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Alma Mater Studiorum – Università Di Bologna Dual Award Phd Con Monash University Alma Mater Studiorum – Università di Bologna Dual Award PhD con Monash University DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN Traduzione, Interpretazione e Interculturalità Ciclo XXIX Settore Concorsuale di afferenza: 10/L1 – LINGUE, LETTERATURE E CULTURE INGLESE E ANGLO-AMERICANA Settore Scientifico disciplinare: L-LIN/12 – LINGUA E TRADUZIONE – LINGUA INGLESE TITOLO TESI Misogynistic Hate Speech on Social Networks: a Critical Discourse Analysis Presentata da: Beatrice Spallaccia Coordinatrice Dottorato Relatrice Prof. Raffaella Baccolini Prof. Raffaella Baccolini Relatrice Prof. Rita Wilson Co-relatrice: Prof. Delia Carmela Chiaro Esame finale anno 2017 2 After all, the public cybersphere isn’t actually public if half the people are being told to get the fuck out Emma Jane 3 Acknowledgments My first acknowledgment goes to the supervisors of my thesis, Prof. Raffaella Baccolini, Prof. Rita Wilson, and Prof. Delia Chiaro, not only for their insightful comments on online misogyny and their contributions to the development of my thesis, but also for their continuous support, which helped me to conduct this research both in Italy and in Australia, and to reduce the emotional toll that sometimes comes with the analysis of a social problem like misogynistic hate speech. I would also like to thank Caitlin Roper and Coralie Alison for providing me an extensive database to study their online abuse, and Dr. Nicola Henry for our interesting conversation on technology-facilitated sexual violence and harassment, at La Trobe University (Melbourne) in September 2015. All their contributions were a valuable resource for my thesis, and they helped me to develop a more structured, interdisciplinary, and intercultural analysis of online misogynistic hate speech. 5 Index Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 1. Introduction......................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2. Literature Review ............................................................................................... 17 2.1 Recognising Online Misogyny as a Form of Online Hate Speech ................................ 17 2.1.1 Definitions of Hate Speech ..................................................................................... 18 2.1.2 Misogynistic Discourse as Harmful Speech Act .................................................... 22 2.2 Policies on Hate Speech: Governments and Social Networking Sites .......................... 30 2.2.1 Government Policies ............................................................................................... 32 2.2.2 Facebook, Twitter, and Hate Speech Policies ......................................................... 35 2.3 Online Hostility in Computer-Mediated Communication Studies................................. 38 2.3.1 What’s in a Name? Terminological Issues of Trolling and Flaming ...................... 40 2.3.2. Psychological Elements of Online Antisocial Behaviours .................................... 45 2.3.3. Three Waves of CMC Studies on Online Hostility ............................................... 49 2.3.4 Limits of CMC Studies for Hostile Discourses of the Web.................................... 55 2.3.5 A New Trend: The Birth of Feminist Academic Activism 2.0 ............................... 60 Chapter 3. Methodology ........................................................................................................ 65 3.1 Building a Database of Online Gender-Based Hate Speech .......................................... 65 3.1.1 Criteria for the Selection of the Data ...................................................................... 65 3.1.2 Difficulties in Collecting and Storing Data from Social Networks ........................ 66 3.1.3 Results of the Data Collection: the Database .......................................................... 68 3.1.4 On Translating UGCs from Italian into English ..................................................... 70 3.2 Developing a Feminist Discourse Praxis for the Content of Social Networks .............. 72 3.2.1 Brief Overview of Critical Discourse Analysis ...................................................... 73 3.2.2 Main Aspects of a Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis for the Web ................... 74 3.2.3 Main Features of Online Misogynistic Hate Speech .............................................. 79 Chapter 4. Analysis of two Case Studies from the USA ..................................................... 91 4.1. Case Study no. 1: Anita Sarkeesian .............................................................................. 91 4.2. Case Study no. 2: Christy Mack ................................................................................. 127 Chapter 5. Analysis of Two Case Studies from Australia ................................................ 147 7 5.1 Case Study no. 3: Mariam Veiszadeh .......................................................................... 147 5.2 Case Study no.4: Caitlin Roper .................................................................................... 177 Chapter 6. Analysis of Two Case Studies from Italy ........................................................ 197 6.1 Case Study no. 5: Selvaggia Lucarelli ......................................................................... 197 6.2 Case Study no. 6: Laura Boldrini ................................................................................. 229 Chapter 7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 261 Works Cited .......................................................................................................................... 267 Appendix ............................................................................................................................... 303 Appendix 1. Controlling Behaviours and Indicators of Domestic Violence ..................... 303 Appendix 2. The Online Abuse Wheel .............................................................................. 304 Appendix 3. The Database ................................................................................................. 305 8 Abstract The present dissertation aims at recognising online misogyny as a form of hate speech, by providing a qualitative analysis of this discourse on Twitter and Facebook. While recent reports in media coverage have revealed that sexist harassment is the most pervasive social problem on Web 2.0, much scholarly research has mainly focused on other types of hate speech, (e.g., racist and xenophobic vilification), overlooking the seriousness of misogynistic verbal abuse. The multilayered impact of misogynous discourse on women’s lives shows the urgent need to recognise gender-based prejudice as a form of hate speech, and to provide a more thorough and updated theorisation of this phenomenon. For this reason, the present dissertation suggests considering online misogyny as a harmful speech act which employs different tactics and discursive strategies to harass and silence women who engage in online public conversation. Following the methodology of feminist Critical Discourse Analysis, it develops an extensive qualitative study of the abuse experienced online by six women who reside in three different countries (i.e., Australia, Italy, and the USA). By analysing the discursive strategies commonly employed in user-generated contents to reaffirm hegemonic patriarchal ideologies and fixed gender identities, this dissertation also examines the entanglement between gender prejudice and other types of discrimination (i.e., racism, xenophobia, homophobia, transphobia, and ageism), and it identifies the articulation of online misogynistic hate speech through a series of tactics which harm women’s lives on multiple levels. Therefore, it presents a taxonomy of these impacts through a new model that was specifically developed for the research at issue, and that will hopefully guide future research on misogynistic hate speech. In conclusion, this study argues for the development of effective educational tools to tackle sexist hate speech online, to guarantee women’s digital citizenship, and to promote a more respectful conversation in cyberspace. 9 Chapter 1. Introduction “A compelling and (relatively) new social problem.” This is how the Australian scholar Emma Jane (Online Misogyny - Conclusion)1 refers to misogynistic violence on cyberspace and to its kaleidoscopic features. Indeed, this peculiar phenomenon characterises contemporary online communication thanks to the combination of aspects that appear new with others that strike us as more familiar. In fact, it spreads through new online channels, but at the same time it reiterates a persistent form of discrimination, that is prejudice against women. This entanglement between new and long-standing elements of social relations is exactly what makes online gendered violence so compelling, and its analysis particularly challenging. My thesis originates from the recognition of online misogyny as a social problem, whose pervasiveness in contemporary cybersphere urges an update in academic research on the use of the Internet to reaffirm aggressive gendered hierarchies that have long opposed women’s active and full participation in the public space. Therefore, in the attempt to respond to this pressing need, my work presents a critical discourse analysis of misogynistic hate
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