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A CANON COMMUNICATIONS LLC PUBLICATION MARCH 2004

www.micromagazine.com

SSPECIALPECIAL AAPPSPPS SpraySpray coatingcoating findsfinds growinggrowing numbernumber ofof applicationsapplications inin MEMS,MEMS, otherother devicesdevices AADVDVANCEDANCED PPRROCESSOCESS CCONTROLONTROL SimpleSimple statisticalstatistical controlcontrol approachapproach improvesimproves Altis’sAltis’s defectdefect monitoringmonitoring MMAATERIALSTERIALS IINTEGRATIONNTEGRATION NationalNational optimizesoptimizes SOGSOG process, process, rreduceseduces relatedrelated costscosts byby halfhalf EEXCLUSIVEXCLUSIVE IINTERVIEWNTERVIEW AppliedApplied Materials’Materials’ MikeMike SplinterSplinter GREEN MANUFACTURING Using dissolved in semiconductor cleaning applications

Christiane Gottschalk, MKS Instruments, ASTeX; and Juergen Schweckendiek, ASTEC

zone (O ), an allotrope of , to disinfect swimming pools, and O 3 , is a highly reactive gaseous oxi- to prevent the growth of microorgan- dizing agent that absorbs harmful ultra- isms in cooling-tower systems. This ar- violet (UV) radiation, thus enabling life ticle surveys ozone applications in the on earth. The first ozone generator was semiconductor manufacturing indus- developed by Werner von Siemens in try and provides sample data from users and researchers.

A survey of several wafer-cleaning techniques Ozone Uses in highlights the advantages of dissolved ozone over the IC Industry traditional sulfuric –peroxide methods and For more than 20 years, semiconductor in- RCA cleans using SC-1 and SC-2 mixtures. dustry researchers have investigated the use of ozone for wafer-cleaning Germany in 1857. In 1896, Nikola Tesla and resist-stripping applications. To obtained the first U.S. patent for an lower chemical consumption and dis- ozone generator based on electric dis- posal costs as well as to improve cleaning charge in an oxygen-containing , efficiency, ozone has been studied during which is the primary method of ozone the past decade as an alternative to generation used today. traditional sulfuric acid–peroxide and The number and diversity of ozone RCA cleans using basic (SC-1) and acidic applications have increased enormous- (SC-2) peroxide mixtures. It is ly since ozone’s first full-scale use as a effective because of the multiple influ- disinfectant for drinking water in Nice, ences exerted by the disinfecting activity

France, in 1906. It is widely used to treat of O3 and O3-derived oxidizing species and purify ground and surface water as such as OH radicals. well as domestic and industrial waste- In chip fabrication processes, ozone is using (HF), enabling removal.

DIO3 alone may be sufficient for the removal of adhered particles if they are of an organic nature. However, particles on are generally removed by etching the O3 GAS beneath the particle with dilute hydrofluoric acid (dHF) and avoiding particle redeposition. If the bulk of the particle is

not dissolved by dHF, O3 as an oxidant can create a new layer that is etchable by HF. This is true for silicon particles PARTICLE RINSE dHF-O REMOVAL 3 and silicon surfaces. The formation of an oxide layer on silicon is a self-limit- ing process. At room temperature, the oxidation of the sili- con surface creates an oxide layer that can measure up to Figure 1: Schematic diagram of three-step ACD approximately 1 nm thick. The quality of the thin oxide layer cleaning system configuration. depends on other parameters, such as humidity. In tests in- principally used to clean wafers; eliminate organics, , volving spray and immersion tools, the initial oxide growth and particles; remove photoresist; and disinfect DI-water rate was a function of ozone .2 In immersion facilities. Cleaning with ozone always involves oxidation. tools, final oxide thickness was dependent on the initial Process differentiation depends on the primary purpose ozone concentration and pH value, indicating a reaction- of the cleaning step. limited process.3 However, since a static system was used in Removing Organics. Much information on the ability of these tests, the decay and consumption of ozone may have ozone to remove organics has been derived from research on influenced the results. the treatment of drinking water and wastewater.1 Ozonated Several research studies have been published on cleaning

DI water (DIO3) has a high oxidation potential and can de- processes that combine ozone with HF, grade organic contamination. Its removal efficiency depends (HCl), or both. In these studies, the chemicals were applied on the type of organic species, the ozone concentration, and in sequence or as mixtures in spray, immersion bath, or the reaction regime. single-wafer processes.4–9 Ozone dissolved in ultrapure water generates an OH ac- The single-wafer spin cleaning with repetitive use of tive radical during self-decomposition. While the ozone de- ozonated water and dilute (SCROD) composes the organics directly, the active radical decom- method alternately dispenses dilute dHF and DIO3 on a poses them indirectly. The different reaction pathways spinning wafer.9 Depending on the desired final condition of to different oxidation products. The direct ozone reaction the surface, the process ends with either a dHF/rinse or

DIO3/rinse followed by spin drying in . A one- minute, three-cycle process can remove 87% of Al O par- DIO3 can degrade organic 2 3 ticles, 97% of Si3N4 particles, and 99.5% of polystyrene latex contamination. Its removal particles. In contrast to methods that apply dHF and DIO3 efficiency depends on the simultaneously, repetitive SCROD cleaning does not in- crease surface roughness. organic species, ozone The advanced cleaning and drying (ACD) method devel- oped by ASTEC (Berg, Germany) uses a mixture of dHF concentration, and reaction and O3, combining metal removal and drying into one pro- regime. cess. In combination with a particle-removal step using ei- ther a traditional SC-1 clean or a surfactant, the ACD pro- pathway is selective, with normally slow reaction-rate con- cess consumes up to 60% less chemicals than the classical stants. The indirect OH reaction is fast and nonselective, RCA process. The result is a hydrophobic wafer that, if nec- but it must be activated by initiators such as a high pH, hy- essary, can be reoxidized in the gaseous ozone directly above drogen peroxide, or UV radiation. Although a fast reaction the dHF/O3 bath, as shown in Figure 1. is desirable, a reaction by radicals alone should be avoided. Figure 2 presents typical metal contamination levels on

In many cases, active species must act directly on a sur- <100> silicon wafers after an HF/O3 clean, a modified RCA face, since species that are generated too far away from the clean, and alkaline etch. After only one HF/O3 cycle, con- surface become deactivated and lost. tamination levels were reduced to ~1 × 109 atoms/cm2 or less

Removing Metal and Particles. DIO3 alone cannot effec- for all measured metals. The metal removal/drying step can tively remove such metals as , , aluminum, mag- be performed without changing the number of particles on nesium, and calcium, which deposit on silicon surfaces such the wafer surface and without a significant increase in the as metal or metal . Depending on their number or size of crystal-originated particles. nature, the metals may be incorporated into the oxide layer Photoresist Removal. Traditional wet chemical process- or reside at the Si-SiO2 interface. They can be removed with es used to remove photoresist rely on concentrated sulfuric acting as ion exchangers, or the oxide can be dissolved acid combined with (SPM) or ozone vapor at elevated 100 × 1010 temperatures.12 HF/O3 CLEAN The addition of MODIFIED RCA CLEAN scavengers and the ALKALINE ETCH increase in temper- 10 × 1010 ature have im- proved strip rates. 2 However, photore- sist removal using 1 × 1010 a wet clean process

ATOMS/cm remains a chal- lenge that depends 0.1 × 1010 on the type of resist and postexposure processing used. Disinfection. 0.01 × 1010 Ca Fe Ni Cu Zn Ti V Cr Mn Co The introduction of ozone into water METAL treatment systems about a century Figure 2: Typical residual-metal surface after three types of clean processes ago was directed at on <100> silicon wafers: a one-step process in an HF/O dryer, a modified RCA clean, and 3 the disinfection of an alkaline etch. microbiologically (SOM). An alternative process using ozone dissolved in polluted water. In the semiconductor world, ozone is DI water provides environmental benefits and lower costs. used to disinfect systems. However,

Photoresist-strip rates in DIO3 increase with increas- chemicals such as or , which are ing ozone concentration or temperature (at a constant used to purify drinking water, are not acceptable in the IC ozone concentration). Unfortunately, with increasing industry. An advantage of ozone is that it decays back to temperature, the saturation ozone concentration in water oxygen. However, in a closed water-purification system, decreases while the rate of ozone decay increases. The the oxygen concentration can accumulate to levels that ozone-delivery process must be carefully optimized to are higher than specified in The International Technol- achieve the maximum photoresist removal rate. ogy Roadmap for Semiconductors.15 Several attempts to use ozone in resist-strip processes An International Sematech study on high-purity water are reported in the literature. For example, ozone has disinfection reported that reduced dissolved-oxygen been mixed with hot DI water at the point of use in an ef- concentrations were achieved by combining a Gore-Tex fort to achieve a high ozone concentration, and scav- membrane contact system from W. L. Gore & Associates engers have been added to prevent ozone decay.10–13 It (Newark, DE) with a high-capacity ozone generator from has been found that strip rates are influenced by the mass ASTeX (Berlin, Germany).16 An oxygen concentration of transfer rate of dissolved ozone from the bulk liquid into ~240 ppb was obtained. the boundary layer at the wafer surface.14 Diffusion lim- The ozone concentrations required for water disinfec- itations can be reduced by employing megasonic agitation tion are much lower than those required for wafer clean- or by reducing the thickness of the boundary layer—for ing. A key parameter is the free disinfectant concentration example, by increasing the wafer rotation speed in a spin c multiplied by the available contact time t (CT value).17 tool. To overcome the influence of the boundary-layer A CT value of 1.6–2.0 mg/L/min is considered to be suf- barrier, researchers have mixed ozone gas with water ficient for effective disinfection. Table I provides examples of disinfection dosages Pathogen Ozone Dose reported in the litera- ture.18 Bacillus anthracis Ozone susceptible Escherichia coli bacteria Destroyed by 0.2 mg/L within 30 seconds Seeking an Alternative to Encephalomyocarditis virus Destroyed to 0 level in less than 30 seconds RCA Cleans with 0.1 to 0.8 mg/L Poliomyelitis virus 99.99% killed with 0.3 to 0.4 mg/L in 3–4 minutes Studies have been Streptococcus bacteria Destroyed by 0.2 mg/L within 30 seconds conducted to find an alternative to RCA Table I: Ozone dose for disinfection of certain bacteria and viruses. cleans that offers HF/SC–1/SC–2 HF/HCI/SC–1/SC–2 HF/HCl – O3/HCI

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION (%) PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION (%) 0 0 0.00055 0.0006 0.00065 0.0007 0.00075 0.0008 0.0055 0.006 0.0065 (a) (b) TRANSCONDUCTANCE (mhos) SATURATION CURRENT (A)

Figure 3: Transconductance data (a) and saturation-current data (b) from CMOS devices for three types of pregate oxide cleans. (Oxide thickness = 21 Å, gate length = 0.15 µm.)21 equivalent or improved performance while involving merely of scientific interest in semiconductor applica- fewer steps, reduced chemical consumption, and lower tions; it can provide practical benefits in wafer and IC costs. Examples of such alternatives are the ACD pro- manufacturing processes. cess, the SCROD method, IMEC cleans, diluted dy- namic cleans, and Ohmi ultraclean technology.6,9,19,20 In References terms of particle and metal remov- al efficiency, environmental impact, cost, wafer-sur- 01. C Gottschalk, A Libra, and A Saupe, Ozonation of Water face characteristics, and final device electrical perfor- and Waste Water—A Practical Guide to Understanding mance, all of these processes perform as well as or better Ozone and Its Application (Weinheim, Germany: Wiley- than RCA cleans. VCH, 2000). A study by International Sematech evaluated different 02. SL Nelson, “The Effect of Oxygen Passivation of Sili- con by Wet Cleaning Processes on Contamination and pregate oxidation cleaning chemistries for devices having Defects,” in Proceedings of the Electrochemical Society 35 21-Å-thick SiO2 gate dielectrics, including HF (Pennington, NJ: Electrochemical Society, 1997), 38–45. vapor, HF/SC-1/SC-2 without HF last, HF/HCl-O3/HCl, 03. F De Smedt, C Vinckier, and G Gilis, “Ultra-Thin Oxide 21 and HF/SC-1/SC-2/SC-1. Experiments performed Growths on Silicon Using Ozonated Solutions,” in Pro- using an FC-821L advanced wet bench cleaning tool from ceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Ultra DNS Electronics (Sunnyvale, CA) and an ASTeX Liquo- Clean Processing of Silicon Surfaces (UCPSS) (Leuven, zon ozonated water delivery system showed that the use Belgium: Acco, 1998), 81–84. of ozone instead of an SC-1/SC-2 chemistry led to an in- 04. ED Olson et al., “Alternatives to Standard Wet Cleans,” crease in transconductance and saturation current, as il- Semiconductor International 23, no. 9 (2000): 70–76. lustrated in Figure 3. Moreover, the ozone method re- 05. E Bergman and S Lagrange, “HF-Ozone Cleaning Chem- sulted in the lowest levels of surface roughness and istry,” Solid State Technology 46, no. 7 (2001): 115–124. interface scattering. 06. F Tardif et al., “New Aspects of the Diluted Dynamic Clean Process,” in Proceedings of the Fourth Internation- Conclusion al Symposium on Ultra Clean Processing of Silicon Surfaces (UCPSS) (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 1998), 19–22. Wafer wet cleaning processes will continue to play an 07. M Alessandri et al., “Particle Removal Efficiency and Silicon Roughness in HF-DIW/O /Megasonics Clean- important role in semiconductor manufacturing as the 3 ing,” Solid State Phenomena 65–66 (1999): 27–30. complexity of wafer structures increases. Developments 08. T Ohmi, “Total Room Temperature Wet Cleaning of Sil- in reliable ozone-generation systems make ozone an at- icon Surfaces,” Semiconductor International 19, no. 8 tractive alternative to traditional wet cleaning and pho- (1996): 323–338. toresist removal methods. Ozone/water cleaning pro- 09. T Hattori, “Implementing a Single-Wafer Cleaning Tech- cesses are less expensive and more environmentally nology Suitable for Minifab Operations,” MICRO 21, benign than RCA cleaning techniques. Ozone is no longer no. 1 (2003): 49–57. 10. S Nelson, “Reducing Environmental Impact with Ozone Water Clean Process,” in Proceedings of the Semiconductor Based Processes,” in Proceedings of the Electrochemical Society Pure Water and Chemicals Conference (San Jose: SPWCC, 6 (Pennington, NJ: Electrochemical Society, 2001), 126–133. 2003), 64–73. 11. S De Gendt, J Wauters, and M Heyns, “A Novel Resist and Post-Etch Residue Removal Process Using Ozonated Chem- Christiane Gottschalk, PhD, is the ozone prod- istry,” Solid State Technology 41, no. 12 (1998): 57–60. uct manager of MKS Instruments, ASTeX, and 12. S De Gendt et al., “A Novel Resist and Post-Etch Residue Re- has worked in the company’s office in Berlin, moval Process Using Ozonated Chemistry,” Solid State Phe- Germany, since 1997. Previously, she was pro- nomena 65–66 (1999): 165–168. 13. S Nelson and L Carter, “A Process Using Ozonated Water So- ject manager and technical marketing manag- lutions to Remove Photoresist after Metallization,” Solid er. Gottschalk has published several papers and State Phenomena 65–66 (1999): 287–290. two books on ozone. She studied environmental engineer-

14. K Christenson et al., “Mass Transfer in DI:O3 Resist Strip- ing at the Technical University of Berlin, focusing on drink- ping,” in Proceedings of the Electrochemical Society 35 (Pen- ing water research. She received a PhD in chemical engi- nington, NJ: Electrochemical Society, 1997), 480–487. neering in 1996 based on oxidation processes of pesticides. 15. The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (Gottschalk can be reached at +49 30 464003-30 or (San Jose: Semiconductor Industry Association, 2003); [email protected].) available from Internet: http://public.itrs.net. 16. T Boswell, D Caravageli, and SJ Hardwick, “Ozone Injection Juergen Schweckendiek, PhD, is product man- System for Bacterial Control and Sterilization in High- ager for HFO dryer and ozone-related pro- Purity Water,” Ultrapure Water (January 2002): 40–45. 3 17. H Chick (1908): “An Investigation of the Laws in Disin- cesses at ASTEC (Berg, Germany). Previously he fection,” Journal of Hygiene 8 (1908): 92–158. was technical marketing manager and product 18. Ozone Effects on Specific Bacteria, Viruses, and Molds manager of a product line for ozone in envi- [on-line] (Sioux Center, IA: Ozone Solutions [cited 13 Jan- ronmental applications. He focused on the uary 2004]); available from Internet: http://www.ozoneso- semiconductor industry after serving as R&D manager in lutions.info/info/ozone_bacteria_mold_viruses.htm. the development of surface-discharge-based ozone genera- 19. MM Heyns et al., “Advanced Wet and Dry Cleaning Com- tion. He received a degree in physical chemistry from the Uni- ing Together for Next Generation,” Solid State Technology 42, versity of Bremen, Germany, and received a PhD in 1982 for no. 3 (1999): 37–47. research on catalytical systems at the Fritz Haber Institute of 20. T Ohmi, “Total Room Temperature Wet Cleaning for Si the Max Planck Society in Berlin. (Schweckendiek can be Substrate Surface,” Journal of the Electrochemical Society reached at +49 09189 440434 or j.schweckendiek@ 143, no. 9 (1996): 2957–2964. 21. J Barnett et al., (2003): “Improvements in Advanced Gate astec-ger.com.) Oxide Electrical Performance by the Use of an Ozonated

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Reprinted from MICRO. March 2004 ¥ Copyright © 2004 Canon Communications LLC