CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: AS AN EMPIRICAL AND RATIONAL FOUNDATION

Dewi Suriany Ali, Wendy Pandapotan Sahat [email protected], [email protected] Department of English Education Lancang Kuning University Abstract

Critical discourse analysis is not related to a particular linguistic school or Discourse analysis. Discourse analysis can be used as an empirical and rational foundation to analyze it. It seeks to endorse awareness of the aspect of language implementation and to argue explicitly for change on the origin of its finding. Critical discourse analysts realize that their own work is also driven by social, economic, and political issues, but they argue that this applies to all academics of work. The traditional division of social work ensures that scientists and other academics do not have to face their workplace in a scheme of better things and conditions that make their continued work possible. Critical discourse analysts at least make their position explicit and feel they do not need to apologize for the critical attitude of their work. By contrast, by contributing to the debate on issues of great importance to society, they continue the tradition of groundless debate that has been fundamental to democratic societies since antiquity, feeling that their work as scientists requires greater responsibility than giving facts to others interpret and use. KeyTerm: Critical Discourse Analysis; Discourse-Historical Approach; Feminist Poststructural Discourse Analysis; Social Semiotics; Systemic Functional Linguistics Introduction are based on Fairclough (1989) in broad, though not necessarily entirely, drawings The nature of Critical discouse on Halliday's functional systemic analysis ( henceforth; CDA ) designed to linguistics (1985). In principle language study the role of text andtalk in creating, simultaneously builds demonstrations maintain, as well as legitimating around the world, recognizes social inequality, injustice, including oppression interaction, and scrambles these in community. According to Hamuddin representations and relationships into text (2012) ”The term “discourse” is a complex and communicative events according to and mammoth-like interpretation. Many Halliday's grammar. This is in accordance previous studies mention the term with the purpose of critical discourse discourse as very ambiguous since its analysis, which involves both with the introduction to modern science and the system language used. to create and various broad interpretations of discourse. publish ideological specific representations ”Discourse analysis can be used as an from different parts of the world and with empirical and rational foundation to specific behaviors using language to ratify analyze it. It seeks to endorse awareness of power and social domination. For both of the aspect of language implementation and these important points Fairclough (1993) to argue explicitly for change on the origin adds style - the use of language to build of its finding. and ratify social identity. Critical discourse analysis is not related to However many critical discourse analysts a particular linguistic school or Discourse use other methods, such as argumentation analysis. Many critical discourse analysts linguistic corpus theory, or a type of conversational analysis that goes beyond Pelikan, 1990), by van Dijk, and by their the boundaries defined by Schlegoff and colleagues - has focused on racism and others and connecting conversation data anti-Semitism, and more recently about with their wider audience immigration and asylum (eg, van Leeuwen social context. While Fairclough and & Wodak, 1999). According to others (eg, van Leeuwen, 2008) have been Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1997; van adjusted and describes functional systemic Leeuwen, 2013 The discourse of linguistics for purposes of critical neoliberalism and their role in discourse analysis, according tovan Dijk contemporary government policies and and others have shown that a broader practices, companies and other institutions method can perform anduse for critical has becomeanother important focus. But discourse analysis and argue for a multi on the Discourse & Society page there disciplinary approaches that "select and have been many issues discussed by describe theory, methods and empirical critical discourse analysts that showcase a work as a function their relevance to collection of other critical discourse realizing socio-political goals "(van Dijk, studies that mention only a few such as: 1993, p.252). Methodological diversity of gender, education, doctor-patient critical discourse analysis is well communication, war and terrorism, and demonstrated on the Discourse & Society welfare and unemployment. Where the page, which has become an important data used by critical discourse analysts is journal for critical discourse analysis over also different. While there is a tendency to the last 25 years. focus on speeches by politicians, Critical discourse analysts are not only parliamentary debates, and media and involved with various analytical discourses editorial reports, critical discourse analysts paradigm, but also with critical social also analyze school textbooks, theory. Fairclough has specifically been advertisements, management teacher consistent in books, doctor-patient interaction transects how to explore the foundations of critical and workplace encounters, television discourse analysis in critical social theory series, comics, and even music. And major (see Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1997). journals like Discourse & Society events, Strongly influenced by Marx and Gramsci, works that always come from all corners his work of the world. also involved with Foucault, Bourdieu, Criticallinguistics Habermas, Harvey, and Giddens, and more The immediate pioneer of critical but there is no theoretical orthodoxy in discourse analysis is critical linguistics, critical discourse analysis. according to (Fowler et al., 1979), a Van Dijk (1993, p. 258), for example, sees movement that began at the University of "ideology" as "a relationship between East Anglia in the 1970s.Halliday's representation and attitude with certain functional systemic linguistics provides aspects of a complex, systematically fundamental insight into existing ones that organized world.From the above make it possible to move linguistic explanation it can be concluded that analyzes beyond formal descriptions and ideology is an inherent principle in a use them as a basis for social criticism person who is formed from various aspects Grammar goes beyond formal rules of that are strongly believed, so that the correctness. It is a means of representing ideology is very difficult to be influenced. patterns of experience. It enables human The issues that critical discourse analysts beings to build a mental picture of reality, have explored over the past 25 years have to make sense of their experience of what also varied widely. Much of the work - goes on around them and inside them. mainly by Wodak (eg, Wodak, Novak, & (Halliday, 1985, p. 101). The critical language expert adds two on.Without their work, critical discourse further steps. The first one is inspired by analysis would not have been possible. Marx. "The pattern of experience Critical discourse analysis "Halliday argues, should not be The critical discourse analysis began in the neutral.how they fit the needs and interests mid-1980s, as a new direction in the work of the people who use them understand Fairclough, van Dijk, Wodak, and others. and enforce reality, if that interest includes As a movement, it began in 1992, at a their ideological dominance. The second meeting in Amsterdam, with presentations step was inspired by Benjamin Whorf. If by van Dijk, Fairclough, Wodak, Kress, different languages can setting aside and van Leeuwen which was later various "patterns of experience" (and published as a special edition of the different ideologies), so can also use the Discourse & Society. The group gradually same language. In a true classical study, expanded and continued to meet annually Tony Trew (in Fowler et al, 1979, pp. 106- from 1992 onward. Another early 107) describes how,police fired on a crowd collection of influential papers was of unarmed men and shot 13 of them (in published a few years later, in 1996, by 1975), Rhodesia Herald wrote "Political Caldas- Coulthard and Coulthard. Since clashes have caused death and injury, then, critical discourse analysis, now "while the Tanzanian Daily News wrote usually referred to as CDA, has been a "white Rhodesia suprematic police... fast-growing and increasingly killing thirteen unarmed Africans." nterdisciplinarymovement. Afirst larger By analyzing this text, Trew demonstrates scale international conference was held in itthat political views are encoded not only 2004, in Valencia, and was followed by through different vocabularies famous others. Two new journals started in the "freedom fighters" versus "terrorists", but same year, Critical Discourse Studies and also through different grammatical the Journal of Language and Politics. structures, for example through coding the Critical discourse analysis moved beyond same event as a noun ("Death"), or a verb critical linguistics in a number of ways. ("kill"), because the grammatical solution The first has already been mentioned: the requires action active subject ("police") attempt to ground critical discourse and objects ("Africans"), so either the analysis in critical social theory and to offender or the victim referenced articulate the relation between discourses explicitly. Another example of a critical and the social practices in which they are linguist called "Ideological embedded. By the early 1990s, discourse Transformation" is the removal of a had also become a key term in postmodern passive agent: If the Tanzanian version philosophy and cultural studies, and existsto be passivized ("Thirteen unarmed critical discourse analysts explicitly Africans killed ...") will not be around distanced themselves from the dominant again needed to name the police as the tendency in these fields in order to reduce murder agent. the social to discourse—and discourse With this kind of work, critical linguists only. Critical discourse analysis moves such as Trew, Kress, and Hodge take the beyond critical linguistics in several fundamental step of the grammatical ways.The first has been mentioned: an category as a potential container of attempt to base critical discourse ideological mystification traces, and break analysisin critical social theory and to with a tradition in which different ways of articulate the relationship between saying the same look as stylistic or discourse andthe social practices in which conventional variants and does not mean they are embedded. In the early 1990s, indicators of group membership categories discourse as well such as classes, professional roles, and so a key term in postmodern philosophy and cultural studies, and critical discourse speech, but multimodal. Kress and van analysts explicitly distance themselves Leeuwen (1996) developed a highly from the dominant tendency in this regard inspired visual analysis method Halliday's field to reduce social discourse - discourse systematic functional linguistics and show only. Such a concept As "marketisation" how the methods can be done used for (Fairclough, 1993) can combine both critical discourse analysis. To give an changing practices (the corporate practices example, van Leeuwen (2000) show how introduced in many public institutions, "visual racism" is realized not only by the including universities) and the discourse of most obvious race stereotypes, but also change that plays a key role in this process through more subtle methods. Members of by proposing and legitimize change, by several social groups, for example, can be training people in new practices, by represented en groupe, often in very requiring them to do so learning newways similar or identical poses.This can then speaking and writing, and so on. As the create the effect of "they are all the same" university has to learn to compete each or "can not tell the difference". Or they other for students, to treat students as may be depicted in "long shots," which customers, and so on, Their discourse also literally and figuratively "keep them away" marketed. Job ads, for example, change from the viewer Djonov and Zhao's (2013) from traditional forms such as is one of the first multimodal collections "Applications invited to lecture in the critical discourse analysis Overall, then, Department of English Literature" for a critical discourse analyzes have shifted to form like "The Legal Department is a more explicit dialogue between social thriving Department committed for theory and practice, richer excellence in teaching and research ..., "to contextualization, greater interdisciplinary, accommodate new entrepreneurs ethos and and greater attention to the multimodality emphasis on self-promotion. of discourse. Fairclough emphasizes the Critics criticized interdisccerivity of such genres. Long Critical discourse analysis is no longer of continues alongside new ones, certainly interest to linguists. Jobs published in during the new assessment still cause journals such as Critical Discourse Studies tension and not yet stable.The critical and the Journal of Language and Politics discourse analysis also moves beyond shows that social scientists from different critical linguistics by adopting a more fields are actively involved with critical complete interdisciplinary approach and by discourse analysis. Conversely, critical studying not only text and discourse analysis has been accepted some transcriptsconversation, but also its strong criticism of words from within context, either through historiography or linguistics. Such criticisms are common through ethnographic methods. The including in the collection of critical modern-day "historical-discourse" discourse analysis papers and in prescribed approach puts an example here, readings list of university courses in increasingly involving collaboration linguistics department Critics criticized between discourse analysts on the one Critical discourse analysis is no longer of hand and historians, political scientists, interest to linguists. Jobs published in anthropologists, and sociologists on the journals such as Critical Discourse Studies other, such as while stimulating reflection and the Journal of Language and Politics on the interdisciplinary itself.Critical shows that social scientists from different discourse analysis has also moved beyond fields are actively involved with critical the language, taking up the board so that discourse analysis. Conversely, critical discourse is often manifested not only discourse analysis has been accepted some through the verbal aspects of text and strong criticism of words from within linguistics. Such criticisms are common differently interpreted by different readers including in the collection of critical and that critical discourse analysts are discourse analysis papers and in prescribed unjust their own interpretation privileges. readings list of university courses in From the standpoint of critical discourse linguistics department. This has pushed for analysts, traditional sociolinguisticsand a sureanxiety critical discourse analysis, stylistic approach to learning the language which can manifest itself, for example, in in social life may have been successful placingthe word "critical" between illustrates language usage patterns and parentheses or inverted commas, calls the language change patterns, but not yetjust "critical" field with a small c "and balances explain them. They have treated them with it with a" positive perspective "(Bednarek more or less meaning conventions and in Djonov & Zhao,2013, p. 52) or allow autonomous evolutionary processes. important implications to remain an "open Critical discourse analysts are trying to question" that is requiredmore work explain why the text is as it is and why "(Zhang & O'Halloran at Djonov & Zhao, they change the way they do, and, after 2013, p. 174). Important point Halliday, they seek answers to these This is the unhelpful term "positive questions in the social, economic, and criticism," which implies that the form of political fields. As recently formulated by "unimportant" Molek-Kozakowska in relationship with Negative and hostile criticism rather than critical analysis of the political genre: useful in identifying social, political, and A critical genre analysis … aims at economic problems that need to be interrjogating … generic conventions. As overcome.In one of the most widely cited generic conventions are potentially power- criticisms, Widdowson (1995) argues that invested, it is crucial to move beyond it isbusiness discourse analysis to describe genre description and interpretation … to the formal pattern "above the sentence" the stage of explanation of the social andthat critical discourse analysts disrupt consequences of the rise, popularity, discourse analysis by textual proliferation or cross-fertilization of interpretation. certain genres. In accordance with the In the same vein, Stubbs (1997) calls overall philosophy of CDA/CDS, the critical critical discourse analysis strategic potential of discourses should be analystscomment. "Like Widdowson, demystified and not just documented or Stubbs mainly targets Fairclough, with expounded.(Molek-Kozakowska, 2013, p. easeignoring critical discourses published 324). over the years in the People's Discourse Critical discourse analysts realize that their and elsewhere. The text analysis at own work is also driven by social, Fairclough (1989), which is often a economic, and political issues, but they pedagogical example designed to show the argue that this applies to all academics of method of analysis in what is essentially a work. The traditional division of social textbook, according toStubbs, is work ensures that scientists and other "fragmentary" and "insufficient" since academics do not have to face their none is representative of the sample and workplace in a scheme of better things and does not involve the type of scale large conditions that make their continued work quantitative work in which many linguists possible. Critical discourse analysts at least are now involved. make their position explicit and feel they However, most of all, this criticism is do not need to apologize for the critical offended on explicit social and political attitude of their work. By contrast, by issues purpose of critical discourse contributing to the debate on issues of analysis. Widdowson, for example, argues great importance to society, they continue that text is text the tradition of groundless debate that has been fundamental to democratic societies than giving facts to others interpret and since antiquity, feeling that their work as use. scientists requires greater responsibility References Cap, Piotr, and Urszula Okulska, eds. Analyzing genres in political communication: Theory and practice. Vol. 50. John Benjamins Publishing, 2013. Chouliaraki, Lilie, and Norman Fairclough. Discourse in late modernity: Rethinking critical discourse analysis. Edinburgh University Press, 1999. Dijk, T. V. "Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis: Discourse and Society." (1993). Djonov, Emilia, and Sumin Zhao, eds. Critical multimodal studies of popular discourse. Routledge, 2013 Fairclough, Norman. 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