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Downloaded These Data from the Target’S Facebook and Twitter Accounts and from Profiles of Other Users Taking Part in Her Abuse Beatrice Spallaccia alphabet 5 Beatrice Spallaccia IT’S A MAN’S WORLD (WIDE WEB) A Critical Analysis of Online Misogyny and Hate Speech Il volume è tratto dalla tesi di dottorato Misogynistic Hate Speech on Social Networks: a Critical Discourse Analysis. Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, Dottorato di ricerca in Traduzione, Interpretazione e Interculturalità, ciclo XXIX, depositata in AMSDottorato - Institutional Theses Repository (http://amsdottorato.unibo.it/) Il testo è stato sottoposto a peer review / This text has been peer reviewed This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution BY-NC-SA 4.0 This license allows you to reproduce, share and adapt the work, in whole or in part, for non-commercial purposes only, providing attribution is made to the authors (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Attribution should include the following information: Beatrice Spallaccia, It’s a Man’s World (Wide Web). A Critical Analysis of Online Misogyny and Hate Speech, Bologna: Bononia University Press, 2020 Quest’opera è pubblicata sotto licenza Creative Commons BY-NC-SA 4.0 Questa licenza consente di riprodurre, condividere e adattare l’opera, in tutto o in parte, esclusivamente per scopi di tipo non commerciale, riconoscendo una menzione di paternità adeguata (non con modalità tali da suggerire che il licenziante avalli l’utilizzo dell’opera). La menzione dovrà includere le seguenti informazioni: Beatrice Spallaccia, It’s a Man’s World (Wide Web). A Critical Analysis of Online Misogyny and Hate Speech, Bologna: Bononia University Press, 2020 Bononia University Press Via Ugo Foscolo 7 40124 Bologna tel. (+39) 051 232882 fax (+39) 051 221019 www.buponline.com ISSN 2724-0290 ISBN 978-88-6923-613-6 ISBN online 978-88-6923-614-3 Progetto grafico e impaginazione: Design People (Bologna) Prima edizione: luglio 2020 TABLE OF CONTENTS GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS 7 INTRODUCTION 9 PART I MISOGYNISTIC HATE SPEECH IN CYBERSPACE CHAPTER 1 MISOGYNY ON A MAN’S WORLD WIDE WEB 15 1.1 Online Misogyny as Hate Speech 15 1.2 Policies on Hate Speech 25 1.3 Online Hostility in Computer-Mediated Communication Studies 31 CHAPTER 2 EXPLORING GENDERED HATE SPEECH ONLINE 43 2.1 Building a Database of Online Gender-Based Hate Speech 43 2.2 Developing a Feminist Discourse Praxis for the Content of Social Networks 48 PART II CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF ONLINE MISOGYNISTIC HATE SPEECH CHAPTER 3 GAMIFICATION OF CYBER MISOGYNY IN THE USA 65 3.1 Anita Sarkeesian 65 3.2 Christy Mack 91 CHAPTER 4 ISLAMOPHOBIA AND TRANS-MISOGYNY IN AUSTRALIA 107 4.1 Mariam Veiszadeh 107 4.2 Caitlin Roper 131 CHAPTER 5 MISOGYNISTIC RESENTMENT AGAINST FAMOUS ITALIAN WOMEN 147 5.1 Selvaggia Lucarelli 147 5.2 Laura Boldrini 170 CONCLUSION 195 Notes 201 WORKS CITED 205 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 231 GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS ADL Australian Defence League (anti-Muslim group) CDA Critical Discourse Analysis CMC Computer-Mediated Communication COE Council of Europe Cyberbullying The act of bullying or intimidating someone online The act of stalking someone online, to monitor her Cyberstalking and/or to retrieve her personal information Distributed Denial-of-Service. The act of attacking DDoSing a website host provider to knock the designated site offline The act of conducting extensive online researches to collect an individual’s private information (e.g., Dox(x)ing real name, home address, email address, telephone number, social security number) and then to post them online to increase the harassment FB Facebook FOLDOC Free On-Line Dictionary Of Computing The use of text- and image-based contents to harass Gendered women online. It often involves threats of and harassment incitements to rape, death, sexualised and violent acts IBSA Image-Based Sexual Abuse The distribution of intimate or sexually explicit Image-based images without the victim’s consent. Mostly used sexual abuse against female targets to slut shame them publicly. Also known as revenge porn(ography) 7 The creation of a website or social network account Impersonation using a person’s name with the intention to harm her LGBTQ+ Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender Queer + Discourse that targets women specifically for their Misogynistic hate gender, with the aim to discredit, threaten, and speech ultimately silence them, through a marked sexual objectification OED Oxford English Dictionary SNS Social Networking Site Online phenomenon which should be understood as a continuum of disruptive behaviours. While in its mildest types, it can be an annoying mockery among Trolling online users, in its most severe forms it consists in the harassment of others, with the ultimate goal to silence and subjugate them and, therefore, to reaffirm one’s supremacy UGC User-Generated Content UN United Nations Simulation of rape in virtual environments, or Virtual rape description of rape fantasies and sexual violation of the target INTRODUCTION “A compelling and (relatively) new social problem.” This is how the Australian researcher Emma Jane (2017, p. 112) refers to online misogyny and to its kalei- doscopic features. Indeed, this phenomenon characterises contemporary com- munication thanks to the combination of aspects that appear new with others that strike us as more familiar. On the one hand, it spreads through new online channels, like social networking sites. On the other, it reiterates violence against women, i.e., a persistent form of discrimination which comprehends “all acts of gender-based violence that result in […] physical, sexual, psychological or eco- nomic harm or suffering to women” (Secretary General of the Council of Eu- rope, 2011, p. 3). This entanglement between new and long-standing elements of social relations is exactly what makes online gendered prejudice so compel- ling, and its analysis on Web 2.0 particularly challenging. As recent reports have shown, today gendered harassment has become the predominant form of online abuse, and cyber misogyny is the new frontier of gender-based violence (cf. UN Women, 2015; Vox, 2016; Duggan, 2014; 2017; Amnesty International Italia, 2020). Thus, online misogyny should be understood as a new articulation of the broad phenomenon of violence against women. Nevertheless, even before the advent of Web 2.0, much institutional and scholarly research has too often neglected or dismissed the recognition of misogyny as a form of hate speech. This book originates from the recognition of online misogyny as a social problem, whose pervasiveness in contemporary cybersphere urges an update in academic research on the use of the Internet to reaffirm aggressive gendered hierarchies that have long opposed women’s active and full participation in the public space. Therefore, in the attempt to respond to this pressing need, my work presents a qualitative analysis of misogynistic hate speech on two of the most popular social networking sites, namely Twitter and Facebook, which have occupied much recent debate over the dangerous sides of Web 2.0. In doing so, I address the following main research question: can misogynistic discourse be considered a type of hate speech? To answer this question, I study 9 how misogyny manifests itself in cyberspace, investigating the relationship between the rhetoric employed in this discourse and its material consequenc- es. To understand the scope of cyber sexism, I also try to develop a taxonomy of its effects, and to investigate the link between misogynistic discrimination and other prejudiced discourses today (e.g. racism, xenophobia, homophobia, transphobia) on Web 2.0. My primary intention is to demonstrate the hypothesis that misogynistic discourse is a type of online hate speech, in which the deep-rooted aversion to women is articulated through new ways of communication. In fact, this research seeks to acknowledge the existence of misogyny online and its pervasive use to silence the voices of those women who try to affirm their legitimate participa- tion in the digital public space. More specifically, it aims to show how Twitter and Facebook have recently become virtual fora suitable to express a violent mi- sogynistic resentment against those who question both hegemonic patriarchal ideologies and fixed gender identities, with their active presence in a public do- main. A parallel objective is to better understand the mechanisms and phenom- enology of this gender-based discrimination. In this regard, my work has as an additional threefold aim: first, to provide a qualitative analysis of how prejudice against women is reproduced and reaffirmed in cyberspace, second, to study the relationship between its discursive elements and its material consequences, third, to classify the material and multilayered impact of online misogyny on women’s lives also outside of the virtual domain. To reach these objectives, I develop a comparative analysis among different geographical contexts. In fact, although my research starts from the acknowl- edgement of the worldwide dimension of online communication and it recog- nises that on the Web hate speech has “scant regard for national boundaries” (Jane, 2017, p. 112), it focuses on the gendered online harassment against wom- en who reside in three countries, namely Australia, Italy, and the USA, and it analyses how they have been abused online through several tactics. As an Italian female researcher, at the beginning of my research I noticed that the cases which occurred in my own country had been neglected by most academic studies, and I considered it necessary to extend the study of this phenomenon to Italy, and to investigate it in the broader international context. Therefore, through a comparative analysis I try to identify any possible differences and/or similarities in the perpetuation of online misogyny among the above-mentioned geograph- ical contexts. Such an approach differentiates my work from other studies that develop significant research on online gendered harassment but only focus on single countries (cf. Hardaker and McGlashan, 2016; Lewis et al., 2017). The 10 It’s a Man’s World (Wide Web) focus on the Italian context distinguishes my work also from those few studies which analyse cyber sexism across several English-speaking countries (cf.
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