Thesis | Dejan Omerbasic

Dejan Omerbasic The Fears of Children in Stephen King’s Horror

Thesis Student Number: 55201 Supervisor: Ida Klitgård Number of Characters: 127544 Total normal pages: 53,13

Roskilde University

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Abstract This aim of this thesis is to explore which fears are being depicted through the child protagonists in Stephen King’s Carrie (1974) and The Shining (1977). The thesis seeks to observe how these fears oppose the common understanding of the time period in which these novels were published. Through a literary analysis of both novels, it can be concluded that both novels feature the theme of child abuse. The fears of the child protagonists are caused by the verbal and physical abuse of their parents, namely Margaret White and Jack Torrance. By examining the past of these abusive parents, it is revealed that both parents suffered their own forms of abuse. This suggests that child abuse is intergenerational within families. This finding opposes the established belief in the 1970s, that child abuse could mostly be attributed to poor socio-economic status. Using the theory of the uncanny, it can be argued that King induces the feeling of uncanny by blending the familiar with the unfamiliar. King establishes the familiar with his writing style, characters and settings, before unleashed the horror in the form of physical and verbal abuse. King echoes the emerging research of the period, showcasing that child abuse can be found in any home in the country, regardless of social or economic status.

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Table of Contents Abstract ...... 2 Introduction ...... 5 Problem Area ...... 6 Problem Formulation...... 7 Method ...... 7 Historical Context ...... 7 A Changing United States ...... 8 History of Child Abuse ...... 9 History of Horror Fiction ...... 10 Stephen - King of Horror ...... 11 King’s Universe ...... 12 Theory ...... 15 The Concept of Horror ...... 15 King’s categories of horror ...... 17 Why Horror? ...... 19 Children in Horror ...... 21 The Uncanny ...... 22 Summary of Carrie ...... 24 Summary of The Shining ...... 25 Analysis: Carrie ...... 26 Setting ...... 26 Characterization ...... 27 Structure and Plot ...... 29 Narrator, point of view and tone ...... 30 Theme: Abuse ...... 31 Theme: Adolescence ...... 33 Symbolism ...... 34 Conclusion ...... 35 Analysis: The Shining ...... 36 Setting ...... 36 Characterization ...... 37 Structure and Plot ...... 40 Narrator, point of view and tone ...... 42

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Theme: Abuse ...... 43 Theme: Time ...... 45 Symbolism ...... 46 Conclusion ...... 47 Discussion ...... 49 Conclusion...... 50 Bibliography ...... 51 Books: ...... 51 Articles: ...... 51 Online: ...... 52 Online video ...... 55

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Introduction Fear is an emotional response to perceived danger, which can manifest itself in numerous ways. A perceived threat can stem from a discovery, impending threat, a confrontation and many more. It can occur in many different organisms, and its emotional effect can alter behavior through the body’s automatic response. Some psychologists categorize this response as the three F’s: fight, flight, and freeze (Seltzer, 2015). Despite being an unpleasant emotional state, fear serves as a survival mechanism, meant to safeguard organisms from danger.

One must then wonder if fear is a natural survival response to a threat or danger, why would anyone search for that feeling? And why would anyone produce such material in the first place, which purpose is to cause emotional discomfort? According to a figure reported in 2014 by the Romance Writers of America Association, literary horror fiction ranked as the fifth most profitable genre, with an estimated $79 million generated, making authors, such as Stephen King and Dean Koontz multi- millionaires in the process (Stewart, 2014). In the world of cinema, the horror genre was reported as the fourth most profitable in 2018, being only behind family-friendly genres such as adventure and drama (The-Numbers.com, 2019). Evidently, there is a demand for horror fiction, not just within literature and film, but also in other mediums, such as video games, comic books, radio and many more.

The demand for horror fiction presents a paradox, why would anyone seek out the feelings of fear and discomfort? According to the Danish scholar of horror fiction, Mathias Clasen, the answer to this paradox can be found within human nature. Clasen argues in his research, that humans have evolved to find pleasure in experiencing negative emotions, such as fear, in a safe context (Clasen, 2018). Horror fiction can also function as a commentary on contemporary societal fears. In Introduction to Japanese Horror Film (2008), senior lecturer in Film and Media & Communications, Colette Balmain argued that many of the horror trends throughout the history of Japan, reflected cultural and societal fears. For example, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 were addressed in the 1954 film Godzilla. Balmain argued that the film serves as a critique of modern technological warfare which is what had created the giant reptile monster, through its consumption of atomic waste (Balmain, 2008).

If horror fiction can reflect contemporary societal fears, then the history of horror fiction may be interpreted as a mirror which reflects societal fears during the times of their production.

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Problem Area Horror fiction established itself in the 18th century as a popular genre and went through many transformations throughout the next several hundred years. The horror literary genre would see a boom period in the late 20th century, led by the American author who has become synonymous with horror fiction, Stephen King (Cardin, 2017: 37). King achieved success with his debut novel, Carrie (1974), and followed it up with a series of bestsellers. Of the many aspects which distinguished King’s early work from his peers, was his use of child characters in his horror stories. In Carrie (1974) and The Shining (1977), the child characters play vital roles in these horror stories. King continued to feature children in his earlier horror work, such as Firestarter (1980), Christine (1983) and It (1986). While King was not the first to feature children in horror, his depiction of children in horror differed from other authors at the time.

As a child himself, King grew up in the aftermath of post-WW2 United States of America, perhaps the height of American exceptionalism. However, in the coming decades, the country became involved in a highly controversial war in Vietnam, see major political scandals, which made Americans distrust their authorities, as well as assassinations of prominent public figures. These events intensified the cynicism and fragmentation of American society (Marlantes, 2017). The division in public opinion was not only regarding geopolitical matters, but also in relation to domestic issues. The topic of child abuse began to gain awareness, although there was disagreement in what caused it, as well as how to legislate it (Raz, 2017: 1). Thus, King’s generation grew up in a highly volatile world that was always changing, and threats were looming, be it in Washington and even possibly in one’s own home.

If horror fiction reflects the society within, then what fears do some of King’s earliest works reflect, especially regarding children? This thesis will attempt to answer those questions by focusing on two of King’s works, the 1974 novel Carrie and the 1977 novel The Shining. The reasons for choosing the works of Stephen King is due to the prevalence of children in the author’s oeuvre. The massive success of these literary works and the following film adaptations, showed that the stories King crafted were resonating with readers and film audiences alike. By squarely focusing on one author’s works, it will give insight to the author himself, his upbringing and the influence which have shaped him as an author.

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Problem Formulation Which fears are being depicted through the child protagonists in Stephen King’s 1970s novels? How do these depictions of fear oppose the common understanding of family and social structures of the time period?

Method Since the objective of this thesis is to examine the fears depicted in the two chosen novels, it is necessary to establish the historical context of the time period.

The historical section of the thesis includes an overview of a changing United States of America. This is followed by a general overview of the history of child abuse. The historical section introduces the history of literary horror fiction. The purpose of this section is to establish the major literary works within the genre, as well as its evolution. From its Gothic roots, which featured the supernatural to its more realistic portrayal of human horror. Following the history of horror fiction, is an introduction to author Stephen King. Having some understanding of the author will assist in better understanding his works. Lastly, this section will contain summaries of both Carrie and The Shining.

The theoretical section of the thesis includes establishing the concept of horror, as different authors present different understanding of what horror entails. The focus of this section is to establish King’s own three categories of horror: the gross-out, the horror and the terror. Additionally, several theories regarding why horror fiction is being consumed. Lastly, the concept of the uncanny will be elaborated upon. The theory of the uncanny will be utilized in the relevant literary analysis sections, both regarding characterization and the themes.

The analysis section mainly consists of a literary analysis of both novels. This includes the analysis of the setting, characters, structure, narrator, relevant themes and symbolism. Both analyses will conclude with a closing thoughts section, which will summarize the findings. The literary analysis of both novels is aimed at interpreting the selected literature regarding the research question of the thesis.

Historical Context In the following section, a brief historical introduction will be presented regarding the period King grew up in, brief history of child abuse in the country, horror fiction and an introduction to the author himself. Lastly concluding with a summary of Carrie and The Shining.

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A Changing United States The purpose of this section of the thesis is to present the broader context of the society in which author Stephen King grew up in, in addition to establishing the history and emerging understanding of child abuse in the United States.

The ideology of American exceptionalism has no formal definition. In its classical forms, American exceptionalism refers to the idea that the U.S. is a uniquely free nation based on personal freedoms and democratic ideals have existed for hundreds of years. And perhaps no moment in history has exemplified this concept than the Allies victory over the Axis powers in World War II. The end of WW2 left the United States as one of the most economically prosperous countries in the world and along with the Soviet Union, the last remaining superpower (Shoemaker, 2014). However, in the following decades post-WW2 the country would face new challenges that would greatly diminish if not outright question the very concept of American exceptionalism. The highly controversial Vietnam War (1955-1975) had many Americans question their involvement in the war and in turn mistrust the very authorities in Washington who had been adamant that the U.S. had to be involved. American involvement in the Vietnam war escalated in 1964 after the Gulf of Tonkin incident, after a U.S. destroyer was alleged to have been attacked by a North Vietnamese ship. The incident caused many to question as to who attacked whom first, or whether it even transpired (Shane, 2005). Regardless, the incident would spark an even greater American involvement in the war. While there was initial support for the war, the gruesome war images and an ever-rising death count would eventually shift American opinion of the war. The mistrust in politicians would not end there, just as the war in Vietnam was finally winding down, the 37th president of the United States, Richard Nixon would be involved in a major political scandal, involving wiretapping of the opposition and the subsequent attempts to cover it up (Davis, 2005). Additionally, the public assassinations of the 35th president, John F. Kennedy, civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. would demoralize the already fragmented American public, in addition to spark conspiracy theories as to who orchestrated the killings (Cox, 2018).

Meanwhile, millions of Americans, especially the youth would become involved with activism. American citizens became involved, by demonstrating for civil rights, peace, free speech and anti- war (Denim, 2002). The rebellious spirit of this era, led to numerous changes, manifested in both general perceptions and in legislation. One of these was the emergent awareness and subsequent legislation regarding the safety of U.S. children. The next section will elaborate on the history of child abuse in the U.S.

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History of Child Abuse Since the early years of the U.S., children were considered properties of their fathers. It was not until the early 1870s, when a case of child abuse captured the nation’s attention. It was the 8-year old orphan by the name of Mary Ellen Wilson who was found to have suffered beatings at her foster home that prompted outrage. Because there was no organization at the time designated to protect children, her case was taken by the attorneys for the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. The attorneys argued to the judge that laws protecting animals should never surpass those of laws meant to protect children. The aftermath of the case led to the formation of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. (Markel, 2009).

In the early to mid-1960s, several states began introducing the Mandatory Reporting Laws. These laws required that certain professionals, such as teachers and doctors, report any case of child abuse to law enforcement. The law required all forms of abuse to be included, such as physical, sexual and emotional abuse. The general belief amongst researchers in the mid-1960s and early 1970s was that child abuse was more common in minority and low-income homes, citing that main prevention of child abuse is to decrease poverty (Raz, 3: 2017). However, these beliefs were beginning to be challenged, as other researchers put forth the theory that the topic of child abuse was more complex than solely the symptom of a poor economic status. These researches claimed that child abuse was not class based but could rather be attributed to the individual psychopathology of the parent: “[…] sick parents abusing their children, helpless to stop the cycle of abuse” (Ibid.).

By 1973, Senator Walter Mondale representing the state of Minnesota developed legislation to authorize funds for the prevention and treatment of child abuse. A year later, then president Richard Nixon, would sign the legislation, which became known as the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (Raz, 2017: 1). What assisted in changing the perception and awareness of child abuse, was due to the advocacy group, Parents Anonymous. The group worked together with the American media to bring awareness and change in perception of child abuse. By the mid-1970s, child abuse was no longer solely associated with poverty and inequality, but instead something which was possible by every adult American (Raz, 2017: 2).

Radical changes were not only occurring in the political and social sphere during this period, but also in the literary world. In the next section, the history of horror fiction will be elaborated upon.

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History of Horror Fiction This section of the thesis will serve as a brief historical introduction to literary horror fiction.

Before horror fiction was established as a genre, elements of horror themes could be found in some of the earliest works of fiction, in the form the epic poem Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 1700 BCE). Horror themes could also be found from writers of classic antiquity, who wrote about the gods and monsters and the terror they wrought. Both the Greeks and the Romans would explore various literary genres, ranging from epic poetry, to the drama and comic, to history and the novel. Within all these genres, there was room to explore horrific themes (Cardin, 2017: 26).

One can argue that it was in the eighteenth century when horror fiction made its mark as a popular genre. Gothic horror, which is today regarded as a subgenre within horror fiction, can be described as a combination of horror, fiction and at times even romance. It was English author, Horace Walpole (1717-1797) who has been credited as inventing the Gothic as a literary form with the very first Gothic novel in the form of The Castle of Otranto (1764).

By the nineteenth century, the relevancy of Gothic fiction was on the decline, and thus the prevalence of the physical monster was now relocated from the physical to within one’s psyche. Thus, horror fiction in the nineteenth century reflected in many ways the emerging introversion, as evident by Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886), written by Scottish novelist Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894). While the novel presents Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde as two different characters, it is revealed at the end that they are one and the same.

Post WW2, the staples of Gothic horror: the ghosts, werewolves, vampires and other fantastical creatures and phenomena were no longer resonating with readers, horror was to be believable rather than merely fantastic. The period of 1970-1980 would serve as a boom period for horror fiction, as horror authors increasingly began depicting the horror committed by average people, rather than the supernatural. The groundwork for the boom period in the decades of 1970s and 1980s, was already laid by William Peter Blatty’s The Exorcist (1971) and Ira Levin’s Rosemary’s Baby (1967). Other authors such as Thomas Tyron, Anne Rice and Whitley Strieber, would also make contributions to the genre. But it was Stephen King who achieved phenomenal popularity, by using horror fiction as a vehicle to explore human dramas. A major distinction between the more believable horror and that of the Gothic era, was the reluctance include the hero and villain archetypes. The characters were now beginning morally grey. In Anne Rice’s Interview with a Vampire (1976), the vampire is now

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presented as a sympathetic individual who had been mistreated and marginalized by society (Cardin, 2017: 37).

To summarize, the history of horror fiction began with horror themes found in ancient texts. The genre would establish itself with Gothic fiction and evolve as time went on, as many notable authors steered away from fantastical creatures and monsters, and instead focus on the horror possible by mere humans. One of these authors being Stephen King.

Stephen - King of Horror The following section is meant to introduce author Stephen King, his introduction to horror fiction, inspiration, how he crafts his universe and his writing style.

One of horror fiction’s most prolific authors is undoubtedly Stephen King. It is estimated that he has sold more than 350 million books worldwide, placing him amongst the top best-selling fiction authors to date (Heller, 2016). He has been awarded numerous awards and nominations for his contributions, such as the Bram Stoker Award, presented by Horror Writers Association. The World Fantasy Convention has awarded King with their World Fantasy Award numerous times, as the British Fantasy Society. It was estimated by Stephen Spignesi, a New York Times bestseller himself, that King’ had authored somewhere in the regions of 550 individual works. These included short stories, novels, poetry, screenplays, non-fiction essays, letters to newspapers and many more (Spignesi, 10: 2001).

Before King became synonymous with horror fiction, there was Stephen Edwin King, born September 21, 1947 in Portland, Maine to Donald Edwin King and Nellie Ruth. His parents would eventually divorce and years later King would find boxes which contained items which belonged to his parents. Some of the boxes contained collections of paperbacks which used to belong to his father. These were mostly science fiction and horror. The collection included some of the works of H.P. Lovecraft, which inspired King as evident in a 2009 interview with Barnes & Noble Studios, King stated: “I knew that I'd found home when I read that book”, referring to H.P. Lovecraft’s Lurker in the Shadows (BNStudio, 2009).

While King has shown great reverence for the work of Lovecraft and Lovecraftian horror, which places emphasis on cosmic horror of the unknown, King’s own horror would focus on believability instead. Perhaps the inspiration can be found in an experience King had as a child. In Danse Macabre, King tells the story of when he as a 12-year-old child, he was asked to help his Uncle Clayt searching for water with the dowsing mechanic. Although skeptical that dowsing even worked, his uncle would

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convince the young King otherwise, as Uncle Clayt excitedly claimed that he had found water. Upon holding the rod, himself, King claims that he could feel the rod move, indicating the presence of water (King, 1981: 59). Although dowsing is considered as pseudoscience, the point of sharing this story, is to give insight in King’s own thought process regarding the importance of believability in his stories (Radford, 2013):

“I will say that Uncle Clayt had lulled me into that same state that I have tried again and again to lull the readers of my stories into-that state of believability where the ossified shield of "rationality" has been temporarily laid aside, the suspension of disbelief is at hand, and the sense of wonder is again within reach.” (King, 1981: 58)

Despite the scientific conclusions made about dowsing, the young King was captivated by the mystery of it all. Establishing a believable world, inhabited by relatable characters would become a trademark of King’s writing. This can be observed in many of his works, as will be elaborated upon in later sections of the thesis.

King’s Universe Although King largely specializes in the horror fiction genre, he has broadened his reach and written in nearly all the popular genres, including romance, fantasy, science fiction and many more. Exploring different genres, has given the author the experience and tools to further enrichen his horror stories. King’s horror stories include traits that are often seen in these other genres, including the use of myths, fairy tales and literary naturalism to enrichen his horror stories (Strengell, 2005: 3). Perhaps one of the main characteristics of King’s writing, is the emphasis the author places upon making the characters believable and relatable. The fear in his horror stories is not to come from the monsters, but rather the empathy the reader develops for the characters in the stories, as they forced to overcome their own fears and limitations against insurmountable odds. This serves to draw the reader in as active participants in King’s stories, as they are invested in the characters and their survival and well- being (Strengell, 2005: 4). Strengell argues, that some of his critics suggest that his work contains an eternal struggle between good and evil, between chaos and order within the endless confines of parallel universes and dimensions (Strengell, 2005: 5).

Another key aspect of King’s writing is his combination of fear and realism in his horror works. The fear is not necessarily always induced by the mere presence of the surreal and supernatural, but rather serves as a reflection on the people and society where they reside. In King’s own words: “[…] my work underlines again and again that I am not merely dealing with the surreal and the fantastic but,

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more importantly, using the surreal and the fantastic to examine the motivations of people and the society and institutions they create” (Magistrale 2010: 14).

As previously noted, King places great emphasis on the readers sympathizing with the characters in his work, as that is the gateway through which he can invoke fear in them. To accomplish that, King makes his readers participate in the communication process in his stories (Strengell, 2005: 6). King tends to write his characters as three-dimensional, they are flawed human beings, often carrying baggage from a traumatic past and subdued memories. To situate the reader in his world, King surrounds the reader with pop culture references and brand names, so to make the reader feel at home in his world (Strengell, 2005: 6). To overcome the struggles his characters face, King relies on the power of imagination, where many of his characters overcome their obstacles through their imagination. Thus, the reader’s imagination work in tandem with the author’s imagination, and it is this reader-writer interaction that can be described as a cornerstone of King’s mass appeal (Strengell, 2005: 6).

Maine is not only the inspiration for many of the locations in his works, but also King’s dialect in his stories. King can be referred to a regionalist with a rather distinct narrative voice. Many of his works take place in small town America, and its struggles with evil, which is usually buried underneath. As previously mentioned, the town of Derry is calm on the surface, but carries deep secrets underneath its calm exterior. By suggesting that the towns of Derry, Jerusalem’s Lot and Castle Rock are carrying dark secrets, King is suggesting that small town America is not the stronghold against depravity as some might believe (Strengell, 2005: 14).

If Maine is the inspiration for many of the settings found in his works, then children are in many of his stories the only ones capable of overcoming the horror. King has frequently featured children as the main protagonists especially in his earlier works: Carrie (1974), Salem’s Lot (1975), The Shining (1977), Firestarter (1980), Cujo (1981), Christine (1983), The Talisman (1984), It (1986), and many more. What makes children capable of overcoming the horrors present in his stories is their imagination. In Danse Macabre, King emphasizes the importance of imagination and its connection with children: “The imagination is an eye, a marvelous third eye that floats free. As children, that eye sees with 20/20 clarity. As we grow older, its vision begins to dim” (King, 1981: 239). One might assume that King’s use of defenseless and innocent children in horror as a cheap ploy to extract empathy from the readers, but instead King empowers the children in many of his works, as they possess strengths and abilities that the adult characters do not (Strengell, 2005: 14).

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King tends to heavily focus on the story in his works. In the memoir On Writing: A Memoir of the Craft (2000), he attributes his focus on the story above all else to John Gould, a newspaper editor. Gould gave the following advice to King: “When you write a story, you’re telling yourself the story. When you rewrite, your main job is taking out all the things that are not the story.” (King, 2000: 57). Thus, in King’s writing the story takes precedence over setting, theme and dialogue. King writes a clean prose; which purpose is to move the story forward. King makes use of flashbacks to add depth to his characters, as can be seen in It, Carrie and The Shining. Another aspect of King’s writing is the conversational style of his works, this could be due to his inspiration being authors such as Don Robertson and Richard Matheson. The pace in King’s narratives is usually slow, as King largely rejects the notion stemming from the publishing circles that to be commercially successful, the stories must be told in a brisk pace (King, 2000: 220). Several recurring themes can be found within King’s works, such as the power of ordinary people who set their differences aside for the greater good, seen in It and The Stand. Another reoccurring theme is the stand some of his characters take against overwhelming, and at times, supernatural evil. Abuse is another reoccurring theme, usually aimed the children and women in his works. Instead of being rescued by a third party, King has these characters channeling their inner strength to overcome their abusers. This theme can be seen in Carrie, The Shining and It. Symbolism is also present in his works, sometimes not consciously inserted as King admits, as is the case regarding the symbol of blood present in key moments in Carrie (King, 2000: 199). With over 58 novels spanning five decades, it can be argued that King does not have a formula, but rather several formulas, which have changed as he has evolved as an author. In his earlier works, the formula consisted of typically a young person who discovers some sort of supernatural power. This power then consumes the person wielding it, as seen in the novels Carrie, Christine and Firestarter. His formula eventually evolved into featuring an ensemble cast of characters, who must band together to defeat a greater evil, typically supernatural as seen in the novels It and The Stand.

Thus far, the historical context of the thesis establishes the context of the period, including foreign and domestic turmoil which came to define the period. Additionally, the topic of child abuse gained awareness, signified by public awareness and legislation. Horror literature transformed from the supernatural to the believable, partially spearheaded by Stephen King. In the next section, the concept of horror will be explored.

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Theory The theoretical background of this thesis is divided into three parts, the first part focuses on the concept of horror, with a focus on establishing King’s three categories of horror. The second part contains theories as to why horror fiction is attractive and consumed, and the third part of theory section will present the theory of the uncanny.

The Concept of Horror In A Dictionary of Literary Terms (1977), literary historian John Anthony Cuddon describes the horror story as: “A fictional narrative (usually in prose) of variable length which shocks or even frightens the reader, and/or induces a feeling of repulsion and loathing.” (Cuddon, 1977: 339). However, the difference between that which frightens and that which repulses, is a topic of discussion among authors within the genre. Some argue that they are two entirely separate brands of horror fiction.

Attempts to categorize horror fiction, can be traced as early as in the ninetieth century. This occurred when Matthew Gregory Lewis (1775-1818) released the controversial Gothic novel The Monk (1796). The controversy was due to Lewis featuring themes of anti-Catholicism in addition to the portrayal of sexuality and violence. The Monk set itself apart from contemporary Gothic novels, as it focused on the horrible and sensational, rather than adhering to the romance. This lead Gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe (1764-1823), to distinguish her brand of moralistic terror of Gothic romances contra Lewis brand of horror (Cardin, 2017: 32). In Radcliffe’s essay On the Supernatural in Poetry (1826), she elaborates on the distinction between terror and horror. Radcliffe argues that terror is that which occurs before an event happens, the anticipation and the dread of incoming danger, whereas horror was the aftermath of the event, invoking revulsion and disgust. The two distinctions thus invoke entirely different responses according Radcliffe: “Terror and horror are so far opposite, that the first expands the soul, and awakens the faculties to a high degree of life; the other contracts, freezes, and nearly annihilates them” (Radcliffe, 1826: 6). Radcliffe’s distinction between terror and horror can be categorized temporally, as terror relates to feelings of fearfulness and anxiety, emotions typically associated before an unpleasant event occurs. In contrast, Radcliffe categorizes horror relating to being shocked at an awful realization or unpleasant occurrence, which are feelings invoked after a key element in the story is revealed.

Thus, Radcliffe might take umbrage with Cuddon’s broad definition of what a horror story entails, as her definition of terror has more in common with suspense than the horror seen in Lewis’s work.

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Suspense shares similar characteristics with horror, as well as notable differences. As a literary device, the main function of suspense is to engage and keep the reader’s interest. This is accomplished through inducing anxiety in the readers, through building anticipation of dangerous events that may yet occur. The difference is that suspense culminates typically in the outcome of the plot, as the solution to the mystery or puzzle is revealed. Meanwhile, terror culminates into horror, inducing shock as that which has been built up is finally revealed in all its gruesomeness. Thus, one of the differences between Radcliffe and Lewis, is in the temporality of their works. Radcliffe saw more value in the terror, as she maintained tension in her works. Lewis displayed the horrors of the Church, sexuality, gender and incest found in The Monk, without much of a build-up. Radcliffe was among the first to distinguish the differences between terror and horror, but she would certainly not be the last. The differences between the two concepts, one being related to the fear of what might happen, whilst the other being related to what has happened, would be echoed by others.

By the twentieth century, Gothic horror and its supernatural elements were being replaced by horror committed by seemingly average human beings. Perhaps one of the pioneers of this evolution was film-director Alfred Hitchcock (1899-1980). Hitchcock’s works would seldom feature the supernatural, instead he would terrorize audiences through his depictions of the horrors capable by ordinary human beings, such as Norman Bates from Psycho. Yet despite the overt differences between Gothic horror and the more grounded horror which Hitchcock and his contemporaries were producing, they still had certain similarities. Similar to Radcliffe, Hitchcock would also recognize how fear can elicit two distinct emotional states. However, instead of using the concepts of terror and horror, Hitchcock would instead use suspense and terror. Yet despite the use of different terms, it can be argued that Hitchcock agrees with Radcliffe’s distinction between the two.

In a 1949 article titled The Enjoyment of Fear, Hitchcock argued the major distinctions between suspense and terror. Using a simple scenario of a stroller walking down a dimly lit street at night, Hitchcock illustrated the difference between the two. Suspense in the same situation, can happen through the slow build-up of the stroller hearing footsteps, unbeknownst whether the footsteps belong to them. What might seem as a normal phenomenon, can turn suspenseful as the curiosity of whose footsteps they are, can escalate into uneasiness of the situation to downright fear. Terror is induced by a sudden surprise, as the stroller may observe a shadow unexpectedly coming into view or the sudden appearance of a waving branch, all of these would produce moments of terror, that which can startle and surprise (Hitchcock, 1949: 241). Thus, what Hitchcock calls suspense, is largely what Radcliffe categorized as terror. Meanwhile, Hitchcock’s terror is largely what Radcliffe categorizes

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as horror. Hitchcock would add that two cannot coexist, because if the audience is aware of explicit danger at hand, then suspense is lost (Hitchcock, 1949: 242).

It can thus be argued that beyond the semantic differences, Hitchcock and Radcliffe share similar ideas. They would not be the last who attempted to do so, as Stephen King offered his own categories of what constitutes horror. In the next section, King’s own theory of horror will be elaborated upon.

King’s categories of horror In Danse Macabre (1981), King offers his observations regarding that which constitutes horror. In the book, King presented three types of horror: The Gross-out, The Horror and The Terror. Thus, contrary to Radcliffe, King added a third category to his definition of what constitutes as horror. It is important to note, that some confusion can occur regarding King’s theory of horror. This is because King uses the term horror to both refer to one of the three categories, whilst also using the same term to encompass all of them. To avoid any confusion, it will be made clear when the category of horror is being referenced.

Much like Radcliffe, who did not regard terror and horror as equals, King prefers the build-up of the terror above all: “So: terror on top, horror below it, and lowest of all, the gag reflex of revulsion” (King, 1981: 23). The first category that will be elaborated upon is according to King also the easiest category of horror to achieve, and the least effective.

The Gross-out Gross-out is rather self-explanatory, King’s gives an example of a severed head, tumbling down a set of stairs, or green slime splatters on one’s arm. While it can be found in various literary works, Gross- out type of horror has its own sub-genre in the world of cinema, the splatter film, which is sometimes also labeled as ‘torture porn’. King regards Gross-out type of horror as a last resort type of horror, the lowest in the hierarchy. However, King does recognize that Gross-out horror, which he claims is easy to achieve in the world of film, due to the visual nature of medium, can still achieve a level of art (King, 1981: 116). In this example, King refers to the works of Spanish romantic painter Francisco Goya (1746-1828), who produced paintings that can be categorized as Gross-out, such as Saturn Devouring His Son, which depicts the Greek myth of the Titan Cronus devouring one of his own children. King maintains that there is artistry to be found within the Gross-out it does this by presenting childish acts of anarchy, invoking what he calls the ‘YUCH factor’. As such, there is a primitive, childish reaction from the audience to such imaginary.

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Horror Horror can be described as the unnatural, that which by its own existence unnerves us. King’s depiction of horror can be understood as the natural made unnatural hence why it can have an unnerving effect on us. One can categorize horror as the graphic portrayal of the unbelievable, and as such the inability for us to comprehend and understand it can result in us fearing it: “Horror also invites a physical reaction by showing us something which is physically wrong.” (King, 1981: 21). That which is physically wrong, could explain some of the most common phobias. According to the American Psychiatric Association, one of the most common phobias which elicit fear and panic is arachnophobia. The fears of spiders have been attributed to evolutionary causes, personal experiences and cultural influences (Cherry, 2018). However, while those reasons are certainly valid, numerous other animals and insectoids have posed considerable threats to our ancestors, yet the same level of fear is not attributed to say, bears and wolves. Graham Davey, who is a Professor of Psychology, argued in a 1991 study of arachnophobia that rather than the fear of being bitten by one, the fear spiders is attributed to their “legginess” and seemingly erratic movements of spiders. Thus, even though spiders are perfectly natural, their morphology which consists of eight legs, can contribute to them seeming erratic to the human eye, thus appearing “physically wrong” in King’s own words (Davey, 1991).

Terror King’s category of terror is perhaps the most ominous type of horror, due to how it is not something you observe, but rather feel. In Danse Macabre, King gives an example of terror, as the uneasy feeling that something is behind you, but upon turning around, and nobody is there. Whereas Gross-out and Horror can be visually observed, Terror is in many ways one’s own imagination, and as such far more potent in scaring the subject, than anything visual.

King defines terror as the suspenseful moment before the actual monster is revealed, it is the anticipation and one’s own imagination that is at work in such a scenario. King himself, considers terror to be the most difficult to achieve of three, but also the one he holds in the highest esteem: “I recognize terror as the finest emotion and so I will try to terrorize the reader. But if I find that I cannot terrify, I will try to horrify, and if I find that I cannot horrify, I'll go for the gross-out. I'm not proud.” (King, 1981: 23)

If terror is the anticipation, the fear of our own imagination, and horror is what follows, in the revelation of unnatural monster or aberration, then King regards the former as the finest emotion, then one could interpret that he is arguing that the build-up is greater than the outcome. After all what

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is in one’s own imagination, in a moment of suspense, will be constructed from one’s own fears and phobias. Thus, what is revealed by the author or filmmaker, can seldom be as terrifying. One should not necessarily interpret these three categories as being utilized exclusively. Even King’s own works utilize all three simultaneously, despite his own acknowledgement that gross-out is not necessarily his first choice.

In conclusion, there are different concepts of horror. King’s categories of horror have some similarities to previously mentioned Radcliffe and Hitchcock, in that King also recognizes the temporality to that which frightens. The build-up is seemingly more alluring to him as an author to explore, rather than violence and gore he can conjure once the horror is revealed. In the next section, the appeal of the horror genre will be explored.

Why Horror? While the concept of horror varied slightly between King, Radcliffe and Hitchcock, there are enough similarities between them, to get an overall understanding of what horror is. But the question as to why the horror fiction is appealing to audiences can vary greatly. According to Clasen, the purpose for the readers to experience these emotions is to face horror within a safe context. One of the examples from his research stems from the children’s game of hide-and-seek, which he argues simulates a predator-prey dynamic. The child finds stimulation from avoiding the adult, both by learning how to avoid the predator, but also when inevitably caught (Clasen, 2018). Seeking this type of safe stimulation can also be found in the animal kingdom, as Clasen argues even animals play- fight in a safe setting, as to learn to cope with dynamics of physical confrontation in a safe environment. According to him, horror exploits defence mechanics, and by indulging in it in a safe environment, be it two dogs play-fighting or reading horror fiction, organisms can confront the horror and develop coping mechanism to handle these negative emotions. By indulging in horror literature, film or radio, humans can enter fictional narratives and experience a range of emotions, and the response to said emotions will thus reveal something about ourselves (Ibid.).

Clasen’s theory of horror aligns well with one part of Fredrich Nietzsche’s theory of Greek tragedy. Nietzsche described Greek tragedy as a union of two divine factors: The Apollonian and the Dionysian. The Apollonian represented harmony, peace, beauty and order, while the Dionysian would represent the opposite: the chaotic, darker and ultimately more primal side of human nature (Gatherer, 2019). It is thus the latter which can be used to describe horror, as it can reveal the darker parts of human nature (Davis, 2012: 3). As such, similarly to Clasen’s theory, horror fiction can help its

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audience cope with the horrors of real life and acknowledge the existence of evil not only in the world, but within ourselves. By indulging in this Dionysus side of human nature, horror thus allows audiences to examine their own fears and anxieties.

Horror fiction would evolve by the 1960-1970s, as the horror was increasingly being induced by largely average human beings, as opposed to adhering to Gothic literature tropes of the supernatural. The settings shifted from dark European castles to local and more familiar settings such as small towns, schools, cities et cetera. Thus, one can argue that which is to be feared was now becoming difficult to identify by merely its outward appearance, as the Gothic monster, be it the wolf man or ghost was now replaced by seemingly average human characters. One such character is Norman Bates from Psycho (1960), who comes across as harmless and ordinary, yet hides a darker side. If we observe the story of Psycho through the lenses of Nietzsche’s theory, we can theorize that Bates embodies the Apollonian outward demure while hiding his dark Dionysian desires. A similar conclusion could be made in the character of Jekyll from Robert L. Stevenson’s Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886). Dr Jekyll encompasses the ideals of the Apollonian, while Mr. Hyde encompasses those of Dionysian, yet as revealed in the novel, they are the same person. Thus, horror fiction in the nineteenth century and beyond, begun to increasingly depict the horrors capable by humans, as opposed to supernatural entities (Cardin, 2017: 34). Since the horror was now increasingly being committed by human characters, it brought the duality between morality and immorality into question. By exploring darker sides of humanity, it brought the horror closer to the audience, and reminded them of their own fragile morality. In Danse Macabre, King argues that morality is at the core of horror fiction: “Fiction is the truth inside the lie, and in the tale of horror as in any other tale, the same rule applies now as when Aristophanes told his horror tale of the frogs: morality is telling the truth as your heart knows it” (King, 1981: 237).

Tony Magistrale is a Professor of English at the University of Vermont, who has published several books regarding Stephen King. Magistrale echoes King’s sentiments regarding the presence of morality in horror stories, arguing that much like classical tragedy, the horror story educates readers on morality, while simultaneously suggesting on avoiding pitfalls of our own. All within the safe confines of mere fiction, where the readers are spared the consequences of those who succumbed to their darker side (Bloom, 2007: 63). In that sense, Magistrale and Clasen are making similar arguments regarding both the enjoyment and purpose of horror fiction, as a learning tool in how to manage intense situations in the real world, whilst the readers can enjoy the thrill and relief of witnessing it in fiction. Magistrale further argues that due to the opportunities given to the characters

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to act morally or immorally, it thus presents a duality within the human condition. This duality can be observed in the characters in King’s works, who are often given a chance to act morally or immorally, to resist or give in to evil. For example, the fictional town of Jerusalem’s Lot in Salem’s Lot (1975) falls to the encroaching evil, because its characters fail to act morally, which only furthers empowers the evil vampiric force. As Davis argues, the real monster in the town is not just the external vampiric presence but also internal, inside the characters who turn on each other, and fail to act morally (Davis, 2012: 66).

Most of the characters who succumbed to the evil presence in Salem’s Lot are adults, but what happens when a child is tasked to make similar decisions? And what role does the child character exhibit in horror fiction? In the next part of the theory section, the topic of children in horror will be explored.

Children in Horror The emergence of horror capable by mere humans as opposed to supernatural forces in the mid twentieth century also included an increasing appearance of children in horror fiction. One could argue that one of the first examples of the parent-child dichotomy present in horror, could be found in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818). While technically not a child, or a human being for that matter, Frankenstein’s monster, a creature patched together from different parts of rotting corpses, represents one of the first child-like characters in horror fiction. The monster itself begins with a tabula rasa, a Latin phrase which is translated as ‘blank slate’, similar to that of a child. The book’s subtitle, The Modern Prometheus, invokes Greek mythology, further supporting the creator and the creation theme. Both literary works could be interpreted as allegory on parents failing their own child, as one steals from the Gods and faces imprisonment, while the other abandons their creation, due to their own desire for power. In both instances the proverbial adult makes immoral decision and suffer the consequences. Parental failure resulting in producing monsters can be found in the 1954 novel The Bad Seed by William Merch. The novel features a murderous 8-year old child Rhoda Penmark, whose adoptive parents discover that her birth mother was a notorious serial killer, hence the title of the novel. The creation is thus the product of the failed parent, as the child or child-like embodies the failure of those who were responsible for them.

In King’s fiction, rather than solely being the product of their parents, children possess the power to respond to evil, rather than merely succumbing to it. They are given greater agency, as King equips them with a strong moral code and ability to handle that which an adult may not. Circling back to the

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story of Salem’s Lot, one finds Mark, the twelve-year old boy who with his strong desire to act morally, is the one who can fight off the evil presence that has engulfed the town (Davis, 2012: 33). Children overcoming evil which adults cannot is a reoccurring theme in many of King’s works. King himself argues, that the reason children are better equipped with overcoming evil forces, is due to the power of their imaginations, and their moral strength and resolve. Despite equipping his child characters with extraordinary powers, such as that of Danny Torrance from The Shining and Charlene McGee from The Firestarter, it is nonetheless their strong moral compass and desire to do the right thing, which makes them capable of defeating the evil they face (Davis, 2012: 16). The strong moral compass found in King’s child characters, could be interpreted as the characters possessing Apollonian attributes such as reason, harmony and restraint. In contrast, the adults in his stories lean more toward the qualities associated with Dionysian attributes, such as irrationality and lack of discipline. Davis argues, that in addition to possessing a stronger moral compass than adults, children can accept the intangible and irrational, whereas adults are bound by their belief in reason and logic (Davis, 2012: 17).

However, King’s focus on empowering the child characters through their ability to defeat evil was somewhat unique to him, as other story tellers chose a different approach. Already by the late 1960s and early 1970s, the child became a trope in horror. Both Ira Levin’s Rosemary’s Baby (1967) and William Peter Blatty’s The Exorcist (1971), depicted children who were possessed by evil. By the early 1980’s the child as a vessel trope for evil began to shift, as authors and filmmakers began to explore the strangeness and otherness of children without leaning towards evil possession. This can be observed in films such as The Changeling (1980), Poltergeist (1982) and King’s own film adaptation of The Shining (1980).

In the next party of the theory section, the concept of the uncanny will be explored.

The Uncanny The concept of the uncanny can be difficult to categorize. The dictionary describes the uncanny as: “Strange or mysterious, especially in an unsettling way” (En.OxfordDictionaries.com, 2019). The Oxford English Dictionary presents a general working definition of uncanny but does not provide an understand of its nature. Part of the issue in categorizing the concept is due to it appearing within the psychological arena. Further complicating matters, is that while being accounted for universally, the feeling of uncanny can differ from subject to subject. However, there are some familiar characteristics to the uncanny which are distinguishable. In the essay The Uncanny (1919), Sigmund Freud

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categorizes the uncanny as the following: “[…] the uncanny is that class of terrifying that leads back to something long known to us, once very familiar” (Freud, 1919: 1). Understanding the dichotomy between that which is familiar and unfamiliar, is the key to understanding the concept of the uncanny.

When human beings encounter a new phenomenon for the first time, they typically enter a trepidations phase of exploration. This is necessary, as it can take time to assimilate the new phenomenon and all the variables within it, before the subject can feel confident about it. When the phenomenon has been assimilated, the subject feels a confident sense of mastery of that phenomenon. In contrast, that which is unfamiliar is treated as a mysterious foreign agent, which has the possibility to disrupt harmony. The unfamiliar could inquire intrigue but it also carries with it an atmosphere of uncertainty and unpredictability. Because it is unfamiliar, the survivalist mode arises within a subject, treating the unfamiliar with caution, until its boundaries are clearly determined. (Freud, 1919: 7).

An example could be a student’s first day at school. All the students are quiet and nervous, because the subjects have yet to determine the boundary definitions of that environment. It can take several days, if not weeks for the subject to be at ease with the variables in this new environment. In this example, the unfamiliar brings with the potential for inquiry, whilst also nervous apprehension until the boundary definitions are known to the subject. Apprehension and anxiety are reduced, as the subject is becoming familiar with the situation, as they now gain predictability in their everyday life at the school (Freud, 1919: 13).

The dichotomy between the familiar and unfamiliar is what can result in the uncanny. This can occur when that which has become familiar to the subject, is suddenly able to induce a state of anxiety and unease. Thus, the uncanny is that which was once familiar but has now taken unfamiliar characteristics. This disruption of the familiar creates unease, and that unease is the uncanny. This occurs because when the unfamiliar arises within the familiar, it can result in the subject having an internal conflict. This internal conflict is the brain of the subject still confirming what the subject sees as the familiar. However, despite it seeming familiar, it is somehow appearing or behaving in ways, which negates the conditions which made it familiar.

Perhaps one of the best examples of this, can be found in computer models of human figures. Despite film studios spending hundreds of millions of dollars to produce computer generated humans, they still provoke a sense of the uncanny. Whereas a computer-generated bear or dinosaur may not have that effect. This could be, because the human face and body is perhaps the most familiar to us, thus even the smallest inaccuracy is noticeable. Thus, for something to provoke the uncanny, the brain

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may register it as the familiar, behaving in an unfamiliar way. The subject reaction to the uncanny cannot be controlled. Even if we are aware that the computer model is not a living organism, it does not eliminate the feeling of the uncanny.

However, not everything that is unfamiliar is necessarily uncanny. There exist differences according to Freud, in what constitutes as uncanny in our real-life experiences and in fiction. Events and circumstances that would be uncanny if experienced in real life, are not experienced as such in fiction. Case in point, numerous fables and fairy tales, which include supernatural events and characters still do not invoke a sense of uncanny, despite their worlds and supernatural characters being unfamiliar. The reason why the reader does not experience uncanniness in this circumstance is because he/she has adjusted their sensibilities to the fictional world, thus making the familiar within that context (Freud, 1919: 16). Not only do the characters present in these stories not see the fantastical events as unusual or uncanny, but the reader readjusts their expectation to the “normal” state of this fictional reality. To achieve uncanniness in fiction, the author must make a pretence to realism, a promise to adhere to truth and authenticity. According to Freud, the author deceives his readership in that he is “giving us the sober truth”, meanwhile overstepping the bounds of real-life possibilities, while the readers are still reacting to real experiences. That is until the author then breaks their promise and introduce an element that can trigger a sense of uncanniness (Freud, 1919: 18-19).

Invoking the uncanny can thus be a potent tool in fiction, horror, to induce a feeling of discomfort, the mysterious and the unsettling. All emotional states which one can argue are befitting the horror genre. In the next part of the theoretical section, the trope of the uncanny child within horror fiction will be established.

Thus, both the historical and analytical aspects of the thesis have been established. Before the analysis can begin, a summary of both novels will be presented.

Summary of Carrie Carrie is a sixteen-year-old girl living together with her verbally and physically abusive mother, Margarete in Chamberlain, Maine. During a shower in the school’s locker room, Carrie experiences her first period. She is met with ridicule and abuse by her peers who pelt Carrie with napkins and tampons. Miss Desjardin, the gym teacher, scolds and punishes the girls who ridiculed Carrie during the incident. Her own mother punishes Carrie by locking her in a prayer closet. One of the girls who abused Carrie was Christine Hargensen, best known as simply Chris. She decides that she will further humiliate Carrie at the school prom, while another girl, Sue Snell feels bad about the incident and

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convinces her boyfriend, Tommy, to ask Carrie to the prom. At the prom, Carrie and her date Tommy, win King and Queen of the prom, and during their coronation, two buckets of pig’s blood fall on the couple, killing Tommy in the process. Everyone at the prom laughs at Carrie, who runs out of the building and decides to use her telekinetic power, at first locking the doors of the building and activating the sprinklers. However, the situation escalates, as the water from the sprinkles reacts with the electronic speakers, electrocuting two people, while Carrie causes a massive fire, killing almost everyone. Carrie makes her way home, causing further destruction to the town. At home, her mother stabs Carrie with a kitchen knife. However, Carrie murders her by making her heart stop. Outside, Carrie sees Chris and her boyfriend, Billy, who helped orchestrate the humiliation at the prom. The young couple attempt to run Carrie over, but she destroys the car, killing both. Meanwhile, Sue finally finds Carrie, succumbing to her injuries and dying at a parking lot.

Summary of The Shining Struggling writer and recovering alcoholic, Jack Torrance takes the job as caretaker of the remote Overlook Hotel, located in the snowy mountains of Colorado Rockies. Together with his wife Wendy and their young son, Danny, the family sees the opportunity at the Overlook Hotel as a way to for them to mend past wounds, including Jack’s ill temper, alcoholism and breaking the arm of his son. Upon their arrival at the still populated hotel, the chef, Dick Hallorann greets the family and notices that Danny possess a psychic ability called “the shining”, which allows them to read minds and experience premonitions. Danny experiences various premonitions, warning him of the dangers to come. During their stay at the hotel, Jack becomes increasingly unstable, as his desires for a drink increase. Despite warning not to enter room 217 in the hotel, Danny enters the room anyway and finds the corpse of a rotting dead woman who has come back to life. Left with bruises on Danny’s neck, Wendy suspects Jack to be the perpetrator. After the argument with Wendy, Jack somehow finds the previously empty bar filled to the brim with drinks, as the ghost of a bartender serves him drinks. The hotel urges the drunk and angry Jack to kill his family. However, Wendy manages to stab Jack and lock him into the storage room, from which he is later released by a previous caretaker appearing as a ghost and who demands Jack to kill his family. Jack chases Wendy, who manages to lock herself inside a bathroom. Jack chases after Danny, who in their final confrontation reminds Jack that he has neglected to relieve the pressure on the unstable boiler, this sends Jack rushing to the basement, as Danny, a wounded Wendy and returning Hallorann flee the hotel, as the boiler explodes, killing Jack and destroying the Overlook Hotel.

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Analysis: Carrie Carrie is a horror novel, and King’s first publication. The inspiration for the novel stems from two girls he knew who were bullied in school, one was who was bullied for her attire while the other for being an introvert who suffered from epilepsy. The inspiration for the supernatural inclusion of telekinesis came when King read an article in Life magazine regarding telekinetic phenomena (King, 2000: 75).

Setting The novel is set in the small fictional town of Chamberlain, Maine. The main setting situates its characters in Ewen High School and the White residence. Both settings serve as backdrops to where Carrie is abused. At school, she is surrounded by her peers who do not have a favourable view of her. In this setting, she is exposed as an outsider, partially due to her religious beliefs. In the shower’s she is literally exposed, as she is forced to take showers with the other girls, despite her wishes that the school had private showers (King, 1974: 8). The environment is oppressive to Carrie, as she is reminded of her status within a social circle, a desk in Barker Street Grammar School reads: “Carrie eats shit” (Ibid.). Meanwhile, a similar oppressive setting can be found in her home, albeit one where she is isolated alone with her mother. The large and open setting of the Ewan High School is replaced by the enclosed, dark and lonesome setting of her home. The White residence is decorated in the eyes of her mother, even Carrie’s own bedroom is full of religious iconography (King, 1974: 22). In this case, the setting itself is further strengthening the lack of autonomy which Carrie has in her life.

The setting during the shower incident is chaotic and lacking in privacy: “The locker room was filled with shouts, echoes, and the subterranean sound of showers splashing on tile.” (King, 1974: 8). However, as Carrie becomes aware of her telekinetic powers, she begins to attain autonomy, exemplified when she defies her mother’s request to not attend prom. Carrie dictates the setting from this point forward, as the festive prom reflects a rare moment when Carrie seems happy. She is finally in an environment, where she is accepted by some of her peers, such as Frieda who compliments her dress (King, 1974: 61). However, this is short-lived as the humiliation of Carrie at the Prom ultimately alters the setting, from a festive prom to a hellish nightmare (King, 1974: 76). Carrie is no longer a product of her environment, instead the environment is now the product of her.

The small-town setting of Carrie has become the author’s trademark, as the town of Chamberlain seems on the surface to be an idyllic place for families to raise their children yet contains deep secrets within. The abuse of Carrie, both in her home and at school is being ignored. Outside of the gym

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teacher, Miss Desjardin, no adult in the town is seemingly noticing the abuse which is occurring. One can argue that the failure of the adults, is partially responsible for the catastrophic events that unfolded. Such as John Hargensen, the father of Chris, who threatens to take the school and Principal Grayel to court, over their attempts to discipline his daughter. The failure to discipline his daughter, is what ultimately leads to the incident at prom, the death of Tommy and the destruction of the town.

The setting of the story can thus be described as an average small-town America, where abuse is hidden from plain sight. The character of Carrie is a product of this setting, and her powers and rage allow her to enact revenge on the very setting which shaped her.

Characterization Carrietta White is the protagonist of the story. As a character, Carrie induces the uncanny in the reader due to both embodying the familiar and the unfamiliar. Carrie is a shy girl, whose wish is to be accepted by both her mother and her peers. Her ignorance of the changes her body is experiencing, generally not fitting in at school and even her concerns of her appearance invoke the familiar, as these are common concerns which children and teenagers have (King, 1974: 23). However, her telekinetic powers are wholly unfamiliar. As she begins to realize her telekinetic power, her ability to stand up for herself becomes apparent, as she defies her mother’s wishes to attend prom. On the surface, Carrie is an obedient girl, which is familiar, yet her murderous rampage and destruction of Chamberlain is unfamiliar. As Freud argued, the author may situate his readership within the confines of what is possible within our own world, before breaking that immersion by introducing that which triggers a sense of uncanniness. In the case of Carrie, the uncanny manifests when she takes full control of her physical environment and uses her telekinetic powers to destroy her classmates at the prom. The uncanny child presents a dichotomy, in that they are simultaneously both vulnerable and immensely powerful. The reader is familiar with Carrie’s struggles with abuse and bullying, whilst her powers and desire to enact revenge are unfamiliar. Thus, the tragic character of Carrie may invoke our own repressed memories of prior abuse and bullying, while also our deepest desires to enact revenge on those who wronged us. This is what makes Carrie an uncanny child, invoking tragedy and horror at the same time.

Carrie fails to act morally, thus faces her demise. Yet her death is mired in sadness and tragedy. By Magistrale’s own theory regarding morality in King’s works, Carrie is not spared the consequences of her immoral actions, as she suffers with everyone else in the town of Chamberlain. Her cries for at the end, can be interpreted as Carrie largely being indoctrinated in her mother’s beliefs, suggesting

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that children are ultimately the products of their parents. Carrie ultimately enacts her mother’s wishes: “Burn it, Carrie! Cast that devil's red from you and burn it! Burn it! Burn it! Burn it! (King, 1974: 55). Thus, while exhibiting immoral behaviour, Carrie remains a sympathetic character to the end. This is partially because Carrie is denied her attempts at transforming herself. The transformation of Carrie throughout the novel, can be observed in how she foregoes some of the Apollonian traits, such as seeking harmony and having restraint, while adopting Dionysian traits such as lack of discipline and chaos. Carrie is a tragic character who elicits the uncanny due to exhibiting the familiar and the unfamiliar. Her inability to act morally is tragic, as she is ultimately of her mother.

Her mother Margaret White is the main antagonist of the novel. Her physical abuse of Carrie is justified to her, by her Christian fundamentalist belief’s and strong opposition to any and all sins. At first glance, Margaret comes across as a one-dimensional character, an overly cruel and abusive antagonist whose purpose is to make the reader sympathetic towards Carrie. However, as the story unfolds the character of Margaret becomes three-dimensional, as King introduces the reader to her own background story.

By exploring the character’s past, King elicits some sympathy for Margaret. Not only was her father murdered, but she suffered verbal abuse by both her mother and stepfather: “Margaret had a face like the ass end of a gasoline truck and a body to match.” (King, Carrie: 29). Subsequently, during this period, she began to attend fundamentalist prayer meetings (Ibid). It is possible that Margaret’s conversion to becoming religious fanatic, is a reaction to her mother marrying another man. Thus, she uses her faith, as a method to deal with her past abuse, rather than her faith being a moral code from how she lives her life. At no point does Margaret ever allude to some of the Bible’s kinder teachings. This might explain her fascination with sin in relation to intercourse and the hypocritical nature of the character, as Margaret herself delves into sinful behaviour as she has sexual relations which end up in a miscarriage (King, 1974: 29). Margaret’s refusal to acknowledge Carrie’s maturation into a young woman, could stem from her own personal traumas, her stepfather’s verbal abuse and her own miscarriage. Her repression of her daughter’s sexuality is aligned with that of her repression of her own sexuality and past sins (King, 1974: 11).

One could argue that when Margaret became pregnant with Carrie, when she had premarital sex, she was ultimately giving in to her Dionysian desires, and since has attempted to absolve herself of this sin. Furthermore, Dionysus is not only a god of wine, but also fertility, which Margaret failed to control in her own past, but is now attempting the fertility of her daughter. Margaret would come to

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entirely rejects her Dionysian side, her primal human nature. She perhaps does this because it has brought nothing but misery to her, in the form of a miscarriage and her daughter. Her mother’s desire for companionship after the death of her father, is what brought the verbal abuse she suffered. Her own sexual desires ended up with her having a miscarriage, and Carrie is the ultimate reminder of her perceived failure. She may perceive herself as exhibiting the attributes associated with the Apollonian side, such as harmony and order, exemplified by her strict upbringing of her daughter. Yet, her own abuse of Carrie does not align with any trait associated with the Apollonian. Instead, Margaret exhibits certain Dionysian traits, as her personality is dominated by her emotions, which escalate as her abuse of Carrie intensifies: “Momma hissed like a burned cat. “Sin!” she cried. “O, Sin!” She began to beat Carrie's back, her neck, her head.” (King, 1974: 29).

Margaret is both a tragic and horrifying character. Her past reveals her own traumas and verbal abuse. What makes the character horrifying is that Margaret is under the belief that her behaviour is moral, in that she truly believes she is only trying to prevent her daughter from making the same mistakes as she did.

Structure and Plot The novel adheres to some of King’s trademark styles of writing, such as the emphasis on realism and relatable characters. Although the novel carries a strong supernatural undercurrent to it, established with its semi-epistolary structure as Carrie’s powers are being revealed, the novel still maintains a sense of realism with its setting and characters. This is further helped by sharing the thoughts and insights of the characters themselves, which are written in italics. In Carrie, King largely avoids dressing up the vocabulary with big words and long sentences. This allows the informal language seen throughout much of the novel to be interrupted by excerpts from articles, books and newspapers. This creates a stark juxtaposition, where the author can transition from an informal argument between Carrie and Margaret, to a formal excerpt from The Shadow Exploded (King, 1974: 56).

The semi epistolary style of the novel results in numerous cases of foreshadowing. The element of fire is foreshadowed several times, such as Carrie’s grandmother also having similar powers, such as her ability to light a fireplace without moving (King, 1974: 65). Although not a foreshadowing, the incident at the prom is revealed to the reader in an excerpt from Susan Snell’s book My Name Is Susan Snell (King, 1974: 37). Much of the exposition in the plot is elaborated upon through news articles, diaries and books. Thus, while the reader is aware of what will transpire at the prom, the

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terror of the novel is in the question what will ultimately trigger Carrie’s rage. The point of no return occurs when Billy and Chris dump pig blood over Carrie and Tommy (King, 1974: 74). This point of no return also signifies when the novel transitions from terror to horror. The entire prom incident is built-up through the novel as the catalyst for the destruction of the town. One can argue that King uses all three categories of horror in this pivotal moment in the story. The novel transitions from building tension with terror, breaks that tension with the gross-out element of pig’s blood being dropped on Carrie and Tommy and the subsequent horror that is unleashed on the town.

Meanwhile, the irony in the story is situational. While the tormentors of Carrie, namely the main antagonist Chris and the antagonist in the form of her mother Margaret, try to inflict pain on Carrie, it is Carrie at the end who inflicts the most pain on them, and the rest of Chamberlain.

The structure of the novel is divided into two chapters. What divides these two chapters is the prom. The semi epistolary style allows the reader to know the significance of the prom beforehand. Yet does not give reader’s details as to what exactly transpired. Thus, the first chapter serves as both the build- up and the terror. Whilst at the prom, the horror unfolds as Carrie is on a path of destruction.

Narrator, point of view and tone The point of view in the novel is written in third person past tense. The narrative is structured such as if told by someone who is investigating as to what led to the events that culminated in the death and destruction of the town. The reader is given insights into the thoughts and intents of various characters, including Carrie, Sue Snell, as well as minor characters such as Miss Desjardin and even the next-door neighbour, Estelle Horan. For example, Carrie’s trepidation, fears and excitement as she awaits Tommy to pick her up for prom are all shared with the reader (King, 1974: 56). Similarly, even a very minor character such as the neighbour Estelle Horan, gives her impression of the Whites, in an interview with Esquire magazine (King, 1974: 17). With the third person omniscient point of view, the reader is given multiple perspectives on the characters and events that would unfold in the story.

The tone in novel changes drastically due to the semi-epistolary way the narrative unfolds. When the novel changes from excerpts from the book The Shadow Exploded, the language becomes formal and the tone becomes scientific: “Both medical and psychological writers on the subject are in agreement that Carrie White's exceptionally late and traumatic commencement of the menstrual cycle might well have provided the trigger for her latent talent.” (King, 1974: 10)

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The tone in these excerpts from the book are neutral and descriptive. The author describes the incident when the rain of stones fell on the home of Margaret White differently depending on the outlet publishing it. In the weekly Enterprise magazine, the incident is briefly described in a formal and nondescript manner (King, 1974: 7). However, when the same incident is described in an article titled Carrie: The Black Dawn from Esquire magazine, the incident is described in an informal and sensationalized manner, with an interview with the neighbour character of Estelle Horan: “She wears bright print shifts and smoked amber sunglasses; her hair is black streaked blonde; she drives a neat maroon Volkswagen Formula Vee with a smile decal on the gas cap and a green-flag ecology sticker on the back window.” (King, 1974: 17)

The heavy use of colour to describe Horan could be interpreted as a method to juxtapose the differences between Horan and Margaret. When Margaret is described in Horan’s words, she is anything but colourful. The imagery that is invoked when describing Margaret is that of an animal, sounding like a bull alligator and having the face of a gargoyle (King, 1974: 19). The tone present in this article comes across as manipulative, as if the magazine is building a narrative against Margaret and is using her neighbour to underline the differences between “Ms. California” and the monster next door. The tone present in various newspapers and books is in stark contrast to the colloquial language used by the characters. The colloquial language and plentiful use of slurs all contribute to establishing an informal tone, which stands in opposition to excerpts from news articles and books.

It can be argued that with semi-epistolary narrative, the overarching tone of Carrie invokes a sense of inquisitiveness in the reader, as they are throughout the story presented with various accounts, which can be from the past, present or future regarding the main narrative, the reader is the researcher. The inquisitiveness builds the terror in the story, until the incident at the prom occurs and the terror is turned into horror.

Theme: Abuse One of the main themes in the novel is that of physical and verbal abuse. The character of Carrie is stuck in a perpetual cycle of abuse at the hands of her peers and her mother. Her mother demands her daughter follow strict religious dogma, whilst her peers demand Carrie be more modern. The religious and traditional world, carefully crafted by her mother, can be observed in Carrie’s religious practices, her ignorance of her own menstrual cycle and even her school attire (King, 1974: 22). Whilst Ewan High School represents a more modern contemporary setting of 1979. Her peers were modern compared to Carrie, they knew of deodorants, bra’s, tampon’s and openly talked about boys (King,

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1974: 8). Thus, the child is caught in two different worlds, struggling to adapt to either and any attempts to do so, results in abuse. For example, the shower incident is somewhat attributed to the lack of parental guidance regarding the changes that are occurring in her body. Thus, Carrie’s adherence to her mother’s wishes, ultimately ends up as punishment. Similarly, when Carrie’s is trying on her dress, which is a far cry from her usual attire, consisting a girdle, petti pants, and garter belt, it results in a confrontation with her mother (King, 1974: 55).

Carrie is not the only one who has suffered abuse, as her mother endured verbal abuse from her mother and stepfather. Her own mother expected Margaret to remain a spinster, which can be interpreted as verbally abusive, as it implies that Margaret was not desirable for marriage. The abuse that Margaret suffered coincided with her beginning to attend fundamentalist prayer meetings. Thus, one could argue that whilst her religious fanaticism is a way to enact abuse on her daughter, it once served as refuge from her own abuse. Her mother, Judith says the following: “The one time we went to see her she told us we were living in adultery even though we were hitched, and we were going to hell” (King, 1974: 30). This could be interpreted as Margaret using her newfound religious beliefs to show resentment towards her mother and stepfather. That Judith and Joseph are now married is thus irrelevant to Margaret, because them being sexually involved is not the real issue, it is the retribution for the verbal abuse she suffered. Supporting the theory that perhaps Margaret’s religious fanaticism is motivated by her own abuse, is that at no point in the novel does Margaret preach any of the Bible’s more positive message’s. While her home is decorated with religious iconography, most of it is violent and bloody in its depictions, enough that the images gave Carrie nightmares (King, 1974: 22). It is possible that her religious fanaticism is a coping mechanism which has evolved into the abuse of her child. In addition, Margaret also had a miscarriage, which might explain why she is so adamant that her daughter simply not grow up in an adult woman, in her eyes, she is trying to protect her daughter (King, 1974: 30). Margaret also never remarried, nor did she bring any men into her life after Carrie was born. This could be another indication that Margaret was trying to protect Carrie from abusive that she experienced when her mother found another man.

The theme of abuse is ever present in the novel. The child is trying to both live up to the expectation of the parent, but also the expectations of modern society. This proves to be impossible, as the demands from both are contradictory. Carrie cannot fit in with her peers while also fulfil the traditional and religious standards her mother expects from her. Additionally, although it is possible that her mother wants to avoid putting her child through the same experience as she did, she ultimately succumbs her child to her own form of abuse. This makes the abuse far more horrifying, as the author

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manages to humanize Margaret as the story progresses. This suggests that abuse is cyclical, as the verbal abuse Margaret is passed on to her daughter, who enacts the ultimate form of abuse on the town of Chamberlain.

Theme: Adolescence Another major theme in the novel is the process of adolescence as experienced by Carrie. One can argue that Carrie’s transformation from a child to an adult is at the core of what the novel is about. Her transformation however faces obstacles, as the verbal and physical abuse she experiences from her parent and peers is not only cruel, but also meant to infantilize her. Carrie’s first period serves as the catalyst in the story, as it signifies the beginning of her adolescence. But her transformation from a child to an adult woman is being prevented by her mother and her peers. By preventing Carrie from achieving this transformation, she is perpetually being infantilized. Her mother does not tell Carrie about this process, whilst her peers see Carrie’s period in the shower, as justification for abusing her. The imagery which the author invokes during the shower incident is that of a naked, crying child, unprepared for the journey into adolescence she is to experience: “Carrie backed into the side of one of the four large shower compartments and slowly collapsed into a sitting position. Slow, helpless groans jerked out of her” (King, 1974: 10).

As previously argued, her first period is also what triggers additional abuse from her mother, thus both her mother and her bullying classmates are seeking to infantilize Carrie. Thus, one can argue that the child in this case is being prohibited by its parent and community from growing up. If the character of Carrie somehow remained a child, then much of the trauma she experiences would never have happened. In fact, that is precisely what her mother seeks to accomplish. The attempts at infantilizing Carrie can further be seen, as her mother portrays both adult men and women as inherently sinful. According to Margaret, women who are sinful will begin to menstruate, which she calls the Curse of Blood (King, 1974: 28). Meanwhile, the sinful men will be able to smell it on you: “I know where they take you in their cars. City limits. Roadhouses. Whiskey. Smelling... oh they smell it on you!” (King, 1974: 45).

Blood as a motif symbolizes major events in the novel. These events include the bloody birth of Carrie, Mr. Morton observing Carrie’s blood on Miss Desjardin, which is what subsequently results in the punishment of Chris Hargensen. The punishment of Chris is what leads her and Billy to dump buckets of pig’s blood on Carrie and Tommy at the prom. Additionally, Margaret’s very understanding of the concept of sin, which includes intercourse being the first sin, whilst childbearing

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the second sin, is intertwined with her views on what blood signifies. According to Margaret, a woman’s period is a precursor to having impure sexual fantasies: “First had come the flow of blood and the filthy fantasies the Devil sent with it.” (King, 1974: 66). As previously mentioned, according to Margaret, males can pick up on this scent: “Boys. Yes, boys come next. After the blood the boys come. Like sniffing dogs, grinning and slobbering, trying to find out where that smell is. That...smell!” (King, 1974: 45). Thus, the beginning of the menstrual cycle can end up with committing the first sin, intercourse. Which is the precursor to the second sin, childbearing. For the character of Margaret, blood in the form of menstrual blood, serves as a warning that her child is in the beginning stages of adolescence. Thus, the terror in the novel is that in Margaret’s own twisted logic, she believes that she is trying to save her child from the same mistakes she has made.

For the character of Carrie, blood symbolizes her tragic attempt to grow up. As previously mentioned, her first period is the catalyst of the story, as it leads to both Chris seeking vengeance and Sue’s attempt at redemption. Both culminate at the prom, when Chris’s revenge and Sue’s act of kindness clash, signified when Carrie and Tommy have buckets of pig’s blood dropped on them. The death of Tommy and the humiliation is what leads Carrie to a point of no return as she unleashes her powers on the town of Chamberlain. Her rampage ends due to a loss of blood after her mother stabbed her in the shoulder (King, 1974: 97). Subsequently, Sue Snell finds Carrie, due to following her bloody trail, and upon witnessing her death, feels her own menstrual blood down her thighs. Blood symbolizes both the beginning and end of Carrie’s transformation from a child to an adult. She is denied her adolescence, by her mother and peers, and the imagery when Sue finds a dying Carrie further supports the idea that Carrie once again reduced to a child: “She looked down at the curled-up figure with a bemused and bitter pity.” (King, 1974: 99).

Symbolism Carrie contains several notable cases of imagery and symbolism. One case of imagery is through associating the female characters with animals. Carrie’s outsider status among her peers is reinforced when the author uses imagery evoking fairy-tales: “Carrie stood among them stolidly, a frog among swans” (King, 1974: 8). The use of animals to describe the characters is a somewhat of a reoccurring theme. As previously mentioned, Margaret is described sounding like an animal whilst squatting like a frog (King, 1974: 19).

As previously mentioned, blood symbolizes major events in the story. But blood is not only used as a symbol, but also to induce the gross-out as the author painstakingly details Carrie’s abuse, by going

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as far as describing the taste of blood as “coppery” (King, 1973: 81). By detailing the expulsion of bodily fluids, King is attempting to induce what he categories as the gross-out type of horror.

Conclusion The structure of Carrie places the reader in the shoes of a researcher who is trying to gather enough evidence to understand what led to the catastrophic events which unfolded on prom night. What can be concluded is that Carrie is a product of her environment. It can be argued that by equipping Carrie with supernatural powers and having her enact revenge on her abusers, King is exploring the repressed desire of his own reader regarding their own childhoods. It can be argued that the reader and Carrie experience the unfolding of the narrative in similar ways. The first chapter is building the terror that is to unfold. The reader is aware of the incident at prom, and Carrie suspects foul play, as her doubts of Tommy’s sincerity regarding his proposition for a date indicate (King, 1974: 41). The second chapter transitions into horror, as Carrie unleashes her powers on the town of Chamberlain. King manages to make Carrie a sympathetic character, by making her struggles familiar yet impossible to overcome. She is trapped in an environment where she is expected to adapt to both the traditional and religious expectations of her mother, and the contemporary expectations of children in the late 1970s. By not being able to adapt to their expectations, the child is denied her adolescence. The inclusion of Margaret’s own traumatic past, is perhaps meant to indicate that even physically and verbally abusive parents, may believe they are trying to help and guide their children. Which makes Margaret even more horrifying, is that she believes she is morally justified in her behavior. Perhaps the most haunting element of the novel is that the incident involving Carrie White is being buried by its authorities (King, 1974: 105). Suggesting that nothing was learned, and that the cycle of violence and abuse will continue.

The novel does not offer a solution to abuse of children, rather it presents a case of how it is possible to occur even in an idyllic small town of Chamberlain, Maine. On the contrary, with the authorities unwilling to learn from the case, the message seems to be that the cycle of violence will only repeat.

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Analysis: The Shining The Shining is a supernatural and psychological thriller. The inspiration for the novel came when King and his wife, Tabitha, spent a night at the Stanley Hotel in 1974. Perhaps the choice in genre for the novel, is inspired by the nightmare that King had that night in room 217, when he dreamt that his three-year-old son was at the hotel, being chased by a fire hose. According to King, he spent the remainder of that night constructing the “bones of the book” (StephenKing.com)

Setting The novel mainly takes place in the fictional Overlook Hotel located in the Colorado Rockies in the winter of 1975. The hotel is isolated from civilization and contains a force within it that transcends time. The Overlook Hotel’s history contains several strange deaths and murder-suicides throughout the years (King, 1977: 7).

The dark history of the setting serves as foreshadowing, as the murders are a reoccurring theme in the hotel. Thus, the setting of the novel, Danny’s own psychic ability to see the future and Jack’s struggles with sobriety all work in tandem of establishing the horrors that are to come. These factors induce a sense of foreboding in the reader. Thus, one could argue that the history of the setting, almost serves as the reader’s own ability to ‘shine’. If ‘shining’ is the ability to predict future events and read the minds of others, then the reader is equipped to do both with the knowledge of the dark history of the setting, whilst the third-person omniscient narrator means the reader can essentially read the minds of the characters. The setting is also a character on its own, with its own motivations. The setting itself serves as the catalyst for Jack’s descent into madness (King, 1977: 183). In the climax of the narrative, Danny identifies the force within the hotel by separating it from his father: “Go away”, he said to the bloody stranger in front of him. “Go on. Get out of here” (King, 1977: 56).

The temporal setting of the novel spans several decades, as several major events are referenced which tie-in with the Torrance story in 1975. One could argue that the setting of Overlook Hotel is mimicking keys eras of U.S. history. The year 1945 is significant for the Overlook Hotel, as that is the year when Horace Derwent purchased and renovated the hotel. It is the same year when Derwent decided to invite the richest men in America to attend a dinner at the Overlook Hotel. The event is meant to celebrate the ending of WW2, and the bright future that was to come (King, 1977: 64). Furthermore, the hotel once was visited by the mafia boss Vittorio Gienelli who was said to have been involved in two gangland style murders, indicted twenty-three times, tried fourteen times, yet convicted only once, on the basis for shoplifting in 1940. The history of Vito invokes the real-life

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American gangster, Al Capone, who similarly was accused of many brutal crimes, yet was famously indicted for tax evasion (FBI.gov, 2019).

But by 1975, the celebratory days of post WW2 were long forgotten. The same event, and sentiment regarding post WW2, would be shared by Jack: “He trailed his fingers over the slick dustcovers, trying to imagine how it must have been on that hot August night in 1945, the war won, the future stretching ahead so various and new, like a land of dreams”. (King, 1984: 94).

Except the future was not bright for Jack, who at this very point in the narrative was prepared to relapse on his sobriety. What was once a lively party featuring the richest and finest Americans, now only consisted of Jack Torrance, a struggling author with financial, marital and substance abuse problems.

The juxtaposition between the years of 1945 and 1975, also include the end of two wars, WW2 and the Vietnam War. While one war was emblematic of American exceptionalism and the country experienced an economic boom after the war’s conclusion, the other war brought doubt, shame and division. Thus, one could argue that the state of the hotel and Jack in 1975, are meant to mimic the contemporary mindset of the nation of the seventies.

Characterization Danny Torrance is one of the protagonists of the story. As a character, he exhibits positive traits, such as his high intelligence, patience and kindness (King, 1977: 35). He is both gifted and cursed with telepathic and psychic abilities. His powers differentiate Danny from other children his age, as he is forced to only contend with his visions of what is to come, but also having to process the knowledge of the marital issues of his parents. Thus, there are uncanny elements to Danny, his childlike demeanour and desire to see his parents get along is familiar, yet his capability to read minds of others is unfamiliar. This invokes the uncanny, as the reader is forced to consider how a five-year-old child may view marital issues between two adults. By giving Danny the power to read his parents minds, it allows King to explore a child’s perspective on issues that may be difficult for them to comprehend.

The interactions Danny has with his imaginary playmate Tony, invokes the uncanny. Children having imaginary friends is familiar, as according to a recent study, up to 37% of children create an invisible friend (Kennedy-Moore, 2013). What is unfamiliar however, is that Tony is Danny from the future: “[…] You're in a place deep down in your own mind. The place where I am. I'm a part of you, Danny” (King, 1977: 164). Additionally, Tony is also the common abbreviated form of the name Anthony, which is Danny’s middle name (King, 1977: 164). Tony is notably uncanny, as he provides Danny

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with information which he has no possible way of possessing, such as Jack getting the job at the hotel. Thus, whilst children having imaginary friends is familiar, their imaginary friends prompting violent images in their heads is unfamiliar, thus creating a sense of the uncanny.

Danny has a strong moral compass and desire to act morally, observed in his assistance of the young boy at the store, but also his desire to help his parents, as he keeps knowledge of their marital problems to himself. Thus, whilst Jack and Wendy think they are protecting Danny, it is Danny who is protecting them. As he saves his mother, Halloran and ultimately his possessed father. His fear of a divorce between his parents, shows that Danny has certain Apollonian traits, as he wishes harmony between his parents (King, 1977: 14).

Much of the horror experienced in the novel, is that of child having to worry about the state of the family. Danny’s knowledge of the innermost thoughts of his parents is as frightening, as the more supernatural elements in the story. Thus, even before the Torrance family arrives at the Overlook Hotel, the author attempts to invoke terror in the reader through Danny’s knowledge of the deteriorating marital status of his parents and even Jack’s contemplation of suicide (King, 1977: 15). Despite barely understanding the concept of divorce and suicide, Danny still loves his parents, Jack especially, despite his prior abuse of him: “He loves his mother, but he was his father’s boy” (King, 1977: 25). While Jack became as abusive as his own father, Danny broke the cycle due to possessing a strong moral code in a King novel as Magistrale argued.

Jack Torrance is initially one of the protagonists of the story, until the setting transforms into an antagonist. He is a recovering alcoholic with a temper problem, as evident by his outbursts and physical abuse of Danny when he broke his arm. Despite this, Jack is still somewhat a sympathetic character, due to his desire to be a good father and husband (King, 1977: 17). Yet Jack’s desire to do good, is undone by his temper. Such examples can be found in his interactions with the stuttering seventeen-year-old boy George Hatfield, as Jack regrets mocking his disability immediately after it happens: “He suddenly flushed, not with anger but with shame at his own cruelty” (King, 1977: 45). Yet despite his best attempts at keeping his temper at bay, he succumbs to it after Hatfield slices the tires on his car, echoing the words of his own physically abusive father: “[…] come here and take your medicine” (King, 1977: 45).

The tragedy of the story lies in how the Overlook Hotel amplifies Jack’s innermost demons, as Jack mimics the same abuse his alcoholic father enacted on him. Thus, the setting itself gradually transforms Jack from a sympathetic protagonist, to one with occasional sprouts of antagonism, to a

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complete antagonist. One could argue that by the end, Jack is no longer himself, that the hotel has taken him and using him as its vessel, as Danny seems to believe (King, 1977: 169). Although one could also argue, that the setting merely brings out that which is within Jack already, as his darker side is already present before he arrives at the hotel.

Jack’s transformation is signified by his gradual relapse: “Dear god, he could use a drink. Or a thousand of them” (King, 1977: 13). The hotel is using Jack’s weakness against him, and after an argument with Wendy, the hotel creates the perfect setting for Jack, a lively party with plenty of alcohol to spare: “The juniper fumes of gin were pleasantly maddening, but they also seemed to be blurring his reason” (King, 1977: 134). The transformation of Jack is completed by his eventual relapse, as Jack fails to break the cycle from his own abusive alcoholic father. This is evident by the reoccurring use of the saying “take your medicine” by Jack, which stems from his own abusive (King, 1977: 90).

Jack’s character can be described as largely possessing Dionysian attributes. While he tries to be reasonable, his temper gets the better of him, often resulting in chaos, such as his phone call to Ullman (King, 1977: 74). It is perhaps why Jack still manages to be somewhat of a sympathetic character up until this point, as his Dionysian side is revealing the darker parts of human nature. As Magistrale argues, the characters in King’s works are given an opportunity to act morally or immorally. Jack fails to act morally, although the character tries to resist evil to varying degrees of success, once Jack arrives at the Overlook Hotel, he becomes unable to resist and gives in to evil. Whereas his son breaks the cycle of abuse, Jack is unable to do the same, and thus faces his demise.

The uncanny in the character of Jack, can be found in the areas where Jack is different from his own father, yet he still ends up repeating his abuse. Unlike his interactions with Wendy, which can be tense due to their complex history, Jack’s interactions with his son are wholesome. And unlike his own father, he is both physically affectionate and complimentary of his son: “Doc Torrance, the world’s strongest man” (King, 1977: 17). Jack exhibiting good parental traits is familiar, yet some of his behaviour even before arriving at the Overlook Hotel is unfamiliar. It is this dichotomy within Jack, that induces a feeling of the uncanny.

Wendy Torrance is one of the protagonists of the story. She is a sympathetic character, evident by her concern and care for her son, whilst trying to keep hope that she can maintain her marriage with Jack. The tragedy of the character is that she must contended with the disintegration of her small family. Wendy comes from an abusive home herself, namely at the hands of her verbally abusive mother.

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Ironically enough, Jack helped Wendy escape the verbal abuse from her mother, only for Wendy be stuck with an abusive husband: “That fall she had finally managed to break from her mother, Jack had helped her” (King, 1977: 22). Thus, Wendy is a sympathetic character, not only due to her love for her family, but also the limited options she has. She either has to contend with her alcoholic husband, who had physically hurt their son or her verbally abusive mother, even Jack is aware of this: “[…] if her mother hadn’t been such a grade A bitch, he knew, Wendy would have taken a bus back to New Hampshire as soon as Danny had been okay to travel. It was over” (King, 1977: 19). Thus, even though Wendy is not abusive herself, she is still forced to contend with her abusive past and present. While the birth of Danny led to somewhat of a reconciliation between Wendy and her mother, it came with a heavy price, as her mother’s disapproval continued: “Her mother never said anything overtly, but the message came through anyway: the feeling was that she was an inadequate mother” (King, 1977: 22).

However, despite her agreeable personality, she is by no means a passive character, as her strength grows as the story progresses. Her strength and courage are tested as she suffers physical abuse from her husband, including three broken ribs, scraped ear, a shattered vertebra and internal injuries. She exhibits Apollonian traits such as harmony and order. Yet when it comes to the uncanny, she does not exhibit it herself, instead she must contend with dealing the uncanny within her own family. She is initially under the impression that her family is normal and familiar, yet her husband’s descent into madness and the ability of her son to read the minds of others are unfamiliar.

Structure and Plot The writing style of the novel is peculiar as the author interjects the insights of his characters during the narrative. The author uses italics to capture the thoughts of the characters, such as Jack mulling over a comment from Ullman about him losing his temper, a soft spot for Jack: “You lost your temper, Ullman had said”. As Jack is carrying a conversation with Watson, his thoughts keep circling back to Ullman’s comment: “Lost your temper” (King, 1977: 10). As previously argued, by knowing what each character is thinking, it gives the reader their own version of the “shine”. Even though the character of Ullman is not antagonizing Jack in the interview process, the reader empathizes with Jack having to deal with him. When Ullman is relaying information about the hotel to Jack, his thoughts are sarcastic and humorous: “Could you at least spare the salestalk?” (King, 1977: 6). The author makes each member of the Torrance family empathetic, partially due to the reader being able to see the world through their perspective. Even though Jack’s descent into madness is telegraphed by both the history of the hotel, Danny’s premonitions and Jack’s own past, the reader is still

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empathetic towards him. King often tries to make his character empathetic, as the horror that will unfold is only as effective as the people whom it is directed at.

The author also uses shifts in pace, where an intense chapter would be followed by a mellow one. A good example can be found in the final chapters of the novel, as King shifts from the ongoing horror that is occurring in the Overlook Hotel to the travels of Halloran. Chapters Florida, Mid-Air and Stapleton Airport, Denver are interjected, chronicling Halloran’s journey back to the Overlook Hotel. One could argue that this is King prolonging the terror, until the inevitable horror is unleashed.

To situate the reader into his world, King makes several uses of 1970s pop culture references and brand names, such as referring to the Pillsbury Doughboy mascot when humorously suggesting what the mascot for the Overlook Hotel should be (King, 1977: 30). This is a common element in his writing style, as it can make characters and setting more believable. Subsequently, King does not ask any major philosophical questions in the novel. These contribute to making the novel easy to read and its characters easy to relate to.

The author uses a range of literary devices to structure the plot of the novel. As previously mentioned, foreshadowing is accomplished through Danny’s psychic powers, as the child has vague visions of the future. Furthermore, the story of the previous caretaker, Delbert Grady, also serves as foreshadowing of the horrors to come, as the murders at the hotel are seemingly repeated (King, 1977: 7). Much of the suspense thus comes from the foreshadowing, as the author both intensifies Danny’s premonitions and gradually offers exposition of the Overlook Hotel’s dark past, when Jack finds the scrapbook (King, 1977: 62). Exposition of the main characters, such as Jack and Wendy, is accomplished as King explores the abuse which they both suffered from their parents.

The conflict in the novel is ultimately between the evil forces of the Overlook Hotel and the Torrance family. Before the hotel can utilize Jack as its vessel for evil, it breaks his resolve, which in his case is his sobriety. Since Jack gradually gives in to the evil forces of the hotel, it can be difficult to specify when exactly the plot reaches a crisis. However, that could very well be the intention of the author, an attempt to show how abuse slowly intensifies. One could argue that once Danny is found to have bruises on his neck after visiting room 217, serves as the point of no return (King, 1977: 89). The incident in room 217 is one of the major catalysts as to why Jack eventually relapses on his sobriety. Thus, the point of no return occurs when he finally relapses: “I’ve been away but now I’m back” (King, 1977: 134). Jack’s proclamation that he is back, could be interpreted as meaning more than

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him physically returning to the location, but him returning to alcohol. The climax of the plot occurs when Danny reminds his possessed father, that he has forgotten to check on the boiler.

The situational irony in novel can be attributed to the main setting itself, the Overlook Hotel. On the outset, the hotel, with its isolation and tranquillity, seems to be the ideal place for Jack to not only begin his writing, but also spend quality time with his family. Instead, the hotel turns out to be the opposite, and severely exacerbates the issues that were present beforehand.

Narrator, point of view and tone The point of view in the novel is told from the third person of an omniscient narrator. The reader is given insights into the thoughts and intents of several different characters throughout the novel. The first four chapters of the novel largely present the point of view of the three members of the Torrance family. Each member of the family has concerns and worries about the state of the family, such as Danny’s concerns regarding Jack’s alcohol problem which the character in a childlike manner refers to “the bad thing”. Additionally, Danny is also concerned about a possible divorce between his parents, which through his psychic powers, he could read from his parent’s thoughts (King, 1977: 14). In addition to having concerns over Jack’s sobriety, the character of Wendy is shown to be traumatized by the incident in which a drunken Jack had broken Danny’s arm, which had put a strain on her marriage (King, 1977: 23). The point of view of Jack gives insights into his own worries, including the family’s money situation, his increasing annoyance of Wendy and his increasing desire to break his sobriety (King, 1977: 102). In the fifth and final chapter of the novel, the reader is additionally shown the point of view of Dick Halloran, who is telepathically alerted by Danny of their danger (King, 1977: 123).

The tone of the novel depends on which character’s point of view is being presented. When Jack’s point of view is presented in the first chapter, such as the interview process with the general manager of the hotel, Mr. Ullman, the tone can be described as tense and almost hostile. Jack’s first thought of Ullman is to think of him as a “officious little prick” (King, 1977: 5). The juxtaposition between Jack’s crude thoughts of the general manager and his forced presentable behaviour, establish from the very beginning that Jack has two distinct sides to him. Yet when the point of view is that of Wendy in the second, the tone is that of sadness, due to Wendy’s concerns regarding her son. Like Jack, she is also hiding her true thoughts, in order to protect Danny, as she tries to answer difficult questions regarding Jack losing his job and his violent tendencies (King, 1977: 9). The language used in these two chapters also helps establish different tones. Whereas Jack’s thoughts include vulgar words such

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as “prick” and referring to Ullman as a “rat”. Meanwhile, Wendy’s interaction with Danny is childlike, as she describes the Hatfield incident to Danny as a “bad thing”. She is not only protecting Danny from fully understanding Jack’s violent tendencies, but also trying to protect Jack, by covering for his behaviour, to maintain the illusion of a happy family. Supporting the argument that the tone shifts depending on which characters are interacting can also be observed in the difference in the forms of diction being used. During the interview process between Jack and Ullman, the diction is largely formal, as Jack is trying to get the caretaker job. Although Jack’s thoughts in the same moment are anything but formal, as the reader witnesses his temper. When Danny’s point of view is first established in the fourth chapter, the tone present is complex, due to his psychic ability to read his parents minds while simultaneously grasping to understand the issues between his parents. This can be observed in Danny’s naivety, as he humorously ponders whether the process of divorce court involves a tennis or badminton court (King, 1977: 14). What he does understand, is that divorce would mean that his parents would separate and that he would only see his father occasionally. Despite Wendy’s efforts to protect him, Danny understands the physical violence that his father is capable of, but like Jack and Wendy, he is keeping his thoughts to himself.

But as the story progresses the innermost thoughts of each member of the Torrance family become known to the rest of the family. Jack becomes increasingly unable to hide his thoughts of others starting with a phone call to Ullman, then his open disdain for Wendy and finally his hunt for Danny. Wendy’s fears of Jack relapsing and the disintegration of her family are no longer a concern, but a reality and Danny’s premonitions of impending danger come to life. The concerns of each member of the Torrance family is what sustains the terror throughout the narrative, but once their thoughts are revealed to each other, is when the horror begins, as Jack’s descent into madness is complete. As the story reaches its horrifying conclusion, there are no more secrets to be had, and the different tones of each character finally fully converge. Thus, there is no more terror, but instead horror.

Theme: Abuse The theme of abuse is ever present in the novel. All members of the Torrance family have prior to arriving at the Overlook Hotel suffered some form of abuse by their parents. The premise of the novel is that the isolation at the Overlook Hotel could perhaps help mend some of the issues the family is facing. Yet the setting only exacerbates pre-existing problems which the characters are forced to contend with. It can be argued that the root of Jack’s problems, lie in the physical abuse he and his mother suffered at the hands of his alcoholic father. Alcoholism and domestic abuse have been strongly linked to dysfunctional families and cycles of family violence, something which Jack fails

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to break (Klostermann, 2009). The cycle of violence is present as early as Jack’s childhood: “He had reddened Jack’s behind…and then blacked his eye. And when his father had gone into the house, muttering, to see what was on television, Jack had come upon a stray dog and had kicked it into the gutter” (King, 1977: 44)

His alcoholism is also what puts further pressure on him, as it puts a strain on his marriage, ultimately costing him his teaching job and putting financial pressure on him as the family’s breadwinner (King, 1977: 80). Thus, the problems which Jack is faced with are all intertwined and can be traced back to the abuse he suffered as a child. It is Jack’s abusive past, which make him a sympathetic character in the story until he is consumed by the hotel. This transition is gradual, and by giving insights and thoughts of Jack, the reader is gradually eased into his deteriorating state of mind, which is horrifying.

Whereas the abuse which Jack suffered functions as a way for readers to sympathize with Jack, Wendy’s abuse on the behalf of her mother, is claustrophobic. Wendy is isolated even prior to arriving at the hotel, caught in an unstable marriage, her options are limited between her abusive mother and abusive husband. She has no choice but to hope, yet the omniscient point of view of the novel, Danny’s visions of the future and the violent history of the hotel are all suggesting that her hope is in vain. Wendy will have no choice but to contend with the abuse that is to come, as is common with King storytelling. The inevitability of abuse and her lack of options is tragic and places the reader in the shoes of similar women who were caught in domestic violence, feeling that they had no escape. Wendy is also somewhat of a product of her verbally abusive mother. Her mother’s abuse manifested itself in showing little pity or forgiveness for Wendy. Similarly, while Wendy is trying to be supportive of her husband, she does not forgive him for some of his actions, perhaps echoing her own mother’s lack of forgiveness: “Never going to let me forget that, are you, Wendy? When I’m on my deathbed you’ll lean over and say, ‘It serves you right, remember the time you broke Danny’s arm?” (King, 1977: 92). Jack’s inability to deal with what he had done to Danny, could be interpreted as him not wishing to be compared to his father. Because unlike his father, Jack does initially have a good relationship with his son, which even Wendy recognizes (King, 1977: 25).

Unlike Jack, Danny manages to break the cycle of abuse which had been passed on from his grandfather onto his father. And unlike his mother, Danny does not hold Jack’s prior transgressions over him. The difference between Danny and Jack is that Danny does not become a product of his father, as his father did. While Jack tries to overcome the abuse he suffered, Danny ultimately succeeds. The Overlook Hotel is also not capable of possessing Danny, while succeeding in

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possessing his father, as King equips his child character with a strong moral code, while the adult Jack lacks the moral resolve to overcome the hotel.

The theme of domestic violence and parental abuse is equally horrifying as some of the more supernatural elements of the story, such as the presence of ghosts. One could potentially argue that although Jack’s father does not make an appearance as a ghost in the Overlook Hotel, he is still present within Jack, as his son is re-enacting his violent ways. In folklore, a ghost is the spirit or soul of a deceased person, and King invokes the spirit of Jack’s own abusive father, when Jack becomes violent by using the saying “take your medicine”. While the isolated Overlook Hotel and its apparitions harken back to the Gothic era, the true horror within the story is found within the abusive past of its characters. And in true King fashion, only a child can stop the cycle of violence.

Theme: Time The theme of time is pronounced throughout the novel, as the past, present and future of the setting and the main characters are present. One of the powers of the hotel is in its re-enactment of its dark past, including past killings as well as notable events, such as the party from 1945. It can be argued that the evil forces within the hotel are somehow collecting the past eras of the hotel, enslaving them to the setting, where they are to be endlessly repeated: “All the hotel’s eras were together now, all but this current one, the Torrance Era. And this would be together with the rest very soon now. That was good.” (King, 1977: 134). This sentence implies that the motivation of the evil forces of the hotel is to assimilate its guests through their deaths, forever entrapping them within the confines of the hotel’s walls.

It can be argued that the character of Jack in some way is equally obsessed with his past, as the hotel itself is. As a recovering alcoholic, Jack is trying to overcome the mistakes he has made in the past, but that proves to be difficult as he largely avoids responsibility of his past transgressions. While it is established that Jack’s alcoholism is perhaps the biggest reason for his abusive behaviour, the question as to why Jack is an alcoholic is somewhat nuanced. Jack himself does not take responsibility for his alcoholism and blames it on numerous factors. One of the many reasons for his alcoholism is according to him, his workplace at Stovington: “He now thought that part of his drinking problem had stemmed from an unconscious desire to be free of Stovington and the security he felt was stifling whatever creative urge he had. (King, 1977: 43). Yet when he loses his job, he continues to drink. Jack also blames his alcoholism on the birth of his son: “Shortly after Danny was born, I became an alcoholic”. (King, 1977: 60). He also tries to blame Wendy: “She had, pardon the expression driven

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him to drink. Maybe that hadn’t been the only reason, but by Christ let’s tell the truth here and admit it was one of them (King, 1977: 72). The topic of his alcoholism is not the only time in which Jack is attempting to avoid responsibility for his own actions. His interactions with one of his students, showcases how Jack can justify his poor behaviour. Hatfield was excluded from the debate team because of his stutter, and his abuse of George is excused due to his attempts at sobriety. Yet Jack’s drinking problem is not a question of willpower, nor the morality of drinking, there is something within him that is broken: “There was a broken switch somewhere inside, or a circuit breaker that didn’t work” (King, 1977: 43).

King leaves it up the reader to consider what exactly was broken within Jack. As previously argued in the Abuse chapter, his alcoholism and abusiveness may largely originate from his own abusive father. Thus, Jack is a character moulded by his inability to come to grips with his past, both by his father and his inability to take responsibility for his own actions. Jack’s obsession with his own past, is perhaps why he ultimately succumbs to the evil forces of the Overlook Hotel. Not only does Jack become obsessed with the history of the hotel, but he also considers whether to rewrite some of it, much like he has been able to rewrite his own past: “It could be a work of fiction, or history, or both” (King, 1977: 63). One of the reasons why Jack succumbs to the evil forces of the hotel is not only due to his relapse, but also by losing grip on present reality, as he becomes more absorbed into the history of the hotel. Both the hotel and Jack, repeat their history, one by repeating a party from 1945, while the other repeats the alcoholism and abuse of his parent.

Wendy acknowledges the past, specifically the arm breaking incident, but tries to remain optimistic that her family can remain intact. Meanwhile, Danny is a character who has internal dialog with his future self, in the form of Tony. The ability to “shine” grants Danny the power to see the past, present and future. Unlike his father, Danny does not dwell on the past. He does not blame his father for breaking his arm and even by the end, Danny still does not blame his father, recognizing that the hotel had full control over him.

The destruction of the Overlook Hotel is symbolic of overcoming one’s past, of which Jack is not capable of doing. Meanwhile, the characters who can let go of the past, in the form Wendy, Danny and Halloran manage to survive.

Symbolism The novel contains several examples of symbolism. Masks are present several times in the story. The masquerade ball that was meant to reopen the Overlook Hotel alludes to an unmasking of its guests

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(King, 1977: 64). The former lover of Horace Derwent is a man referred to as dog man, who wears the mask of a dog. Additionally, in the climax of the story, Danny refers to Jack as a “false face”, who at this point is serving as a mask for the evil in the Overlook Hotel (King, 1977: 165). Much like the hotel hides behind its beautiful and elegant architecture, so is Jack, who hides his own demons behind the mask of a respectable teacher and family man. This harkens back to the very beginning of the novel, where one can argue that Jack is wearing a mask, as he is being interviewed by Ullman for the position of caretaker. As established earlier, all the Torrance family members hide to some degree behind their own masks, as they are all concerned for the well-being of the family, yet keep these concerns hidden. The symbolism between the cane which Jack’s father would yield to beat his mother, and Jack’s own roque mallet, both symbolize the similarity between the two: “Jack had been his favourite, and even so Jack had taken his lumps when the old man was drunk, which was a lot of the time.” (King, 1977: 83).

The scrapbook which Jack finds has can be interpreted as having symbolic meaning in the story. It serves as enticement for Jack to stay at the Overlook Hotel, as the struggling writer is hoping to write a book about the its history. He sees the book, and by extension the hotel, as a solution to his financial woes. However, the book does not save Jack, if anything it acts as the catalyst for his descent into madness. His idea to write a book about the hotel is rejected by Ullman: “The thought of you doing some sort of a scum-job on my hotel and passing it off as a great piece of American writing, that makes me sick” (King, 1977: 76). The book also functions to offer exposition to the history of the hotel, both to Jack and the reader.

Conclusion The Shining is a story about ghosts, both the ones appear at the Overlook Hotel, as well the ghosts who have manifested themselves within the characters themselves. The horror in the novel is the inevitable culmination of Jack’s own physical and verbal abuse at the hand of his father, which he himself will re-enact on his wife and child. The inability to come to grips with one’s past, allows for the past to repeat itself, similarly how the Overlook Hotel repeats its own dark past. It is not the supernatural elements in the novel which invoke terror, as the ghosts that do appear in the hotel, do not directly harm any of the characters. But rather it is the horror average human beings are capable of, which is the most terrifying. The ability to ‘shine’ gives Danny the insight into the events that have unfolded and the ones that will inevitable occur. Similarly, it can be argued that the readers possess the same ability, as they are aware of the thoughts of the characters, whilst also able to predict the future to some degree. This could be interpreted as the author suggesting that the only way to

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prevent abuse in all its forms, is by acknowledging past trauma. Jack’s inability to do that, is what makes him vulnerable to the evil force of the hotel. The terror in the novel is sustained as Jack is increasingly becoming irate and evidently unable to maintain his sobriety. Whilst the terror is also increased, as the intensity of Danny’s foreshadowing increases. The terror transforms into horror, as Jack fully succumbs to the evil force within hotel. Thus, the relatable yet flawed Jack, who was once familiar to reader, transforms into an unfamiliar monster. The horror in the novel is present even before the Torrance family arrives at the Overlook Hotel, as Danny’s powers showcase the fears he has for the marital status of his parents, his father’s well being and the very future of his family.

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Discussion

The discussion will elaborate on the findings, what they show, their implications, limitations and other possibilities.

What the results show, is that horror fiction as a genre can provide social commentary and raise awareness of societal problems. It can be argued that King uses horror fiction as a vehicle to explore human dramas. The results also showcase how King is a part of the change which the genre went through, as Gothic was being replaced by the horror capable of average people. What the results show is that although both Carrie and The Shining feature supernatural elements, much like their Gothic counterparts do, the focus is on the horror committed by the humans. Both novels underline King’s commitment to utilise the fantastic and surreal to examine the motivations of regular people.

As previously mentioned, through extensive research, more knowledge has been accumulated regarding the topic of child abuse. Though not the suggest that the problem is solved, as child abuse is still an issue till this day. The implication of the result is that by the time of their publications, the novels explored a controversial topic, which was only beginning to gain awareness at the time. The implication today, is that both novels remind us of how literature and art can explore difficult topics. King is neither the first, nor last, to utilize his platform to explore taboo subjects.

The overall limitations of the results are that the issue of child abuse will likely never fully be solved. Raising awareness of a problem and trying to portray the horrors which abused children live through is only the first step. Additionally, the limitations are that the result of this thesis is only one interpretation of the novels. It is possible to interpret the novels in multiple ways, such Carrie being tackling the topic of peer pressure and bullying, whilst The Shining is portraying the effects of substance abuse.

Additionally, King has published several other works which tackle the issue of child abuse. If the novel It from 1986 was being analysed, one might arrive at different findings. In this case, a major theme in addition to child abuse, would be fear, as the antagonist in the story is exploiting each child’s biggest fears. What It would add to the conversation, is how childhood trauma can still impact them in their adulthood.

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Conclusion The fears which are being depicted in both novels, stem from various forms of abuse. These are not only confined to the child characters of Carrie and Danny, but also the abuse their parents suffered. The past plays an integral role in shaping the abusive parents of both novels, suggesting that abuse is cyclical. While this is somewhat common knowledge today, in the 1970s, the cause for child abuse was a contentious topic. Thus, one may argue that King was ahead of his time.

Rather than simply exploiting children within horror fiction for cheap thrills, King equips them with supernatural powers. It can be argued that the different outcomes for Carrie and Danny, King is suggesting how a cycle of abuse may be broken. Carrie uses her telekinetic powers to enact revenge on those who abused her, while Danny uses his psychic powers to ultimately defeat the evil force of the hotel and save his mother, Halloran and ultimately his father, who was being controlled by the hotel.

With both novels, King is utilising the horror genre, to criticize and oppose some of the beliefs at the time, that child abuse was a problem mostly contained within the lower class and minorities. Instead it was possible to occur even within those who held strong religious beliefs such as Margaret and those working in the public sector such as Jack.

One could argue that parental abuse is uncanny itself, and thus lends itself well to inducing discomfort. Family is one of the most familiar aspects in our lives, as nearly everyone has a family. On the contrary, physical and verbal abuse may be unfamiliar to most of us. It can be argued that the child abuse at the hands of their parents induces the uncanny, as it is a mixture of the familiar and unfamiliar. Additionally, by exploring the horror committed by average people, King is reinforcing both the idea that child abuse can be committed by anyone, as well as the trends found within the evolving horror literary genre, with its emphasis on the believable.

As mentioned in the historical context, the late 1960’s and 1970’s saw a shift in the perception on what caused child abuse. Common perception regarding child abuse, shifted from being attributed to relating to the socio-economic status of the parents, to their mental health (Raz, 2017: 1). King’s writing reflects these beliefs and offers a more complex insights into the family structure, and how the past traumas of parents can result in a cycle of abuse. This suggests, that predicting child abuse is thus more difficult, as it is not an issue pertaining to class. This contributes in making child abuse even more horrifying, as it becomes harder to identify, hiding in plain sight.

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