Boston.  Llyod, Alan B (2010). A Companion to ancient Egypt: Volume 1, Wiley Blackwell Publication, UK.  Majumdar, R. K. & Srivastva, A.N., (2006). History of World Civilization, Surjeet Book Depot, New Delhi.  Patricia Buckley, Ebrey (edited) (1993). Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook, (2nd ed.), the Free Press, New York.  Potts, D.T. (1997). Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundation, Cornell University Press, UK.  Jha, D.N. (1977). Ancient India- An Introductory Outline. Peoples Publisihing House. New Delhi: India  Majumdar, R.C., Raychaudhuri, H.C., Datta, K. (1986). An Advanced History of India. Macmillan India Ltd. New Delhi India  Raychaudhuri, H.C. (1972). Political History of Ancient India. University of Calcutta. Calcutta: India

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 Tripathi, Ramashankar. (1999). History of Ancient India. Motilala Banrsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Delhi: India  Sharma, H.C. and Singh, Dharam (2008). World Civilizations: A Brief Study, Alfa Publications, New Delhi.  Swain, James Edgar (1983). A History of World Civilization, Mc Graw Hill Book Co., New York.  Thompson, Jason (2008). A History of Egypt: From Early times to the Present, American University Press, NY.  Woods, Michael and Woods, Mary B (2011). Ancient Construction Technology: From Pyramids to Fortresses, Lerner Publishing Group Inc., USA. Image Courtesy:  Swain, James Edgar (1983). A History of World Civilization, Mc Graw Hill Book Co., New York.  Woods, Michael and Woods, Mary B (2011). Ancient Construction Technology: From Pyramids to Fortresses, Lerner Publishing Group Inc., USA.

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